SAE &

TECH BRIEFS
EBOOK

Guide
Materials
to Battery,
Electrification,
Innovations Guideand
Mobility
for Medical
Advances
Components and
Equipment
BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES

Contents 4
TECH BRIEFS

3 Battery Improvement Enhances Electric Flight and

Long-Range Electric Cars

4 Modeling & Simulation for Battery Development

8 Venting for EV Battery Packs

12
SAE NEWS & FEATURES

12 How EVs and Their Electronics Stick Together

16 Aluminum Dominates for EV Battery Enclosures – For

Now

18 SAE J3178 Information Report for Battery Adhesives,

Sealants Available

19 A New Nano-based Carbon Electrode is Key to

Reducing Electric-Vehicle Charging Time
19
21 Electrification and the Two-Cycle Imperative

22 Q&A: Racing to Keep Pace with EV Battery

Development

ABOUT ON THE COVER
The Guide to Battery, Electrification, Cell chemistries, thermal dynamics,
and Mobility Advances covers evolving vehicle packaging, and even
battery advancements across the
weather present challenges for
automotive, commercial vehicle, and
optimizing electric vehicle battery
aerospace sectors and offers expert
functional safety. Learn more in
insight, innovation, and emerging
this feature article, “Venting for EV
applications for design engineers and
managers. This Ebook compiles top Battery Packs,” on page 8.
content from the editors of SAE Media
Group and will help you successfully
navigate the rapidly evolving global
electric mobility market.

2 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK

 TECH BRIEFS

Battery Improvement Enhances Electric Flight and Long-Range Electric Cars

The new battery technology could improve electric vertical takeoff and landing aircraft and supercharge
safe, long-range electric cars.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California and Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania

I n the pursuit of a rechargeable bat-

tery that can power electric vehicles
(EVs) for hundreds of miles on a sin-
gle charge, scientists have endeav-
ored to replace the graphite anodes
currently used in EV batteries with
lithium metal anodes. But while lith-
ium metal extends an EV’s driving
range by 30 to 50%, it also shortens
the battery’s useful life due to lithium
dendrites — tiny, treelike defects that
form on the lithium anode over the
course of many charge and discharge
cycles. Dendrites also short-circuit
the cells in the battery if they make
contact with the cathode.
For decades, researchers assumed
that hard, solid electrolytes, such as
those made from ceramics, would
work best to prevent dendrites from
working their way through the cell.
But the problem with that approach
is that it didn’t stop dendrites from
forming or nucleating in the first
place, like tiny cracks in a car wind-
shield that eventually spread.
Researchers have developed a new
class of soft, solid electrolytes — made
from both polymers and ceramics —
that suppress dendrites in that early
nucleation stage, before they can prop-
agate and cause the battery to fail. Researchers designed new solid electrolytes that light the path to wider electrification of transportation. (Image courtesy of Jinsoo Kim)
Solid-state energy storage tech-
nologies such as solid-state lithium metal batteries that use a solid sub-assemblies (LESAs) are at­tractive drop-in replacements for the
electrode and a solid electrolyte can provide high energy density conventional graphite anode, allowing battery manufacturers to use
combined with excellent safety but the technology must overcome their existing assembly lines.
di­verse materials and processing challenges. The new dendrite-sup- To demonstrate the dendrite-suppressing features of the new
pressing technology could enable battery manufacturers to produce PIM composite electrolyte, the researchers created 3D images of
safer lithium metal batteries with both high energy density and a the interface between lithium metal and the electrolyte to visualize
long cycle life. Lithium metal batteries manufactured with the new lithium plating and stripping for up to 16 hours at high current. Con­
electrolyte could also be used to power electric aircraft. tinuously smooth growth of lithium was observed when the new PIM
Key to the design of the soft, solid electrolytes was the use of soft composite electrolyte was present, while in its absence, the interface
polymers of intrinsic microporosity (PIMs) whose pores were filled showed telltale signs of the early stages of dendritic growth. These
with nanosized ceramic particles. Because the electrolyte re­mains and other data confirmed predictions from a new physical model for
a flexible, soft, solid material, battery manufacturers will be able to electrodeposition of lithium metal.
manufacture rolls of lithium foils with the electrolyte as a laminate For more information, contact Theresa Duque at tnduque@lbl.
between the anode and the battery separator. The lithium-electrode gov; 510-424-2866.

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 3

Modeling
& Simulation
for Battery Development
When it comes to the research and development of batteries, modeling and
simulation (M&S) provide an efficient and low-cost approach.

T
he use of M&S is always
combined with experimental
investigations where the first step is
to develop and validate the models. Validat-
ed physics-based models can be used to make predictions
within the range of the theory, which is usually beyond the range
used for validation of an individual model.
Throughout the R&D process, researchers and engineers can use
models to run thought experiments and virtual ex­periments. These
“what if” studies lead to a deeper understanding of the battery sys-
tem under investigation — and can even help foster new ideas. The
models can be used for predictions, design, optimization, and control
of the battery system.
Battery systems are investigated by a variety of stakeholders
with different goals and purposes. For example, in an electric vehi-
cle, aspects of the battery system — such as energy density, power
density, life, cost, and sustainability — may determine the technical
bounds and the goals for all stakeholders.
Universities, research institutes, and national labs often have research
programs that aim to fundamentally understand all aspects of battery
usage. Research topics can in­clude materials research on new battery
chemistries, design of battery cells and battery systems, and life cycle
assessment (LCA) including the process of raw material extraction, dis-
posal, and recycling of battery systems. Battery manufacturers have to
investi-
gate similar
aspects but with a
larger focus on manufactur-
ability, implementation, and use.
Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are usually involved in the
aspects that relate to battery cell and battery system design, with a
stronger focus on use but also on aspects of LCA.
Modeling Scopes
Depending on the stakeholder and the purpose, M&S projects can
be carried out with different scopes. This may involve modeling pro-
cesses at the molecular, microscopic, battery module, and battery
stack scales. Aspects of material extraction, disposal, and recycling
also have an impact on the modeling projects. These aspects indi-
rectly de­termine the range of properties of battery cells, modules,
and packs.

