UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DS 113: Development Perspectives II

Module 1: Science, Technology and Innovation for

Development
June, 2020

7/3/2020 1
 Lecture One: Outline
• Conceptual issues: Definition of key concepts:
Science, Technology and Innovation

• An overview of S&T in human history

• The importance of S&T in development

• International technology transfer: challenges and
opportunities
• The role of S&T policies
7/3/2020 2
 Conceptualization of Key Concepts
• Science and Technology are two different but closely
related concepts. Some people use them
interchangeably .
• Science is the body of knowledge about the natural
world (living and non-living) and its functioning.
• It is a systematic study of the physical and natural
things through observation and experiment and
producing knowledge.
• Scientific knowledge is acquired through systematic
observation and experimentation of natural events
(things).
• It can be tested and be used to formulate laws and
principles (for application)-explaining how the natural
world functions.
7/3/2020 3
 Conceptualization of Key Concepts Cont…

• Technology is broadly seen as the application of

knowledge to produce goods and services.
• Two types of technology: Software and hardware (both
are important for promoting development)
• The software technology is the knowledge/skills and
processes used to create and to operate technological
artifacts-engineering know-how, manufacturing
• The hardware technology refers to the tangible things
(material artifacts): tools, equipment, machines
• It also includes the infrastructure/power plants
necessary for the design, manufacture (production),
operation and repair of artifacts (objects).
7/3/2020 4
 Classes of Technology
• Classes of technology include the following:
1. Technology as Objects: Tools, machines, instruments,
appliances, etc.
2. Technology as Knowledge: The know-how
(skills/expertise) behind technological innovation.
3. Technology as Activities: What people do –their skills,
methods, procedures, routines-to solve problems.
4. Technology as a Process: Begins with a need and ends
with a solution-manufacturing method.
5. Technology as a Socio-technical system: the complex
organizational system where people and technology
interact (industrialization process).
7/3/2020 5
 What is Innovation?
• Innovation is the transformation of ideas into new
and useful products or processes. It can be new ways
of doing things.
• It is a new or improved product or process that differs
from previous one

• Innovation is different from Invention which is

associated with discoveries of things.

• Types of innovation: product, process, organizational

or marketing.

• Innovation is linked to competitiveness of national

economies.
7/3/2020 6
 Science and Technology for Development:
A Historical Perspective
• Generation and use of scientific and technological
knowledge has evolved over time in the history of
humankind.
• It is a function of systematic accumulation of such
knowledge.
• Development of S&T is the product of sustained human
quest for getting to know better their natural world.
• The knowledge that the earth was not Flat.
• Also, the knowledge that it is the earth going around
the sun and not the other way changed astronomy
(study of the universe) for good.
7/3/2020 7
 S&T developments can be exemplified in three
sectors: Agriculture, Energy and Industry
(1) Agricultural sector:
• Nitrogen fixation and application of fertilizers
• New strains of seeds were developed –Hybrid corn
• Selective breeding in livestock –led to increased yield
• Industrial revolution– supply of farm implements
hence increased productivity of labor
• The use of tractors, combine harvesters replacing
animals as source of power
• Biotechnology/Genetic engineering–GMOs
• Improved transport/communication–more efficient
movement of food products
7/3/2020 8
 (2) Industrial Sector
• Developments in S&T sector have contributed a lot in
industrial development
• Steam engine: In the 18thC revolutionized industrial
production leading to emergence of factories and mass
manufacture
• Electricity-1860s: Replacing steam engine as a major
source of energy in manufacturing
• Internal Combustion Chamber (ICEs) -1880s: Led to
improvement in transportation sector (Heavy freight
shipping)-the use of petroleum/oil in engines
• Transitor-1940s (electronics): Development of ICT
leading to increased use of robotics in manufacturing
• New/emerging technologies: materials, biotech,
biomedical, artificial intelligence, etc
7/3/2020 9
 (3) Energy Sector:
• Power supply as a limiting factor in economic
production
• Muscle power of beasts and humans (Slaves)
• Power of wind and water
• Steam engine with coal as source of heat
• Invention of electricity as a major energy source
• Development ICEs replacing Steam engine in many
uses-This led to development of automobiles-cars,
trains, tractors, electric motors, etc.)
• Atomic energy –development of nuclear power
plants
• Renewable energy sources-Solar, geothermal etc
7/3/2020 10
 Science and Technology (S&T) in the
Development Process
• Countries of the world are divided into two main groups:
Developed or industrialized and developing or less
developed (the Third World countries).

