STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

OF GROUPS
• Structure – refers to the arrangement of
interrelation of all the parts of a whole.
• Group structure – refers to patterns that develop
and maintain themselves over time in
interpersonal relations.
• Social workers are familiar with the different
types of structures found in groups. These are
groups that have highly formalized structures,
their operations or activities carried out through
clear assignment of leadership/officership and
 responsibilities, complete with constitutions and
by-laws and procedures.
1. SIZE
• Refers to the number of persons in the group.
• In literature, there is no exact number of
persons in a group, it all depends on the
activities or purposes of the group.
• The smaller the size of the group, the easier
it is for the worker to get to know the
individual members and to observe and
intervene in their interactions when
necessary.
• A small group encourages participation
and involvement, makes consensus
easier to effect, and makes it less likely
that cliques will be formed.
• A small group assures more direct, and
when desired, intensive
communication among participants.
• On the other hand, there are advantages
that go with large-size groups.
• Numbers are crucial when a group is
fighting for a social cause. Some large
groups have to break up into smaller
groups in order to work at specific,
assigned tasks.
• There is no such thing as a magic number
for a successful working group.
2. COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE
• Communication is the process of transferring
and sharing messages and meanings through
 the use of symbols like words, movements
and gestures, and sounds.
• Communication structure encompasses
who interacts with whom about what,
and this interaction may take verbal
and/or nonverbal forms.
In work with small groups, problems relating to
the communication structure can include:
• hierarchical arrangements which hamper
the smooth flow of communication,
• members who dominate discussions,
• who communicate contradictory
messages,
• who distort communication which creates
tension and conflicts,
• and members who control the form and
content of communication in order to gain
or maintain their power in the group
• The desired pattern of channels of
communication for social work groups is
one that is group-centered rather than
leader-centered. Members communicate
with each other and with the worker. This
 makes for genuine involvement in the
communication process so that new
ideas, experiences, points of view, and
emotional responses may become
incorporated into the personality of a
group member.
3. AFFECTIONAL STRUCTURE
• The process of acting and reacting which
takes place between people meeting
together in a small group.
• It is only natural that in the course of
interaction some people are drawn to
each other and develop a liking for each
other while some people are repulsed,
and develop a dislike for each other.
• Grace Coyle attributes this phenomena
(liking and disliking) to two major factors:

a. Natural attraction – can result from

having similar or complimentary
qualities and values, as well as
 positive feelings out of some previous
relationship with similar persons.
b. Unconscious needs of members – can
include unfulfilled love from a parent
figure, sibling conflict, competition or
rivalry, and transference aspects, like,
feelings, attitudes and patterns of
response toward significant persons
in previous relationships are relived
 with the persons in current
relationships.
Patterns of interpersonal relations that are produced
form the liking and disliking that develop among
members of the group:
• Pairs – dyads, mutual friendships, courtship pairs,
pair of enemies, dependency-dominance,
complimentary.
• Triads – mediator and two, rivals and one, coalition
and one, three-person alliance, harmonious
threesome.
• Foursome – two pairs, three and one, four person
alliance.
• Isolates – people who hang on the fringe of the
group with little acceptance from anyone