4 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK

 Material scientists, electrochemists, and
physicists researching new battery chemistries
0.5 Å 5 μm
may use molecular dynamics models to simu-
late and predict the behavior of possible new
materials and chemistries for batteries. This
type of research is usually done at universities,
research institutes, national labs, and at battery
manufacturer’s R&D labs. (We will not discuss
molecular modeling to any deeper extent in
this article.)
The microscopic structure and the phys- Molecular scale Microscopic scale
ical properties for a battery material are
interesting for all stakeholders including 2 cm
the OEMs. The design of the electrodes, the
electrolyte, separator, and current collectors
in a battery cell are also interesting for all
stakeholders. M&S in these projects is cru-
cial for the understanding of the factors that
determine a good battery cell design for a
specific application.
Battery systems for electric vehicles con- Battery Battery pack
sist of battery packs and battery modules. 2 mm cell scale and module scale
The design of the modules and packs is of
great interest for both battery manufacturers
and OEMs. National labs and research insti- Figure 1. The modeling scales span from Ångström (1·10-10 m) up to the module scale (1 m). Here, the scales are exemplified
tutes are often in­volved in these types of with a cylindrical Li-ion cell and a battery pack of cylindrical cells.
research, usually for aerospace and defense
applications. Modeling is then focused on the understanding and harmful byproducts, risks for fatigue and failure, and other quanti-
design of system perfor­mance (energy density and power density), tative estimates that may determine the perfor­mance and life of a
thermal management, safety, and battery life. battery. In addition, the models make it possible to develop methods
for detecting and evaluating the state of health of a battery. Perfor-
Multiphysics Modeling mance decay and failure is almost always manifested on phenomena
Microscale — Modeling a battery at the microscopic scale involves at the microscopic scale first — long before health becomes obvious
the chemistry, physical properties, and detailed geometry of the in the overall performance of a cell.
porous structure and the pore electrolyte. Molecular modeling may Battery Cell Scale with Porous Electrode Theory — The next scale
generate the input data to the microscopic models. Examples of such from the microscopic scale is to look at the battery cell scale. The
inputs include rate constants, electrode potentials, transport proper- porous electrodes are then described as homogenized slabs, where
ties, and other chemical and physical properties of the materials in the pore electrolyte and the electrode materials are defined in the
a battery. same point in space in the model [Figure 2 (left)]. This means that
Models at the microscale have to account for the electric potential the structure of the electrode is described using effective parameters
of the electronic conductor (the electrode), the ionic potential of the such as volume fraction of pore electrolyte, volume fraction of elec-
pore electrolyte as well as the free electrolyte, the concentration of trode, and tortuosity. These models make use of the so-called porous
ionic species and neutral species, the electrochemical and chemical electrode theory as devised by Newman et.al., which forms the basis
reactions, the temperature distribution, and the mechanical displace- of battery modeling at a scale just above the microscale.
ments due to thermal expansion or expansion caused by the trans- The investigations at this scale involve similar aspects as the
port of chemical species. In other words, several physics phenomena microscale,but for one or maybe several battery cells. Typ­ical studies
are involved in an accurate description of a battery material. would involve the impact on the performance and life of different
A very important aspect of the output of such modeling projects is materials and chemistry; porosity of the electrodes; specific surface
the deep understanding of the basic mechanisms that determine bat- area of the electrodes and the different electrode materials (if there
tery performance and life. The models also allow us to make accurate are several in the same electrode); thickness, length, and width of
quantitative estimates about absolute limits for performance (energy the current collectors, electrodes, and separator; mechanical loads
density and power density), impact of material and design parame- on the battery cell imposed by the geometry and expansion during
ters, distribution of the electrochemical reactions, temperature dis- discharge and re­charge; impact of the thermal management system;
tribution, risks for short circuits and premature failure, formation of and other parameters that may affect the battery cell.

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 5

 MODELING & SIMULATION

Nyquist: Impedance with Respect to Ground (Ω*m2)

×10-5
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
3D model 50
Heterogeneous

45

40

35
9

10 30

-Imag(Z)
8
25

x10 -5 m
5
20

X
15

Separator Porous electrode 1.2

1.1

1.3
x10-4 m
10
0

X
-5

Homogeneous 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ×10-4
1D model
Real(Z)

Figure 2. (left) The heterogeneous electrode model contains a 3D description based on spherical particles obtained from treatment of micrographs in a lithium-ion battery electrode. The
heterogeneous model can then be used to compute porosity, specific surface area, and other effective properties. These properties can be used in a homogenized 1D Newman model
where the electrode is described as a homogeneous slab. (right) The Nyquist plot shows that the results of the detailed heterogeneous model and the averaged heterogeneous model
are in very good agreement, especially at high frequencies. In this case, the heterogeneous model validates the homogeneous model.

The output of M&S at this scale are quantitative estimations of
performance, performance limitations, and life. These estimations
can be obtained from results such as current and potential dis-
tribution, temperature distribution, metal deposition and short
Aluminum foil
0.2
0.15
circuiting, fatigue and cracking in the electrodes due to expan-
sion during charge and discharge, and formation of byproducts
and occurrence of side reactions that lower life. The features and
properties as well as the quantitative predictions of these models
can be further validated using the detailed
Porous electrode Separator
microscopic models. The battery cell mod-
els may link back to the detailed micro-
scopic properties of the battery.
Battery Module and Battery Pack
Scale — The individual battery cells may
be part of a battery module or a battery
pack. These modules may consist of tens
to hundreds of battery cells. This means
that we are not able to model each bat-
tery cell in 3D using the porous electrode
theory. Instead, lumped 0D and 1D models
15

0.1 are used for the electrochemical behavior

10
×10-5m
5
of each of the battery cells. These models
m
0

0.05 may be validated and link back to more

0.1

detailed battery cell models. The 3D geom-

0.05

m
etry of the battery module or pack is used
0

0
for computations such as thermal man-
agement, external current conduction sys-
tems, and macroscopic mechanical analysis
Current collector tabs Porous electrode
of the battery system. The electrodes and
separators are described as homogeneous
Figure 3. Current density distribution in the middle of the separator obtained using a 3D Newman model of a lithium-ion
materials with effective mechanical and
battery pouch cell. The model applies porous electrode theory and includes effects of aging such as the growth of a solid thermal properties. The M&S projects at this
electrolyte interface (SEI). The cell consists of two aluminum foils at the top and bottom of the figure, two porous electrodes
(one positive and one negative), and a separator between the electrodes. The aluminum foils have a tab each to connect to
macroscale focus on the impact of module
the outer circuit. This is a typical high-fidelity model at the battery cell scale. and pack materials, geometry, operating

6 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK

 MODELING & SIMULATION

conditions, thermal management systems,

macroscopic mechanical designs, and other
Cooling Channels Battery cells in a pack
design parameters.
Typical outputs from such models in­clude
temperature distribution; distribution of 15 mm
10

current and potential between individual 0

100

cells; effects of temperature, charge, and

discharge on the mechanical expansion of
the different cells; effect of expansion as
well as mechanical design on the mechani-
cal integrity of the battery module or pack;
temperature distribution as a result of the
thermal management system with cooling
and heating channels in the cell; impact of Cooling water 50
mm

the design of the external current conduction outlet

system; and other aspects that may influence
the battery module or pack. The models may
also be used to design early warning systems
of battery cell failure and thermal runaway in
a battery system.
0

Trends and Concluding Remarks

100
50
0
The level of sophistication in a battery sys- mm

tem model depends on the purpose of the Cooling water inlet

battery system itself. Microscopic models are
highly sophisticated and aimed at detailed Figure 4. Section of a battery pack consisting of lithium-ion planar cells. The cooling channels are incorporated in the pack.
understanding of the heart of the battery. A The flow field and the temperature distribution in the pack is coupled to the electrochemistry for each of the cells. The
electrochemistry for each cell in the pack is described with a 1D homogeneous model, as described in Figure 2(left). The
model used for the control of a battery pack 1D model for each cell is coupled to the heat transfer model in 3D. The pack model links back all the way to the detailed
as a part of an electric vehicle drivetrain may microscopic model through validation and parameter estimation.
not and cannot have the same degree of
sophistication. Instead, these may be lumped
models that do not really describe the phys-
ics of the battery system.
However, even for large battery systems,
there needs to be sophisticated methods for
early detection of failure and for measuring
state of health. These methods may be based
and linked all the way from the lumped mod-
els to the microscopic models. The reason is
that we want to be able to explain perfor­
mance deterioration and we need to detect
this, even if it is small, long before failure. It
has to be possible to physically explain the
reason for failure and performance decrease
so that the detection, design, control,
and operation of a battery system can be
improved. Multiphysics M&S offers an unbro-
ken chain of qualitative and quantitative
validation of a battery system, from its mac-
roscale properties to the heart of the battery
at the microscale.
This article was written by Ed Fontes, CTO, Figure 5. All levels of sophistication have to in some way be incorporated into the model of a battery pack in an electric or
hybrid vehicle. This could be through validated lumped models that link back all the way to the fundamental properties of
and Henrik Ekström, Technology Manager – the battery cells. The lumped model is, in this case, exemplified with an equivalent circuit but it may also be an advanced
Electrochemistry, at COMSOL (Burlington, MA). table lookup type of model obtained using machine learning techniques.

