III - Musical Issues

Cambridge Books Online
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Aesthetics and the Art of Musical Composition in the German Enlightenm
ent
Selected Writings of Johann Georg Sulzer and Heinrich Christoph Koch
einrich Christoph Koch, Johann Georg Sulzer, Edited by Nancy Baker, Thomas Christense
Book DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511518348
Online ISBN: 9780511518348
Hardback ISBN: 9780521360357
Paperback ISBN: 9780521035095
Chapter
III - Musical issues pp. 81-108
Chapter DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511518348.005
Cambridge University Press

Ill
MUSICAL ISSUES
1 MUSIC [MUSIK] (vol. Ill, pp. 421-26)

If we wish to have a correct idea concerning the essence and true
nature of this delightful art, we must try to study its origins in nature.
This can be made easier if we are able to observe how it is composed
and perhaps see its first, crude beginnings in the songs of primitive
peoples. {422}
Nature has established a direct connection between the ear and
heart. Each emotion suggests particular sounds, while these sounds
may in turn awaken in the heart those deep-felt emotions from which
they sprang. A cry of fear terrifies us; joyful sounds awaken happiness.
The cruder senses of smell, taste, and touch can only stimulate feelings
of blind enjoyment or disagreeableness; sometimes they may consume
us with pleasure, sometimes with revulsion; but they can never elevate
the soul since their effect is mainly corporeal. But that which we
sense through the ear and eye can affect the spirit and heart. In these
two noble senses lie the mainsprings of rational and moral behavior.
And of the two, hearing has by far the greater power. An out-of-tune
note is incomparably more disagreeable and disturbing than is a
clashing color; likewise, the most lovely concordance in the colors of
a rainbow cannot affect us as strongly as perfectly harmonized tones
such as a triad played on a justly tuned organ. Hearing is thus the
most effective sense for awakening the emotions. Who would claim
to have been painfully moved by inharmonious or ugly colors? Yet
the ear can be so smitten by inharmonious sounds as to drive one
almost to despair.
The difference undoubtedly arises because the material that affects
81
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82 Johann Georg Sulzer
the aural nerves — air — is much coarser and more physical than
ethereal light, which affects the eye. The aural nerves consequently
transmit to the entire body the impact of the shock they receive. This
is not so with vision. Hence it is understandable how the body, and
consequently the soul, can be intensely affected by sounds. Little
thought or experience is needed to discover the power of sound; the
most unobservant of men feel it.
A man who is prey to strong emotions similarly often tries to
intensify them with cries of joy, rage, etc. Children and other tem-
peramental people likewise express themselves spontaneously, inflaming
and intensifying not only their own emotions but those of others by
means of a whole range of varying sounds. Admittedly this is not yet
a song; but it can be seen as the first natural seed of one. If we just
add to it a few easily made refinements along with a bit of taste, one
quickly will see the emergence of a real song.
The aforementioned reminders serve to underscore the power of
rhythmic movement when coupled with sounds. {423} We find
enjoyable any measured movement proceeding in regular beats such
as walking: such rhythmic regularity sustains our attention in tasks
that would otherwise be wearisome. This is known or felt by the least
reflective of men. And this is how it comes about that any lengthy
repetitive movement such as walking or lifting a load (or as Ovid
somewhere remarked, rowing a boat) is done in regular rhythm. This
regular movement becomes even more pleasant when it is rhythmically
accented, which is to say, when there is a small differentiation in
strength and weakness between each step or beat, wherein continued
variety may be attained. Examples of such rhythms can be heard in
the hammers of the blacksmith or the threshing of wheat. Such work
is made easier as one finds strength to continue in a task that would
otherwise be tedious.
This measured motion can be easily joined to a series of musical
sounds, since musical sounds themselves always imply an idea of
movement. Such is the origin of rhythmical songs and the dance. On
the basis of these observations, one should not be surprised to find
that the most primitive of peoples have discovered music, and taken
at least a few steps toward its perfection. Music is thus an art that is
rooted in the nature of man. It has immutable principles that one
must always keep in mind if one will try to compose music or perfect
the art itself. And here it is necessary to clear away a prejudice widely

Musical issues: music 83
held in music (but also in other arts) against universal principles. It

is said that the Chinese have no ear for European music, while
Europeans cannot bear to hear Chinese music. The conclusion, then,
is that this art has no general principles grounded in human nature.
We will see.
If music had no other purpose than to arouse momentary emotions
of joy, fear, or honor, then any spontaneous expression of joy or fear
by any person would be sufficient for the job. When a crowd of men
shout in jubilation or out of terror, we can be violently moved, despite
however unruly, harsh, and disorderly their voices may be. Certainly
no principles or rules are needed here.
But such noise cannot be sustained, as it would quickly lose its
energy and our attention would wane. If musical sounds are to be
sustained, then, meter becomes essential. {424} All people with any
degree of sensitivity feel this, whether they be Siberians, Indians,
Iroquois, or the refined Greeks. Whenever there is meter and rhythm,
there is order and rule. This is the first principle [of music] obeyed
by all people. Because meter is subject to almost infinite variety,
all people have their own taste, as is made clear by the many kinds
of dance melodies to be found. Only general rules of order and
regularity remain the same everywhere.
It is perfectly natural that some people prefer faster movement in
their music than others, that more primitive folk want less variety
and not such determined symmetry in their music as do people who
have a more cultured sensibility for beauty, that some men can bear
greater dissonance in their music than others who are far more
practiced in perceiving individual tones. All people make an application
of general principles to their own particular situation, whence arises
the variety of rules. This does not mean, however, that taste is arbitrary.
One may observe that those among us with experienced and sensitive
ears hear more details and observe more rules than those who discover
and eventually follow these rules only after attaining more skill in
harmony. Thus, differences in taste here — as in other arts — do not
demonstrate the absence of any firm basis of human nature.
We have seen that music is essentially a succession of sounds that
originates as a passionate emotion, and which has the power to depict,
arouse, and strengthen such emotions. It now remains for us to inquire
what kinds of experience, taste, and reflection are needed in music to
make it a real art, and the purpose musical compositions can serve.

