Received: 5 March 2019 Revised: 20 May 2019 Accepted: 24 May 2019

DOI: 10.1002/micr.30482

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The rabbit brachial plexus as a model for nerve injury and

repair Part 1: Anatomic study of the biceps and triceps
innervation

Kathleen M. Kollitz MD | Guilherme Giusti MD | Patricia F. Friedrich AAS |

Allen T. Bishop MD | Alexander Y. Shin MD

Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Division

of Hand and Microvascular Surgery,
Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
Correspondence
Alexander Y. Shin, MD, Department of
Orthopaedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic,
200 1 St SW, Rochester, MN 55905.
Email: shin.alexander@mayo.edu
Funding information
American Foundation for Surgery of the Hand
Abstract
Purpose: Animal models can be helpful in evaluating new surgical strategies for
brachial plexus reconstruction. While several groups have already used the rabbit
brachial plexus to model injury, reports conflict in anatomic detail and do not identify
a nerve-muscle pair to measure motor function recovery after reconstruction. The
purpose of the current study is to describe the innervations of the biceps and triceps
muscles in rabbits, which are both amenable to study in brachial plexus injury models.
Materials and Methods: Thirteen rabbits weighing 2–2.5 kg were anesthetized. Six
rabbits were sacrificed and dissected using loupe and microscope magnification to
understand the overall morphology of the brachial plexus. Seven rabbits underwent
electrophysiologic investigation. A bipolar nerve stimulator was used to systemati-
cally stimulate the roots, trunks and divisions, and nerve branches of the rabbit bra-
chial plexus and compound muscle action potential was used to record muscle
response. Nerve length and width measurements were not recorded.
Results: Roots contributing to the brachial plexus were C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1. In
contrast to other anatomical studies, T2 did not contribute to the brachial plexus.
The triceps was innervated by the radial nerve, which received contributions from C6
(1.6 mA), C7 (1.9 mA), C8, and T1 (12.2 mA).The biceps had dual innervation (proxi-
mally and distally). The proximal branch received contributions from C6 (3.5 mA) and
C7 (5mA). The distal portion was innervated by a branch from the median nerve,
which received innervation from C6, C7, C8, and T1.
Conclusions: The overall structure of rabbit brachial plexus is described and innerva-
tion of the biceps and triceps is described in detail. This anatomic investigation will
form the basis of a future brachial plexus model of injury and repair.

1 | I N T RO D UC T I O N outcomes remain variable, and alternatives to nerve autograft and

Surgical treatment of brachial plexus injuries can offer functional
recovery, though the options are many and the optimal strategy
remains controversial. Complex injuries to the brachial plexus are
often reconstructed through a combination of nerve graft, nerve
transfer, free functioning muscle transfer, and tendon transfer. Clinical
transfer would address these clinical challenges.
Given the complexity of options available for reconstruction and
the variability seen in outcomes, there is a need for animal models of
brachial plexus injury to help develop and evaluate new surgical treat-
ments. Experimental models of brachial plexus injury have been
largely limited to the rat and mouse (Ibrahim, Raisman, & Li, 2009;

Microsurgery. 2019;1–6. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/micr © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1