• The most distinguishing feature between them is the level

of development of S&T, that is, scientific and technological
sophistication.
• Developed countries have been more successful in
generating, accumulating and utilizing scientific and
technological knowledge-promoting development.
• Most developing countries have a very weak science and
technology
7/3/2020
level to their economies. 11
 The Role of S&T in Development Process
• Science and technology are very important inputs
to production, that is, they are factors of
production in their own right.
• Others include land, labor and capital
• S&T raise efficiency and productivity hence
competitiveness of national economies.

• S&T are responsible for knowledge and its

application to produce goods/services or solve a
practical problems-promoting development.
7/3/2020 12
 Illustrations: The Role of S&T in Development
• High levels of S&T development is reflected in
sophistication in industrial products-technology-
intensive products (quality and quantity).
• Increased outputs in key sectors-industries,
agriculture, fishing, mining, health, transport etc.
• High productivity and efficiency in the economic
sectors: energy, transport, fishing, communication,
health, water supply, education, etc.
• Enhanced competitiveness of national economies
• All in all, S&T has changed the way we relate to
one another and the environment.
7/3/2020 13
 Negative Consequences of S&T Development:
• Inequality among countries especially between
developed and developing countries, technological
gap
• Environmental impact leading to unsustainable
development, e.g., climate change, biodiversity,
pollutions, etc.

• Creation of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear,

chemicals, biological
• National securities compromised-spread of
terrorism, hackings, etc.
7/3/2020 14
 Lecture 2 – Technology Transfer Process
• Technology transfer emerged as the most critical issues for
bridging the gap in technology.
• Differences in the level of S&T exist between developed and
developing countries (also within developing countries).
• What is technology transfer (TT)?
• TT is the process of sharing knowledge, skills, techniques and
methods among governments, business entities,
institutions/organizations.
• It is the movement of technological capabilities (software
&hardware) from supplier to recipient of the technology
• TT seeks to ensure that scientific and technological
developments are accessible to a wider users- adapt and
develop new products, processes, applications, materials and
services.
7/3/2020 15
 Technology Transfer Process Cont…

• TT is complex and dynamic process requiring

careful handling for it to be successful.
• It is more than just selling someone a piece of
hardware to use and throw it away.
• It is all about imparting knowledge and skills
(expertise) involved in the whole process.