The purpose of music undoubtedly lies in those first germs that

brought forth music, which is the desire we all have to stimulate and
deepen our emotions. And of all emotions, happiness seems to have
been the first step leading to song. The next step was the desire to
lighten heavy labor. [...] Tenderness, sadness and various emotions of
discontent do not seem to have called for such original music. {425}
But after learning how this art could express such passions and
consequently awaken them in oneself, it was used for this purpose.
Since the differing degrees of animation of individual men and the
way they express their emotions have the greatest influence upon
their moral character, music can often be used to express the morality
of such men and entire people, in so far as they may be sensed. So
indeed are national songs and dances a true reflection of morality.
They can be as sprightly or serious, tender or tempestuous, refined
or coarse, as the morals of the people themselves.
However, it is difficult to explain when one considers its nature as
expressive of emotions, how music depicts objects of the imagination.
Speech was invented in order to express thoughts and ideas. This, and
not music, aspires to instruct us and communicate the pictures of our
imagination. It is contrary to the nature of music to depict such
pictures. (See the article "Painting in music") Music always affects
man not in how he thinks or imagines, but in how he feels. Thus,
any piece of music that does not arouse feelings cannot be considered
as true music. Even if all the notes of such a piece were scrupulously
composed, every harmony carefully thought out, and the most fussy
rules observed, such a piece would be worth nothing if it did not
touch our heart. It is possible for someone not versed in the art of
music to judge whether a composition is good or not provided he
possess a sensitive heart. If his heart understands nothing of the music,
he can justly dismiss it as good for nothing. If, however, his heart is
smitten, he can declare it right away as good; its goal has been achieved.
Everything by which this goal is achieved is good. Whether such a
piece could be even better, whether the composer might have
weakened or spoiled something through his ignorance or lack of taste,
such questions could be left to more knowledgeable critics. For only
they understand the means by which art achieves its goal, and can
judge according to their own talent.
It is therefore of utmost importance to remind both musical
amateurs as well as seasoned masters that those composers who seek

Musical issues: composition 85
applause by employing technical tricks in their music (involving

melodic leaps, arpeggios, harmonies) end up saying nothing at all,
however virtuosic it all may be. They are as artificial as a circus
performer dancing or singing on a tightrope; the purpose of some
challenging composition comes off like a horse running in full gallop.
It is no more natural than Agesilaus s mimicking the song of a real
nightingale in a composition.1
Having considered music s purpose, it now is time to consider its
means. This constitutes the true knowledge and application of this art.
{426} Here we must also ask, though, how the notes of music can
become an intelligible language of sentiment, and how such notes
can be set in a composition such that anyone hearing them not only
finds his emotions stirred for a sustained period, but gently coaxed
to give in to them. The answers to these questions comprise the whole
subject of this art, whose individual parts cannot be fully treated here,
but only indicated to the best of our abilities. These means are (1)
melody; (2) key; (3) meter and rhythm; and (4) harmony. [...]
2 COMPOSITION [SATZ; SETZKUNST] (vol. IV, pp. 224-27)

The invention and working out of a piece of music is called composition
because the inventor of such a piece uses notes to express or notate
tones, in harmony and melody. Often this is called counterpoint because
in older times the notes were simple points, and the primary job of
the composer was to compose additional voices to some preexisting
melody. Hence a given point had other points set against it.
The word composition is sometimes understood to include every-
thing that has to do with the invention and notation of a musical
work, which is to say, all that needs to be done in order for it to be
performed. It seems, though, that one uses this word somewhat
narrowly by having it express only that work which is governed by
specific and somewhat mechanical rules, and through whose strict
observance one may avoid offending the ear. One often hears a piece
of music that, to use a colloquial expression, lacks sap and energy,
even though it is correctly composed, which is to say, it does not
violate the rules and contains nothing shocking to the ear. This is
l Agesilaus II (444-360 BC) was King of Sparta. The legend of Agesilaus imitating the song of the
nightingale was reported by Plutarch. [C]

how it happens that there are those who fancy themselves good
composers simply because they know how to avoid mistakes. {225}
When conceived in such a restrictive sense, composition in music
is akin to grammar in speech. One can be perfectly grammatical and
speak with utter clarity and precision, without however, having
anything worthy of attention to say. Just so, one can compose correctly
and still produce a wretched piece. This art, as with any of the other
fine arts, requires above all genius and taste in order to invent and
select that which will give a work its energy according to the nature
of the idea. Composition also demands the ability to perform or
express the work following the mechanical rules of art in order to
avoid anything that might be shocking. Only these last skills are subject
to specific rules that can be learnt and followed by anyone not blessed
with genius or taste.
If one understands by the word composition only the knowledge
and observance of these rules, then it does indeed become an easy
thing to learn. It consists of rules governing harmony, the treatment
of consonances and dissonances, modulation, meter and rhythm. But
clearly this is not enough, since one must have an instinct for these
rules beyond any practical knowledge of their use. It would be possible
to make a deaf man understand the rules so that he could discover
mistakes in a written piece of music. But he would never be able to
sense them in a performance nor be capable of composing anything
using only his well-mastered rules.
Whoever thus wishes not only simply to understand the mechanics
of composition, but also to master its practice, must possess a clear
understanding of song and harmony, and an ability to sense with
absolute clarity what is agreeable and repulsive, what is pleasing and
harsh. But beyond a good ear, a great deal of practice is required. In
vain would one teach the rules of composition to anyone who could
neither sing nor play. It might happen that such a person could learn
these rules and recognize their correctness, but he would never be
able to apply them in practice. This practice really involves nothing
less than setting down in notes the melody and harmony one feels
and hears. Only after this is done does one proceed to correct whatever
might be offensive or against the rules.
It can be assumed, then, that only someone who possesses a good
ear and is well-versed in practice is in a position to judge a composition
or compose a piece of music. Only this person could look at a score

Musical issues: composition 87
and immediately sense its melody and harmony, or upon hearing it,
write it down in musical notation. It follows that one must first be
skilled in the practice of music before studying composition.
Everywhere this is acknowledged. The true hallmark of the master
in composition is a capacity for rational contemplation. This is a
capacity almost always lacking in school masters, who thereby cause
their students such incredible frustration and irretrievable loss of time.
These teachers are so dim-witted that they try teaching students the
rules of composition, that is, the grammar of the language, before
their students can even understand the language themselves. That
means teaching someone who cannot even hear yet, and who must
learn to do so by himself, little by little. {226} If one is led so astray
in music, then the time spent in instruction will be as futile as it is
in school.
Music thus rightly begins with practice. The aspiring composer
learns first to sing and play. Thereby he becomes sensitive to harmony
and melody, learns to fix a melodic composition in an ear capable of
sensing shades of light and darkness, and gains a surer feel for keys,
whose tones — whether heard simultaneously, or in succession — strike
the ear as being harmonious or not. He can then finally come to the
point where he can distinguish musical sounds from one another, and
even specify the notes of every voice in a polyphonic composition.
This is what is meant by a capacity for language: not only can one
understand what others are saying, but one can also express thoughts
in that language.
So just as it is assumed in languages and rhetoric that only one
fluent in a given language will be capable of understanding all aspects
of grammar and eloquence, so it is assumed in music that only
one versed in the language of music will be capable of learning to
compose.
Here, then, is another noteworthy parallel between music and
oratory. Sometimes one who learns a language through common
practice is able to become a great speaker or poet without further
guidance. And so it sometimes happens that a singer or performer
becomes a composer without further instruction. Such untutored
composers are generally called prodigies [Naturalisten]. But here we
must note in respect to subject matter, that it is much easier to
become a prodigy in oratory or poetry than it is in music. Musical
composition has such a quantity of rules that are difficult to discover,