2 KOLLITZ ET AL.
Kim, Galatz, Patel, Das, & Thomopoulos, 2009; Kostopoulos,
Konofaos, Frazer, & Terzis, 2010; Liu et al., 2015; Riva et al., 2012;
Wang, Spinner, & Windebank, 2009; Yang et al., 2015; Yang, Yang,
Yu, & Gu, 2014). The outcomes of reconstruction in rodents are uni-
versally good secondary to the exceptional regenerative capacity of
rodents, and relatively short gap that can be created (Wang et al.,
2009). The rabbit has also been proposed as an experimental model
for brachial plexus injury (Cao, Li, Cao, & Cai, 2003; Kawai et al.,
1989; Mohiuddin, Rahman, Alim, Kabir, & Kashem, 2011; Reichert
et al., 2014, 2015; Stamatoukou et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2006). Rab-
bits do not appear to have supranormal healing potential, and offer
cost advantage as compared to larger animals such as nonhuman pri-
mates, pigs, sheep, or dogs, for example. Existing studies of the rabbit
brachial plexus have described the structure of the brachial plexus
and nerve measurements and histomorphometry. For example,
Reichert et al. (2014) have previously reported the average diameter
of the nerve roots forming the brachial plexus as follows:
C5—0.6 mm; C6—0.8 mm, C7—1.1 mm, C8—1.0 mm, T1—0.6 mm. At
the trunk level, they reported the cranial truck as 1.2 mm, the medial
portion of the caudal trunk (or “middle trunk”) as 1.3 mm, and the lat-
eral portion of the caudal trunk (“lower trunk”) as 1.6 mm (Reichert
et al., 2014). They identified the brachial plexus as appropriate for
microsurgical intervention through this work. The next step in devel-
oping a rabbit model of motor functional recovery would be to iden-
tify a nerve-muscle pair which could be used in hypothesis-driven
research of brachial plexus reconstructive options. The specific course
of the terminal nerve branches for the biceps and triceps have not
previously been described. Similarly, electrophysiology has not previ-
ously been used to verify innervation patterns.
The goal of the current study is to build on previous work and
describe the anatomy and innervation of the rabbit biceps and triceps
using both anatomical observation and electrophysiology with the
goal of establishing a nerve-muscle pair in which to study motor
recovery in an intraplexal injury model.
2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
Thirteen rabbits were used in this nonsurvival experiment which was
approved by our Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
2.1 | Anatomic dissection
Six male Dutch Belted rabbits weighing 2–2.5 kg were sacrificed with
an overdose of phenobarbital (FatalPlus, Vortech Pharmaceuticals,
Dearborn, MI) and dissected using loupe and operating microscope
magnification to obtain an overall understanding of the structure of
the brachial plexus. Photographs were taken, and drawings were pro-
duced. Wires were inserted along the nerve root into the neural
foramina and radiographs were obtained to accurately identify the
nerve roots contributing to the rabbit brachial plexus.
2.2 | Electrophysiology
Seven rabbits underwent a nonsurvival surgical procedure to map out
electrophysiology of the biceps and triceps muscles. Anesthesia was
induced with an intramuscular injection of Ketamine 35 mg/kg,
Xylazine 5 mg/kg, and Buprenorphine 0.03/kg. The neck, chest, and
upper extremity were clipped of hair. Rabbits were intubated and
anesthesia was maintained with intravenous propofol. Lactated
Ringers solution was infused at 5 cc/hr to maintain hydration. Tem-
perature was checked by a rectal thermometer and maintained with a
heating pad. At the end of the procedure, animals were sacrificed with
an overdose of Phenobarbital IV while they were still anesthetized.
Rabbits were positioned supine. The right and left sides were
alternately used for the initial stimulation study. A 5 cm curvilinear
shaped incision was made from the neck passing lateral to the sterno-
clavicular joint, along the clavicle and to the deltopectoral interval.
Cranially, the sternocephalus and cleidocephalus muscles were
divided to expose the jugular vein, C5 and C6 nerve root. The clavicle
was divided at its ligamentous attachment from the sternum and the
pectoralis muscle was divided from its origin on the sternum; these
were retracted caudally to expose the C7 nerve root and lower trunk.
Using bipolar needle stimulation, the roots were systematically iden-
tified and stimulated with 0.7 mV for 0.02 ms where they exited the
neck musculature. C8/T1 united prior to exiting the neck musculature,
and were therefore tested as a group. The lowest voltage and shortest
stimulation time were used to minimize signal spread throughout the
plexus. Compound muscle action potentials (CMAP) were recorded in
the biceps and triceps muscles. Contributions to the innervation were
then severed and stimulation was again performed. The contralateral
side was then examined in the same way. After sacrifice, the plexus was
examined for similarity in structure to that of the Dutch Belted breed.
2.3 | Statistical analysis
CMAP averages for biceps and triceps along with 95% confidence
intervals were calculated.
3 | RESULTS
No significant anatomical differences between Dutch Belted and
New Zealand White rabbits were identified.
3.1 | Surgical landmarks
As a result of extensive dissection and observation, the following sur-
gical landmarks were used to identify nerve roots through a more min-
imal approach. The C6 nerve root was identified first during a
supraclavicular exposure, located just cranial to the clavicle. It was
easily recognized by its early branching contributions to C7. C7 was
reliably found just deep to the clavicle, cranial to the subclavian artery.
A vein was variably found draped over this nerve root, and was dis-
sected free and ligated when present. The lower trunk, consisting of
KOLLITZ ET AL.
the C8 and T1 nerve roots was identified between the subclavian vein
and artery, and was carefully dissected free from these vascular struc-
tures. C8 and T1 joined to form the lower trunk immediately after
exiting from the musculature of the neck, near the junction of the sub-
clavian vein, and the jugular vein. These landmarks are illustrated in
Figure 1.
