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Emerging Practices of Compact City Planning and Development

Student’s Name
Institution
Course
Instructors Name
Date
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Table of Contents
Abstract......................................................................................................................................4
Emerging Practices of Compact City Planning and Development............................................5
Chapter 1: Introduction..............................................................................................................5
1.1 Background of the Study..................................................................................................5
1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Research..............................................................................8
1.2.1 Aim of the Research..................................................................................................8
1.2.2 Objectives of the Research........................................................................................8
1.3 The rationale of the Research...........................................................................................8
1.4 Structure of the Dissertation.............................................................................................9
Chapter 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................10
2.1 Environmental Legislation.............................................................................................11
2.2 Energy Legislation.........................................................................................................12
2.3 Legislation on Competition............................................................................................13
2.4 Urban Land Use.............................................................................................................14
2.5 Transport Policy.............................................................................................................15
2.6 Evolution of Planning....................................................................................................16
2.7 Population Distribution..................................................................................................17
2.8 Sustainable Growth and Comprehensive Reforms........................................................18
2.9 Decentralized Urban and Regional Planning.................................................................20
3.0 Regional Development Models......................................................................................21
3.1 Integration of Emerging Trends.....................................................................................22
3.2 Engaging with Local Communities and Civil Society...................................................23
3.3 Lifecycle Approach and Urban Spatial Development...................................................24
3.4 Urban Regulation Fundamentals....................................................................................25
3.5 Emerging Trends in Urban Spatial Development..........................................................27
3.6 Role of Technology in Urban Spatial Development......................................................28
3.7 Planning and Policy Challenges.....................................................................................29
Chapter 3: Research Methods..................................................................................................30
3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................30
3.1 Research Design.............................................................................................................30
3.2 Sampling Population and Sampling Techniques............................................................31
3.3 Research Instrument.......................................................................................................32
3.4 Research Ethics..............................................................................................................33
3.5 Data Collection...............................................................................................................33
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3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation......................................................................................34

Chapter 4: Results....................................................................................................................35
4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................35
4.1 Participant Demographics..............................................................................................35
4.1.1 Gender.....................................................................................................................35
4.1.2 Age..........................................................................................................................36
4.1.3 Years Worked in the Organization..........................................................................36
4.2 Urban Spatial Planning..................................................................................................37
4.2.1 Reforms Attracting Efficient Urban Spatial Forms................................................38
4.2.2 Emerging Trends in Urban Spatial Development...................................................39
4.2.3 Decentralized Urban Planning Strategies................................................................40
4.2.4 Government Policies and Urban Spatial Development...........................................42
4.2.5 Role of Technology in Urban Spatial Development...............................................43
4.2.6 Indigenous and Local Knowledge...........................................................................45
4.2.7 Challenges in Planning............................................................................................46
4.2.8 Issues Addressed by Spatial Planning.....................................................................47
4.2.9 Planning Applications by Type of Development....................................................49
4.10 Time Taken To Approve Spatial Planning Applications.........................................50
4.11 Housing Units Granted Planning Permission...........................................................51
Chapter 5: Discussion..............................................................................................................52
5.0 Introduction................................................................................................................52
5.1 Discussion..................................................................................................................52
Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations........................................................................55
6.0 Introduction................................................................................................................55
6.1 Conclusion..................................................................................................................55
6.2 Recommendations......................................................................................................56
References................................................................................................................................58
Appendix 1: Questionnaire......................................................................................................79
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Abstract

Spatial planning and development is a topic that has been associated with

numerous research since the rise of cities across the globe. Cities have constantly evolved

since their introduction, a factor that propels a large proportion of research into urban spatial

development. The purpose of the research was to assess spatial development approaches and

principles aimed at creating conducive cities. The research focused on determining new

insights on urban spatial development due to the evolution of cities evident across the globe.

The research was conducted on a sampling population of 50 individuals who worked at

various urban spatial development departments. Participants were recruited through

convenience and snowball sampling techniques. A significant proportion of the research

results agreed with past research assessed through the literature review. The research

provided new insights by revealing that comprehensive reforms associated with

transportation, land, industrialization, and the service industry tend to influence the number

of individuals who are interested in developing urban areas. Government policies involving

land, housing, energy, infrastructure, and economy influence the level of success that will be

associated with any urban spatial planning project that is undertaken. However, urban spatial

planning results in numerous benefits, which are evident through the construction of major

commercial and residential buildings, which positively impact the economic status of a large

proportion of individuals and aid in providing convenient housing. Urban spatial planning

aids in addressing waste disposal, transportation, security, health, and energy-related

challenges, which have a high probability of occurring in any unplanned city under

development. Positive impacts associated with urban spatial development have led to the

emergence of new trends evident through the rise of compact cities, urban green areas, and

urban classes. It is important to perform thorough research before getting involved in any

urban spatial planning-related project to avoid facing disappointments.

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Emerging Practices of Compact City Planning and Development

Chapter 1: Introduction

Spatial planning is a technique deployed by the public sector to influence the future

distribution of activities in space. Spatial planning is an important concept aimed at creating a

conducive environment among individuals who will reside in a particular city. The current

century has been characterized by a huge rural to urban migration among individuals mainly

to improve their economic aspect of life (Reimer et al., 2014). A higher rate of urbanisation

has resulted in countries facing constant pressure, which has led to the development of weak

planning systems and unsound spatial development approaches (Gollin et al., 2016). There

exist cases where a large proportion of cities across the world are characterized by numerous

challenges which arise as a result of poor spatial development techniques. Assessing spatial

development approaches and principles aimed at creating conducive cities is an approach that

will aid towards the development of cities characterized with few avoidable challenges.

The research aids in providing new insights associated with urban spatial

development. The research will enable one to understand if there are new policies that have

been introduced that negatively impact urban spatial planning. The research also aids in

identifying whether there are new challenges that have negatively influenced urban spatial

planning over the recent years. Since new trends are always emerging after a specific period,

the research will aid in assessing whether there are new trends that have emerged from urban

spatial development. Finally, the research aids in assessing and providing a strategy aimed at

achieving justifiable and conducive cities.

1.1 Background of the Study

Urbanization plays multiple functions in a society, and it is caused by various factors.

According to Gollin et al. (2016), economic motives are the major propellers of a large influx

of many people in urban centres. The rise of industrialization was a major factor that resulted
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in a huge migration of individuals from rural to urban centres so that they could fulfill their

financial desires. Jedwab and Vollrath (2015) argue that political and social motives are

significant causes of urbanization. Many urban areas offer an environment that is conducive

for better living standards through their education, healthcare, housing, and recreation

facilities which attracts a significant proportion of individuals in rural areas. Better living

conditions in urban areas have also been the major reason why people migrate from areas

characterized by civil unrest (Jedwab & Vollrath 2015). Urban centres attract many people

due to economic, political, and social factors, and the process results in both positive and

negative impacts among the residents based on the planning of the urban area.

Spatial planning is a concept that is primarily aimed at achieving a conducive

environment among its inhabitants. According to Hersperger et al. (2018), spatial planning is

undertaken to achieve a more rational land usage by balancing development demands,

environment conservation, and social-economic prosperity. Planning systems play an

important role in creating an environment that enables local communities to engage in

development decisions and activities (Hersperger et al., 2018). Williams (2017) states that the

major purpose of spatial planning is to achieve the economic prosperity of individuals

associated with a particular region before and after it becomes an urban area. Effective spatial

planning has resulted in an environment where numerous employment opportunities in a

particular state are located in centres that are characterized by large populations (Williams,

2017). Spatial planning is a critical subject that requires a high level of seriousness and

concentration among individuals involved in the planning process to achieve decent and

modern cities across the globe.

Spatial planning has evolved with the evolution of human consciousness. The

evolution of spatial planning is usually accompanied by a desire to solve challenges that were

evident in previous spatial planning forums. Forecasting is an important element that has
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evolved based on spatial planning. Getimis and Giannakourou (2014) indicate that forecasts

on urban land usage have evolved based on an increase in numerous variables that continue

being added to the prediction model. Technology and social inclusion are some of the major

variables that have been receiving more emphasis in spatial planning forecasts over the past

century (Getimis & Giannakourou, 2014). Climate has also contributed to the evolution of

spatial planning. According to Hurlimann and Wilson (2018), understanding how cities

respond towards certain climate changes is one of the essential aspects that is used in

projecting long-term trends in both urban land cover and population distribution to ensure

that cities will provide conducive environments for future generations. Extreme weather

events have a reputation for causing damages to both infrastructure and any form of life

associated with the affected region (Hurlimann & Wilson, 2018). Security is also a concept

that resulted in the evolution of spatial planning. Forms of theft have evolved with the

evolution of cities, which makes it necessary for spatial planning to include advanced

techniques of achieving public security (Reimer et al., 2014). Spatial planning is a concept

that will continue evolving based on the trends that have been observed since the formation

of ancient cities.