and techniques that one learns only through much experience. It is

highly unlikely that the most gifted prodigy will ever be able to
discover them all. Only the music instructor who dedicates himself
to the task of testing all rules of composition, examining their
justification, basing them upon the fewest enlightened principles,
discovering their applications in the works of the best composers,
pondering their origins and use, and so forth, is capable of teaching
in a short time all the rules, refinements, and virtues of composition
to those who already understand the language of music, but who
would be incapable themselves of discovering them all.
This is timely advice, especially given the large numbers of singers
or performers today who imagine they can become accomplished
composers without any schooling whatsoever. We do not deny that,
as in other arts, there exist extraordinary geniuses who have become
accomplished composers without outside instruction. But no reason-
able person will draw the conclusion that because there are men who
become rich through no effort of their own, one therefore need not
have to expend any effort to master something; nor would one
conclude that because someone lost all his possessions in spite of
exercising great caution, there is no point in any of us ever behaving
cautiously. {227} Whoever has not carefully mastered the rules of
composition runs the risk in even his most pleasing, expressive, and
excellent inventions of committing errors that will be offensive and
deform his work of genius. Often even a prodigy will discover that
there is something missing in a piece worked out only through pure
genius, but he will not be capable of seeing wherein this mistake lies
or how to correct it because of his ignorance of rules. Many pieces
- especially polyphonic pieces - require specific techniques according
to their nature that are not easily acquired by oneself. And in other
pieces it is not seldom that the prettiest melodic thoughts are
completely obscured by a bad or forced harmony resulting from the
composers ignorance of the rules. The more one possesses a true
genius for art, the more important it is that the rules of composition
be studied, since only a genius will profit from them.
I cannot restrain myself from ending this article with a remark that
may offend many readers. But a love of truth is dearer to me than
any fear of rebuke. Hasse, whose fame is well deserved, is surely a
man of true musical genius. But one notices in his duets, especially
when compared to Graun s, a defect attributed by many to his use of

Musical issues: painting in music 89
superfluous embellishments.2 Had this otherwise great man understood

composition as thoroughly as Graun, his works for several voices might
today be held as worthy as are his arias. But in these pieces, he truly
cannot compete since he simply did not understand the art of
composition as well as Graun. This is said as a warning to all young
composers.
I cannot undertake any closer examination of composition here,
and must refer the reader to Kirnberger s new book, which has guided
me in all the articles on composition. When the long-awaited second
part of this book finally appears, we shall have available the most
complete, thorough, and comprehensive work that has ever been
written concerning composition.3
3 PAINTING IN MUSIC [MAHLEREY] (vol. Ill, pp. 356-57)

One can paint not only for the eyes, but also for the imagination, and
even for the ears. The poet does this for the former sense, the composer
the latter. The poet can depict some things so vividly, that we may think
we see a picture before us. But we have already spoken of this kind of
painting elsewhere. As for musical painting, for which a few composers
seem to have developed a particular fondness, we will offer here a few
remarks, although we have already touched upon this question in a
separate article (s.v. "Tone painting"). The essential element servicing
music is passionate emotions. Thus it is properly concerned with the
depiction of character, at least in so far as this can be depicted by notes
and rhythms. {357} This is why many dance melodies are essentially
nothing other than depictions of character. Couperin, as well as a few
other French composers, have depicted quite specific characteristics of
individual men. And after him, C. E E. Bach has published some short
keyboard pieces that express quite strikingly the various characteristics
of his friends and acquaintances. This entails more than painting
inanimate elements of nature in music - impressing the ear with the
2 The opera ensemble pieces - and particularly the duets - of Carl Heinrich Graun were particular
favorites of Sulzer and Kirnberger, above all on account of their judicious balance of contrapuntal
sophistication and galant melodiousness. With Sulzer s support, Kirnberger brought out a lavishly
produced collection of them: Duetti, terzetti, sestetti ed alcuni chori delle opere del Signore Carlo Enrico
Graun, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1773-74). [C]
3 In 1774 - when this article first appeared - Kirnberger had only issued the first volume of his
treatise, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik (Berlin, 1771). Volume II would not appear until
its publication (in three parts) between 1776 and 1779. [C]

sounds found in nature itself such as thunder or storms. It entails painting

those emotions that stir our soul through specific sentiments, such as
the tenderness of a quiet, pastoral scene. This is only possible when
music is accompanied by poetry, by which the painting whose effect is
sensed by the ear also presents itself to our imagination.
But no sensible composer should let himself succumb to the kind
of painting in which the poet incidentally seeks not to arouse
sentiments, but tries instead to superimpose them in order to throw
more light upon his ideas. This often happens in the so-called arias
in which music itself attempts to express the truths of the expression
that should dominate throughout the whole piece, and thereby ends
up weakening this expression. The poet may well remember the most
pleasurable feelings aroused by a storm, even if they may also have
been unsettling, and make mention of these. But it is nonsensical for
the composer to mention them with notes.
It would be just as silly for the composer in other circumstances
to paint material objects with no relation to sentiment. One occa-
sionally experiences in the middle of an expressive composition some
composer or singer who, wishing to display their skills by mimicking
the calls of a nightingale or the hoots of an owl, thereby completely
destroys the sentiment.
By all means, the composer must restrain himself from such
nonsense, except when he is truly trying to be farcical. He must always
remember that music is written not for the mind or imagination, but
for the heart.
4 TONE PAINTING [GEMAHLD IN MUSIK] (vol. II, p. 357)

One applies the names painting or picture to all melodic passages in
music in which the composer tries to imitate strictly inanimate nature
through notes and rhythm. Using only notes and rhythms, it is possible
to imitate wind, thunder, the roar of the ocean, or the gurgles of a
brook, a flash of lightning, and other such things. Even the most learned
and skilled composers can be found doing this. But such [tone] painting
violates the true spirit of music, which is to express the sentiments of
feeling, not to convey images of inanimate objects. One can compare
this kind of painting to the false gestures of ignorant speakers who try
to illustrate with arm movements things they may be speaking about
— such as something that is high or broad, distant or near, straight or

Musical issues: melody 91
crooked. It is certain that such childish mannerisms divert one s attention

from primary matters to secondary ones. Tone painting is to be valued
no more than word games in speech. A connoisseur will always feel
uneasy when he hears a thing that repels his taste, even if it may be
praised as having the most excellent beauty by ignorant amateurs.
It is inconceivable to me how a man of Handel's talent could sink
so low in his art by trying in an oratorio about the plague in Egypt
to paint the jumping of locusts and other such tasteless things.4 A
more nonsensical perversion of art can scarcely be imagined.
5 MELODY [MELODIE] (vol. Ill, pp. 370-71)