• Its success should be reflected in enhanced capacity

to adapt technologies and institute systematic
changes in the transferred technology.
7/3/2020 16
 Stages Involved in the TT process
• TT is not a simple transaction (act) it is a long and
complex process, that involves closely and linked
stages
• Each stage involves a number of technical and
managerial tasks to be performed. The stages are:
1. Searching of technology: Identifying alternative
suppliers in the market (technology is owned)
2. Analysis and examination-decision making
3. Negotiation and bargaining-avoid overcharge
4. Actual relocation (transfer).
7/3/2020 17
 Types of Technology Transfer
• The TT can be vertical or horizontal.
1. Vertical transfer: is when technology is transferred
from research organization (public or private R&D,
University, etc.).
2. Horizontal transfer: is when technology is
transferred from one operational environment to
another.
• It is transferred from one entity in specific socio-
economic context to another entity in different
socio-economic context: intra-firm, cross-industry,
cross border-from one country to another.
7/3/2020 18
 The Basic Elements of Technology Transfer
• Transferred item: what is being transferred-
product, process, design or blueprint (hardware or
software)
• Technology owner/supplier: someone with
property rights to the transfer item (technology) in
question and willing to get others have access to it.
• Technology recipient: someone with expressed
need to make use of technology to produce goods
and services.
• Transfer channels: means and ways through which
technology can be transferred.
7/3/2020 19
 Mechanisms for Transferring Technology
• There are a number of ways: Joint ventures
1. Licensing/buying of copyrights
2. Purchasing machines and equipment
3. Joint ventures/global partnership
4. Foreign Direct Investments
5. Exchange programs: bringing experts or scholarships
6. Copying-Reverse engineering
7. Management contracts
8. Research cooperation
9. Turn-key operations
10.Education and training systems
7/3/2020 20
 Some Obstacles/Constraints to TT
1. Appropriateness of technologies being transferred
due to differing socio-economic contexts hence the
need for adaptations.
2. African countries being dumping places for
outdated/obsolete technologies.
3. High costs of technology transfer in terms of both
open and hidden costs-conditions imposed by
suppliers and long-term ties.
4. Global market for technologies being monopolized by
few countries through their multinational companies.
5. Unwillingness or resistance among owners
6. Lack of developed infrastructures
7. Weak bargaining position of LDCs
8. Unprecedented rapid technological changes. 21
 Conditions for Successful TT
1. Ability to control or influence investment decisions,
that is, terms of transfer.
2. Appropriate political framework-good policies
3. Technological adaptation (absorption) capabilities
4. Availability of technical resources systems and
infrastructure (scientific and technological
capabilities)
5. Available managerial skills (human resources base)
6. Vocational skills of the workforce (equipped
educational and training institutions
7. National S&T policies in place
8. Legal and regulatory framework to guide the process
7/3/2020 22
 What can Africa do to Create conducive
Environment for Successful TT?
1. Invest in human resources by promoting science and engineering
education.
2. Create the right kind of institutions-R&D and technology transfer
centers (well equipped institutions-R&D, University .
3. Promoting FDI
4. Establish legal framework to deal with issues of property rights-
intellectual properties-protect innovators)
5. Coordinated public policies-S&T, investment, trade, tax policies,
etc.
6. Develop negotiating and bargaining skills especially when
dealing with MNCs
7. Establishment of Joint ventures with foreign owned enterprises
NB: Address the challenges and create favorable environment for
both horizontal and vertical TT
7/3/2020 23
 Lecture 3:Innovation and Technological
Innovation
An outline
What is innovation?
Innovation system
The role of government in innovation process
Types of innovation
Relationship between technological innovation
and development
Conditions for innovation to take place
Lesson on innovation for LDCs
7/3/2020 24
 What is Innovation?
• Innovation is a new ways of making or doing things
using various resources-human, technical or financial. It
is a change process.
• It is the transformation of ideas into new and useful
products or processes in the society
• It can be product, process, method, organizational or
marketing innovation.
• It is different from invention which is associated with
discovery (something path-breaking).
• Innovation is different from technology in that, while
technology is about “doing different things” innovation
is about “doing things differently”.
7/3/2020 25
 Sources of Innovation
• Innovation is basically a social process coming from
entrepreneurs who make initiate them.
• Entrepreneurs exploit existing knowledge and
technology to produce new products or practices and
disseminate/diffuse them to the economy/society.
• It is a result of interactions among actors involved in
the innovation system
• Innovation depends on receptiveness of the society.
• Something becomes “innovation” when it is
accepted and used by people-something useful.

7/3/2020 26
 Sources of Innovation Cont…

• Therefore:
Innovation comes from the push side i.e. the R&D
that produce knowledge, financial institutions,
infrastructure, policies/incentives etc. (anything
that pushes innovators-that facilitate the
generation, diffusion and use)
Also it comes from the users (demand sides)-
necessity can trigger innovation-what is
demanded in the society can trigger innovation
(foot operated hand washing machines)
7/3/2020 27
 Innovation System
• Innovations are initiated, diffused and utilized within
the innovation system.
• It refers to the network of actors (public and private
institutions) whose interactions generate, diffuse and
utilize new products, processes/methods (innovations)
• Actors interact to bring together the inputs needed to
generate, diffuse and use-technical, commercial
(market), administrative, financial, infrastructure,
competencies and other inputs for innovation.
• The government is the main actor in the innovation
system – it facilitates the innovation process.
7/3/2020 28
 The Role of the Government in Innovation
• Supporting innovators through appropriate
incentives/motivations and other mechanism.
• Promoting infrastructures (transport, power & water)
• Removing various obstacles to innovative initiatives-
tax, laws, regulation, bureaucracy, power etc.
• Establishing responsive R&D institutions-knowledge.
• Formulation of appropriate ST&I policies
• The role of the government is like that of a gardener-
water the plants, remove weeds, apply fertilizer
(prepare the grounds for plants to grow.
7/3/2020 29
 Types of innovation
• Incremental innovation: is the introduction of small
improvements or upgrades to already existing
products, services, processes or methods (a series
of small improvements to existing products,
services, methods, marketing or organizational.