Various trends have emerged from urbanization. Urbanization has attracted both local

and foreign investments. Urbanization has proven to be one of the important determinants of

economic status, which has increased the desire to invest in areas that exhibit the potential of

being urban centers (Sun et al., 2017). The rise of urbanization has led to the discovery that

cities generate a higher rate of economic growth when compared to rural areas. According to

Polinesi et al. (2020), urbanization has led to a discovery that cities can serve as nodes of the

global economy circuit, which has resulted in a rise in urban centers serving as transit centers

for certain commodities which are traded internationally. Cities also create a conducive

environment that enables a country to conduct business deals with other countries and thus
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contributes to the global economy (Polinesi et al., 2020). Urbanization has resulted in a

significant proportion of individuals migrating from cities to low-density suburban areas

(Salvati & Zambon, 2019). Various factors such as the evolution of the transport industry,

affordable housing, mortgage loans, security, and retirement have resulted in migration out of

the city (Salvati & Zambon, 2019). The emergence of various trends from urbanization has

significantly contributed to spatial planning. The planning process of a city incorporates

lessons that have been learned from trends that have emerged from cities.

1.2 Aims and Objectives of the Research

1.2.1 Aim of the Research

The research aims at determining spatial development approaches and regulatory

principles that are effective in the pursuit of justifiable, compact, and socially inclusive cities.

1.2.2 Objectives of the Research

The research will be driven by four objectives which are provided below.

1) To critically review the literature on urban spatial development, emerging trends in

spatial development, and the challenges encountered.

2) To explore benefits and current emerging trends associated with urban spatial

development.

3) To determine challenges encountered during urban spatial planning.

4) To provide an appropriate concept that generates a segmented or fragmented urban

spatial mapping framework.

1.3 The rationale of the Research

The research results will provide strategies that are effective in creating cities that are

characterized by few or no challenges. The research results will also lead towards the

proposal of strategies that lead towards the development of conducive cities that foster social,

political, and economic prosperity. All parties that are essential in the spatial planning
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process will be identified by the research. Through the research, planners will understand the

role technology plays in urbanization and how they can use data from previous urban centers

to create attractive and effective future cities. The research also acts as a blueprint for

individuals who will undertake similar research in the future.

1.4 Structure of the Dissertation

The dissertation is divided into six chapters. The first chapter introduces the research

topic by providing a background of urban spatial development, listing the aims and objectives

of the research, and justifying why it was important to undertake the research. The second

chapter is the literature review which critically reviews the literature on urban spatial

development, emerging trends in spatial development, and the challenges encountered. The

third chapter is the research methods section which indicates the methods and techniques that

were incorporated in the research to facilitate data collection and analysis. The fourth chapter

is the results section which presents the results obtained after an analysis of participant

responses. The fifth chapter provides a discussion of the research results. The final chapter is

the conclusions and recommendation section, which provides key points obtained from the

research, determines whether the research aim was met, and provides recommendations based

on the research results.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review

This chapter will focus on the policies and legislations put in place by governments

and organizations like the United Nations to ensure the comfortable lives of people while

making the environment productive and healthy. The legislations that are internationally used

to protect the environment include environmental legislation, energy legislations, urban land

use, legislations on the competition. To support these legislations are policies that are

implemented by many nations and organizations like the transport policy, urban planning,

population planning, and growth in urban areas. All these policies and legislations are put in

place to enhance the steady growth of the urban regions while ensuring zero negative effects

on the environment. More attention is focused on urban planning since the development of

the urban areas from just towns to cities and the development plans employed by regions for

their development are covered in this chapter. Different regional planning models and ways

that are to be employed to integrate emerging trends into development plans should be made

known to all urban development planners.

The main reason why urbanization is important is to help people live comfortable

lives hence methods that are used to ensure local communities are involved in development

plans are discussed in the chapter. Local communities in urban areas are important in helping

the place develop swiftly; therefore, it is essential to involve the local people in all

development plans. In general, all rules and legislations involved in all stages of urbanization

are clearly brought out in this part of the project. The environmental legislation, legislation on

competition, land-use policies, and energy legislations covers the most important aspects of

urban development. Environmental legislation has regulations that help in urbanization and

ensure that people live comfortably in the same environment.

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2.1 Environmental Legislation

It is factual that the process of urban spatial development may be harmful to the

environment and sometimes to living things in the environment. While developing cities and

towns, it is important to remember that the cities and towns should not be turned into deserts

in the process. Environmental legislation was established to enhance efficient urban spatial

development by ensuring the safety of people in the environment while maintaining the

environment. Environmental legislation provides solutions to major problems that arise

during urban spatial development like waste management, food production, water reserves

maintenance, pollution control, and how to do mining in the cities.

According to Allen and You (2008), environmental legislation is a set of rules and

regulations set to ensure that water and air quality are maintained at the highest quality

possible. The rules also regulate how other environmental factors like wildlife and minerals

are preserved. In general, environmental legislation is a broad umbrella covering rules and

regulations that govern the relationship between humans and the environment (Juntti et al.,

2021). Numerous studies have examined crucial spatial features of city arrangements and

conversed in what way they disturb cities’ performance concerning mobility (Gibelli et al.,

2018), energy and supply effectiveness (Wei, 2018), environment variation mitigation, and

reworking (Gurran, 2011), and biodiversity and ecology services (Warren et al., 2017),

eventually defining their sustainability. Urbanization, being one of the biggest social

transformations, is driven by economic, social, and environmental processes (Bai et al.,

2014). Therefore, environmental legislation ensures that urbanization is done in a way that

will not deplete natural resources or cause eventual harm to other people. It does that by

controlling the negative effects of urbanization like air pollution, water pollution,

biochemical cycles, and solid waste (Grimm et al., 2008).

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Environment legislation plays an essential role in the outlook of an urban area since it

governs how the Land is used. It shows areas allocated for roads, buildings, and other social

amenities. Rules to be followed when trying to acquire natural resources like land and

minerals are also provided under environmental legislation, with areas belonging to the

public highlighted with a notice refusing private ownership for them (McPhearson et al.,

2016). According to Van der Heijden (2014), environmental legislation is different in

different regions or cities, with bigger cities having more strict rules than smaller towns. This

is because bigger cities produce more waste products than smaller ones. The debate about air

and water pollution has been going on for quite some time now, and this puts pressure on the

government to make environmental legislation to be tighter. Suppose a biochemical company

wants to construct a factory in an area, more strict measures will be taken against the

company, and more safety measures will be put in place to ensure the company does not

destroy the environment. We can therefore see that environmental legislation promotes

urbanization, as long as the urbanization is done within safe levels that will ensure the

environment is safe.

2.2 Energy Legislation

The global demand for oil and other forms of energy will remain high for a long time.

Therefore, it is crucial that developing areas implement methods on how management of

natural resources is achieved. For this reason, energy legislation is implemented globally to

ensure swift spatial development while ensuring that the energy resources are exploited

carefully. Environmental legislation helps in environmental mapping. Environmental

legislation also helps in elimination of poverty in all forms while promoting economic

growth. Therefore, it is important to look into environmental legislation since this is a critical

element in the promotion of urban spatial development.

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Energy legislation is a set of rules pertaining to energy activities. Energy activities

like advanced nuclear, long-term energy storage, geothermal energy, and carbon capture are

all covered under the energy legislation (Qiu & Li, 2012). According to Hess et al. (2016),

energy legislation was established to ensure that we don’t use energy to cause harm to people

or the environment and to ensure it provides equal opportunities for people to acquire energy.

The energy that can be used for mass destruction like nuclear weapons is restricted to the

general population. Energy legislation has strict rules because any mistake by the energy

department of any area will either lead to death or stop significant economic and social

activities.

Thumann and Mehta indicate that energy is an important part that can be used to

speed up development, but redirecting it to achieve this role requires several policy changes,

which are kept in the energy legislation (2020). Being in the information age, we can see how

vital energy is to us. Electricity, as a form of energy, is used to run electronics that connect us

to the internet, which has proved to be useful in every aspect of life (Yang 2017). Any

interference with electricity is enough to cause an urban center to stop many activities within

it. It is also by using this electric energy that we can make new discoveries through

innovative experiments (Hansen et al. 2020). The energy sector in any country is a source of

many employment opportunities, and this leads to development because employed citizens

will help develop their neighborhoods.

There is a worldwide fear for nuclear weapons due to their potential to destroy large

areas and lead to a high death toll. No third-world country is allowed to possess a nuclear

weapon as internal conflicts are common in third-world countries, and with a nuclear in their

hands, they can cause a high level of destruction due to impulsive decisions. Even countries

allowed to possess nuclear weapons limit how many weapons they can have (Dunham and

Schlosser 2017).
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2.3 Legislation on Competition

There is constant rise and fall of business empires and companies in all developing

urban centres in the world. Therefore, competition among businesses and companies need to

be controlled to enhance healthy competition while providing the best quality to their clients.

Legislation on competition ensures low prices for everyone, better quality of goods in the

market, more choices of goods in the market, innovation of better goods and services, and

attract better competitors in global markets. Therefore, legislation on competition is an

important arm of development that should not be ignored.