Melody is the succession of tones that comprise the singing part of a
composition in so far as it is to be differentiated from the accompanying
harmonies. It is the essence of a composition; the accompanying voices
serve only to support it. Song is the primary aim of music, and all
harmonic elaboration ultimately serves the goal of beautiful song. Thus
it is futile to ask whether melody or harmony takes precedence in a
composition. Without question the means is always subordinate to the
goal.
It is more important for the composer continually to keep in mind
the essential characteristics of a good melody, and to think about the
best means by which they may be attained, at least as far as this
depends upon art. However, the present work is written not so much
for artists as for philosophically minded amateurs who are not content
merely to feel what characteristics every work of art in their favored
subject should possess, but want to know as far as it is possible the
reasons for this. It is thus necessary here that we deduce the various
characteristics of song or melody from their nature.
It has already been demonstrated in two articles ("Music" and
"Song") that song arises from the over-abundance of pleasing,
passionate emotions that one freely gives in to. A natural, spontaneous
and unaffected song is a series of impassioned notes having the
character of the emotion from which it sprang. Art imitates these
expressions of passion through notes, which by themselves are un-
remarkable and betray nothing of emotion. No one would say that a
single tone played on the organ or harpsichord sounds passionate. Yet
4 Reference is to Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt, first performed in 1739. [C]

it is from just such innocuous tones that a deeply moving song can
be made. It is well worth inquiring how this comes about. {371}
One can certainly hear passionate notes in music that are, by
themselves and with no help of the composer, painful, sad, tender, or
gay But such impressions come about through the artistry of the
singer and belong properly to performance. This has nothing to do
with the writing of a good melody, except perhaps in so far as the
composer might offer the singer or player some guidance as to how
the written notes may be performed with feeling.
The essence of melody lies in expression. It must always depict
some kind of passionate feeling or mood. All who hear it should try
to imagine listening to the speech of a man seeking to convey to us
the particular emotion with which he is filled. In so far as this melody
is a product of art and taste, though, this passionate discourse must
constitute a whole in which unity and variety are combined, as should
be the case with all other art works. Such a whole must be of a
pleasing form and be so constituted, both overall and in its individual
parts, that the attention of the listener is continually maintained. The
impression it makes should be received without offense or distraction,
but with delight. Every song that has these twin qualities is deemed
good. Any in which the whole is lacking is completely bad; any in
which the individual parts are lacking is faulty. Hence, we must clearly
delineate the various particular qualities of melody.
First, it is absolutely imperative that a single key be maintained so
that a good modulation be had that is appropriate to the various
gradations of expression. Second, there must be a perceptible meter
with precise division into shorter and longer parts [Glieder]. Third, the
truth of expression must be everywhere observed. Fourth, every
individual note and every part must be easily perceptible in accordance
to the content. Fifth, if the melody is meant to be set to words or
correspond to some text, it must agree with the declamation of the
words and the division of the text. Each of these requirements will
be more fully treated in the following articles. [...]
6 SONG [GESANG] (vol. II, pp. 368-71)

Nothing is easier to feel than the difference between song and speech,
but nothing is more difficult to describe. Both consist of a succession
of differing sounds that may be distinguished as much by their particular

Musical issues: song 93
character as by whether they are high or low. {369} It does seem that
the sounds of a song are somewhat more sustained and resonant than
those of speech. They originate as rapid blasts from the throat that are
sustained for various lengths of time. They impress the ear with a specific
sentiment based upon their pitch, character, and relation to one another.
Since one can sense the difference between song and speech so clearly,
music does not lose anything by being so difficult to analyze.
Song is no less natural to man than is speech. Both are inventions
of genius, one occasioned by need, the other by emotion. It is difficult
to know the various stages that the genius must have followed in
order for these inventions to have been developed. It is certainly
doubtful that man learnt song simply through the imitation of
songbirds. The individual sounds that comprise song are the expressions
of animated sentiments, since man expresses pleasure, pain, or sadness
through sounds, and the sentiments aroused demand to be expressed,
even if against ones will, by the sounds of song, not speech. Thus the
elements of song are not so much the invention of man as of nature
herself. Rather than calling these the extracted sounds from the
sentiments of man, we will simply call them passionate tones [leiden-
schaftlicheTone]. The sounds of speech are designators, which originally
served to awaken the idea of something when they or some other
similar sounds were heard. Most such sounds are arbitrary signs, while
the passionate tones are natural signs of sentiment. A succession of
arbitrary sounds designates speech, a succession of passionate tones,
song.
Man is naturally inclined to succumb to both pleasurable and sad
emotions (especially when they are of a tender nature), and indeed,
even to indulge in them. The ear appears to be the sense most suited
to the stirring and sustaining of sentiments. One can observe children
who know nothing of song amuse themselves with appropriate tones
when they are in either happy or sad moods. Through these tones,
one s mood gains something corporeal about it, by which it can be
grounded and prolonged. We can thus see to some extent how in
certain emotional states, man was able to think of a succession of
singing tones, and thereby maintain himself in that mood.
This alone, however, does not make up song, since it is necessary
to add measured movement and rhythm to the preceding in order to
have true song. Like the passionate tones, these elements also seem
to have their basis in the nature of sentiment. A simple repetition of

such tones is not sufficient to induce us to succumb to these sentiments

for any length of time. This is better accomplished by uniform,
sustained motion. Just as the cradle can calm the many animal spirits
and maintain the spirit in the state into which it has fallen, so there
are similar movements which may help prolong other sentiments.
{370} Even the most unreflective man or inattentive child can feel
this. We can observe the same movement of their bodies rocking to
and fro in regular and even rhythm when they hear a repetition of
passionate tones. Undoubtedly this is the natural origin of meter.
There is nothing better for sustaining ourselves in the same emotion
than a uniform, evenly measured motion, by which attention to a
given object may be secured.
The origin of song thus begins to reveal itself in the uniform
motion of passionate tone as a flowing succession. In even the most
primitive of nations, we may find dance songs with clearly determined
meters and rhythms. This observation confirms what we have said
concerning the origins of song. It is not necessary that a song be
produced by the human voice, since even a basic instrumental melody
can be considered a song. From this, we see that words, song, and
melody are most often of equal importance. But the song produced
by the human voice is clearly the oldest and most perfect of these,
since it alone can finely shade every tone with the particular character
required by the affect. A few' instruments, such as the harpsichord,
cannot modify tones the way the throat of a singer can, while a few
other instruments can only partially modify their tones.
The essential energy of music truly is found in song, since the
accompanying harmonies, as Rousseau correctly noted, have little
power of expression; harmony helps only to establish and fortify the
key, enhance the modulation, and make the expression more vigorous
and pleasing. But melody alone possesses the irresistible power of
animated tones one recognizes as the utterance of a sensitive soul.
Thus song is to be preferred above all other arts for the arousal of
passions. Lines offer us an understanding of form, while song arouses
an immediate feeling for passions. But we have already spoken about
this elsewhere (s.v. "Music"). {371} Here it only remains for us to
convince the composer who reads this that his greatest merit will be
gained through song. He must of course be a true harmonist, but
more importantly, his songs must be completely refined. Because song

Musical issues: instrumental music 95
without expression is worthless, he must give the greatest consideration

to passionate song. Melody, movement, and rhythm are the true means
by which to stimulate emotionally one's mood. Where this is lacking,
even the most highly refined harmony will be impotent.
We thus would advise the young composer not to spend all his
time on the study of harmony, but rather on song, as it should be
considered the main subject of his art. Melodic beauty is the inspiration
of genius. But through work and study, the composer can gain a
complete understanding of movement and rhythm and have both at
his command. The dance melodies of different nations contain nearly
every kind of movement and rhythm. Only he who is sufficiently
accomplished in them can become a master of song.
7 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC [INSTRUMENTALMUSIK]