Nerve roots contributing to the brachial plexus included C5, C6,
C7, C8, and T1 (Figure 2). The T2 nerve root was not observed to
F I G U R E 1 Photograph demonstrating surgical exposure of the
right side rabbit brachial plexus. Cranial is at the top of the
photograph and caudal is at the bottom. The clavicle has been divided
from its sternal attachment and reflected laterally and caudally. The
jugular vein (J) joins the subclavian vein (SV) near the origin of the
lower trunk (LT) formed by C8 and T1, obscuring their nerve roots.
The lower trunk lies between the subclavian vein and subclavian
artery (SA). C6 is usually encountered first during a supraclavicular
approach and is easily identified by its branches (**) contributing to
form the middle trunk with C7
F I G U R E 2 Photograph (A) and x-ray (B) of wires inserted from nerve root through the neural foramina to identify the nerve roots
contributing to the rabbit brachial plexus. C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1 were observed to contribute significantly to the rabbit brachial plexus
3
contribute to the brachial plexus in any animal. The rabbit brachial
plexus exhibited a common gross morphology (Figure 3). Visual
inspection revealed that C6 contributes to C7, which forms a robust
trunk with many branches (Figure 4).
In the rabbit brachial plexus, C5 contributed a branch to C6 but
otherwise did not contribute to any muscles in the upper extremity.
C6 continued on to form the upper trunk which innervated the mus-
cles of the rotator cuff. We observed C6 joining C7 which again
branched, giving off a nerve to biceps which entered the muscle proxi-
mally. The middle trunk also contributed to the median nerve. The
median nerve in turn gave off a branch to the biceps more distally
(Figure 5).
The lower trunk (C8, T1) joined with a branch from the middle
trunk (C6, C7) to form the radial nerve, which wrapped around the
humerus posteriorly to innervate the triceps muscle.
FIGURE 3 Artists' simplified drawing of the rabbit brachial plexus
4 KOLLITZ ET AL.
F I G U R E 4 Photograph of the rabbit brachial plexus demonstrating
the relationship between nerve roots C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1 and upper
trunk (UT), middle trunk (MT), and lower trunk (LT). Vasculature has
been removed in order to better show the nerve roots
F I G U R E 5 Photograph demonstrates the two nerves entering the
rabbit biceps muscle. The proximal tendon (A) has been released from
its intra-articular insertion. The proximal innervation (B) is derived
from the musculocutaneous nerve (C6, C7) and the distal innervation
(C) is a branch from the median nerve (C7, C8, and T1)
The rabbit biceps had only one origin, homologous to the human
long head. The rabbit biceps originated within the shoulder joint from
the glenoid as a long tendon, and inserted broadly on the radius.
Nerves were observed penetrating the muscle belly roughly 1 cm dis-
tal to the musculotendinous junction proximally and distally ~1 cm
from the insertion.
The rabbit triceps had three heads: long, lateral, and medial. The
medial head was short and located beneath the long and lateral heads
along the humerus. The long head originated from the scapula while
the lateral head originates from the humerus more proximally. All
three muscle bellies joined together to form a tendinous insertion
onto the olecranon.
In the electrophysiology portion of the study, four rabbits were
used to define the innervation of the triceps muscle, and three were
used to define biceps innervation.
The triceps received innervation exclusively from the radial nerve
(C6, C7, C8, and T1), which was formed primarily by the lower trunk
(C8 and T1, 12.2 mA 95% CI 81–16.3 mA) and C7 (1.9 mA, 95% CI
0.7–3.2 mA), with smaller contribution from C6 (1.6 mA 95% CI
0.4–2.8 mA) (Table 1). When connections between C7 and the lower
trunk (C8 and T1) to the triceps were severed, stimulation of C6 and
C7 no longer elicited any triceps response. When C7 was left intact
and the lower trunk was severed just distal to the union of C8 and T1,
C7 still elicited a response from the triceps muscle.
The biceps was innervated proximally by a branch from C7, a
musculocutaneous nerve homolog, and distally by a branch from the
median nerve, thus every root contributed to biceps (C5–T1). Biceps
innervation was dominated by C6 (3.5 mA, 95% CI 0–7 mA) and C7
(5.0 mA, 95% CI 2.2–7.7 mA), with smaller contributions from the
lower trunk (C8 and T1, 0.9 mA, 95% CI 0.1–1.7 mA) and C5 (0.4 mA,
95%CI 0–1.1) (Table 1). The musculocutaneous homolog was primarily
derived from C6 and C7, while the branch from the median nerve
received innervation from C7 and the lower trunk via the median
nerve. When the nerve to biceps was severed, stimulation of the small
branch from the median nerve still produced a CMAP signal in the
biceps muscle. When the median nerve branch was severed, stimula-
tion of the nerve to biceps produced CMAP signal, providing electro-
physiologic evidence of a dual innervation, dominated by the
musculocutaneous homolog.
4 | DISCUSSION
The rabbit brachial plexus has a different structure as compared to the
human brachial plexus. Most investigators have used visual observational
data to identify the muscles innervated by the brachial plexus (Kawai
et al., 1989; Mohiuddin et al., 2011; Reichert et al., 2014, 2015). Reichert
et al. (2014, 2015) have previously described the gross morphology of
the brachial plexus as well as nerve diameters and histomorphometry.
Our study has built on this knowledge by identifying the biceps and tri-
ceps muscle as amenable to motor functional outcomes measurements
and testing with isometric tetanic force, and further described the surgi-
cal approach and verified dominant innervation patterns through electro-
physiologic testing, further laying the groundwork for a surgical model of
brachial plexus nerve injury and repair.
We found that the biceps receives innervation primarily from C7,
with lesser contributions from C6. We also identified two sites of
innervation of the biceps, one proximal from C6 and C7, and one dis-
tal from a branch off the median nerve (C6, C7, and C8). The triceps
KOLLITZ ET AL. 5