Competition officials regularly try to protect the public from anticompetitive special

interest legislation. They are justifiably jaded about complaints of excessive competition. As

one court observed, ‘Entertaining claims of excessive competition would undermine the

functions of the antitrust laws.’ This is especially relevant in an economic crisis when

competition is an attractive target. Although the economic crisis has prompted some

policymakers to reconsider basic assumptions, the virtues of competition are not among them.

Nonetheless, to effectively advocate competition, officials must understand when competition

itself is the cause, not the remedy, of the problem. Market competition, while harming some

participants, often benefits society. But does competition always benefit society? This is

antitrust’s blind spot.

One could argue that the problem is not economic competition per se but poor

regulatory controls. This is a valid point. Part of competition’s appeal is that no consensus

exists on its meaning. Competition does not exist abstractly but is influenced by the existing

legal and informal institutions. A chicken–egg dilemma follows: Is the problem with the

competition itself or the legal and informal institutions that yielded this type of competition?

One’s view depends in part on one’s ideological reference point—namely, the belief of

competition existing outside a regulatory framework, necessitating governmental intervention

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in the marketplace versus the belief that regulatory forces help create and define competition

in the market, necessitating improvements to the legal framework. Me policies that ostensibly

restrict competition are justified for promoting competition.

Intellectual property rights, for example, can restrict competition along some

dimensions (such as the use of a trading name). But the belief is that intellectual property and

antitrust policies, rather than conflict, complement one another in promoting innovation and

competition. Likewise, contractual non-compete clauses are justified for their pro-

competitive benefits. Each individual is the best judge of what subserves his own interest, and

the motive of self-interest leads him to secure the maximum of well-being for himself; and,

secondly, since society is merely the sum of individuals, the effort of each to secure the

maximum of well-being for himself has as its necessary effect to secure thereby also the

maximum of well-being for society as a whole.

2.4 Urban Land Use

Land use in urban development has brought an emphasis on the policy of spatial

development and policy structures in the development of urban landscapes. According to

Cortinovis et al. (2019), there is no proper data that is pertinent to the theoretical

comprehension of the influence of urban development in terms of land use and the changes

that are present. In understanding the part played by urban spatial development in land use,

Berisha et al. (2021) clearly differentiate the different aspects of the purpose explained by the

development process in terms of planning. This implementation process will be applied in the

execution of the plans, the part played by the peripheral conditions and factors that influence

the execution of those plans. This makes the urban spatial development implementable

through efficient and effective land-use procedures laid prior to the process of development.

Wegener (2021) provides that land use has been one of the primary processes in the changes

that take place in the global environment. The study by Wegener (2021) regarding land use
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has progressively developed to assess interactions that occur dynamically in the ecosystem

from the previous emphasis on land use patterns. This context creates a comprehension of the

application of land in the urban spatial development from factors like technological, social,

political, economic, as well as cultural conditions.

According to Hersperger et al. (2018), land use in the process of urban spatial

development is all part of a complex and large system that integrates the demographic

conditions. In the affirmative, the land use is not strictly limited to the urban areas and

therefore has a great influence on the lands in the rural areas. This analysis, therefore,

prompts proper consideration in terms of the applicability and the changes that the land

undergoes during the development phase. Urban spatial planning can be seen as an activity

with numerous dimensions through the planning, purpose, the effectiveness of land use, as

well as strategic planning on the impacts of the application of the land (Zhu et al. 2019).

Therefore, promoting urban spatial planning with the development of sustainable plans and

urbanization schemes is inevitable when it comes to general urban development.

2.5 Transport Policy

Transfer policies are instructions about using our transport networks for different

purposes, with the ultimate goal being to enhance urban spatial development (Erikson, 2013).

The transport network of an area determines to what extent the area will develop since

transport is important in almost all urban development sectors. Transport policy shows how

an urban center plans to extend its transport network and provides instructions to ensure

safety during transport (Evans 2017).

The main modes of transport in an urban center are air transport, rail transport, marine

transport, and road transport. There are factors that people consider before deciding on the

mode of transport they prefer; for instance., transporting perishable goods will require air

transport since it is fast. In contrast, transporting machinery is done using marine

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transportation because of the bulky nature of the package. The transport policy insists on

safety first, and in case of f an accident, first aid, and other emergency procedures are

provided (Rappleye 2012). Sustainable transport policies can be very politically sensitive.

These policies need a powerful political commitment to appear and stay on the transport

policy schedule, ensuring that investments in cost-efficient sustainable mobility measures can

endure over the medium to long term.

Transport determines how businesses will run in an area, social activities within the

site, and also a crime. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for an urban area to ensure that

their transport network is on top performance to improve their prospect of faster

development. According to Benson and Jordan (2011), transport policies include

infrastructure policies, pricing, land-use policies, specific public transport policies, and

marketing, information, and communication policies.

2.6 Evolution of Planning

Planning is contained and prioritized within the boundaries of the political and

economic influences. The quantity of land in terms of units in question and the qualities or

constraints available of each portion of the land units available, including the general

considerations of the land use options, make up the planning process (Rondinelli 2019).

Technically, the planning components include the units of land at the disposal, its quality,

scheme of tenure, suitability and probable productivity, demographic circumstances, and

technology level applied in exploiting the resources available in the land. The living

standards and requirements of the individuals who, in one way or another, are impacted by

the process may also be considered part of this list (Dekker et al., 2012).

These components interact with each other in broadcasting the primary alternatives

available for applying the public land. According to Adams (2016), the planning for

landforms is an important qualification in urban and regional development, aiming the

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economic, ecological, and socially sustainable spatial development. Research by Komninos et

al. (2019) provides that at the initial view, it may look surprising to seek clarification on the

aptitude of the concept of planning in directing the urban spatial development when

consideration is made on the degree of detail provided in the planning procedures. This view

outlines different elements such as the strengths, the weaknesses, the opportunities, and

threats expected to be faced.

There is limited research on assessing and evaluating the impact of planning at the

metropolis level due to the excessive nature of the costs involved in the acquisition and

analysis of data of the magnitude at this level. However, research recently carried out by Liu

& Zhou (2021) documents the changing situation of the continuously swelling disposal of

spatial data. This research enables further studies to be conducted by acquiring and analyzing

huge amounts of data cheap and relatively easy.

2.7 Population Distribution

The relationship between the population distribution in the urban areas and the urban

spatial dynamics can strongly occur at countless levels of spatial scales. From the largest

scale of the global spectrum, the modern generation takes a form of an unbalanced shape

through the flow of data and information, finance, products and services, modern technology,

and even labor worldwide (Deng et al., 2021). Some professionals provide both skilled and

unskilled labor through the demographic flow on the worldwide gamut over the international

boundaries. According to Langford et al. (2008), some associations at the small, medium, and

large-scale levels encompass demographic flow between different areas through the indices

of labor markets. This flow is because labor is a major location factor, with its cost changing

with the locations and demographic patterns in a particular region. As such, the flow of labor

is meticulously linked to the spatial patterns of a specific social economy in an area (Deng et

al., 2021).
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According to Aguilera et al. (2011), the present studies have often concentrated on the

circulation and development in the urban and regional void of the factors of social and

economic facets like population. The occurrence of the diversity in spatial development due

to the irregular demographic patterns (Langford et al. 2008) also sees an event of

accumulation and distribution brought about by the attributes of the flow of the demography.

The clarification of the urban and regional spatial planning and development in terms of the

structure of the spatial demographics is a significant guide to the research works and studies

on urbanization. Serrano-López et al. 2019 indicate that there needs to be a continuous and

consistent control of the distribution of the population in the urban areas through the

incorporation of effective and efficient spatial planning techniques and procedures. Through

the effective methods outlined in the urban and regional development schemes, there is a

need for sufficient and controlled population dynamics in the projected urban developments

to allow for equilibrium in sustainable development programs and processes (Ribeiro et al.,

2021). As such, the demographic patterns should be chiefly anxious about the challenges of

the labor shortages, improper connectivity, and the complex associations that exist between

the stakeholders of the development and planning programs.

2.8 Sustainable Growth and Comprehensive Reforms

There are different aspects of sustainable growth and reforms that have been

comprehensively designed to govern the development of urban spatial planning. Carmichael

et al. (2019) indicate three facets of sustainability that are variedly applied in urban

development programs. These include economic, ecological, and social sustainability.

According to Wang et al. (2020), examining the relationship between the principles of

financial solutions and social and environmental challenges and problems is often done by

sustainability and sustainable progress, including the theoretical applications of the most

significant discussions on sustainable growth. Ecological sustainability consists of the

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measurements done in-field and extended regional degrees of studies on the material flows

and alterations in the context of urban spatial development (Rondinelli 2019). According to

Sturiale & Scuderi (2019), ecological sustainability is emphasized in conjunction with the

environmental issues that affect the land directly. Therefore, environmental sustainability can

be regarded as protecting the environment (Wang 2021). There can be a mention of the

ecological sustainability research in the transition of the environment in the global spectrum,

all of which puts a lot of emphasis on the flow of materials resulting from the production of

huge factories and destruction of the environment (Ye et al. 2021). Nevertheless, the

sustainable development concept has not been assessed in terms of theoretical considerations,

only taking a great portion on the actual problems that are faced environmentally (Carmichael

et al. 2019). Wang (2021) indicates that urban planning conclusions are therefore being made

concerning ecological sustainability as a pillar in providing the testimony and evidence to the

issues faced in the environment and an apt assessment of these issues.