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 7

TECH BRIEFS

Venting for
EV Battery Packs
Cell chemistries, thermal dynamics, vehicle packaging, and even weather
present challenges for optimizing electric vehicle battery functional safety.

B
atteries for electric vehicles (EVs) need protection from
harsh external conditions. Generally located on the under-
side of the vehicle, EV battery enclosures protect the cells
from exposure to water, dust, debris, and other elements.
Like other enclosures, EV battery enclosures also undergo tempera-
ture and pressure changes that can lead to problems without proper
venting. But EV batteries present unique venting challenges includ-
ing potentially dangerous thermal runaway conditions. Considering
these challenges, integration of design, manufacturing, installation,
and testing are crucial to optimal EV battery venting performance.

CHESKY/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM

8 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK

 A Hybrids/EV
B Powertrain
C Automotive sensors
D Electronics
E Motors & Pumps
F Lighting F
G Fluid reservoirs G
E A
H Horns
E B
A
C
A C G
G
B
C
D
H
A
C

F Numerous EV components require venting.

Numerous components in an EV require venting. Lighting, horns,
electronics, powertrain, and other components all experience tem-
perature changes resulting from weather conditions, moisture, or
heat from electronic circuits. These temperature fluctuations produce
pressure changes inside the components. Changes in altitude can
also trigger pressure changes. A trek up Pike’s Peak, for example,
could result in pressure changes of up to 140 millibars (2 psi).
Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membranes have prov-
en effective in venting EV enclosures and providing pressure equal-
ization. This material allows gases to flow in and out of the enclosure
but helps prevent liquid and particle contaminants from entering the
enclosure.
Challenges Unique to EV Packs
Along with exposure to the various elements
experienced by other automotive components,
battery packs present additional challenges due Vent
to their location, size, and chemical makeup.
Packs located on the undersides of vehicles can Pressure Falling
be exposed to water fording or submersion as a
vehicle traverses standing water. Roadway water
may include salt and other corrosive chemicals. Car
washes can expose vehicles to high-pressure sprays
of varying temperature. Dust, debris, and vibration
can also impact the battery pack.
The size of EV battery packs also presents chal-
lenges. Weighing up to 2,000 pounds (907 kg), the
packs contain hundreds — sometimes thousands —
of cells, with large air volumes that can exert forc- ePTFE membranes have proven effective in venting EV enclosures.
es on the enclosures as pressures increase. This creates significant
venting needs to account for differential pressure due to altitude or
temperature change.
Perhaps the biggest challenge with EV battery packs is the poten-
tial for thermal runaway. If lithium-ion battery cells are damaged by
puncturing, overcharging, manufacturing defect, or other causes,
they can release gas and heat. This can trigger other cells to decom-
pose, leading to a thermal runaway condition where rapidly increas-
ing temperatures and pressures released by cells exceed the venting
capability of ePTFE membrane vent. At this point, the vent is unable
to allow gases to escape fast enough and additional pressure relief
is needed to avoid rupturing the battery pack enclosure, which is
typically made of lightweight materials to conserve weight.
Air Flow Air Flow
Pressure Rising
Water, Dust, Oil
Vent membrane
magnified 2500×

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 9

EV BATTERY PACKS

Dual-Stage Venting Mitigates Thermal

Runaway
NORMAL Dual-stage venting provides an effective
OPERATION
solution to the unique challenges of EV bat-
PRESSURE
EQUALIZATION
tery packs. The first stage — passive venting
— handles gradual changes in temperature and
pressure via the ePTFE membrane. The second
WATER AND stage — active venting — allows the vent to
DIRT ARE
BLOCKED rupture and gases to quickly escape in a ther-
mal runaway situation.
As an example, an enclosure that would rup-
ture at a pressure of 1,500 millibars (21.7 psi)
HELPS could be equipped with an active venting sys-
PREVENT
CONDENSATION tem that opens at 300 millibars (4.3 psi), well
below the rupture pressure. Without active
venting, the enclosure would rupture quickly.
With dual-stage venting, a single assembly
can help accomplish both passive and active
BATTERY venting functions and assist in controlling the
VENT pressure and location at which gas is released.
Typically located on the top or side of the
enclosure, the vents can be situated to allow
for controlled gas release, which helps mitigate
BATTERY THERMAL risk by allowing the designer to determine the
CELLS RUNAWAY
location of the release.
To properly incorporate dual-stage venting,
the solution should integrate design, manufac-
turing, and testing considerations; for example,
dimensions of the vent need to be accounted
DEGASING for in the battery pack and vehicle design.
While dual-stage vents can be manufactured
with a diameter less than 50 mm (1.9”) and a
HELPS
height of approximately 10 mm (.39”), space
PROTECT
BATTERY
is often limited in areas of battery packs. Ser-
ENCLOSURE viceability should also be considered to allow
for replacement of the vent.
Ease of installation and efficiency in the
Dual-stage venting includes ePTFE membrane (blue) that bursts under thermal runaway conditions. manufacturing process are key to the overall
battery pack solution, particularly if the packs
will be manufactured on a high-volume basis.
Different fittings are available, depending on
enclosure materials. A bayonet quarter-turn
fitting is most common, though threaded fit-
tings are feasible with sufficient thickness of
enclosure material. Drainage around the vent
Pressure Rising Membrane Burst should also be provided to allow for runoff of
water reaching the vent. Weight and cost also
need to be considered in the solution. While
Thermal Runaway vents can weigh less than 15 g (.53 ounce), they
Thermal Runaway
contribute to the overall weight and cost of the
Dual Stage Element Dual Stage Element battery pack.
The number of vents required will vary
(Left) Dual-stage venting blocks water and dirt in normal operation and allows hot gases to escape in a thermal runaway
condition. (Right) Stage two (active) venting can burst in a controlled direction and help prevent rupture of the entire
depending on the application but common
battery pack. practice has been to provide at least two

10 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK

 EV BATTERY PACKS

vents and up to 12 vents for full EVs

and at least one vent for hybrid vehi- ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING EXAMPLES
cles. Airflow needs will depend on free Test Description Method
air volume and anticipated nominal
operating pressures. An experienced IP67/IP68 Protection from water ingression ISO 20653
venting partner can help analyze the Simulation of the venting operation tested
Pressure Cycle Custom
battery pack and provide venting rec- at ±50 mbar pressure for 60,000 cycles
ommendations. -40°C to 80°C hold 30 min,
Because thermal runaway events ASTM D3045-92
Temperature Cycle 80°C to -40°C hold for 30 min,
can generate temperatures exceeding repeat for 500 cycles
the melting temperature of the mem- 32 hours of vibration of each of the 3
Vibration ISO 19453-3
brane, a key feature of the active vent axes, from 5hz to 2000hz
requires designing and manufacturing
Shock Test 50g for 6ms on all axes ISO 19453-3
the vent so it bursts before it melts,
allowing hot gases to escape before Battery mounted on vehicle to test vent
Thermal Runaway Custom
peak temperatures diffuse throughout performance during TR
the pack. The in­creased pressure of a Drop Drop part from 1.5 meters on all 3 axes ISO 2248
thermal runaway event will equalize
throughout the pack at the speed of A combination of standardized and custom tests is recommended to vet an EV battery.
sound, while heat takes time to diffuse,
so the vent can burst quickly and allow
gases to escape. Thermal Runaway Illustration with Dual Stage Venting
Testing is Critical 1400
Enclosure Rupture Pressure
Vents should be thoroughly tested to No Vent Pressure (mbar)
demonstrate performance, with quali- Pressure with Dual Stage Venting
1200 Vent Opening Pressure
ty testing included for multiple pres-
Pressure (mbar)