• Major or radical innovation: is when a new

product, service, process or strategy is introduced
and is designed to make a significant impact by
completely replacing existing technologies,
processes or methods.
7/3/2020 30
 Types of innovation Cont…
• Enterprises normally use both incremental and
radical innovation for enhancing their
competitiveness in the market.
• An enterprise can introduce a radical innovation to
the market.
• When it is successful (or not), incremental
innovations are introduced to improve it.
• A type of mobile phone can be introduced to the
market as radical innovations but a series of
improvements can be introduced as incremental
innovations.

7/3/2020 31
 Innovation and National Development
• There is the relationship between innovation and
national development
Provision of new raw materials-plastic bottles
New methods of production-increase output
New technologies reduce cost of production and
enhance competitive advantage
New organizational strategy increases efficiency
and hence productivity
New products to the market raises the economy-
tradable goods
7/3/2020 32
 Innovation and National Development Cont…

Improvement of communication
Improved access to education
Improved wellbeing due to innovation in health
Employment opportunities
Innovation is about finding new solutions to the
problems and offering opportunities of new
activities-these promote both individual and
national development.

7/3/2020 33
 Conditions for Innovation to Take Place
• Innovation is the function of the following factors:
A well developed human resources with requisite
knowledge and skills-innovation use existing knowledge
Developed educational system in science, engineering
and technology
Promoting innovation culture-strategic orientation
towards innovation
Management commitment to innovation (setting aside
budget)
Well developed vocational training institutions
Proper coordination and collaboration of the various
actors involved in the innovation process
7/3/2020 34
 Conditions for Innovation cont.
Enforcement of property rights-patents rights
Expenditures on R&D
Support infrastructure-Research and Development
(R&D) system, technology centers, venture capital
The right policies in place :
 ST&I policies
 Investment policies
 Tax policies
 Trade policies
 STI and industrial policies
7/3/2020 35
 Lessons on Innovation for LDCs (Africa)
• LDCs have the lowest level of Science, Technology and
Innovation
• LDCs need to invest in ST&I for them to reap the benefits of
ST&I in development.
• Measures/actions needed:
 Innovation courses, workshops and seminars
 Innovation days-for innovators to show their innovations
 Motivation for innovators-innovation awards
 Improve human resource base through quality S&T
education at all levels including vocational courses.
 Develop the necessary infrastructures especially R&D.
 Increase expenditures in R&D
7/3/2020 36
 Lecture 4:Science, Technology and
Innovation Policies
• ST&I are critical for promoting national development.
• Countries need ST&I to promote development
• Outline
 Meaning of ST&I policies
 The aims/objectives of ST&I policies
 Importance of ST&I
 The challenges in formulating and implementing ST&I
policies
 Factors influencing successful implementation of ST&I
policies
 Lessons for LDCs
7/3/2020 37
 What are ST&I Policies
• ST&I policies refer to the measures or actions
undertaken by government or public agencies in
generation and utilization of ST&I knowledge for
national development.
• It also refers to the public measures and actions to
facilitate generation, acquisition, adaptation and
utilization of technological capabilities.
• NB: a policy is course of action adopted by
organizations to attain a goal. It is a statement of
intent
7/3/2020 38
 What are ST&I Policies Cont…

• Why ST&I policy-It is critical in promoting ST&I in

order to:
Accelerating economic growth

Eliminating industrial backwardness

Addressing poverty and related development

challenges through ST&I.