Economic sustainability in terms of urban and spatial development acts as a

theoretical measurement that depicts resemblance to the data on ecological sustainability

(Grimm et al., 2008). This economic sustainability implies that there can be a formation of

sustainable economic development and progress through more inputs on the idea that create

the theories of evolution and economy. According to Sturiale & Scuderi (2019), having a

growth in the economy does not necessarily imply that the living standards are better. As

such, the sustainable development in terms of the economic considerations that pertain to the

profitability function in coming up with more sufficient and sustainable growth.

There is also a representation of socially sustainable development in urban spatial

development. There are critical debates on the general problems that affect the urbanization

process socially from the perspective of the theories and ideas mentioned (Wang et al. 2020).

A significant factor in social sustainability development is the variation between social

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sustainability and socially justifiable growth. The former is greatly associated with the

product in terms of economic dimensions. However, the emphasis is removed by creating

more space for social factors like poverty (Ye et al., 2021).

2.9 Decentralized Urban and Regional Planning

The decentralization of development is particularly relevant for urban and regional

planning (Ruszczyk 2021). According to Firman (2003), there is, therefore, a discussion on

the rescaling of the political balances and the countless planning responsibilities that interact

within the different scales of the planning system (Fuseini 2021). Various research works and

studies have shown that the decentralization of urban and regional planning has proven to be

one of the most significant movements in the planning and development of metropolitan

regions. However, some researchers have shown a dip in urban planning. According to Kwon

(2021), there have been flaws associated with the decentralization of the planning procedures

and programs, inclusive of the factors such as the assumption of economic efficiency

measures, proper governance, and identity. These concepts are essential in this scale of

activities and should be given utmost consideration without being left out in the urban spatial

development.

Gokhale & Kapshe (2016) postulate that there is a need for the propositions on the

planning for urban development in improving the social capital and participation of every

aspect associated with the urban and regional development. About these concepts, the

achievements of the competitive advantage and efficiency in developing urban and regional

plans through the applications of strategies and action plans that promote the increasing and

constant prospective growth (Kwon 2021). Some approaches have been founded on a local

scale for urban and regional development planning and are highly expected to succeed

through their multifaceted associations with various segments and the synchronization of

different factors within the social scope (Gokhale & Kapshe 2016). Despite this approach of
 22

rescaling the urban levels of development being important, some techniques are being

considered concerning the political spectrum through the definition of relations that exist.

According to Fuseini (2021), there is significance in documenting the numerous ways

different regions rely on the geographical associations involving the economic activities

within the localities.

3.0 Regional Development Models

Regional development provides aid to less economically developed regions due to

physical phenomena like floods or civil wars (Abankina 2013). Regional development might

be local or international. Regional development models identify a range of factors that affect

the development of an urban area. Spatial development is a complex process, and it has

several dimensions which are related and yet different. There have been several development

models, none of which has been universally accepted as the best model for development.

According to Moulaert and Mehmood (2010), the most popular regional development models

are; western liberal development model, the western development model, the socialist

development model, the democratic-socialist development model, Gandhian development

model, and sustainable development model. These development models have different

principles and are adopted in other regions.

Western liberal development model emphasizes that societies have to undergo

political development as a condition for economic growth. Organizations undergo changes

from traditional development to modern development, and the main principle of this model is

its support for human rights (Danson and Lloyd 2012). The welfare development model

advocates the state's role in the economic development of urban centers by promoting socio-

economic and common interests of the society. In turn, people are asked to act in a socially

responsible way. The Socialist development model is where several socialists advocate their

views on development goals. However, the democratic-socialist development model supports

 23

development by using democratic means to secure socialist goals. Most third-world countries

have adopted this development model, with its disadvantage being the slow growth rate. The

Gandhian development model is different from others because it advocates moral

development and social ethics as the main factor for development (Camagni 2017). Non-

violence is seen as the basis of all decisions made regarding the product. Lastly, the

sustainable development model is the most popular in the world. It seeks to promote

development without disturbing the quality of life by maintaining a healthy relationship

between human needs and natural resources. It ensures that natural resources are being

preserved as long as development continues.

3.1 Integration of Emerging Trends

The 21st century has witnessed great technological advancement, with many

technological discoveries made. The rise of social media has made sharing of information

very efficient in a short period. Technological advances are ever-changing and improving,

requiring frequent integration of changing or emerging technologies in development plans

(Misra and Makud 2009). These technologies have improved many development sectors like

the business sector, transport sector, security sector, entertainment sector, farming sector,

communication sector, and many more. However, some emerging trends must be watched

and integrated into development plans.

Mamjudar (2015) argues that few people had any hopes for the success of artificial

intelligence, but recent improvements in this technology have shown a massive prospect of

giant leaps in development. The AI, combined with machine learning, can be a powerful tool

used to run businesses, control, store information, control security, and hence overturn

economies (Onyema 2019). Many countries have research facilities tasked with improving AI

technology to make it suitable for the country's development. Another emerging trend that

has taken the world in a storm is the 5G network. The network speed of the 5G network has
 24

outpaced that of previous networks. The network offers businesses and other developing

sectors a foundation to embrace upcoming technologies. It has also made communication to

be better due to its speed.

Many countries have either adopted the 5G network or are working towards acquiring

it, although some argue it has negative effects because it produces harmful radiation

(Anthony et al. 2020). Digital health is another emerging trend that has risen due to Covid-19.

This 5G is a technology that is used to detect whether a person has the Covid-19 virus or not.

This 5G is a technology that will remain with us, and many research facilities are doing

experiments to improve it, trying to make it detect any sickness. In case of this success, this

technology will be crucial to development to prevent outbreaks of diseases (Singh 2019).

This technology will make the action smooth since conditions will be detected earlier and

prevented.

3.2 Engaging with Local Communities and Civil Society

Urban spatial development is a process that involves every member of society. This

process is why it is important to apply the whole community in development plans. The

method of development results in the betterment of every person's standard of life; hence a

place is considered developed when its people have a comfortable lifestyle (Banks and

Hulme 2012). Therefore, a lot of effort is made to involve civil society in development plans,

especially in African and third world countries. This effort has caused the rise of civil society

organizations (CSOs) that focus on strengthening engagement between civil society and

regional areas for better development. Solutions have been formulated to promote social

inclusion, promote social accountability, and advocate for a greater voice by civil society in

development goals (Lang 2012).

Salamon (2010) states that civil societies promote spatial development by bringing up

plans to reduce poverty, upholding human rights, and advocating for democratic
 25

development. These civil societies are crucial in growth due to their strong ability to access,

empower, and defend vulnerable people, triggering social innovation. Some of the methods

that civil societies use to help susceptible people include; providing strategies that will help

achieve food security, promoting sustainable and inclusive economic growth by providing

more employment opportunities. Civil societies can also fight for gender equality by

empowering women and girls and formulating ways to make human settlements safe and

sustainable. Some civil organizations promote development by battling natural resources like

water catchment and forests (Pafenholz 2010).

No urban area can develop independently and achieve sustainability without help,

according to Silver (2010), so local communities are involved in the development by

providing regional views on how to develop. Sometimes, these views provide important

knowledge on the best way to grow. In the current information age, knowledge exists in

different and multiple forms. Most of it is with the local communities, responsible for

researching their areas. Therefore, civil societies do their best to access the local communities

as they also learn how to help develop local regions.

3.3 Lifecycle Approach and Urban Spatial Development.

The life cycle of people in an urban area, according to Mirrabella et al. (2019), is

important in determining the direction of the development of the site. From a life cycle point

of view, a sustainable urban area is one whose residents account for the room's social,

economic, and environmental performance, making decisions that will help improve the

lifestyle of the residents. A sustainable city makes economic and social improvements

without affecting the environmental quality. Environmental sustainability seeks to reduce the

degradation of the environment. Sustainability is measured from the ecological impacts such

as climate change, ozone layer depletion, and other forms of toxicity in the background

(Belusi and Barozzi, 2015). A sustainable area has a high GDP, so its residents don't live in
 26

poverty since poverty is one of the first things that urbanization should eradicate to ensure the

smooth survival of residents in the area. As we all know, poverty is the enemy of

development since growth cannot happen without funds (Francois et al., 2021).