sure and temperature cycles, thermal

1000
runaway, ingress protection, vibration,
thermal shock, and salt spray. Pres-
sure cycle testing should include a 800

sufficient number of cycles to simulate

the design life of the product. Ingress 600
protection (IP) should be provided to
at least a rating of IP67. Standard tests 400
are available for most of these param-
eters, though pressure cycle and ther- 200
mal testing may require custom testing
based on the application. 0
Compatibility with leak testing is 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
another consideration. Ideally, the vent Time (seconds)
port can also serve as a port for leak
testing, service, and inspection of the Stage two (active) venting in conjunction with passive venting can prevent enclosure rupture.
pack. This can help minimize the num-
ber of holes in the pack. If the vent is develop precise solutions. The partner should have a proven track
to remain installed during testing, it is also important that the vent record, with solutions approved by other OEMs.
can withstand the vacuum pressures introduced by leak testing. With a strong partnership engaging the expertise of the venting
With venting a necessity in battery pack design, dual-stage and battery pack manufacturers, dual-stage venting can contrib-
venting efficiently provides both passive and active venting in one ute significantly to the successful production and operation of
assembly. Proper venting, however, requires careful planning and EVs.
integration in the overall process and should not be treated as an This article was written by Jake Sanders, Supervising Engineering
afterthought. To achieve successful solutions, vehicle and battery for the Venting Solutions team at Donaldson Company, Inc. (Bloom-
pack manufacturers should en­gage an experienced venting part- ington, MN). Contact Sanders at jake.sanders@donaldson.com; 952-
ner with the expertise and resources needed to analyze issues and 703-4868.

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 11

 HOW EVs AND THEIR ELECTRONICS
STICK
TOGETHER
New
adhesives play
an increasingly
vital role in vehicle
structures, battery
packs, and in protecting
sensitive electronic
components from extreme
thermal cycling and contaminants.
by Venkat Nandivada and Rohit Ramnath
T
hermal management and vehicle weight reduction are
among the challenges facing electric vehicles (EV) and auto-
mated driving systems, as engineers focus on improving
vehicle range, performance, and safety. Adhesives, sealants,
and coatings are playing a vital role in these developments. Their
lightweight, functional properties are key to the industry’s increased
use of mixed-material structures, including battery packs. They also
serve as electronic encapsulants to protect sensitive electronic com-
ponents from extreme thermal cycling and contaminants.
Compared with traditional metal fasteners, structural adhesives
offer improved inventory management, an overall reduction in design
weight and a more reliable joint. Compared with rivets or welds, they
can disperse the load over a larger area, thereby reducing the local-
ized stress on a fastener and also improve joint reliability. Dispersing
the stresses over a larger area may also allow for caliper reduction of
the components with a resulting weight savings.
Epoxy adhesives, two-part or one-part cure, are the workhorse of
the automotive industry. Many advances in the packaging and deliv-
12 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
Certain grades of epoxy can withstand
rigorous thermal cycling and shock.
Good flow properties and lower exotherm can be
desirable for potting and encapsulation applications.
ery systems of the adhesive further improve manufacturing efficiency
and reduce waste. Developments such as dual-cure, UV + Heat curing
allow for higher manufacturing speeds and throughput.
Selecting the right adhesive
Whether used in a structural capacity or to reinforce and protect
electronic assemblies, adhesives must possess the correct mechan-
ical properties. Depending on the nature of the joint, modulus or
stiffness will determine the joint stability and whether the adhesive
will readily deform to absorb stress or stay rigid and maintain high
dimensional stability. In certain assemblies, lower modulus may also
allow an adhesive to mitigate and relieve stresses that accumulate
due to differences in thermal expansion, or to dampen vibration and
shock. Conversely, a higher modulus is important in flip-chip micro-
electronic assemblies where the adhesive is used as an underfill. If the
MASTER BOND
modulus is too low, the underfill will inadequately protect the solder
joint. And a modulus that is too high may overly redistribute stresses
to the silicon chip and result in die cracking.
 Nano-fillers have and will continue to provide great
innovations in the field of adhesives development.
Depending on the nature of the joint and the applied stresses, the
adhesive’s shear, tensile and compressive strengths are critical in joint
design as well as the bonding strengths to the employed substrates.
Given proper surface prep, a good adhesive bonds well to a variety
of materials including the printed-circuit-boards, semiconductors,
plastics and other associated metals used in electronic assemblies.
Careful adhesive selection is a powerful tool in thermal manage-
ment of electronic assemblies, including the sensors and processors
used in automated-driving systems. Adhesives can be formulated with
mineral fillers to change their thermal and electrical properties. For
example, electrically insulative potting compounds are used to protect
electronic assemblies from high-voltage arcing, moisture ingress and
to structurally protect the sensitive components from vibration and
mechanical shock. As electronic components generate large quantities
of heat, a thermally conductive potting compound with a high thermal
conductivity helps to dissipate heat from the sensitive electronic com-
ponents. This allows them to run more optimally, reducing the negative
effects associated with high-temperature operation.
Depending on the application conditions, the modulus of the
potting compound can be changed to increase rigidity and provide
optimal stress redistribution. Filmic preforms for use as conformal
coatings or encapsulants can be designed to have low modulus and
AUDI
can deform to make intimate contact with the underlying circuitry.
BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 13
As materials increase or decrease in temperature, their volume
expands or contracts. Different materials possess different coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion (CTE). When joining two or more dis-
similar materials, the engineer must be aware of any differences in
their CTE. If one material expands more than the other, this manifests
as thermal stress. It can cause solder fatigue, stress cracking, and
enable the ingress of environmental contaminants. As such, careful
material selection and an understanding of the operating tempera-
tures are critical to designing multi-component assembly. Electronic
assemblies may contain materials with significantly different CTEs.
Common materials include silicon, FR-4 glass-reinforced epoxy lami-
nate for PCBs, solder and epoxy with CTEs of 2.6-3.0, 14-17, 21.5-24.6
and 66-72 ppm/°C, respectively.
Organic adhesives composed of epoxy or other polymeric materi-
als can be formulated with mineral fillers to lower their CTE to better
match the components present within the joint. Using an adhesive
with a CTE that is intermediate between the different materials helps
to match the thermal expansion properties and alleviate the stresses
from thermal cycling.
Flippin’ chips
The flip-chip assembly method is one of the most common meth-
ods employed in microelectronics including in sensors and micro-
STICK TOGETHER
Adhesives aimed at Hybrids
Designers of hybrid-electric vehicle batteries will
be interested in the structural and thermal-manage-
ment qualities of a new adhesive developed by DELO.
Called DELO-DUOPOX TC8686, the structural adhe-
sive allows battery cells to be bonded into the battery
housing while dissipating the heat generated during
operation, the company claims.
DELO-DUOPOX TC8686 is designed for high-vol-
ume manufacturing and is flame-retardant. Accord-
ing to the company it is suitable for the low-voltage
batteries used in mild hybrid and conventional hybrid
vehicles, as well as e-bikes and scooters. With a ten-
sile shear-strength rating of 18 N/mm2 on aluminum,
and effective temperature range of -40°C to 85°C,
it offers battery designers a one-step alternative to
mechanically connecting the cells and then using gap
fillers for heat dissipation. DELO-DUOPOX is currently
being used by an automotive supplier in the ramp-up
phase of production for a hybrid-vehicle application,
the company stated.
Lindsay Brooke
Thermally conductive
adhesive (magenta-colored for
illustration) for low-voltage bat-
tery systems such as those used
in mild hybrid vehicles.
14 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
computers. Compared with wire-bonded assemblies, flip-chip
exhibits higher speed and interconnect density due to the short
interconnect lengths that result from its inverted structure. Rather
than a glob-tzop encapsulant, flip-chip uses an underfill encapsu-
lant to seal the chip, solder interconnects and the board substrate.
In addition to providing structural protection, the CTE and ther-
mal conductivity of the underfill works to dissipate heat and mitigate
stresses that arise from thermal mismatch. By controlling viscosity
of the underfill material, its flow properties can be controlled. Cap-
illary-flow underfills utilize a low-viscosity coating and capillary
action to completely fill the void space beneath the chip after the
chip has been installed and solder bonded to the substrate surface.
Non-flow underfills have a higher viscosity and thixotropic character;
this assembly method firsts dispenses the uncured underfill onto the
substrate followed by chip placement.
Protecting the EV battery
In EVs, the performance and lifespan of the battery power source
is a design priority. Encapsulation and sealing of the battery are
critical to protecting it from external moisture, oil, dust and cor-
rosive chemicals that it will be exposed to when in operation.
Additionally, the vast heat that is generated during the battery’s
discharge/charge cycle must also be efficiently removed to enable
efficient operation and to mitigate high-risk failure, excess expan-
sion, or battery rupture.
Thermally-conductive epoxy and silicone adhesives can be used
to seal and protect the battery from environmental contaminants
and from mechanical shock. The chemical resistance of epoxies and
silicones can be further exploited to protect the battery from acids,
bases, fuels, solvents and corrosive salts that it may be exposed to
during the course of its operating life.
Sophisticated battery management systems (BMS) are used to cal-
culate the state of charge (SoC) as well as monitoring temperature,
cell voltages, charge/discharge rates and capacity fade. As increased
cell temperature results in higher electrical resistance and lower bat-
tery efficiency, battery cooling and thermal management are critical.
Thermally conductive gap filler materials, often made of polymer-
ic silicone loaded with alumina fillers, are vital for assuring a high
degree of thermal conductance between the battery cells and the
cooling plate. These gap fillers can be engineered as liquids or gels
that cure in place allowing for more efficient thermal transfer.
When compared with thermal pads, gap fillers enable more inti-
mate contact with the substrates enabling heat transfer. As air has
high thermal resistance, displacing air with thermally conductive
polymers enables more rapid thermal transfer through conduction.
Robust electronic component design incorporates flame-retardant
adhesives to ensure a safe and consumer-friendly product. Several
mechanisms exist for providing flame retardancy. Halogen-free flame
retardants have been developed and provide flame retardancy and
smoke suppression by absorbing excess heat or through the forma-
tion of a char layer to seal the substrate from oxygen.
The Underwriters Laboratory (UL) has established UL 94 certifi-
cation for flame propagation in horizontal and vertical orientations
DELO
that must be met to allow use of an adhesive system. In addition