7/3/2020 39
 Importance of ST&I Policies in
Development
• Provide framework for mobilizing human and
financial resource.
• Provide framework for planning, coordinating and
monitoring of ST&I activities across sectors and
institutions.
• Setting clear and realistic priorities and targets for
R&D, that is, spell out the rate and direction in
which ST&I can be developed and utilized more
effectively and efficiently in every sector

7/3/2020 40
 Challenges facing ST&I Policies in
Africa
• Poor human resource base in science, technology
and engineering.
• Low level support accorded to ST&I systems as
reflected in low expenditures in R&D.
• Underdeveloped infrastructure for ST&I system.
• Lack of political will or commitment to ST&I
despite political rhetoric.
• Uncoordinated national policies including failure to
integrate ST&I policies with other policies.
• Nonfunctional legal and regulatory framework
7/3/2020 41
 Efforts to Build National ST&I Capacity
• Tanzania, like other countries in Africa and developing
world, inherited weak S&T base and there have been
efforts towards improving it.
• Recognition of the importance of S&T in national
development made the government to develop S&T
through the following efforts:
Institutional building: Faculty of Science, Technical
schools (Ifunda, Moshi), Dar technical College, Faculty
of Engineering (CoET), Faculty of Agriculture (SUA).
Establishment of National Scientific Research Council
NSRC (1968) to coordinate S&T activities.
Formulation of S&T policy in 1985-The first National
Science and Technology Policy, revised in 1996.
7/3/2020 42
 Efforts to Build National ST&I Capacity Cont…

• The 1985 Science and technology policy was

designed under Ujamaa and Self-reliance policies.
• It was influenced by State – led economy.
• By 1996, Tanzania had implemented different
economic and social reforms in the name of
Economic Recovery Programs (ERP I and ERP II)-
following SAPs.
• The reforms necessitated changes in the Science
and Technology Policy, therefore new policy was
adopted in April 1996.
7/3/2020 43
 Efforts to Build National ST&I Capacity Cont…

• Establishment of the Ministry responsible for Science

and Technology.
• The Ministry was established in November, 1990. It
has departments responsible for development of
S&T.
• Its functions include:
Coordinate of R and D
Monitoring of R and D
Carry out R and D.

7/3/2020 44
 The Basic Aim of the S&T policy of 1996
• To solve technology related problems that affect the
development process

• Ensuring that adequate attention and resources are

devoted to promote positive contributions that
technological factors can make.

• To act as a tool to develop and manage S &T in a

manner of consistent with physical and human
endowment

7/3/2020 45
 Efforts to build S&T capabilities cont.
• Establishment of R&D organizations such as:
Tanzania Industrial Research and Development
Organization (TIRDO)

Tanzania Engineering and Design Organization

(TEMDO)

National Institute of Medical Research (NIMR)

Tanzania Agricultural Research Organization (TARO).

7/3/2020 46
 Examples of Other R&D
Natural Resource Research
• Tanzania Forest Research Institute (TFRI)
• Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWRI)
• Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute (TAFIRI)
Food and Agricultural Research
• Centre for Agricultural Mechanization and Rural
Technology (CAMARTEC)
• Tropical Pesticides and Research Institute (TPRI)
• Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre (TENC)
• Sokoine University of Agriculture.
7/3/2020 47
 Examples of Other R&D Cont…

• Transformation of NSRC into Tanzania

Commission for Science and Technology
(COSTECH) with a wider and clear mandate to
coordinate and promote S&T in the country.

7/3/2020 48
 ST&I Policies: Lessons for Africa
• Improve environment for technology development,
adoption, adaptation and diffusion throughout the
national economy.
• Increased public support to ST&I for national
economic growth and competitiveness-invest in
education.
• Governments should double their efforts to
modernize and strengthen the nations’ workforce
and public infrastructure.

7/3/2020 49
 .
• Identification of appropriate/relevant technology
for development e.g. focus on rural and agricultural
sector- what kind of technology
• Put more efforts to assist innovations –favorable
environment
• Support R&D on technology -effective
transportation & communication systems in rural
areas to diversify rural economy
• Able to improve human environment-eradicate
hunger, diseases and other problems
• To be creators /producers of technology not only
users, that is to adapt or assimilate to suite local
needs/demands
7/3/2020 50