There must be a successful life cycle within the area for development to occur. A

successful life cycle means that we have to find a way to overcome challenges brought about

by the product to maintain the life cycle of residents. The main challenges of a developing

urban region include; water pollution, solid waste, energy wastage, air pollution, and criminal

activities (Kalogiani et al. 2021). It is almost impossible to sustain life in an area where these

challenges are not controlled, so the life cycle of residences is always maintained before any

development plans are made. As we all know, development is done for life sustenance, so it

is expected to plan how to sustain human life before development starts. In many developed

areas, the life cycle is improved by; developing reliable sewage systems, having adequate

water supply, an efficient water network, developing reliable security measures, developing a

gas network for the residents, and creating efficient transport systems (Bastos 2017). These

are just a few ways development is used to make life better and many more methods to

guarantee the continuation of the life cycle.

3.4 Urban Regulation Fundamentals

A wide array of laws, policies, practices, and legislation regulate urban spatial

development in the regional environment. According to Friedman (2020), different

characteristics are available that provide enough description fit for the urban laws and

regulations that govern the procedures that need to be taken to develop regional development

planning. In the affirmative, diverse roles and responsibilities encompass urban plan

financing, urban planning in itself, and the administration, management, and land as a

resource (Palermo 2014).

 27

The developing regions also need a framework of instilled rules and regulations to

facilitate justice and efficiency in coming up with rational and viable decisions regarding

spatial progress. In most situations, the influence of the common technical issues and the

reproduction of the practices that take place in the international boundaries has resulted in

reforms that may be deemed ineffective and unrealistic (Voskresenskaya et al., 2018). In the

assessment made by von Schönfeld & Ferreira (2021), such reforms and guidelines

frequently disdain the regional conditions and miss on new opportunities for the proper

review and modification of the available reforms. The essence of the regulatory reforms and

policies is the advantage of having relevance with the local societal context in terms of

culture and technical comprehension that promotes efficient and effective performance and

execution of the urban spatial development plans.

The present urban laws have failed to fulfill the plans set for particular development

times. Therefore, they create imbalance because they disregard the associations between the

abilities and resources that source for equal opportunities for every individual (Gurran et al.,

2018). Voskresenskaya et al. (2018) postulate that there are significant components of the

regulations and policies that urban development planners can apply to bring out the

complexity of the urban and regional development process that relate to the primary elements

of prosperity and sustainability. Some significant legislative components adopted in

urbanization planning include the creation of development rights, sufficient layouts in plots

and streets, regulations that are linked to the public space, and innovation of codes that

regulate the standards and the quality of constructions and buildings to be built.

3.5 Emerging Trends in Urban Spatial Development

Urban spatial planning is one of the essential equipment used in the sustainable

development of cities, with expected evolution with the dynamic changes that take place with

the reality checks (Berisha et al., 2021). According to Miao et al. 2021, the increased
 28

economic and social improvements have resulted in rapid uncertainty and complexities

leading to spatial planning development. As such, individuals have realized that urban spatial

planning and development should be considered more tactical and all-inclusive equipment for

regulating space. Justifiable advancement through the criticism on the economic,

environmental, and social administration, the promotion of sustainable development

approach, and coherent scheduling and traditional spatial planning (Karadimitriou et al. 2021)

are considered growth schemes rather than growth schemes tools used in departmental

management.

The current trends that emerge under urban spatial planning have been significantly

geared towards the development process, shifting from the previous notion of profit margin

considerations (Singh et al., 2022). The aim for development through the feasibility

consensus between various participants through the analysis of the space development should

surpass that geared towards economic growth. There have been emerging trends in urban

spatial development spanning from the 20th century till date. Some of the trends that arise

include the emphasis on integrating the departments and cooperation of the various resources

and equipment applied in spatial planning. The reorganization of the functions and powers of

the urban spatial development involving the creation of flexible spatial plans and the

implementation of urban spatial planning also computes the current trends in urban

development (Karadimitriou et al., 2021). These emerging trends and current issues are

inspired by the synchronization of the premeditated contexts and action schemes relevant to

the development of different countries worldwide.

3.6 Role of Technology in Urban Spatial Development

In implementing the urban spatial planning and development techniques and

procedures, technology plays a significant role through the integration and coordination of

different mechanisms into the process to promote efficiency and effectiveness. Masik et al.
 29

(2021) outline the part of more accurate surveys brought about by introducing new

technology in urban spatial development. Through the contemporary transformations,

efficient surveys have been conducted aerially through drones that are greatly powered. The

view of the landscape and space can be accurately and more precisely seen, and holistic

approaches are made concerning utilizing the available space.

Technology has also resulted in greener developments through the awareness of the

effect of urban development on the environment (Nitoslawski et al., 2019). the technological

stands emphasize the significance of the green landscape by applying advanced computer

modeling systems that evaluate the impact of urban development on the environment. There

is sustainable development by maintaining the balance between the urge to develop new

urban products and the essence of environmental protection. Repette et al. (2021) postulate

that the introduction of automobiles has increased adjustments in the urban spatial designs.

Accordingly, these have led to the time of growing suburbs, the creation of bigger central

business districts, and the swelling of ring roads along different regions. The growth has been

solely due to the increasing technological trends that have been applied in urban design.

The productivity of urban planning and development has increased with technology

through the disposition of resources. The internet and the internet of things have improved

the design of cities that are friendly to the users and smart streetlights designed to save energy

through self-moderation (Nagenborg et al., 2021). The introduction of cloud technology has

resulted in databases created for particular urban details and assisted in planning huge

infrastructure projects (Berisha et al., 2021). Berisha et al. (2021) add that the application of

virtual reality mechanisms significantly aids in simulating the prospective environment in

urban regions. These visualization techniques facilitate the visualization of probable impacts

of urban processes to the environment and thus proper evaluations and solutions to some of

the problems that may arise.

 30

3.7 Planning and Policy Challenges

During planning and policy formulation in urban spatial development, some

challenges are experienced along the way. Research by Solly (2021) provides that these

challenges are most significant in the development stage of urban areas. The unequal

distribution of income in urban devolution is often the main cause of economic and social

inequalities experienced in urban areas (Stoker et al., 2021). Additionally, the spatial mien of

the challenge of inequality creates border discrimination and exclusion in terms of social

space, greatly attributing the area in the urban context of planning and development.

Martinez‐Fernandez et al. 2012 indicate a need for the diversification of the

international market to effectuate the adept productive matrix in the urban development

schemes, with a great emphasis on the improvement of technology and innovative techniques

to improve the urban economy through productivity increase. There is also a necessity to

promote innovative technological trends in the urban plans to boost the economic

productivity of the postulated urban areas. Andrzejewska (2021) brings out the issues of

segregation and inequality in the labor markets that have taken center stage in the urban

deployments in the contemporary world. The various environmental degradation also is often

associated with urban developments. These challenges imply a need for extra care and policy

formulation that need to be done to ensure that there are enough contingency measures that

facilitate the provision of solutions to the challenges associated with urban and regional

development.
 31

Chapter 3: Research Methods

3.0 Introduction

The following chapter presents techniques that were incorporated in the research to

meet the research objectives. The chapter describes how each technique was deployed and

provides a justification of why the techniques were deployed in the research. Through the

research methodology section, readers are provided with an opportunity of assessing the

credibility of the research after understanding the process behind data collection.

3.1 Research Design

A research design refers to the strategy that a researcher uses to integrate different

components of the research logically. The research will adopt an inductive research approach

when assessing effective spatial development approaches and emerging trends in

urbanization. An inductive research approach will facilitate the process of determining

whether there exist patterns based on an assessment of the research results from various

sources. An inductive research approach was adopted because it frees the research from being

guided by a particular hypothesis which enabled the research to be open to various

conclusions (Azungah, 2018). An inductive research approach enabled the research to

develop research questions based on existing theories and at the same time develop new

concepts based on collected data.

The research adopted a mixed-methods research approach during the data collection

process. A mixed-methods research approach facilitated the incorporation of both

quantitative and qualitative research methods during the data collection process (Halcomb,

2019). Quantitative research methods enabled the research to collect and analyse numerical

data to determine patterns and averages (Halcomb, 2019). Qualitative research methods

enabled the research to collect and analyse non-numerical data (Halcomb, 2019). An
 32

assessment of non-numeric data enabled the research to gain in-depth insights into the

research problem.

Adopting a mixed-methods research approach was appropriate for the research to

obtain both facts and in-depth insights on spatial development approaches and emerging

trends. A qualitative research approach enabled the research to obtain in-depth responses

regarding particular questions. In-depth responses enabled the research to understand

concepts associated with research questions from different perspectives. A quantitative

research approach enabled the research to obtain facts and statistics associated with urban

spatial development and specialization.

3.2 Sampling Population and Sampling Techniques

A sample refers to a set of individuals, objects, or events that have been obtained from

a large population. The purpose of a sampling population is to enable a researcher to possess

the ability to infer the research results towards the entire population where the sample was

derived (Etikan & Bala, 2017). The research relied on a sampling population of 50

individuals who worked at various organization institutes responsible for urban spatial

development. The sampling population was appropriate for the research because it contained

individuals who are familiar with spatial development and the trends they have observed over

the years. The sampling population was, therefore, appropriate to provide answers to the

research questions. The sampling population was obtained from the target population using

the Cochran Formula for sample size estimation (Jain et al., 2015).