Specialized epoxies may have a silver filler, providing uniform electrical conductivity.
to enabling thermal management and encapsulation, the optical
properties of adhesives such as epoxies can be further exploited in
applications such as optical sensors and in photoelectrochemical
assemblies.
EMI shielding, process flexibility
With the proliferation of electronics, high-voltage current, cell-
phone signals and Wi-Fi, the importance of electromagnetic inter-
ference (EMI) shielding is critical. A device or compartment can be
shielded from EMI by surrounding it with an electrically conductive
shell that creates a discontinuity in the electromagnetic field. Con-
ductive metal films or weaves of metallic threads work but can be
heavy and difficult to process with off-cuts and scrap resulting. Alter-
natively, adhesive coatings and encapsulants loaded with electrically
conductive fillers can instead be used to coat surfaces and provide
excellent EMI shielding capability, at frequencies ranging from a few
hundred MHz up to 10-20 GHz.
Epoxy and silicone adhesives can be formulated to cure at room
temperature or at elevated temperatures. The development of dual-
cure systems that can be cured with a combination of UV light and
thermal post-cure enable improvements to throughput and manufac-
turing speed. With the case of dual-curing systems, UV light can be
used to initiate cure and increase the efficiency of the manufacturing
process by providing a strong, near-instantaneous bond.
For one-part and two-part curing systems, the adhesive indus-
try has extensively innovated its packaging and delivery systems. A
well-designed system seeks to minimize adhesive waste providing
additional efficiencies. Further, the viscosity of adhesive systems
can be optimized depending on the desired bond thickness and dis-
pensing rates allowing for use in automated, robotic manufacturing
processes.
BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 15
STICK TOGETHER
Sustainable ingredients to lower the carbon footprint of structur-
al adhesives are being utilized in formulations. This has led to the
development and use of 100% solid formulations that have low con-
centrations of volatile organic components (VOC). The European
Commission’s Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive
has been essential for minimizing the environmental impact of elec-
tronic assemblies. In addition to restricting heavy metals such as lead
and cadmium, RoHS seeks to prevent the use of toxic brominated
flame retardants and biological toxins, including phthalates. As such,
it is essential to use only adhesives that comply with RoHS restric-
tions when manufacturing electronic assemblies.
Future adhesives and coatings
Nano-fillers have and will continue to provide great innovations in
the field of adhesives development. There exists in this composite an
interfacial area between the polymer matrix and the filler particles.
Many mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties can be modulat-
ed with the inclusion of functional fillers, and it is often this interface
that is critical in controlling the properties.
Micro alumina particles or even nanoparticles of alumina or silica
can be formulated to exhibit excellent thermal properties while being
non-electrically conductive for electronic applications.
Speed and cost of manufacturing complex parts and prototypes
can be improved with 3-D printing and other additive manufactur-
ing processes. Dual-cure, UV + Heat resin systems allow 3-D printing
with UV-induced cure while allowing for thermal post-cure to provide
MASTER BOND
superior structural and thermal stability when compared to thermo-
plastic printing resins.
Venkat Nandivada, a chemical engineer, is manager of technical
support, and Rohit Ramnath is a senior product engineer, for Master
Bond Inc.
 ALUMINUM ENCLOSURES
Aluminum dominates for EV battery enclosures — for now
Aluminum battery enclosures or other platform parts typically provide a weight savings of 40% compared to
an equivalent steel design.
A luminum is the dominant material for electric vehicle (EV) bat-
tery enclosures for one simple but significant factor: lightweight-
ing capability. All currently available long-range EVs — those that
can travel beyond 250 miles (400 km) — use aluminum as the main
material for the battery enclosure for that very reason, Dr. Andreas
Afseth, technical director for Constellium North America operations,
said during a recent Center for Automotive Research (CAR) webinar.
“Aluminum continues to be the fastest-growing material in auto-
motive application,” Afseth said. Growth is driven in part by the
increasing market share of EVs, including electric trucks and vans,
which already employ a greater amount of aluminum than do con-
ventional-powertrain models — more than 640 lb (290 kg) in EV
platforms compared to about 450 lb (205 kg) in non-EVs.
“Electric trucks will require very large batteries, maximum payload
and minimum energy consumption (operating costs),” he said. “There
will continue to be a very high value of lightweighting, so I would
expect aluminum to be the material of choice.”
The current state-of-the-art solution for bottom plates is high-strength 6111 alloy in peak aged temper, but still-in-de-
velopment alloys promise even better performance and additional weight savings.
16 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
Aluminum battery enclosures or other platform
parts typically provide a weight savings of 40% com-
pared to an equivalent steel design. The most-used
and best-suited alloys for battery enclosures are of
the 6000-series Al-Si-Mg-Cu family, Afseth shared,
noting that these alloys are “very well compatible”
with end-of-life recycling. The current state-of-the-art
solution for bottom plates is high-strength 6111 alloy
in peak aged temper, which reduces weight by 30%
compared to the benchmark 5754 O-temper alloy.
Constellium has a 4xxx alloy in development with
80-GPa E-modulus and 350-MPa yield stress. A 40%
weight reduction is “technically feasible” with the devel-
opmental 4xxx alloy. “You can think of this high-mod-
ulus 4000 series alloy as a ‘very excess’ silicon 6000
series alloy,” Afseth said, noting that gauges and widths
will be similar to 6000. It is compatible with convention-
al cold forming and is cost-competitive, he said.
A 7075 T6 alloy also is in development, offering
offers 500-MPa yield stress and 70-GPa E-modulus.
7000-series alloys of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu are not yet wide-
ly used in automotive application, he noted. 7000
could be considered for bottom plates where impact
resistance is key, but a point of “diminishing returns” likely will hinder
its use in this application. “At the moment, with the manufacturing
processes needed, this [additional 10% weight savings] benefit prob-
ably doesn’t cover the cost of using 7000,” Afseth said.
Enclosure design
The battery enclosure has a critical role in crash energy manage-
ment, both in terms of preventing intrusion into the battery cells as
well as absorbing energy to protect the passengers. A dual-frame
prototype illustrated by Constellium employs two different advanced
extruded alloys. The inner frame is made of strength-optimized 6000
from the HSA6 family, while the outer reinforcement is a ductile 6000
alloy of the HCA6 family.
“The inner frame’s main function is to prevent intrusion into the cells
even if it leads to fracture of the metal,” he said. “The outer reinforcement
is designed to crumple in a very controlled way without fracturing so the
maximum amount of energy is absorbed.”
The concept of placing battery cells directly in
the body-in-white (BIW) is “very interesting” and
would remove the redundancy of having a “box
within a box,” he said. “If the trend continues to
eliminate the modules and then the enclosures and
ALL IMAGES: CONSTELLIUM
have cells directly integrated in the BiW, effective
sealing and joining will grow in importance.”
If the industry shifts to solid-state batteries,
the function of the enclosure likely will shift, too.
“We may see some load-bearing function in the
solid-state battery cells themselves and therefore
 ALUMINUM ENCLOSURES