• Sociometry – the technique of studying

the affective relations among group
members. This was developed by the
psychiatrist Jacob L. Moreno and its main
theory is that the full realization of the
individual personality and the effective
functioning of social groups depend
upon the spontaneity upon which given
 individuals accept others as
coparticipants in specified activities.
• The technique involves the giving of
questionnaires to group members and
asking them who they like and dislike,
who they would like to eat, work, live
with, sit next to, etc.
• The responses provide a picture of the
group’s informal structure, its cliques,
loyalties, and leadership.
Four types of interpersonal relations:
a. A chooses B or A likes B
b. A person can communicate to
c. A person has power over
d. Task interdependence
• The use of affectional structure for
understanding group structure is very
useful when one is working with a group
that does not have clearly defined
positions, such as in the case of
treatmentoriented groups.
4. POWER STRUCTURE
• In the context of interpersonal
relations, it is social power – it refers
to the potentiality for inducing
forces in other persons toward
acting or changing in a given
direction.
• As a group evolves, or continuous to
function, it is inevitable that some
form of power or influence will be
manifest that facilitates the group’s
organization, its control, and
goalattainment. Therefore, power is
not a negative factor in human
interaction.
French and Raven
five bases of power
• Reward Power – It is based on B’s
perception (one member) that A (entire
group) has the capacity to deliver positive
consequences or negative consequences
in response to B’s behavior.Reward can
come in many forms – promotion, praise,
etc.
• Group members will usually work hard
with someone who has high reward
power, will usually like the person and will
communicate effectively with him/her.
• Coercive Power – Power is based on
B’s perception that A can inflict
adverse or negative consequences or
remove positive consequences in
response to B’s behavior. Being
admonished, being deprived of certain
privileges are examples. Coercive
power will decrease the attraction.
• The use of coercive power to settle a
conflict often increases the other’s
 person’s hostility, resentment and
anger.
• Threats usually result in aggression and
counter threats.
• It is suggested that the use of coercive
power in a conflict situation should be
avoided.
• Legitimate Power – Refers to the
influence resulting from a person’s
position in the group and/or certain
 responsibilities that go with that
position. Among the bases of this power
are cultural values (respect for age,
intelligence, physical characteristics),
acceptance of a social structure
(officership), and a legitimizing agent
(election).
• Referent Power – Refers to the
influence A has because of his being
well –liked and/ or respected, which
results in B identifying with him/her.
• B is apt to adopt A’s (the group)
thoughts, beliefs and values because
of identification with A.
• Expert Power – It is based on the
perception that A has expertise, or
some special knowledge or skill and
can be trusted.
• Expert power is limited to the
specific area of one’s expertise.
5. LEADERSHIP
• It is the ability to influence other people
in some way.
• There are positive and negative
influences under the concept of
leadership.
• There are some theories for
understanding leadership to guide the
practitioner in his work with groups.
• Position Theory – The leader occupies the
topmost position and all the others below
would be lesser leaders.
• Many ways to become a leader: by
election, by appointment or designation
by a higher authority. The position gives
the person power to influence. Because of
his position, he has authority, such as
assigning work or making decisions for
others.
• Trait Theory – It assumes that leaders have
personal traits or characteristics that make
 them different from other people. This has
been called the “great person” theory of
leadership.
• Hares study of researches on personality traits
indicate that leaders, compared to followers,
tend to be better adjusted, more dominant,
more extroverted, more masculine, and to
have greater interpersonal sensitivity. Also
have intelligence, enthusiasm, dominance,
self-confidence, and equalitarianism.
• Style Theory – concentrated on examining
different leadership styles, and came up
the following:
a. Authoritarian – the leaders have absolute
power; they set goals and policies as well as
major plans, dictate the activities of members,
purveyor of rewards and punishments and are
the only ones who know the succession of
future steps in the group’s activities.
Complaints of members are given in private. It
is generally seen as efficient and decisive.
b. Democratic – It seeks the maximum
involvement and participation from
members in all decisions affecting the
group, which brings about strong
cooperation. Interpersonal hostilities
and dissatisfactions with the leader are
discussed openly and acted upon so
that there is less possibility for
sabotage.
c. Laissez-faire – This is characterized
by minimum input or participation from
the leader; the members are left to
function or struggle by themselves. This
will suit groups that are committed to a
course of action, have the necessary
resources to implement it, and need a
minimum of leader influence in order
to work effectively.
d. Situational Theory – Leadership is a
function of the situation rather than
the person or what he or she does.
• The type of leader needed depends
primarily on the work to be done.
The situation is what produces
leadership.
e. Functional Leadership Theory – It is
viewed from a group perspective.
Leadership means the performance of
acts that help the group to accomplish
the goals.
This theory believes that any member
will at times be a leader by taking
actions that serve group goals.
6. ROLE STRUCTURE
• Refers to the socially-recognized pattern
of expectations of behavior on the part
of the person in a certain position which
 helps us to interpret what a person is
doing or is trying to do.
• In a group situation, participants perform
different roles: leader, officer, member,
follower.
Two leadership roles:

a. Task-specialist – provide the best

ideas and does the most to guide the
discussion thereby moving the group
toward its goals even if he may not
always be liked.
b. Social-emotional or group
maintenance specialist – the main
concern is group harmony and resolving
tensions and conflicts within the group.
Other roles:
Executive – top coordinator of the activities
Policy-maker – establishing goals and policies
Planner – deciding the means by which the group
shall achieve its goals.
Expert – source of readily available information
and skills.
External group representative – being the official
spoke person for the group.
Controller of internal relations –the leader may
be a controller of in-group relations.
Purveyor rewards and punishment – including
promotions, demotions, and assigning pleasant and
unpleasant tasks.
Arbitrator and Mediator – may act as both
judge and conciliator, and has the power to
reduce or to increase factionalism within the
group.
Exemplar – serving as a model of behavior to
show what the members should be and do.
Ideologist – serving as the source of the beliefs
and values of the members.
Scapegoat – serving as the target for
ventilating members’ frustrations and
disappointments.
7. GROUP NORMS
• In the process of interaction, norms or
rules and standards of behavior
emerge in a group. These norms tell us
how members control each other,
which behaviors are allowed and
which are not.
• On the individual level, group norms are
ideas in the minds of members about what
should and should not be done by a specific
 member under certain specified
circumstances.
• On the group level, the group’s norms are
the organized and largely shared ideas about
what members should do and feel, how
norms should be regulated, and what
sanctions should be applied when behavior
does not coincide with the norms.
Different kinds of norms:
a. Written rules – norms that are
codified like professional code of ethics,
or formal written statements that are
meant not to be taken as group rules.
They are enforced by sanctions, both
positive and negative, to ensure
compliance.
b. Explicitly stated norms – norms that
are stated verbally or are easily
recognized by members. (E.g. The very
informal attire of the members inform
the newcomer about what he should
wear to meetings) Explicitly stated
norms may not be the actual norms
practiced.
c. Non-explicit, informal norms –
norms that are neither written nor
explicitly stated, but are understood
by the members to be the way things
should be done. (E.g. the chairman sits
at the head of the table, the
vicechairman next to him)
d. Norms beyond awareness – these
are the norms that are created as if by
osmosis in a gradual, unconscious
pattern. (E.g. greeting the group when
one enters, following a sequence of
activities during meetings and giving a
signal when one wants to speak).
Norms can be changed in several ways:
a. Through contagion – as in dress
style or patterns of speech. Behavioral
contagion is the spontaneous pick up
or imitation of a behavior initiated by
one member of the group.
b. Through influence on the group from
the external environment – involves
efforts from the clients’ environment to
help understand what attitudes and values
ought to be developed and /or maintained
that will improve their social functioning.
(E.g. responsible parenthood and those
that promote changes in women’s
attitudes)
c. Through high-status members who have
earned their “idiosyncrasy credits” by virtue
of their having performed their tasks in the
group very well and therefore are highly
valued.
d. By groups diagnosing their own norms
and modifying them so that they are
compatible with the groups’ goals and
resources. (E.g. serving snacks during
meetings)
e. By outside consultant – An expert may
be invited to help in examining the group’s
needs for change and the methods that
may be employed. Inviting an outside
person, especially if he/she is highly
credible and therefore influential can
reinforce the worker’s already on-going
efforts in relation to the situation.
f. Through group discussion – Since the
group itself established the norms through
interaction, it follows that they can also be
changed through the same. The helping
person creates the kind of group
atmosphere that makes for an open
discussion of the need to modify or change
norms. It is useful not only for changing
norms but for consensus building and
decision-making.
g. By those with high self-esteem and
who are willing to take risks – the person
in the group who has high self-esteem may
not necessarily be one with “idiosyncrasy
credits”. It is important that this person is
secure enough about himself/herself as to
be prepared to accept whatever might be
the consequences of trying to change the
group’s norms.
8. STATUS
• Refers to one’s rank or standing in the group
based on any or all of the following:
a. The person’s closeness to the center of the
web of communication in the group;
b. The carrying on of a particular kind of
activity or maintaining a certain level of
activity;
c. The person’s position in the web of
communication and the kind of job he does
• The concept of rank or status is based
not on interaction or relationship with
other group members but on some
characteristics possessed by the
person. One can rank people according
to age, intelligence, wealth, position,
etc.
In summary:
Role – expected to do.
Norms – ought to do.
Status – evaluation of worth.