Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning, analysis, 

design,
deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will primarily focus on − 

∙ Systems analysis 

∙ Systems design 

Systems Analysis 

It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition of  a
system into its components. 

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to identify  its
objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the 
components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose. 

Analysis specifies what the system should do. 

Systems Design 

It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining its 
components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need to  understand
the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in order to  operate
efficiently. 

System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system. System Analysis and Design
(SAD) mainly focuses on − 

∙ Systems 

∙ Processes 

∙ Technology 

What is a System? 

The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized relationship  between
any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective. 

A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a  plan to
achieve a specific goal.” 

Constraints of a System 

A system must have three basic constraints − 

∙ A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a  predefined
objective. 
∙ Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components. ∙ The objectives of
the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its  subsystems. 

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human  resources
information system. 

Properties of a System

A system has the following properties − 

Organization 

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to  achieve
predetermined objectives. 

Interaction 

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other. 

For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production  department and
payroll with personnel department. 

Interdependence 

Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another. For proper 
functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan.  The
output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input. 

Integration 

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It means that the 
parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a unique function. 

Central Objective 

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not uncommon for an 
organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another. 

The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a  successful
design and conversion. 

Elements of a System 

The following diagram shows the elements of a system − 

 Out
puts and Inputs

∙ The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user. ∙ Inputs are the
information that enters into the system for processing. 

∙ Output is the outcome of processing. 

Processor(s) 

∙ The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input  into output. 

∙ It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input either  totally or
partially, depending on the output specification. 

∙ As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases, input is also  modified to
enable the processor for handling the transformation. 

Control 

∙ The control element guides the system. 

∙ It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing  input, processing,
and output. 

∙ The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and software.  In order to
keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is determined by  Output Specifications. 

Feedback 

∙ Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system. 

∙ Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system. ∙ Negative
feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with information  for action. 

Environment 

∙ The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates. ∙ It is the source of
external elements that strike on the system. 

∙ It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of  organization’s
environment, may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of  the business. 

Boundaries and Interface 

∙ A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that identify its  components,
processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces with another system. ∙ Each system has boundaries
that determine its sphere of influence and control. ∙ The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system
is crucial in determining the nature of  its interface with other systems for successful design. 

Types of Systems 

The systems can be divided into the following types − 

Physical or Abstract Systems 

∙ Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them. 

∙ Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are  the physical
parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is a  dynamic system in which
programs, data, and applications can change according to the  user's needs.

∙ Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas,  representation or
model of a real system. 

Open or Closed Systems 

∙ An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and delivers  outputs to the
outside of the system. For example, an information system which must  adapt to the changing
environmental conditions. 

∙ A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from environmental  influences. A
completely closed system is rare in reality. 

Adaptive and Non Adaptive System 

∙ Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their  performance
and to survive. For example, human beings, animals. 

∙ Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For  example,
machines. 

Permanent or Temporary System 

∙ Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies. ∙ Temporary System is made
for specified time and after that they are demolished. For  example, A DJ system is set up for a program
and it is dissembled after the program. 

Natural and Manufactured System 

∙ Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal system. ∙
Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains. 

Deterministic or Probabilistic System 

∙ Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between  system
components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of hydrogen  and one molecule of
oxygen makes water. 

∙ Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For  example, Weather
forecasting, mail delivery. 

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System 

∙ Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies. ∙ In Human-Machine System,
both human and machines are involved to perform a  particular task. For example, Computer
programming. 

∙ Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by  the
machine. For example, an autonomous robot. 

Man–Made Information Systems 

∙ It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular  organization, under
Direct Management Control (DMC). 

∙ This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for  producing
information according to the need of an organization. 

Man-made information systems are divided into three types − 

∙ Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of  memos,
instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.

∙ Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the day to  day work
related problems. 

∙ Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for  managing business
applications. For example, automatic library system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc. 
Systems Models 

Schematic Models 

∙ A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages. ∙ Different arrows are
used to show information flow, material flow, and information  feedback. 

Flow System Models 

∙ A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and informa tion that  hold the
system together. 

∙ Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract a  real world system
in model form. 

Static System Models 

∙ They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity. ∙ The Gantt chart, for
example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship. 

Dynamic System Models 

∙ Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the type of  organization
or application that analysts deal with. 

∙ It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of − o Inputs that enter the
system 

o The processor through which transformation takes place 

o The program(s) required for processing 

o The output(s) that result from processing. 