TABLE 1 Electrophysiologic data

Average biceps 95% confidence Average triceps

Nerve root CMAP response (mA) interval (mA) CMAP response (mA) 95% confidence interval
C5 0.4 0–1.1 0 0
C6 3.5 0–7.0 1.6 0.4–2.8
C7 5.0 2.2–7.7 1.9 0.7–3.2
Lower trunk 0.9 0.1–1.7 12.2 8.1–16.3

Abbreviation: CMAP, compound muscle action potential.

TABLE 2 Rabbit brachial plexus and description of the biceps or triceps innervation

Publication Type of study Biceps innervation Triceps innervation

Mohiuddin et al. (2011)
Reichert et al. (2014)
Kawai et al. (1989)
Stamatoukou et al. (2006)
Cao et al. (2003)
Kollitz, Giusti, Friedrich,
Bishop, and Shin (2018)
Mencalha, Sousa, and
Abidu-Figueiredo (2016)
Anatomic observation
Anatomic observation
Experimental—Root avulsion model
Experimental—C6 nerve root avulsion
Experimental—C5 and C6 root avulsion
Experimental—Isometric tetanic
force of biceps
Anatomic observation
Musculocutaneous nerve via Radial nerve via caudal
caudal trunk (C7,C8, T1, and T2) trunk (C7, C8, T1, and T2)
Musculocutaneous nerve (C6, C7) Radial nerve (C7, C8, and T1)
Musculocutaneous nerve, as a branch Radial nerve, via middle
from median nerve formed by middle and lower portion of
and lower part of the plexus the brachial plexus
Musculocutaneous nerve (C6) n/a
C5 and C6 n/a
C6 and C7 to middle trunk n/a
to musculocutaneous
C7 and C8 to musculocutaneous, C8 and T1 to radial
which gives a branch to median

received innervation from C7, C8, and T1. Previous studies have
divided the rabbit brachial plexus into a cranial trunk consisting of C5
and C6 nerve roots, and the caudal trunk consisting of C7, C8, and T1
nerve roots (Mohiuddin et al., 2011; Reichert et al., 2014). Visual
inspection revealed that C6 contributes to C7, which forms a robust
trunk with many branches. We therefore suggest an alternative termi-
nology be considered as follows: upper trunk consisting of C5 and C6,
electrophysiological description of contributing nerve roots and
description of surgical landmarks will allow others to more easily repli-
cate and build upon data gathered using this model.
The strengths of the current investigation are therefore twofold.
First, we aim to describe anatomic landmarks and surgical anatomy in
enough detail so as to enable other investigators to design and con-
duct experiments with motor function as an outcome. Drawings were

the middle trunk consisting of contributions from C6 and C7, and the produced in addition to dissection photographs. The surgical approach