(vol. II, pp. 677-79)
Instrumental music employs tones, not words, to make comprehensible
what it is expressing. It is to be understood in opposition to vocal music,
in which comprehensible words are sung. All music is rooted in the
energy contained in simple tones in order to express various passions.
And no music would be possible if one could not speak the language
of sentiment. It seems, then, that instrumental music is the most important
of the fine arts in this regard. One can easily dispense with vocal music
for dancing, festive celebrations, and military marches, since instruments
alone are sufficient to arouse and sustain the appropriate sentiments for
such occasions. But where the subjects of sentiment must be portrayed
or made recognizable, then music must have the aid of speech. We can
be very moved if we perceive tones of sadness, pain, or even misery in
a language we do not understand. When, however, the speaker of these
emotions speaks in a language we do understand, when he makes us
aware of the occasion and cause of his distress, and the particular depths
of his suffering, then we are moved much more strongly. Without the
aid of tone and sound, without movement and rhythm, we can still be
moved when reading of the love pangs of Sappho. But when musical
tones are called upon to help express the heaviest sighs of the lovers
pain, when a rapturous movement in the succession of tones provokes
our ears and sets our nerves in motion, then our sentiments are incom-
parably stronger.
From this, we learn with complete certainty that music achieves

its fullest expression when united with poetry, when vocal and
instrumental music are brought together. {678} One can still summon
the emotions of all men, however [without recourse to words]: a
calming duet played by two instruments or sung by voices in a language
that we do not understand may certainly convey the greatest part of
its power. Instrumental music alone is certainly sufficent for stirring
and sustaining ones passions through sensibility when there is no
particular situation in mind.
For these reasons, instrumental music is most effectively utilized
for dancing, marching, and other festive occasions. These are its most
appropriate places. It can also offer a service to dramatic plays, in that
it can prepare the audience through the overture or symphony for
the main affection that will be found in the play. Instrumental music
can also be used simply for diversion or as practice material, whereby
the composer and performer work to perfect important technical
matters. Concertos, trios, solos, sonatas, and the like are all useful for
these purposes.
Some of these pieces have a particular character, such as the ballet,
dance, and march, and the composer has a plumb-line as to their
character by which he may proceed in its composition. The more
precisely he observes the character of each art, the better his work
will appear. In the cases of overtures and symphonies that will serve
to open a play, the composer already has to a certain extent something
by which to base his invention, since his music must express the main
character of the play for which it is made. But the invention of a
concerto, trio, solo, sonata, and the like, all of which have no specific
purpose, is left almost entirely to chance. One can understand how a
man of genius may arrive at some invention when he has something
in front of himself that he can hold on to. But where it is not possible
to say what he is to create, or what he should have in mind, then he
seems to work only by good luck. Thus it happens that most pieces
of this kind are nothing other than pleasant-sounding noise that strikes
the ear either violently or gently. In order to avoid this, the composer
would do well to imagine some person, or a situation or passion, and
exert his fantasy to the point where he can believe that this person
is ready to speak. He can help himself by seeking out poetry that is
pathetic, fiery, or tender in nature, and declaim it in an appropriate
tone, and after that sketch out his composition following this sentiment.
He must never forget that music that expresses no kind of passion or

Musical issues: harmony 97
sentiment in a comprehensible language is nothing but sheer noise.

[...] {679}
Among all instruments that can produce expressive tones, the human
voice is without doubt the one to be preferred. One can deduce from
this the fundamental maxim, then, that the most excellent instrument
is that which is most capable of imitating the human voice. By this
reasoning, the oboe is one of the best.
8 HARMONY [HARMONIE] (vol. II, pp. 470-75)

This word is used today in more than one sense. It can signify (1) the
simultaneous sounding of several individual tones within a single triad,
which is to say, the harmony of chords ... (2) the quality of a composition
in so far as it is viewed as a succession of chords {471} and (3) the
pleasant sounds produced by good consonances or several tones melded
together ... {472}
The question has lately arisen as to the part harmony plays in
music. A few writers assert that it is the principle of all music. Without
a knowledge of harmony, they believe, it is impossible to write a good
piece of music. This opinion is handily refuted by Mr. Burette, who
has convincingly shown that the ancients knew nothing of harmony,
yet still possessed music.5 Those for whom this evidence is insufficient
need only consider how many peoples there are with dance melodies
who know absolutely nothing of harmony; that there are countless
numbers of beautiful dance melodies lacking a bass or harmonic
accompaniment. It cannot be doubted that melodies made for dancing
are real works of music when one considers how perfectly movement
and rhythm are utilized in them. These are the very qualities that are
the most essential in music and turn a song into passionate speech.
And no one will deny that excellent dances can be produced without
the help of harmony. We can conclude, then, that harmony is not
essential to music. The ancients were able to produce songs of great
power without it. But we thereby cannot conclude with Rousseau
that it is a gothic or barbarous invention, one more detrimental to
music than helpful. A single-voiced melody not only does not lose
anything when accompanied by a good bass line and a few inner
5 Pierre-Jean Burette (1665—1747) was a historian who specialized in Greek writings on music and
music theory. Many of his publications appeared in the pages of the Histoire de VAcademie royale
des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres — the source from which Sulzer draws. [ C ]

voices disposed according to the best rules of harmony, but gains much
in expression. It is true that a four-voiced song is worse when not
perfectly harmonious than if it was single-voiced. But it is infinitely
more moving when composed by a competent harmonist and per-
formed by skilled singers such that the voices flow together and cohere
into a single song. There is little in music to compare to the power
and expression of a well-composed and perfectly performed four-part
chorale.6 And who cannot sense that a good duet or well-composed
trio is more beautiful and charming than a solo? We can conclude,
then, that although harmony may not be essential in music, in most
cases it is very useful, and that art has profited greatly from its invention.
[...] {473}
Undoubtedly, music has thus gained much from the introduction
of harmony. But one pushes things too far, as does Mr. Rameau, in
maintaining that the entire art is based upon harmony, and that melody
itself originates in harmony. There is nothing here by which one can
deduce movement and rhythm, which are the most essential qualities
of music. One can also not claim that the rules of harmonic succession
flow from a consideration of harmony. Everything that Mr. Rameau
has said with such confidence and in such a demonstrative tone of
voice has been convincingly refuted by Mr. Rousseau.7
One often hears debated whether melody or harmony is the more
important element of music, just as in painting it is debated whether
line or color takes precedence over the other. {474} The resolution
of this question should not be in doubt, since it has been shown that
music has long existed without harmony. Can one doubt anymore
that a composition resembles speech only through melody, and that
it is thereby capable of rendering the sentiments of the singer even
if it lacks words? The expression and especially the degree of passion
can be made sensible only through melody and meter. Which com-
poser would say that by following the rules of harmony, he was able
6 Undoubtedly this paragraph reflects the prejudice of Kirnberger, who, citing the authority of his
teacher Johann Sebastian Bach, upheld four-part chorale harmonizations as the most efficacious
medium for learning composition. [C]
7 Rameau had claimed to find the origins of harmonic succession in the geometric "triple
progression"- the concatenation of fifths in the fundamental bass connecting the tonic chord to
its upper and lower dominants. This triple progression was itself deduced by Rameau from the
harmonic ratios engendered in the static overtones produced by a resonating string - the corps
sonore; hence in Rameau s system, the ideal progression of perfect fifths in the fundamental bass
underlying all harmony was drawn from harmony itself. [C]