Categories of Information 

There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the decision managers  make.

Strategic Information 

∙ This information is required by topmost management for long range planning policies for  next few
years. For example, trends in revenues, financial investment, and human  resources, and population
growth. 

∙ This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System (DSS).

Managerial Information 

∙ This type of Information is required by middle management for short and intermediate  range planning
which is in terms of months. For example, sales analysis, cash flow  projection, and annual financial
statements. 

∙ It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).

Operational information 

∙ This type of information is required by low management for daily and short term  planning to enforce
day-to-day operational activities. For example, keeping employee  attendance records, overdue
purchase orders, and current stocks available. ∙ It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems
(DPS).

The System Analyst and Information Systems Development 

Objectives 

1. Explain the role played in information systems development by the systems analyst. 2. Describe the
fundamental systems development life cycle and its four phases. 

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) 

The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is the process of determining how an  information system (IS)
can support business needs, designing the system, building it, and  delivering it to users. 

Building an information system using the SDLC follows a similar set of four fundamental  phases:
planning, analysis, design, and implementation. Each phase is itself composed of a series  of steps, which
rely on techniques that produce deliverables (specific documents and files that  explain various elements
of the system). 

The System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) 

PLANNING  

The planning phase is the fundamental process of understanding why an information system should be
built and determining how the project team will go about building it.  

It has two steps:  

1. During project initiation, the system’s business value to the organization is identified how  will it
contribute to the organization’s future success? Most ideas for new systems come  from outside the IS
area and are recorded on a system request. A system request presents  a brief summary of a business
need and explains how a system that addresses the need  will create business value. The IS department
works together with the person or  department generating the request (called the project sponsor) to
conduct a feasibility analysis.  

The feasibility analysis examines key aspects of the proposed project:  

∙ The technical feasibility (Can we build it?)  

∙ The economic feasibility (Will it provide business value?)  

∙ The organizational feasibility (If we build it, will it be used?)  

The system request and feasibility analysis are presented to an information systems approval committee
(sometimes called a steering committee), which decides whether the project  should be undertaken. 

2. Once the project is approved, it enters project management. During project management, the project
manager creates a work plan, staffs the project, and puts techniques in place to help control and direct
the project through the entire SDLC. The deliverable for project management is a project plan that
describes how the project team will go about  developing the system.  

ANALYSIS  

The analysis phase answers the questions of who will use the system, what the system  will do, and
where and when it will be used. During this phase, the project team investigates any  current system(s),
identifies improvement opportunities, and develops a concept for the new  system.  

This phase has three steps:  

An analysis strategy is developed to guide the project team’s efforts. Such a strategy  usually includes
studying the current system (called the as-is system) and its problems, and  envisioning ways to design a
new system (called the to-be system).  

1. The next step is requirements gathering (e.g., through techniques such as interviews,  group
workshops, or questionnaires). The analysis of this information—in conjunction  with input from the
project sponsor and many other people—leads to the development of  a concept for a new system. The
system concept is explained through a set of requirement  statements and a set of business analysis
models that describe how the business will  operate if the new system is developed. The analysis models
represent user/system  interactions and the data and processes needed to support the underlying
business  process. 

2. The analyses, system concept, requirements, and models are combined into a document  called the
system proposal, which is presented to the project sponsor and other key  decision makers (e.g.,
members of the approval committee) who will decide whether the  project should continue to move
forward. The system proposal is the initial deliverable  describing the requirements the new system
should satisfy. Some experts suggest this  phase would be better named analysis and initial design,
rather than analysis, since it  really provides the first step in the new system design. Since most
organizations continue  to use the name analysis for this phase, we will use it in this book as well. It is
important  to remember, however, that the deliverable from the analysis phase is both an analysis  and
a high-level initial design for the new system.

DESIGN
The design phase decides how the system will operate in terms of the hardware, software,  and network
infrastructure that will be in place; the user interface, forms, and reports that will be  used; and the
specific programs, databases, and fi les that will be needed. Although most of the  strategic decisions
about the system are made in the development of the system concept during  the analysis phase, the
steps in the design phase determine exactly how the system will operate.  

The design phase has four steps:  

1. The design strategy must be determined. This clarifies whether the system will be developed by the
company’s own programmers, whether its development will be  outsourced to another firm (usually a
consulting firm), or whether the company will buy  and install a prewritten software package.  