lower trunk consisting of C8 and T1 (Figure 4).
Some studies confirm the observations made in this study, while
others conflict in the innervations and anatomy reported, and still
others do not describe the anatomy in detail. Table 2 outlines several
studies involving the rabbit brachial plexus and description of the
biceps or triceps innervation. While Cao et al. attribute biceps root
level innervation to C5 and C6, Mencalha and Mohiuddin do not
report involvement of C5 or C6 nerve roots. Mencalha attributes
biceps innervation to C7 and C8, while Mohiuddin attributes C7, C8,
T1, and T2 (Mencalha et al., 2016; Mohiuddin et al., 2011). Reichert
is described in detail. Second, we use electrophysiology to verify
visual observational data. Many investigators will use electrophysiol-
ogy in addition to observational data, and its inclusion in this study is
useful for experimental design using motor function as a primary out-
come. Isometric tetanic force measurements have been described for
the rabbit biceps muscle (Kollitz et al., 2018).
We acknowledge several limitations in this study. First, we have
narrowly focused on the innervation of the biceps and triceps and did
not explore the rest of the brachial plexus. We also did not take mea-
surements of length or diameter of nerves, or perform his-

et al and Kollitz et al attribute biceps innervation to C6 and C7 while tomorphometry, as Reichert et al. performed these measurements
previously (Reichert et al., 2014). Second, each of the methods used to
Stamatoukou et al. report only C6 (Kollitz et al., 2018; Stamatoukou
et al., 2006). There appears to be more agreement that C8 and T1 are describe the plexus has some drawbacks.