The majority of
long-range EVs in
current production
worldwide use alu-
minum as the main
material for the
battery enclosure.

“Soon, it may no longer be

economically beneficial to use
aluminum, especially for the
small cars that have moderate
range and target the lowest-
possible price point.”
— Dr. Andreas Afseth,
technical director for
Constellium North America
operations
A dual-frame prototype illustrated by Constellium employs two different advanced, extruded 6000-series alloys.

less structural demand on the enclosure,” Afseth said. Another trend
he is seeing is OEMs increasingly bringing the development of bat-
tery enclosures in-house rather than outsourcing to tier suppliers.
“Most OEMs and start-ups developing BEVs are at least considering
aluminum enclosures if not actively developing them,” he said.
Thermal challenges
Despite lightweighting and recyclability benefits, aluminum enclo-
sures fare less favorably when thermal runaway occurs r if a vehicle
catches fire. “Aluminum has very high thermal conductivity and the
melting point is 630°C,” Afseth said. “A battery fire can reach 1200°C
or more and the aluminum casing will last only a short time before
the metal melts. So, for the top cover either a heavier steel sheet or a
fire-retardant loaded polymer molding will resist longer and give the
passengers more time to evacuate.”
Heat generated by the battery cells also can be a concern for alu-
minum enclosures, especially for parts that are in direct contact with
the cells or other parts of the high-voltage system that gets heated
during charging or discharging. “My main concern would be with
alloys like 5182, which has more than 3.5 wt% Mg, as these may over
time develop a film of beta-phase precipitates at the grain boundar-
ies which can result in degraded properties,” Afseth explained.
For parts of the enclosure that are away from the cells, such as the
bottom plate located below the cooling plate, heat is not a concern.
Afseth said he does not see any issues regarding immersion cooling:
“Aluminum alloys of the 3000, 5000 and 6000 series are very well
compatible and completely resistant to common coolant liquids.”
Move to multi-materials
Justification for the over-cost of aluminum structures is found
in the secondary mass and cost savings tied to being able to
downsize the battery and the powertrain, Afseth stressed. But, as
battery costs continue to drop, the value equation for aluminum
may dissipate.
In the past decade, battery cost has fallen by almost a factor of
ten, he noted, from about $1,000 kWh in 2010 to less than $150
kWh last year. Energy density has almost tripled over the same
period, so batteries also weigh much less than before.
“Why we see all the long-range EVs today using aluminum
is because at the time they were making their engineering and
material choices, this equation was super simple: You spend a few
hundred dollars more on the body structure and you save thou-
sands of dollars on downsizing the battery,” Afseth explained.
“Today, at the current prices, it’s still strongly in favor of alu-
minum designs, especially for the larger vehicles like SUVs and
trucks that target long range. But soon, it may no longer be eco-
nomically beneficial to use aluminum, especially for the small cars
that have moderate range and target the lowest possible price
point.”
Afseth said he sees a transition to more mixed materials for bat-
tery enclosures in the coming years – but “very little” carbon fiber,
which makes more sense in motorsports or ultra-luxury sports cars
where cost is not an issue. “Other, cheaper fiber-reinforced plastics
may grow more,” he added.
Ryan Gehm

BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 17

SAE J3178 REPORT
SAE J3178 Information Report for battery adhesives, sealants available
I n late Spring 2020, SAE International released SAE
J3178 - Adhesives, Sealants, and Heat Transfer Mate-
rials in Battery Systems: A Primer on Materials, Appli-
cations, and End-Use Performance Requirements. The
44-page Information Report offers an introduction to
the use of adhesives, sealants and heat-transfer mate-
rials (HTMs) for battery systems.
Adhesives, sealants and HTMs play a pivotal role in
the assembly and performance of battery systems for
mobility applications. Proper selection of such materi-
als from the cell to the pack level is vital for achieving
high-throughput manufacturing and for effectively and
safely managing mechanical, environmental and ther-
mal loads in the end product.
What’s more, serviceability and global regulatory
requirements must be considered during the selection
process.
SAE J3178 introduces the basic concepts and prop-
erties of these specialized materials and the roles they
serve in battery systems. Specifically, Section 4 pro-
vides a brief overview of the common chemistries used
to formulate adhesives, sealants and HTMs for battery
systems. Relative performance characteristics coupled
with handling, environmental, and recyclability aspects
are highlighted.
Sections 5 through 7 of the report provide a deeper
review of the three types of products. Material defi-
nitions are provided along with details of subclasses,
noteworthy formulation constituents, and pertinent
industrially accepted test methods. Section 8 is devot-
ed to educating the reader on how the materials are
dispensed in a manufacturing setting.
Tim Fornes, one of the chairs of SAE’s Battery Sys-
tems Adhesives, Sealants, and Heat Transfer Materials
Committee, talked with Automotive Engineering about
J3178. “I think the report does a good job of really
opening up a lot of information that people just don’t
get because of proprietary reasons,” he said. “A lot of
people who are competing against one another col-
laborated in a way to open up that information to the
public; it is really a good thing.”
Initiated in 2018, the committee aimed to lay the
groundwork for those seeking education in adhesive,
sealants and transfer materials with the emphasis on
battery systems. Fornes said the committee set out to
18 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
hit things from two different perspectives. “One was a
perspective from a supplier. Suppliers are often deal-
ing with the challenge of not knowing enough about
the application, right? So, he or she really needs to
craft the right ease of sealant or heat-transfer material
to meet the design specifications of that given appli-
cation.”
He continued, “Typically, it can be challenging to have
a dialogue between the end user and supplier. You’re
often dealing with throwing things over the wall and
Jennifer you get some feedback. So, we had that perspective
Shuttleworth – and then we had the opposite perspective where we
Associate Editor have the end user who knows a lot about the appli-
Jennifer.Shuttleworth cation but doesn’t know much about these materials
@sae.org that go into their application and what are the layers of
those materials to affect their design.”
Competitors The SAE J3178 document marries those two perspec-
tives, Fornes said, in a way where anyone who is rela-
collaborated tively new to the area can read it and have a pretty good
to create understanding of what it takes to create these different
a report types of materials used in battery systems.
In the report, the committee consolidated many
that opens ASTM and ISO standards that are used to character-
up a lot of ize these various materials. “That’s something you just
information to don’t get at all, really, in a textbook or with your train-
ing at work,” he said. “We’ve gotten all these experts
those seeking and we’ve created numerous tables of valuable charac-
education terization [standards] documents that are recognized
in these worldwide that are used for these materials that battery
manufacturers are dealing with on a daily basis. That’s
specialized just invaluable.”
materials. So is the time saved, thanks to the amount of infor-
mation aggregated into one concise form, Fornes rea-
soned.
For a copy of J3178, visit www.sae.org/standards/
content/j3178_202005/.
The SAE Battery Systems Adhesives, Sealants, and
Heat Transfer Materials Committee also is in search of
experts in the field of polymeric materials as it relates to
the creation, dispensing and end-use applications with-
in the realm of battery systems.
More information can be found on the SAE website:
https://connection.sae.org/volunteeropportunities/
volunteer-opportunity-details?VolunteerOpportuni-
tyKey=7eb1e312-7b72-403e-a4cc-175619fe2190.
 NAWA aims for 5-minute EV charge
A new nano-based carbon electrode is key to reducing electric-vehicle charging time.
A
French nanomaterials company has developed a tech-
nology that it claims can significantly increase the
storage efficiency of electric vehicle batteries. NAWA
Technologies’ Ultra-Fast Carbon Electrode (UFCE) is a
key to bringing EV battery-charging time into parity with gas-
oline-refueling time, while improving battery life-cycle perfor-
mance by a factor of up to five, according to company founder
and CTO, Pascal Boulanger.
In an interview with SAE’s Automotive Engineering, Pascal
Boulanger said the UFCE technology can help deliver 1,000-km
(620-mi) operating range for mass-market EVs, with a time of five
minutes for an 80% charge. “The uniqueness of the technology is
its 3D structure and use of vertically aligned carbon nanotubes
[VACNT],” he noted. Each nanotube is formed from a graphene
sheet that is rolled in a cylindrical shape. The tubes have “the same
aspect ratio [between diameter and length] as a kilometer-long
piece of spaghetti, with the electrode being made of a hundred
trillion of these tubes!” The UFCE technology is compatible with any
advanced battery-cell chemistry, he said.
BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 19
NAWA regards its nanostructured electrode as
heralding an EV battery step change.
by Stuart Birch
‘Highest’ ionic conductivity
A major limitation of incumbent lithium-based battery perfor-
mance is the design and material used for the electrode, Boulanger
explained. Existing powder electrodes have low electrical and thermal
conductivity, along with poor mechanical behavior when discharged
and recharged, and can suffer from safety and life-cycle issues. He
said the micro-structures in today’s electrode material make it diffi-
cult for ions to move around, resulting in low ionic conductivity. The
UFCE’s patented VACNT design, he claims, combines the “highest”
ionic conductivity, thanks to its 3D fully accessible nanostructure,
with continuous conductors (the nanotubes) that exhibit optimum
electrical and thermal conductivity. These characteristics eliminate
thermal runaway issues, Boulanger said.
Mechanically, the VACNT serves as a cage, reducing volume expan-
sion of the electrode and allowing it to operate under less “stress”
than powder electrodes: “Put simply, this means the distance an ion
needs to move is just a few nanometers through the cell material,
instead of micrometers with a plain electrode.” This “radically” boosts
NAWA
the battery’s ability to deliver fast charge and discharge rates, he
NANO-BASED CARBON ELECTRODE
NAWA Technologies’
founder Pascal Bou-
langer is confident that
the company’s advances
will bring cost-effective
solutions to significantly
boost EV practicality.
Diagram of the 3D vertical technology for EV batteries.
said. NAWA previously demonstrated this in its next-generation ultra-
capacitors (known as the Ultra-Fast Carbon Battery), claimed to have
“the lowest electrical serial resistance on the market”; see https://
nawatechnologies.com.
Applying NAWA’s technologies to lithium-based cells would
improve battery power by a factor of 10 and energy storage by a fac-
tor of up to three, Boulanger stated, with battery life cycle enhanced
by up to five – and charging time reduced to minutes instead of
hours.
“Normally, for a given technology – and that’s the case for batter-
ies using powders – you have to find a compromise,” he noted. “And
if you increase energy you will decrease power; if you accelerate [the
vehicle] you will consume more. But there is something else in a bat-
tery that is absolutely underestimated.”
EV owners have learned that the more you drive, the faster you dis-
charge the battery. Unlike a tank of gasoline, EV energy consumption
is not linear. “This will also be the case for our technology – however,
at a higher level of both power and energy, meaning that you will
have more margin and the ‘over consumption’ will be lower, what-
ever the state of charge,” Boulanger said. Initial results with NAWA’s
development partners, including battery giant SAFT, show that an
advanced lithium-ion battery with a UFCE minimally doubles the
kW-h stored. “EVs could draw on more power to go faster but farther
at the same time,” he said.
Carbon nano-material synergies
The 3D electrode is designed for manufacturability, he said. The
VACNT manufacturing process is “very similar” to the production of
photovoltaics or industrial glass treatment. Boulanger claimed that
nanotubes are “not expensive” to produce: the equipment is proven,
and processes are greatly improving both in throughput and yield,
keeping costs low. “We envision it can be similar in terms of dol-
lars-per-square-meter to a coating, but with a lower bill-of-materi-
als coming from the natural and sustainable carbon sources. We will
have more energy per square meter, the cost of that energy will be
lower in terms of dollars-per-watt-hour, too,” Boulanger said.
20 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
In moving toward commercialization, Boulanger is aware of the
hurdles. “There are various ways of introducing our concept of
3D-electrode to the market,” he said. The easiest way is to grow a
very thin layer of VACNT on a copper substrate to compete with
existing carbon-coated copper substrates already in use in the bat-
tery industry. This method will yield electrical performance and
anchoring of the electrode material that is superior to the incum-
bents and can be ready in small volume production in 2021, he said.
Longer term, a real 3D and thicker UFCE “could be on the market
in low volumes by early 2023 in 3D electrode form, reaching mass
production in 2025.”
Potential applications of NAWA’s UFCE technology extend into
hydrogen fuel cell systems. One uses NAWACap ultra-capacitors
to harvest energy that would otherwise be lost. The UFCE also
can serve as an electrode for the fuel cell membrane “because
VACNT are known to be able to reduce the loading of platinum,”
thus saving cost, Boulanger said. And materials developments by
another NAWA Group unit can reduce the weight and improve the
strength of the hydrogen carbon-composite storage tank. NAWA
America, based in Dayton, Ohio, focuses on the commercializa-
tion of multi-functional, ultra-strong composites. Its NAWAStitch
concept comprises a thin film containing the same trillions of
VACNT arranged perpendicularly to carbon fiber layers. Acting
as “nano-Velcro,” this reinforces the weakest part of a composite
- the interface between the layers – designed to greatly improve
resistance to shear and shock loading, stated Boulanger.
The 3D-UFCE and NAWAStitch are complementary to another
innovation: NAWAShell. A structural hybrid battery incorporating
VACNT, it provides both enhanced mechanical strength and elec-
trical energy storage within the core of the composite structure.
In the future, Boulanger sees “enormous potential in combining
NAWAStitch and NAWAShell to create ultra-strong, multi-func-
tional lightweight materials that can also store energy – for exam-
ple, a solar roof panel in a car that could generate energy stored
within the roof, with almost no additional mass to the vehicle
structure.”