Musical issues: harmony 99
to find a beautiful theme or develop an idea that closely expresses

the language of some passion? That which makes a composition the
comprehensible utterance of an emotionally wrought individual is
without question independent of harmony. And don't we regularly
encounter beautiful pieces of music written by self-taught composers
who know little about harmony?
If we grant melody greater preference over harmony, it is not to
denigrate the importance of harmony. We have already noted that
multi-voiced works like duets, trios, and choruses are among the most
important works of music. A composer of the greatest melodic talent
might not be capable of setting even a single measure of a duet or
trio, since this demands the greatest competence in harmony. But even
besides these cases, a knowledge of harmony is either indispensable
or of the greatest use in music with only a single melody. It is essential
in such works as todays opera arias, where short melodic phrases that
contain the true expression of a texts sentiment must be treated
thoroughly and shaded through good modulation. Without any knowl-
edge of harmony, no modulation is possible. And everyone senses how
powerfully harmony can sometimes reinforce expression. Not infre-
quently do tones penetrating deep within our heart accrue their power
through harmony. This can be demonstrated by the various chromatic
and enharmonic passages that often underlie the most expressive of
melodies, and whose applications would be impossible without a
thorough knowledge of harmony.
Besides, it is undeniable that a strong element of expressivity already
is inherent to harmony itself. A powerful harmony, without the aid
of melody, movement and rhythm, can express many passions and
agitate or calm ones soul in many ways. Are there not individual
tones that will sometimes press with the greatest intensity upon the
innermost sanctuaries of our soul with feelings of pain, horror, or
despair? These tones can certainly be sensed only through the support
of harmony, since their power lies entirely in dissonance. A single
tone from a consonant triad is always pleasant and delightful. But a
triad that is not entirely consonant is not necessarily unpleasant; on
the contrary, it can be the source of truly expressive tones. {475} If
the sound of a consonant triad is composed of harmonious tones, the
sound of a triad that is not consonant is composed of both harmonious
and inharmonious tones. Only someone versed in harmony will be
able to recognize and imitate them.

Thus, a good composer must necessarily be competent in both

melody and harmony. It cannot but be seen as a decline of art when
we look at the changes in music, and see how today the study of
harmony is undertaken with far less seriousness and diligence than it
was at the beginning of our century as well as in the preceding two
centuries. Because a full knowledge of harmony can only be achieved
by a kind of practice and work that many find wearisome and dry, it
is often viewed as pedantry. But this pedantry — the full-voiced chorale,
fugue, and other kinds of counterpoint — are the only works by which
true competence in harmony may be attained. It is thus to be hoped
that the kind of study that was once commonplace not be forsaken
by the student when learning all the many intricacies of harmony.
This is how Handel and Graun became great composers, and also
why other composers, who were perhaps of equal talent, lagged far
behind them on account of their negligence.
Since almost an eternity, the science of harmony was transmitted
orally as the secret teachings of a few philosophical schools. What was
written down by the best harmonists covered only the initial and
most elementary foundations of this art. It seems as though the greatest
masters of harmonic rules felt these rules more than they understood
them, and consequently why they taught more through example than
through rules. We must grant Rameau the honor of being the first
to have tried to explain this science methodically. If much remains in
his system of harmony that is arbitrary or weakly developed, he still
will always deserve the glory of being its discoverer. And it is not to
be doubted that harmony, as with other sciences, will little by little
be elucidated within a thorough and coherent system.
9 MAIN THEME [HAUPTSATZ] (vol. II, pp. 488-90)

The main theme of a composition is a period which contains the full
expression and nature of melody. It may be found not only at the
beginning of a composition, but throughout, and repeated in various
keys and with variation. The main theme is commonly termed the
thema. Mattheson justly compared it to the Biblical verses upon which
a sermon is based, and which must contain in a few words all that will
be developed more fully in the course of the sermon.
Music is properly the language of feeling. Its expressiveness is always
of a short duration since the feelings that it presents in a few utterances

Musical issues: main theme 101
are themselves simple. This is how a very short melodic phrase of

only 2, 3, or 4 measures may express some sentiment so clearly and
so perfectly, that a listener can recognize right away the emotional
state of a singer. Thus, if a composition has no other purpose than to
present clearly some emotion, such a short phrase can be perfectly
adequate provided it is well thought out. But this is not the purpose
of music. Its purpose should be to maintain a listener in the same
emotional state for a period of time. This is not possible by simply
repeating the phrase, no matter how excellent it may be, since the
repetition of anything is boring, and one's attention can quickly wane.
One must thus find a kind of melody in which a consistent sentiment
is expressed so that it can be continually repeated with appropriate
changes and various modifications until it has succeeded in its intended
impression.
This is how most of today s compositional forms have arisen: the
concerto, symphony, aria, duet, trio, fugue, and so forth. They are all
related in that in any one of their main sections there is only a single,
short main theme established that expresses the respective sentiment
of the period. Such a main theme should be supported or even
interrupted by smaller subsidiary ideas [Zwischengedanken] that are
appropriate to it. This main theme should be repeated along with
those subsidiary ideas using various harmonies and keys, as well as
with slight melodic variations (providing they are all appropriate to
the main sentiment expressed) to the point where the listener himself
has been completely overtaken by the sentiment of the music, and he
has experienced it from all sides. {489}
In each of the afore-mentioned musical genres, the main theme is
always the most important element. Its invention is the product of
genius, while its performance a product of taste and art. If a composer
is not fully successful in finding a main theme, he could still compose
a correct and clever, not to say even perfectly enjoyable, piece of
music if he understands his craft well enough. But he would not be
able to awaken the real energy of any lasting sentiment.
The most important quality of a main theme is a sufficient clarity
and comprehensibility of expression such that anyone hearing it will
immediately understand this language of the heart, or be able to
identify with the sentiments of whomever is singing. If the sentiments
are not clearly defined or comprehensible, then the work can never
become a truly complete composition, even were it to be written by

the worlds greatest composer. Such intelligibility depends as much

upon the tempo and meter of the music as it does upon the melody
or melodic progression. And as already mentioned, it is one whose
invention is fully a work of genius and for which no rules can be
laid down.
Meanwhile, genius is itself not sufficient in giving a main theme
all necessary perfection; art must also do its share, since all qualities
which do not belong to the comprehension of expression depend
primarily upon art. The main theme must be of a certain length. If
it is too short, it cannot be subject to the requisite changes and
repetitions that are needed for its variety of uses; if it is too long, the
whole of it cannot be retained clearly enough in one's memory. Thus
in pieces of faster tempo, it should be not less than two measures in
length, while in pieces of a slower tempo, it should not exceed four
measures.
If a composer has found an idea with fully intelligible expression,
he must know when to lengthen or shorten it. He must be especially
careful when composing longer main themes that consist of several
smaller segments [Einschnitten] to observe the closest cohesion so that
the main theme possesses real unity and is not just a pairing of two
different ideas. One must not sense any kind of closure in the theme
before it is completely finished. This demands much skill and reflection.
The main theme must further allow for the introduction of
secondary themes by which the most beautiful elaboration of melody
may be maintained. These secondary themes [Zwischensdtze] normally
occur after rests or after a sustained tone in the main theme, and
should seem to designate more closely and precisely the sentiment of
the music. This is why the main theme should reflect the sentiment
only in the most general way, and allow for the addition of more
refined decorations that may take place along with the requisite
elaboration, without the slightest detriment to the unity of rhythm.
These secondary themes sometimes enter only at the end of the
main theme. It is also a requirement of art, then, that the subsequent
repetitions of material be brought off with a natural and easy
connection. In this regard, composing for instruments offers fewer
difficulties than when one attempts to set a text. {490} This is because
the composer must make sure that the meter of the poem strictly
agrees with the movement and length of the phrases, as well as its