Sampling techniques refer to methods that are used by a researcher to recruit

participants in the research. The research relied on non-probability sampling techniques to

recruit participants to participate in the research. Non-probability sampling techniques do not

start with a complete sampling frame which implies that individuals who are included in the

research do not have equal chances of being selected in the research (Sharma, 2017).
 33

Convenience sampling was the first technique that was deployed in the research.

Convenience sampling enabled participants to participate in the research based on their

availability and willingness to take part in the research (Sharma, 2017). Convenience

sampling led to the recruitment of 31 participants. Snowball sampling was the second

sampling technique deployed in the research. The snowball sampling technique was used

after convenience sampling failed to recruit enough participants in the research. Snowball

sampling enabled participants who had participated in the research to recruit other members

who met the inclusion criteria (Sharma, 2017). The snowball sampling technique facilitated

the recruitment of 11 participants in the research.

3.3 Research Instrument

A research instrument refers to a tool that a researcher uses to gather data to fulfill the

aims and objectives of the research. The research relied on an online survey to gather

participant responses. A survey is a research instrument that contains a set of pre-determined

questions on a particular topic (Braun et al., 2020). SurveyMonkey is an online-based site

that the research relied on to conduct online surveys. An online survey was selected as the

data collection tool due to the numerous benefits that were associated with the research

instrument. The first benefit is that an online survey enabled participants to participate in the

research at the comfort of their desired location (Braun et al., 2020). The second benefit is

that an online survey offered participants ample time to answer the research questions

because they were submitting their responses after being satisfied with their answers in the

survey (Braun et al., 2020). An online survey also saved on time and costs that would be

associated with the administration of other research methods (Braun et al., 2020). An online

survey also reduced the level of physical contact with the participants, which increases the

probability of preventing the spread of Covid-19.

 34

3.4 Research Ethics

Research ethics refer to guidelines that help dictate the behaviour of a researcher in

the right direction. Research ethics play a significant role in upholding the credibility of

research and preventing participants from being exploited by a researcher (Dooly et al.,

2017). The research was guided by four main ethical considerations. The first ethical

consideration ensured that the research acknowledged the work of other researchers by citing

where the information being presented had been obtained from their work (George, 2016).

The second ethical consideration ensured that participants were informed of both benefits and

risks associated with their participation in the research (Dooly et al., 2017). The third ethical

consideration ensured that participants participated in the research voluntarily (Dooly et al.,

2017). No incentives or benefits were offered to participants before and after completing the

research. The fourth ethical consideration ensured that participant data was kept confidential

and would not be revealed to any party (George, 2016). All of the ethical considerations

incorporated in the research played a significant role in improving the level of reliability

associated with the research results.

3.5 Data Collection

The data collection process involved steps that were undertaken, from selecting the

research instrument to collecting data from participants. The first step involved selecting an

online survey as the research instrument and designing questions that were to be administered

to participants. The second step involved creating an informed consent form that would be

issued to participants to confirm their voluntary participation. The third step involved making

contacts with participants. Social media sites and traveling were used as the mediums to

contact participants. LinkedIn was the major social media site that was used to recruit a large

proportion of the participants, while a few were recruited by physically visiting their

company’s premises. The fourth step involved issuing the participants an informed consent
 35

form that confirmed their voluntary participation in the research. The fifth step involved

issuing participants with an online link that directed them to a site that contained the online

survey questions. The final step involved collecting data that had been submitted by the

participants.

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation

Data analysis involved the use of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS). Both qualitative and quantitative data were assessed in the research. Descriptive

statistics were used to assess the research results. Measures of frequency were used to analyse

both quantitative and qualitative data. Qualitative responses were first coded to facilitate the

analysis process. Qualitative responses were grouped into categories that shared similar

characteristics. Categories were later assigned codes to facilitate the analysis process through

SPSS. Research results were presented in both figures and tables. The text was used to

explain what the research results that were being presented implied.
 36

Chapter 4: Results

4.0 Introduction

The following chapter presents the results obtained from an analysis of participants’

responses relating to questions associated with urban spatial development and specialisation.

The results obtained from the analysis are presented using two major sections. The first

section presents an analysis of participants’ demographic characteristics while the second

section will present an analysis of variables aimed to fulfill some of the research objectives.

The research was associated with an 84% response rate by managing to recruit 42 participants

in the research. 31 participants were recruited through the convenience sampling technique,

while 11 participants were recruited through the snowball sampling technique.

4.1 Participant Demographics

The research assessed three variables to determine the demographic characteristics

associated with individuals working at various institutes associated with urban spatial

development. Gender, age, and years worked in the organization were the three variables that

were assessed to determine particular characteristics associated with the study population.

4.1.1 Gender

Participants were required to indicate their gender. An analysis of their responses

produced the results below.

Gender

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Male 26 61.9 61.9 61.9

Valid Female 16 38.1 38.1 100.0

Total 42 100.0 100.0

The research revealed that there exists a significant difference when the gender of

employees working at urban spatial development institutions is considered. More than half of

individuals working at urban spatial development institutes are males, while the rest are
 37

females. According to the research, 61.9% of employees at spatial development institutions

are males, while 38.1% are females. The spatial development sector seems to have a high

reliance on men compared to women.

4.1.2 Age

Participants were required to select the appropriate age group which contained their

age. Participants were required to select one of the four age groups that were predetermined

before allowing them to participate in the online survey. An analysis of their responses

produced the results below.

Age

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

18 to 28 years 5 11.9 11.9 11.9

29 to 39 years 15 35.7 35.7 47.6

Valid 40 to 50 years 15 35.7 35.7 83.3

Above 50 years 7 16.7 16.7 100.0

Total 42 100.0 100.0

The research revealed that the age of individuals working in urban spatial

development institutes is distributed across all age groups. Based on the results, around three-

quarters of individuals working in urban spatial development are aged 29 to 50 years. 11.9%

of the employees are aged between 18 to 28 years, while 16.7% are aged above 50 years. The

research reveals that the sector tends to rely on old individuals who incorporate a small

section of young employees hugely. One of the hypotheses that can be used to explain the age

difference in the sector is a high demand for experienced employees in some of the sectors

which are highly associated with the age of an employee.

4.1.3 Years Worked in the Organization

Participants were required to indicate the number of years they had worked in their

current organization. An assessment of their responses produced the following results.

 38

The research revealed that the number of years associated with employees working at

urban spatial development institutes differs depending on multiple factors. The majority of

employees working in urban spatial development have worked at their current working

institutes for around 1 to 3 years. There is also a significant proportion of employees who

have worked for their organization for 5 or 6 years. Both the low and high number of years

worked in the organization can be attributed to the need for new employees that provide new

insights and experienced employees in the spatial planning development sector.

4.2 Urban Spatial Planning

The following section presents an analysis of 15 variables whose purpose was to

assess different concepts associated with spatial planning development.

 39

4.2.1 Reforms Attracting Efficient Urban Spatial Forms

Participants were required to indicate reforms that played a significant role in

attracting efficient urban spatial forms. The purpose of the question was to determine which

sector requires significant reforms for any region to attract efficient urban spatial forms. An

analysis of the participant’s responses revealed that.

Comprehensive Reforms Attracting Efficient Urban Spatial Development

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Transportation 6 14.3 14.3 14.3

Land Policies 16 38.1 38.1 52.4

Valid Service Industry 9 21.4 21.4 73.8

Industrialization 11 26.2 26.2 100.0

Total 42 100.0 100.0

The research revealed that four major comprehensive reforms were undertaken among

areas that participants had witnessed producing efficient urban spatial forms. According to

38% of participants working in urban spatial development, land policies were the major

reforms associated with efficient urban spatial forms. Participants revealed that reforms in

land policies resulted in a clear understanding of land usage rights, transferability, leasing,

donation, and mortgaging, which played a significant role in attracting investors because of a

set of clearly defined rules. 26.2% of employees working in urban spatial development

believed that industrialization policies were responsible for attracting efficient urban spatial

forms. The decision to influence the location of industries based on demand and the

population density of a particular region significantly influenced efficient urban spatial

development. Some of the participants believed that industrial policies facilitated low-cost

space for innovation and high technology manufacturing, which were significant drivers for

successful cities. 21.4% of employees working in urban spatial development believed that

service industry policies were responsible for attracting efficient urban spatial development.
 40

Participants argued that based on the success of industrial service policies over the past

decades, the policies seemed to be significant in creating employment and meeting consumer

markets associated with metropolitan areas, which form a large proportion of elements

discussed in urban spatial development. 14.3% of employees working in urban spatial

development believed that transportation policies were responsible for attracting efficient

urban spatial development. Participants argued that transport policies played a significant role

in attracting both local and foreign investors. Transport policies ensure that everything in a

city will run smoothly, which attracts reputable investors and finally translates to efficient

urban spatial forms.