Electrification and the Two-Cycle Imperative
M omentum has been building for several years.
Industry executives and analysts have been out-
lining the impact on the automotive industry of an
all-electric light-vehicle future. Such a future still
seemed distant for many. Would consumers embrace
the propulsion shift to EVs? Would battery costs decline
enough to achieve undeniable cost parity, or even cost
advantage, compared with combustion-engine prod-
ucts? And could the charging infrastructure handle all
these EVs in the car parc?
All are great questions with varying levels of confi-
dence as to the eventual outcome. To EV or not to EV?
Recently there have been several EV-focused proc-
lamations from Volkswagen Group, Geely/Volvo, Daim-
ler and a host of upstarts, outlining their pace of EV
transformation. Some proactively view this shift as an
opportunity to take a leadership position. Others are
proceeding with caution in a defensive posture. What-
ever the tact, the risk of no action is just as high as
pressing forward, the reasoning goes.
Then the hammer fell. General Motors outlined its aspi-
rational goal of producing only electric light-duty vehi-
cles after 2035. Industry watchers paused to absorb such
a concept. No ICE-powered products after 2035? Aspi-
rational or not, we began counting backwards to quickly
decipher that GM’s target is only 14 short years away.
Several factors must align for this massive shift to com-
plete, but proof that the industry is firmly entrenched in
electrified propulsion is undeniable. Significant human and
capital investment towards battery technology and pro-
duction, development of e-drives and the redeployment of
thousands of engineers from the combustion-engine world
underscore the commitment.
Within the automotive ecosystem, there are three
main timelines that guide the industry: Development,
BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK 21
TWO-CYCLE IMPERATIVE
Production and Aftermarket. These timelines govern
the pace and direction of every facet of the business.
Like dominos, each successive timeline is impacted by
the former. While many suppliers are fixated on when
new technologies enter mass production (tooling, cap-
ital etc.), the industry weathervane is development.
Decisions five years in advance of start of production
(SOP) determine the trajectory of systems and sourcing
that lasts for decades into the aftermarket.
The basis for my chronology lesson is the Two-Cy-
Michael Robinet cle Imperative. Assume a typical five-year cycle for an
Michael Robinet
Executive Director
Executive ICE-propelled product. So, working backwards from
IHS MarkitDirector
IHS Markit GM’s 2035 marker, that means development of the sec-
michael.robinet
michael.robinet
@ihsmarkit.com ond-to-last ICE-based platform is currently underway
@ihsmarkit.com for a 2025 production launch. Development of the last
ICE platform will start later this decade for a launch in
2030, with its production running through 2035. The
Plan for economics for this are daunting, as capital is spread
consolidation over a condensing timeline. OEMs are already focusing
within the the bulk of their energy and capital on the newer bat-
tery-electric vehicle (BEV) architectures because their
ranks of ICE programs have a limited shelf.
ICE-driven Unless driven by regulatory compliance, significant
suppliers cost reductions or lighter mass, I don’t expect OEMs
to stretch their ICE-based investments too far. The
and greater “bread” already is being buttered elsewhere.
pressure on Understanding the impact of the Two-Cycle Imper-
margins as ative is paramount to success in this steadily evolving
space. There are only two full ICE-vehicle cycles until
volumes drift 2035. Plan for reduced investment, consolidation with-
to BEVs. in the ranks of ICE-driven suppliers and the strong like-
lihood of greater pressure on margins as volumes drift
to the BEV side. While some choose to dismiss the shift
to BEV as premature and reactionist, the smart money
knows it is a matter of when and how — not if.
Q&A
Racing to keep pace with EV battery demand
A s part of its series of virtual Tech Talks at the 2021 Consumer
Electronics Show (CES), Panasonic hosted key battery engineers
to discuss the fast-paced development of the cylindrical lithium-ion
cells being produced at Tesla’s Gigafactory in Nevada. Providing
insights into battery-production logistics, scale and automation was
Celina Mikolajczak, VP of battery technology for Panasonic Energy
of North America.
When you started the Tesla partnership, did you know how fast
development would move?
I was at Tesla during a lot of that time. And
the speed at which we were continuously
improving the cells that we were putting in
the Model S and then developing for Model
3 was fast by anyone’s standard. It even sur-
prised us inside Tesla about how fast we had
to go. No sooner had we finished and brought
a cell under production and started produc-
ing with it, we were already working with Celina
Panasonic on the design of the next cell. It’s Mikolajczak
of Panasonic
been continuous improvement, continuous Energy.
technology development. No resting on lau-
rels, just on to the next.
What’s that pace like now for Panasonic,
with multiple big competitors working on
lithium-ion cells for electric vehicles?
It’s kind of like orchestrating a sympho-
ny, because you’ve got so many different
organizations within Panasonic having to “One of the big challenges
bring together their expertise. We have
to worry about our supply chain. If we’re
to my engineering team
going to build at the scale that Tesla needs, is to continually add
or the electric-vehicle industry needs, you
are buying not in kilograms, but in tons,
automation, add sensors,
or hundreds of tons of material. And that to our equipment. There is
means a lot from the supply chain, it means
a lot from logistics. Then you bring it into
no way we can achieve the
the factory and you go through a lot of ambitions we want if we
complex processes to make a cell.
And then if we’re going to update the
don’t automate.”
technology — we’ve been introducing a
higher energy-density cell at the Gigafac-
tory — it becomes more like orchestrating
a fugue. Where we’ve got one cell model
running on some lines, we’ve got another
cell model running on other lines, we are
converting lines as we go, we’ve got new
22 BATTERY, ELECTRIFICATION, AND MOBILITY ADVANCES EBOOK
materials coming in. Getting it perfectly right takes the effort of hun-
dreds, if not thousands of people.
What are other challenges trying to manufacture these small cells
at scale?
The manufacturing process is moving very, very fast. So, if you
make a mistake, you have to find it quickly or you’re going to make
an enormous amount of scrap. The stakes are really high; there’s no
dawdling. If you think there’s a problem with manufacturing, you
have to make a decision quickly. And of course, if you stop, you have
to move quickly to resolve whatever issue
there is, because we look at our output in
millions of cells a day. This is not going to
be a uniquely Tesla problem. This is going to
be a problem for the EV market in general.
What goes into automating a process
like this?
The process is tremendously automated.
One of the big challenges to my engineering
team is to continuously add automation, add
sensors to our equipment. So, we continu-
ously look for areas where there might be a
manual quality check. Can we automate the
quality check? Somewhere where an adjust-
ment needs to be made, can we apply sen-
sors to determine that the adjustment has
to be made and make it automatically? To
continue to grow and scale, there is no way
we can achieve the ambitions we want if we
don’t automate.
What role does recycling play in this
process?
First, we try to minimize scrap at all cost,
because it means you’re not producing good
material. At the same time, any production
process will produce certain amounts of
scrap. Obviously, the materials we use are
very valuable. We use a lot of copper, we use
aluminum. Just from their metals content,
they are valuable and you want to recover
them because it took a lot of effort to orig-
inally produce these metals from their ores.
PANASONIC ENERGY
Our long-term goal with Redwood [Materials]
is that we want to recycle those back into the
cell supply chain.
Paul Seredynski