Musical issues: sonata 103
shorter segments or resting points — something that often causes no

little difficulty.
One can easily see then how the invention and treatment of a main
theme requires more than just genius; it requires taste, art, and
experience. It is thus a grave omission in the theory of music that so
little has been written about such an important subject. We can at
least thank Mattheson, as for so many other things, for having made
a try, although he may not have been the ideal person to treat this
matter.8
It would be of the greatest value were a discriminating connoisseur
to search the music of the greatest composers for the most beautiful
main themes so as to illustrate and explain that which appertains to
art and taste. Such beautiful examples can serve to instruct us in those
matters for which no firm rules can be laid down.
10 SONATA [SONATE] (vol. IV pp. 424-26)

The sonata is an instrumental work consisting of two, three, or four
consecutive movements of different character, and one or more
instrumental parts that are not doubled.9 Depending upon the number
of principal concerting instruments performing, it will be called sonata
a solo, a due, a tre, etc.
There is no form of instrumental music that is more capable of
depicting wordless sentiments than the sonata. {425} The symphony
and overture have a somewhat more fixed character, while the form
of a concerto seems suited more for providing a skilled performer
the opportunity to be heard accompanied by many instruments than
for the depiction of passions. Other than these (and dances which
also have their own character), no form other than the sonata may
assume any character and every expression. In a sonata, the composer
might want to express through the music a monologue marked by
sadness, misery, pain, or of tenderness, pleasure and joy; using a more
animated kind of music, he might want to depict a passionate
conversation between similar or complementary characters; or he
8 See the second part of his Vollkommener Capellmeister, where he treats in a few sections melodic
invention. Among all the pedantic rubbish, one can find many insightful and even important
observations. [S.] The particular passage Sulzer is referring to comes in chapter 4, "Von der
melodischen Erfmdung,"pp. 121-32. [C]
9 Another translation of this famous article with commentary is found in William S. Newman, The
Sonata in the Classical Era (Chapel Hill, 1963), 23-24. [C]

might wish to depict emotions that are impassioned, stormy, or

contrasting, or ones that are light, delicate, flowing, and delightful. To
be sure, only a few composers will have such intentions in mind when
composing a sonata, and still fewer of the Italians and their imitators.
A cacophony of arbitrarily connected tones without any further
purpose than pleasing the ears of insensible amateurs, bizarre and
sudden changes in character from joy to despair, from the pathetic to
the trivial, without one knowing what the composer has in mind —
all of these characterize todays Italian sonatas. And if a performance
of such a sonata engages the imagination of a few excitable fellows,
the heart and sentiments of any listener with taste and knowledge
will be entirely unmoved.
The possibility of endowing sonatas with character and expression
is shown in a number of easy and challenging harpsichord sonatas
written by our Hamburg Bach. The majority of these are so eloquent
that one almost believes to be hearing not a series of musical tones,
but a comprehensible speech that moves and engages our imagination
and emotions. It cannot be denied that the composition of such sonatas
requires genius, knowledge, and above all, a refined lyrical and delicate
sensibility. Such pieces also demand a kind of expressive performance
that no German-Italian is in a position to deliver, although sometimes
children are, at least those who have over time been exposed to such
sonatas.
The sonatas of C. P. E. Bach for two concerted instruments
accompanied by a bass are truly passionate conversations in tone. Those
who do not believe they can either feel or hear this would do well
to consider whether they have heard them performed as well as they
should be. Among these sonatas, there is one that stands out as so
excellent and so full of invention and character, that it can be
considered as a masterpiece of good instrumental music: the conver-
sation between a certain Melancholicus and Sanguineus published in
Nuremberg.10 Any aspiring composer who wishes to compose a sonata
would do well to take the music of Bach and other similar pieces as
his model.
Sonatas are the most common and efficacious practice pieces for
performers since there is such a quantity of both easy and difficult
pieces for all instruments. They stand in the first rank of chamber
10 The Trio Sonata in C minor, H. 579. [C]

Musical issues: symphony 105
repertoire behind vocal pieces. And because they can be played one
to a part, they can be performed without too much difficulty by even
the smallest chamber ensembles. {426} A single musician can some-
times entertain a whole audience with a single harpsichord sonata
better and more effectively than the largest concert can.
Sonatas with two main parts and a single accompanying or
concerted bass part are discussed thoroughly in the article "Trio."
11 SYMPHONY [SYMPHONIE] (vol. IV, pp. 478-80)

The symphony is a multi-voiced instrumental piece that is used in place
of the obsolete overture.11 The difficulties involved in performing an
overture well, and the even greater difficulties of writing a good overture,
gave rise to the lighter form of the symphony. In the beginning, this
consisted of one or more fugal pieces alternating with various kinds of
dances, and generally called partitas [Partie].12 To be sure, overtures were
largely played before long sacred works and operas, while partitas were
employed in chamber music. But since dance pieces without any dance
become quickly wearisome, they were turned into one or two fugal or
non-fugal allegro movements alternating with slower andante or largo
movements. This genre was called a symphony, and was introduced
before operas, and sacred music, as well as in chamber music, where it
is still found today. The instruments found in the symphony are violins,
violas, and bass instruments. Each voice is doubled [stark besetzt].
Sometimes horns, oboes, and flutes are utilized to fill out or strengthen
the music.
One can compare the symphony to an instrumental chorus, much
as one can compare a sonata to an instrumental cantata. In the latter,
the melody of the main voice, which is played by only one instrument,
may not only tolerate some embellishment but even require it. In the
symphony, on the other hand, where each voice is doubled, the greatest
emphasis lies in the written notes of the melody; no voice should
11 A differing translation of this article with extensive commentary by Bathia Churgin is found in
"The Symphony as Described by J. A. R Schulz (1774): A Commentary and Translation,"
Current Musicology 29 (1980), 7-16. [C]
12 Schulz is here distinguishing the older "French" style overture (which in Germany was typically
understood by the simple designation of "Ouvertiire") from the more contemporary three-
movement Italian "Symphony," which, according to Schulz, originated in the dance partita. Koch
discusses these different genres in some detail in his Lexikon (s.v. "Suite,""Parthie," "Ouverture,"
and "Symphonie"). [C]