responsible for triceps innervation. Mohiuddin and Reichert both
report C7 involvement, while Mencalha did not. The triceps was not
found as an experimental model in our literature search.
The existing literature lacks anatomic detail needed for surgical
planning of experiments. Studies can be difficult to interpret given the
differing or vague anatomical structures described. Our hope is that a
clear description of the biceps and triceps innervation along with
Observation cannot distinguish between sensory and motor nerves,
and similarly cannot trace nerves back to their roots. Observation alone,
therefore, cannot determine with precision the innervation of a muscle
and the route those nerves travel through the plexus to arrive at the mus-
cle. Electrical stimulation is better suited to identifying the path from root
to terminal branch that a nerve travels. Each stimulation will cause action
potentials to travel both antegrade and retrograde along the axons
6 KOLLITZ ET AL.
stimulated, however. In the brachial plexus, some confusion may be cre-
ated through either retrograde transmission of signal or signal jump to
neighboring axons. While electrophysiology provides good evidence to
determine the “wiring” of a nerve, some signal spread may occur.
Despite these limitations, we believe that by combining methods for
describing the innervation of the biceps and triceps, we mitigate the risk
of errors introduced by each technique. The complex branching and
crossing innervations in the rabbit brachial plexus adequately recapitulate
the complex structure of the brachial plexus. The basic structure can be
thought of as roots which form three trunks that give off terminal bra-
nches. A very small branch of C5 joins with C6 to form the upper trunk.
C6 contributes a branch to C7 which can be thought of as the middle
trunk, and C8 and T1 unite to form the lower trunk. In Part 2 of this
investigation, we will apply the current description of the brachial plexus
experimentally. We will induce a nerve injury at the middle trunk (C6,
C7) level and study its effects on the rabbit biceps muscle, using CMAP,
isometric tetanic force, and muscle weight as primary outcomes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported in part by a grant from the American Foun-
dation for Surgery of the Hand and by internal funding from the
authors' institution. The authors have no affiliations or conflicts
related to the work presented in this research.
CONF LICT OF IN TE RE ST
No author has a conflict of interest regarding this paper.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
K.M.K., G.G., P.F.F., A.T.B., and A.Y.S. contributed to the research
design and or acquisition of data. K.M.K., G.G., P.F.F., A.T.B.,
A.Y.S. contributed in drafting and critical revision of manuscript.
K.M.K., G.G., P.F.F., A.T.B., A.Y.S. contributed in approval of the final
submitted version.
ORCID
Patricia F. Friedrich https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6143-9784
Alexander Y. Shin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9658-8192
RE FE R ENC E S
Cao, X., Li, J., Cao, Y., & Cai, J. (2003). C3,4 transfer for neurotization of
C5,6 nerve roots in brachial plexus injury in a rabbit model. Journal of
Reconstructive Microsurgery, 19, 265–270.
Ibrahim, A. G., Raisman, G., & Li, Y. (2009). Permanent loss of fore-paw
grasping requires complete deprivation of afferent input from a mini-
mum of four dorsal roots of the rat brachial plexus. Experimental Neu-
rology, 215, 142–145.
Kawai, H., Ohta, I., Masatomi, T., Kawabata, H., Masada, K., & Ono, K.
(1989). Stretching of the brachial plexus in rabbits. Acta Orthopaedica
Scandinavica, 60, 635–638.
Kim, H. M., Galatz, L. M., Patel, N., Das, R., & Thomopoulos, S. (2009).
Recovery potential after postnatal shoulder paralysis. An animal model
of neonatal brachial plexus palsy. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery.
American Volume, 91, 879–891.
Kollitz, K. M., Giusti, G., Friedrich, P. F., Bishop, A. T., & Shin, A. Y. (2018).
Validation of isometric tetanic force as a measure of muscle recovery
after nerve injury in the rabbit biceps. Journal of Hand Surgery, 43,
488.31–488.e8.
Kostopoulos, E., Konofaos, P., Frazer, M., & Terzis, J. K. (2010).
Tubulization techniques in brachial plexus surgery in an animal model
for long-nerve defects (40 mm). Annals of Plastic Surgery, 64, 1.
Liu, C., Qian, X., JianXiong, A., Wang, Y., Fang, Q., Jiang, Y., …
Williams, J. P. (2015). A new animal model of brachial plexus neuralgia
produced by injection of cobra venom into the lower trunk in the rat.
Pain Medicine, 16, 1680–1689.
Mencalha, R., Sousa, C. A. S., II, & Abidu-Figueiredo, M., IV. (2016). Ultra-
sound and gross anatomy of the brachial plexus and major nerves of
the forelimb. An anesthetic approach using the domestic rabbit
(Oyctolagus cuniculus) as an experimental model 1. Acta Cirúrgica
Brasileira, 31, 227–234.
Mohiuddin, M., Rahman, M., Alim, M., Kabir, M., & Kashem, M. A. (2011).
Macro anatomical investigation of brachial plexus of the White
New Zealand rabbit (Orycotolagus cuniculus). International Journal of
Natural Sciences, 1(3), 74–76.
Reichert, P., Kiełbowicz, Z., DziĘgiel, P., Puła, B., Kuryszko, J., Gosk, J., &
Bochen ska, A. (2015). The rabbit brachial plexus as a model for nerve
repair surgery-Histomorphometric analysis. The Anatomical Record, 298,
444–454.
Reichert, P., Rutowski, R., Kiełbowicz, Z., Kuryszko, J., Kiełbowicz, M.,
Michalak, Ł., & Bochen ska, A. (2014). The rabbit brachial plexus as an
experimental model – Anatomy and surgical approach. Polish Journal of
Veterinary Sciences, 17, 339–345.
Riva, N., Domi, T., Lopez, I. D., Triolo, D., Fossaghi, A., Dina, G., …
Quattrini, A. (2012). The brachial plexus branches to the pectoral mus-
cles in adult rats: Morphological aspects and morphometric normative
data. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 6, 41.
Stamatoukou, A., Papadogeorgou, E., Zhang, Z., Pavlakis, K.,
Zoubos, A. B., & Soucacos, P. N. (2006). Phrenic nerve neurotization of
the musculocutaneous nerve with end-to-side neurorrhaphy: A short
report in a rabbit model. Microsurgery, 26, 268–272.
Wang, H., Spinner, R. J., & Windebank, A. J. (2009). Quantitative evalua-
tion of movement and strength of the upper limb after transection of
the C-7 nerve: Is it possible in an animal model? Journal of Neurosur-
gery. Spine, 10, 102–110.
Yang, J., Li, X., Hou, Y., Yang, Y., Qin, B., Fu, G., … Gu, L. (2015). Develop-
ment of a novel experimental rat model for brachial plexus avulsion
injury. Neuroreport, 26, 501–509.
Yang, W., Yang, J., Yu, C., & Gu, Y. (2014). End-to-side neurotization with
different donor nerves for treating brachial plexus injury: An experi-
mental study in a rat model. Muscle & Nerve, 50, 67–72.
Zhang, Z., Johnson, E. O., Vekris, M. D., Zoubos, A. B., Bo, J., Beris, A. E., &
Soucacos, P. N. (2006). Repair of the main nerve trunk of the upper
limb with end-to-side neurorrhaphy: An experimental study in rabbits.
Microsurgery, 26, 245–252.
How to cite this article: Kollitz KM, Giusti G, Friedrich PF,
Bishop AT, Shin AY. The rabbit brachial plexus as a model for
nerve injury and repair Part 1: Anatomic study of the biceps
and triceps innervation. Microsurgery. 2019;1–6. https://doi.
org/10.1002/micr.30482