4.2.2 Emerging Trends in Urban Spatial Development

Participants were required to provide trends that they categorized to be as a result of

urban spatial development. An analysis of their responses produced the results below.
 41

The research reveals that there are four major trends associated with urbanization.

33.33 % of employees working in urban spatial development believe that the rise of urban

green areas is a major trend that is attributed to urbanization. Participants believed that

urbanization has resulted in the evolution of human consciousness, which has led to the

discovery that there is a need for elements contained in urban green spaces that promote

mental and physical health. 28.57% of employees working in urban spatial development

departments believe that the rise of compact cities is the major trend that is associated with

urbanization. Participants believed that benefits associated with urbanization have led to the

need and rise of high residential density and mixed land usage in areas with urban areas and

areas that are projected to become urban areas. 38.2 % of employees working in urban spatial

development departments believe that the rise of urban classes and an increase in the number

of urban areas associated with a particular country are the major urbanisation trends. 19.05%

of the employees believe that the classification of individuals based on their position in a

particular class results from urbanization. Participants provided examples that classified

individuals in urban areas based on upper, middle, working, and lower class to explain how

the classification resulted from urbanization. 19.05% of the employees working in urban

spatial development believed that the rise of numerous urban centres across the country and

the world was the major result trend associated with urbanization.

4.2.3 Decentralized Urban Planning Strategies

Participants were required to provide strategies that were being used to achieve

decentralized urban areas. The purpose of the question was to determine approaches that were

being used to ensure that challenges associated with metropolitan areas. An analysis of

participant responses produced the results below.

 42

According to the research, three major approaches are used to achieve

decentralization in urbanization. 38.1% of employees working in urban spatial development

believe that an urbanization approach based on demand and supply is the major strategy used

to achieve decentralized urban areas. The level of difficulty and high cost associated with

affecting the speed and natural way of urbanization hinders the achievement of decentralized

urban areas through other techniques. 33.33% of employees working in urban spatial

development departments believe that incorporating decentralized urban policies before

urbanization is the main strategy of achieving decentralized urban areas. Participants revealed

that decentralized urban policies revolve around the concept of estimating a country’s

population to be distributed in the entire country, which results in urbanization emerging in a

balanced manner. 28.57% of employees working in urban spatial development departments

 43

believed that using a centralized urbanization approach is the main strategy to achieve

decentralized urban areas. Participants believed that the concentration of urban centres in a

few areas across the country which are rich in resources is the main strategy that is being

used to achieve decentralized urban areas.

4.2.4 Government Policies and Urban Spatial Development

Participants were required to indicate what government policies had a significant

influence in the process of creating cities. The purpose of the question was to identify policies

with a huge impact on urbanization so that they can be improved in the future to attract urban

spatial forms. An analysis of participant responses produced the results below.

Five government policies influence urbanization. 64.29% of employees working in

urban spatial development believe three government policies influence urbanization. Land,
 44

infrastructure, and economic policies make up three major policies influencing urbanization

in any region. Participants believe that to increase or regulate urban centres; governments

decide to implement land policies that influence urban land usage in terms of factors such as

layout, building density, and the rate of changes. Some participants believe that economic

policies play a significant role in influencing urbanization since the government has the

potential to create economic policies that influence the economy of a particular region, which

in the long run influences the number of people that will flow in or out of a particular region.

According to a section of participants, infrastructure policies also play a significant role in

urbanization. Participants believe that infrastructural policies associated with particular

regions influence urbanization by affecting investment decisions. Decent infrastructural

policies attract investors during the onset of urbanization because they are confident that their

investments will be associated with a positive return on investment.

19.05% of employees working in urban spatial development argue that housing

policies play a significant role in influencing urbanization. Participants believe that policies

that revolved around achieving long-term affordable, sustainable, and standard housing play a

significant role in influencing urban spatial development. 16.67% of employees working in

urban spatial development argued that energy policies are the major government policies that

influence urbanization. Participants believe that energy policies that positively influence

various sectors associated with urban centres influence urban spatial development. Areas

associated with energy policies that positively influence other sectors to have high chances of

influencing urban spatial development.

4.2.5 Role of Technology in Urban Spatial Development

Participants were asked to indicate major accomplishments in urban spatial

development that was attributed to technology. An analysis of participant responses produced

the results below.

 45

According to the research, technology is responsible for four major achievements

linked with urban spatial development. 30.95% of employees working in urban spatial

development believe that the major role of technology has been the automation of the

industrial process. Participants revealed that technology had played an important role in

improving quality and efficiency by freeing humans from performing a large proportion of

complex tasks associated with urbanization. 23.81% of employees working in urban spatial

development believe that the main purpose of technology is facilitating instant

communication. Participants believe that technology has provided a medium of instant, fast,

and reliable communication that has facilitated the execution of effective urban spatial

planning strategies. 23.81% of employees working in urban spatial development believe that

technology has improved housing standards. Participants believe that technology is

 46

responsible for an effective transportation system by reducing city traffic. The ability of

technology to guarantee an effective transportation system was attributed as an important

aspect of urban spatial development because it solves one of the challenges associated with

urbanization.

4.2.6 Indigenous and Local Knowledge

Participants were asked to indicate the role indigenous and local knowledge played in

urban spatial development. An analysis of the responses produced the following results.

Participants revealed that local and indigenous knowledge is associated with five

major roles during urban spatial development. 26.19% of employees in urban spatial

development believe that local indigenous knowledge plays an important role in resolving

land conflicts in urban centres or areas projected to become urban centres. 23.81% of
 47

employees believe that local indigenous knowledge plays a significant role during the process

of formulating agricultural policies that will influence the food supply status of a city.

19.05% of urban planning specialists believe that local indigenous knowledge plays an

important role in influencing healthcare facilities that will serve people in the urban centre.

16.67% of urban planning specialists believe that local indigenous knowledge plays an

important role in influencing investment and innovation systems and structures that will be

undertaken to achieve urban centres. 14.29% of the participants believed that urban planning

played an important role in influencing the transportation system that will be associated with

the urban centres.

4.2.7 Challenges in Planning

The research was interested in determining challenges faced by urban spatial

developers during the planning process. Participants identified several challenges, which are

presented below.

Challenges in Planning

Frequency Percent

Individual Land Ownership 8 19.0

Government Support 8 19.0

Technology 5 11.9

Valid Natural Disasters 5 11.9

Indifferences in Drivers 7 16.7

Indigenous Knowledge 9 21.4

Total 42 100.0

Participants revealed that there are six major challenges encountered during the

planning phase in urban spatial development. The majority of urban planning specialists

believe that indigenous knowledge is a major challenge that is encountered during the

planning phase. A significant proportion of the indigenous knowledge that may have been

used to develop previous towns may be outdated or hazardous, which may cause conflict
 48

between the planners and locals. 38% of employees in urban spatial development believe that

individual land ownership and government support are the major challenges during the

planning phase. There exists a significant proportion of land in areas being developed that are

associated with conflicts which makes it difficult to undertake any significant development in

that area. There are concerns by 16.7% of employees urban spatial planning about the

government taking longer to approve certain projects during the planning phase. Existence of

different drivers associated with urban spatial planning results in some of the projects being

prioritized according to their benefits. 11.9 % of the participants revealed that the use of up-

to-date technology and increased chances of natural disasters affecting individuals are major

challenges during urban spatial planning.

4.2.8 Issues Addressed by Spatial Planning

Participants were asked to provide major challenges that they felt were adequately

addressed by urban spatial planning. An analysis of their responses revealed that several

issues had been addressed by spatial planning.

 49

Employees working in urban spatial development believe that 6 major challenges are

addressed by urban spatial planning. The economy of a particular region being developed is

the major challenge that is addressed by spatial planning. Participants believed that the main

issue addressed by urban spatial planning is the economic status of individuals who will

reside in the urban areas. 16.67% of employees in urban spatial development believe that

water, transportation, and health are the major challenges that urban spatial planners focus

their attention on to ensure that the urban that is being developed does not face those

challenges. 14.29% of the employees believe that energy, crime, and security are the main

areas that spatial planning is usually focused on addressing since they play an important role

in determining the level of prosperity of the urban area being developed.

 50

4.2.9 Planning Applications by Type of Development

It was important to assess the type of developments that influence planning

applications to understand the building planning trends taken by interested parties in urban

spatial planning.

The results revealed that four major planning applications influence the type of

development that will be evident in any urban region. Planning applications involving major

commercial buildings are the main influencers of urban spatial planning. 35% of individuals

working in urban spatial development have encountered planning applications that are

associated with the development of major commercial buildings. Residential buildings

significantly influence the type of planning applications encountered in urban spatial

planning. Residential buildings applications are encountered by 61.9% of employees working

 51

in urban spatial planning departments. Major residential buildings also play a significant role

in influencing urban spatial development. 28.57% of employees working in urban spatial

planning have encountered planning applications that involve major residential buildings.