need the least amount of embellishment or coloration. And because

the symphony must be read directly from the printed music and is
not a practice piece (as is the sonata) there should be no difficulties
in it that could not be handled by the players and performed crisply.
The symphony is most excellently suited to expressions of grandeur,
passion, and the sublime. Its purpose is to prepare the listener for
profound music, or in a chamber concert, to offer a splendid display
of instrumental music. {479} If it is to be successful in the former
goal, and an integral part of the opera or church music it precedes,
it must express more than grandeur or passion; it must have a character
that puts the listener into the mood of the following piece, and
differentiate itself by the style that is appropriate for either the church
or the theater.
The chamber symphony, which constitutes a self-sufficient whole
and is not dependent upon any subsequent music, achieves its aim
with a sonorous, polished, and brilliant style. The allegros of the best
chamber symphonies contain profound and clever ideas, a somewhat
free treatment of the parts [freye Behandlung des Satzes], an apparent
disorder in the melody and harmony, strongly marked rhythms of
different types, robust melodies and unison passages, concerting middle
voices, free imitations of a theme (often in fugal style), sudden
modulations and digressions from one key to another that are all the
more striking the more distant their relation, strong gradations of loud
and soft and especially of the crescendo, which when used in
conjunction with an ascending and swellingly expressive melody, is of
the greatest effect. To this is required the skill of combining all the
voices with one another such that the resulting sound seems almost
like a single melody that is in need of no accompaniment; rather, each
voice contributes its own share. Such an allegro is to a symphony
what a Pindaric ode is to poetry; it elevates and profoundly moves
the soul of the listener, and to be successful, demands the same spirit,
the same sublime imagination, and the same knowledge of art. The
symphonic allegros of the Netherlander Van Maldere can be considered
to be models of this genre of instrumental music.13 They possess all
the afore-mentioned characteristics, and testify to the greatness of this
composer, whose untimely death has robbed art of many more
masterpieces of this kind.
13 Pierre van Maldere (1729-68) was a Belgian composer noted for his innovations in symphonic
writing. [C]

Musical issues: symphony 107
The andante or largo movement that comes in between the first

and last allegro movements does not have so determined a character.
Rather, it is often of pleasant, pathetic, or sad expression. Still, it should
have a style that is appropriate to the dignity of the symphony, and
not as has seemingly become the mode today, be composed of mere
trifles. If one wished to write such trifles, he would find a better place
to do so in a sonata or a symphony preceding a comic opera.
The opera symphony more or less takes on the traits of the chamber
symphony, depending upon its suitability to the character of the
ensuing opera. Still, it seems that it allows fewer digressions and needs
less elaboration since the listener will be more attentive to what
follows than the symphony itself. Since the majority of our large
operas have the same character and are performed, it seems, primarily
in order to dazzle our eyes and ears, these symphonies are effective
simply by sounding pleasant. Certainly the opera symphonies of the
Italians have no other characteristic. In their allegros, instruments will
bawl above a repeating bass line [Trommelbass] and three chords;14 in
andantinos, they will dawdle without energy or expression. {480}
Certainly no listener in Italy will pay much attention to the symphony.
[Carl Heinrich] Graun, in contrast, has brought more art and
character to his opera symphonies. But even his tender soul lacked
the requisite fire. The beautiful songs that were never wanting in his
music, however estimable they may be, usually have but a feeble effect
in each of his symphonies. One believes one is hearing a fiery opera
aria performed by instruments. Graun seems to have been superseded
in this skill by his brother, the late concertmaster [Johann Gottlieb],
who in a few of his chamber symphonies captured the true spirit of
the symphony. Hasse also excelled here, especially in the lyrical quality
of his symphonies.
The French try to alternate trifles with sublime thoughts in their
opera-comique symphonies. But all their sublimity soon degenerates
into bombast. To convince oneself of this, one must only look at or
listen to any of the most popular French symphonies in score. Since
opera-comiques generally have more that is characteristic than the
14 The "drey Accorden" are the three principal harmonic functions defined by Rameau: tonic,
dominant seventh, and subdominant with an added sixth. The theory of "three chords" was made
famous in Germany through the writings of Johann Friedrich Daube. Schulz cites them in this
context as evidence of the simple harmonic vocabulary characteristic of the Italian symphony.
[C]

serious operas, it is not to be assumed that each must be preceded

by a symphony. Many can have a character inappropriate to the
grandeur of a symphony. Here is an opportunity to invent a new
form of music appropriate to each piece, and which one could give
the general name of Introduction. This is so it would not be confused
with the symphony, whose aim should really only be the pomp and
grandeur of instrumental music.
The church symphony differentiates itself from the above-mentioned
symphonies by the gravity of its style. Often it consists of only a
single movement. It cannot bear the digressions or disorder in the
melodic and harmonic progressions that one finds in chamber sym-
phonies. Rather, it should proceed at a fixed pace, in either a quick
or slow tempo depending upon the nature of the music s expression,
and strictly follow the rules of composition. Instead of being splendid,
it will sometimes seek to convey a quiet sublimity best accomplished
by a pathetic and carefully worked-out fugue.


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Cambridge Books Online

Aesthetics and the Art of Musical Composition in the German Enlightenm

Selected Writings of Johann Georg Sulzer and Heinrich Christoph Koch

Book DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511518348

Online ISBN: 9780511518348

Hardback ISBN: 9780521360357

Paperback ISBN: 9780521035095

III - Musical issues pp. 81-108

Chapter DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511518348.005

Cambridge University Press

1 MUSIC [MUSIK] (vol. Ill, pp. 421-26)

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

held in music (but also in other arts) against universal principles. It

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

The purpose of music undoubtedly lies in those first germs that

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applause by employing technical tricks in their music (involving

2 COMPOSITION [SATZ; SETZKUNST] (vol. IV, pp. 224-27)

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

and techniques that one learns only through much experience. It is

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superfluous embellishments.2 Had this otherwise great man understood

3 PAINTING IN MUSIC [MAHLEREY] (vol. Ill, pp. 356-57)

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sounds found in nature itself such as thunder or storms. It entails painting

4 TONE PAINTING [GEMAHLD IN MUSIK] (vol. II, p. 357)

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crooked. It is certain that such childish mannerisms divert one s attention

5 MELODY [MELODIE] (vol. Ill, pp. 370-71)

4 Reference is to Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt, first performed in 1739. [C]

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

6 SONG [GESANG] (vol. II, pp. 368-71)

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such tones is not sufficient to induce us to succumb to these sentiments

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without expression is worthless, he must give the greatest consideration

7 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC [INSTRUMENTALMUSIK]

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

sentiment in a comprehensible language is nothing but sheer noise.

8 HARMONY [HARMONIE] (vol. II, pp. 470-75)

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

to find a beautiful theme or develop an idea that closely expresses

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Thus, a good composer must necessarily be competent in both

9 MAIN THEME [HAUPTSATZ] (vol. II, pp. 488-90)

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are themselves simple. This is how a very short melodic phrase of

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the worlds greatest composer. Such intelligibility depends as much

Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

shorter segments or resting points — something that often causes no

10 SONATA [SONATE] (vol. IV pp. 424-26)