2. This leads to the development of the basic architecture design for the system that describes the
hardware, software, and network infrastructure that will be used. In most cases, the system will add to
or change the infrastructure that already exists in the  organization. The interface design specifies how
the users will move through the system (e.g., by navigation methods such as menus and on-screen
buttons) and the forms and  reports that the system will use.  

3. The database and file specifications are developed. These define exactly what data will be  stored and
where they will be stored.  

4. The analyst team develops the program design, which defines the programs that need to  be written
and exactly what each program will do. This collection of deliverables  (architecture design, interface
design, database and file specifications, and program  design) is the system specification that is used by
the programming team for  implementation. At the end of the design phase, the feasibility analysis and
project plan  are reexamined and revised, and another decision is made by the project sponsor and 
approval committee about whether to terminate the project or continue  

IMPLEMENTATION 

During which the system is actually built (or purchased and installed if the design calls  for a prewritten
software package). This is the phase that usually gets the most attention, because  for most systems it is
the longest and most expensive single part of the development process.  

This phase has three steps:  

1. System construction is the first step. The system is built and tested to ensure that it  performs as
designed. Since the cost of fixing bugs can be immense, testing is one of the  most critical steps in
implementation. Most organizations should spend more time and  attention on testing than on writing
the programs in the first place. 

2. The system is installed. Installation is the process by which the old system is turned off and the new
one is turned on. There are several approaches that may be used to convert  from the old to the new
system. One of the most important aspects of conversion is  training, during which users are taught to
use the new system and help manage the  resulting organizational changes. 

3. The analyst team establishes a support plan for the system. This plan usually includes a  formal or
informal post-implementation review, as well as a systematic way for  identifying major and minor
changes needed for the system. 
MAINTENANCE 

The fifth and final phase in the SDLC is maintenance. When a system (including its  training,
documentation, and support) is operating in an organization, users sometimes find  problems with how
it works and often think of better ways to perform its functions. Also, the  organization’s needs with
respect to the system change over time.  

In maintenance, programmers make the changes that users ask for and modify the system  to reflect
evolving business conditions. These changes are necessary to keep the system running  and useful. In a
sense, maintenance is not a separate phase but a repetition of the other life-cycle  phases required to
study and implement the needed changes. One might think of maintenance as  an overlay on the life
cycle rather than as a separate phase. The amount of time and effort  devoted to maintenance depends
a great deal on the performance of the previous phases of the  life cycle.  

There inevitably comes a time, however, when an information system is no longer  performing as
desired, when maintenance costs become prohibitive, or when an organization’s  needs have changed
substantially. Such problems indicate that it is time to begin designing the  system’s replacement,
thereby completing the loop and starting the life cycle over again. Often  the distinction between major
maintenance and new development is not clear, which is reason maintenance often resembles the life
cycle itself.

The System Development Life Cycle Phases 

THE SYSTEM ANALYST 

The systems analyst plays a key role in information systems development projects. The  systems analyst
works closely with all project team members so that the team develops the right  system in an effective
way. Systems analysts must understand how to apply technology to solve  business problems. In
addition, systems analysts may serve as change agents who identify the  organizational improvements
needed, design systems to implement those changes, and train and  motivate others to use the
systems. 

System Analyst Skills 

These skills can be broken down into 6 major categories:

1. Technical  Technical skills to understand the organizations existing technical environment,  the
new systems technology foundation, and the way in which both can be fit  into an
integrated technical solution.

2. Business  Business skills are required to understand how IT can be applied to business 
situations and to ensure that IT delivers real business value.
3. Analytical  Analysts are continuous problem solvers at both the project and the  organizational
level, and they put their analytical skills to the test regularly.

4. Analysts need to communicate effectively, one-on-one with users and business 

Interpersonal  managers (who often have little experience with technology) and with  programmers
(who often have more technical expertise than the analyst does).

5. Analysts need to manage people with whom they work, and they must manage  the
Management  pressure and risks associated with unclear situations.

6. Ethical  Analysts must deal fairly, honestly, and ethically with other project team  members,
managers, and system users. Analysts often deal with confidential  information or
information that if shared with others, could cause harm; it is  important for analyst
to maintain confidence and trust with all people.