26.19% of employees working in urban spatial development have encountered planning

applications that involve minor residential buildings. Minor commercial buildings play a

small role in influencing spatial planning applications since they are only encountered by

9.524% of employees working in urban spatial planning. Major commercial buildings, major

residential buildings, and minor residential buildings are the main influencers of the type of

planning applications encountered by individuals working in urban spatial planning.

4.10 Time Taken To Approve Spatial Planning Applications

The research required participants to indicate the average time taken to approve

spatial planning applications that have been submitted.

Statistics
Duration to approve spatial planning applications

Valid 42
N
Missing 0
Mean 11.43
Mode 13
Minimum 8
Maximum 15

The results reveal that planning applications take different durations for their approval

based on numerous factors that influence the approval process. The minimum time taken to

approve planning applications is 8 weeks, while the maximum duration is 15 weeks. The

average time taken to approve spatial planning applications is 12 and a half weeks. The

results support the hypothesis that various buildings are associated with different approval

requirements, which results in a significant difference in their approval rates.

 52

4.11 Housing Units Granted Planning Permission

The research was interested in determining the average number of housing units that

are approved yearly.

The research revealed that the average number of household units that are approved

yearly depends on the region under spatial development. The majority of employees working

in urban spatial development tend to be involved in the approval of 250,000 – 400,000

housing units yearly. A small proportion of employees working in urban spatial development

are involved in the approval of 150,000 – 250,000 housing units yearly. The research results

reveal that there exist regular constant developments encountered in urban spatial planning.
 53

Chapter 5: Discussion

5.0 Introduction

The following chapter discusses the research results that were obtained after an

analysis of participant responses. The chapter discusses how various variables incorporated in

the research are related to each other. The chapter also focuses on the main points that were

obtained from the analysis and how they influenced the achievement of the aims and

objectives of the research.

5.1 Discussion

Urban spatial planning is a field characterized by both genders, which are almost

evenly distributed across all ages. A large proportion of employees working in various urban

spatial planning departments are males aged between 29 to 50 years, and they have worked at

their department for around 5 or 6 years. The process of creating conducive cities that will

positively impact its inhabitants is characterized by numerous factors. Implementation of

comprehensive reforms that influence various sectors affecting areas under urban spatial

planning influences the process of developing conducive cities. Comprehensive reforms

associated with transportation, land, industrialization, and the service industry tend to

influence the number of individuals who are interested in developing urban areas. All of the

four sectors tend to directly or indirectly influence activities that will be undertaken by any

party interested in developing an urban area. Emerging trends associated with urban spatial

development aid in visualizing how comprehensive reforms influence investors interested in

developing urban areas. The rise of compact cities, urban green areas, and urban classes are

the major trends that have been linked with urban spatial development.

Creating conducive urban centres is a result of implementing effective strategies.

Decentralized urban planning strategies influence the level of success that will be associated

with urban centres. Adopting a nationwide decentralized urbanization approach that is based
 54

on demand and supply is the main urban decentralized strategy that can be implemented to

achieve conducive cities. The use of technology during spatial planning is a strategy that is

linked with numerous benefits. Technology aids in providing instant communication,

automating the industrial process, and reducing traffic that may be encountered during spatial

planning. It is also important to include local people during the planning process due to the

benefits associated with indigenous knowledge they possess. Local indigenous knowledge

proved to be useful in solving any land dispute that arose during urban spatial planning and

formulating agricultural policies that will influence the food supply of the future city that is to

be developed. Local indigenous knowledge also plays a critical role in influencing the

transportation system, the healthcare sector, and the investments that will be associated with

the future city.

Urban spatial planning is influenced by various factors which determine whether the

city being proposed will be conducive or not. There exist five government policies that

influence urban spatial development in a great manner. Government policies involving land,

housing, energy, infrastructure, and economy influence the level of success that will be

associated with any urban spatial planning project that is undertaken. There also exists some

challenges encountered during the planning process, and some of the challenges are linked to

policies affecting urban spatial planning. Challenges that are encountered in urban spatial

planning arise from issues surrounding individual land ownership, government support,

technology, natural disasters, and indigenous knowledge.

Urban spatial planning results in numerous benefits in areas where a successful

project is undertaken. Urban spatial planning facilitates the development of major

commercial and residential buildings, which positively impact the economic status of a large

proportion of individuals and aid in providing convenient housing among people who reside

in a city. Urban spatial planning addresses various challenges that would be a menace to the
 55

inhabitants of a particular city if spatial planning was not implemented. Waste disposal,

transportation, security, health, and energy are items that may negatively impact residents of

an urban area if they were not addressed during the planning phase.

Approval of spatial planning applications differs depending on various factors.

Investors interested in spatial planning should understand that the average duration associated

with approving spatial planning applications is 12 and a half weeks. The minimum duration

they should expect for approval of their planning application is 8 weeks, while the maximum

duration they should expect is 15 weeks. It is also important to understand that the average

number of housing units that are approved every year is 250,000 to 400,000 units. The high

number of housing units that are approved yearly plays a significant role in providing insights

on why the process of approving planning applications takes long.

 56

Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations

6.0 Introduction

The following chapter presents a conclusion and recommendation section based on

the research results. The conclusion section assesses whether the aim of the research was met

by identifying points from the research that fulfill the purpose of the research. The conclusion

section also provides areas in which the research provided new insights when compared to

results from past research. A recommendations section follows the conclusion section, which

provides suggestions that should be implemented by any party interested in being involved in

urban spatial planning.

6.1 Conclusion

The research results reveal that both the aims and objectives of the research were met.

The research aimed to determine spatial development approaches and principles that are

effective in pursuing justifiable and socially inclusive cities. The research discovered that

decentralised urban planning plays a significant role in achieving socially inclusive cities.

Comprehensive reforms that impact transportation, land, industrialization, and the service

industry influence whether urban spatial planning will result in the achievement of justifiable

and socially inclusive cities. It is also important to implement the use of technology during

the process of urban spatial planning because it aids in solving a large proportion of

challenges that may result in the creation of inconvenient cities or a difficult time during

urban spatial planning. Incorporating local indigenous knowledge is also a strategy that can

be implemented to achieve justifiable and conducive cities. Local indigenous knowledge aids

in solving any land disputes that may arise during urban spatial planning, and at the same

time, it aids in influencing infrastructure developments in the proposed city because a large

proportion of infrastructure associated with conducive cities are tailored to meet the needs of

the local people.

 57

There are various benefits associated with urban spatial planning, which are evident in

the trends linked with urban spatial development. Urban spatial development has facilitated

the rise of major commercial and major residential buildings to address the economic status

and wellbeing of residents in the city. The rise of compact cities, urban green areas, and

urban classes are the major trends that have been linked with urban spatial planning. The

success associated with urban spatial planning has resulted in a high number of housing units

that are approved yearly. Numerous benefits evident in conducive cities are as a result of

urban spatial planning addressing challenges linked to waste disposal, transportation,

security, health, and energy.

The research results agree with past research and provide more insights regarding

urban spatial development. The research agrees that decentralized urban and regional

planning is the best approach to achieve justifiable and socially inclusive cities. The research

plays an important role in the identification of emerging trends that have not been identified

by past research. The research also provides deep insights into the benefits of incorporating

technology during urban spatial development. There also seems to be an overlap in some of

the legislative areas affecting urban spatial development, with the research results providing

new policies that influence urban spatial planning.

6.2 Recommendations

Urban spatial planning is an activity that should be seriously researched before any

project is initiated. It is important to understand that there exist various policies and factors

that influence the level of success that will be associated with urban spatial planning.

Government policies should be thoroughly assessed to ensure that any activity undertaken

during urban spatial planning does not negatively affect any activity they undertake. It is also

important to consult with local people to understand the nature in which urban spatial

planning will be implemented.

 58

Technology is a critical aspect that should be considered during urban spatial planning.

Individuals involved in urban spatial planning should ensure that any technology that is being

used is up-to-date because it will aid towards the simplification of numerous processes.

Technology is associated with numerous benefits which will be realized before, during, and

after the process of urban spatial development.

It is also important for any party interested in urban spatial development to understand

that they will encounter different approval rates. Any party interested in getting approval for

any building should understand that various factors will determine the approval rates of

different buildings. However, rapid technological advancements may play a significant role

in reducing the time taken to approve various construction projects.

 59

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Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Section A

1) Gender

Male ( ) Female ( )

2) What is your age group?

18 – 28 years ( ) 29 – 39 years ( ) 40 – 50 years ( ) above 50 years ( )

3) Years worked in the organization?

Section B

1) Which comprehensive reforms have been used to attract efficient urban spatial forms?

2) What are the emerging trends and patterns in urban spatial development?

3) What are the common decentralised urban planning administrative strategies?

4) Government policies affecting urban spatial development.

5) Role of technology in urban spatial development.

6) Role of indigenous and local knowledge in urban planning.

7) Challenges in planning and policy

8) Issues addressed by spatial planning

9) Planning applications by type of development

10) Time is taken to approve spatial planning applications

11) The average number of housing units granted planning permission yearly.