JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR, VOL.

10, 117-133 (1989)

Life stage versus career stage:

A comparative test of the theories of
Levinson and Super
SUZYN ORNSTEIN
Suffolk University. 8 Ashburton Piace. Boston, MA 02108. U.S.A.
AND
WILLIAM L. CRON AND JOHN W. SLOCUM JR.
Edwin L. Co.x School of Business. Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX 75275. U.S.A.

Summary Using survey data collected from 535 salespeople, a study comparing the career
development models of Levinson et al. (1978) and Super (1957) was conducted. Support
was found for both models. The Levinson et at. model is more closely related to
individuals' career decisions, while the Super model is more closely related to individual's
job attitudes. Implications and future directions are proposed.

Introduction
Over the past six years there have been numerous studies exatnining the effects of age and career
stage on individuals'job attitudes and performance (Blackburn and Fox, 1983; Cron and Slocum,
1986; Hafer, 1986; Mount, 1984; Rabinowitz and Hall, 1981; Rush, Peacock and Milkovich, 1980;
Slocum and Cron, 1985; Stumpf and Rabinowitz, 1981). The driving force behind these studies is
the intuitive appeal that if people move through patterns of adjustment to their life in general and
careers in particular, then identifying the patterns and issues associated with various ages and
stages may help our understanding of individuals' attitudes and behaviors in organizations. From
a human resource and managerial perspective, this understanding may allow for more effective
organizational career planning programs as well as provide managers with more accurate
explanations and predictions about their subordinates and their own feelings and actions both on
and off their jobs.
Although a large number of studies based on the models of life development or career stage
have been completed, little integration among the studies and theories on which the studies have
been based has taken place. No research has compared the two theoretical models that have
served as the basis for the vast majority of career development studies—the model of life
development (age) proposed by Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, and McKee (1978; Levinson,
1986) and the career stage development model (stage) proposed by Super (1957). Because these

The authors appreciate the helpful comments of Janina Latack, Sam Rabinowitz. and two anonymous reviewers. Support
for this research was made through the sponsoring organizations and the Bureau of Research, Edwin L. Cox School of
Business, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX.
Please address all corre.spondence to the first author.

0894-3796/89/020117-I7$O8.5O Received 12 May 1987

© 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised 28 September 1987
118 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J, W. SLOCUM JR

models make different predictions about individuals' adjustments and reactions to their careers
over time, this study was developed to test the predictions made by each model and to determine if
one or the other or a combination of these two models provides a clearer understanding of career
development.

Theoretical Models
Levinson's model of life development
Based on in-depth interviews with 40 men conducted over a two-year period, Levinson et al.
(1978) proposed a model of life development. The central thesis of this model is that people (men,
at least), no matter what occupation or background, will grow through specific life stages during
which there are different crucial activities and psychological adjustments that must be completed.
According to Levinson et al., these periods are closely associated with one's biological age. They
have identified four 'life eras'—childhood (0-20) (as this period of time is of little organizational

Table 1. Levison's life stage development model

Life stage (age)
Early adulthood (20-40)
Early adult transitions (17-22)
Entering the adult world (23-28)
Thirties transition (29-33)
Settling down (34-39)
Middle adulthood (40-60)
Mid-life transition (40-45)
Entering middle adulthood (46-50)
Fifties transition (51-55)
Culmination of middle adulthood
(56-60)
Tasks to be accomplished
To begin thinking about one's place
in the world separate from the
institutions of youth (e.g. parents,
school)
To test one's initial choices about
preferences for adult living
To develop a sense of personal
identity in the world of work and
nonwork (e.g. family, community)
To evaluate accomplishments of the
2O's and make adjustments to the life
structure adopted
To strive toward achievement of
personal and professional goals
To make strong commitments to
work, family, and community
To review life structure adopted in
the 3O's
To recognize mortality and limits on
achievements and answer the
questions raised by these issues
To develop greater stability as
answers to questions posed in earlier
stage are incorporated into mindset
To raise questions about life structure
previously adopted
To answer questions previously
raised and adjusted to life choices
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 119

interest, it will not be further discussed), early adulthood (20-40), middle adulthood (40-60), and
late adulthood (over 60). As indicated in Table 1, more specific substages associated with
particular career issues are identified.
This model has fostered a good deal of research on individuals' career adjustment as influenced
and moderated by age. Much of this research, however, does not directly test the model identified
by Levinson, et al. For example, Rhodes (1983) reviewed over 185 studies that explored age as a
correlate of various job attitudes and behaviors. She found that across the majority of studies age
was positively correlated with overall job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational
commitment and was negatively correlated with turnover. None of the studies specifically looked
at variations across age categories as suggested by Levinson. Similarly, although Gould (1979),
Slocum and Cron (1985), and Hafer (1986) divided their samples by age classification, they all
have operationalized age categories as under 30, 31-45, and over 46. Given Levinson et al.'s
suggestions about the various stages that exist between the ages of 31 and 45, it is no surprise that
these researchers only found differences in job attitudes in those under 30 years of age. Different
age categories have also been explored by Hall and Mansfield (1975) and Rabinowitz and Hall
(1981). In these two studies, people were categorized by ages 21-35, 36-50, and over 51.
Interestingly, although they found that age moderated the relationship between job involvement
and various job attitudes, no differences in job attitudes were found across age groups.
The few studies that have used the Levinson et al. operationalization of age categories have not
focused generally on organization commitment, involvement, satisfaction, and performance. For
example, Blackburn and Fox (1983) found that the values physicians placed on the teaching of
medicine varied across the different life stages. Similarly, Alderfer and Guzzo (1979) found that,
as predicted by Levinson et al., people would seek different levels of psychological growth at
different stages. In yet a different operationalization of life stages. Rush et al. (1980) gave subjects
vignettes describing the tasks and psychological adjustments expected at different life periods (no
ages were given) and asked subjects to choose the vignette that best represented their current life
stage. Using these classifications. Rush et al. reported no differences across groups in terms of job
commitment, satisfaction or performance.
This study seeks to more directly examine the Levinson et al. model than has been done in the
past. Table 1 lists the important developmental tasks associated with each life stage. Although
Levinson proposes that individuals will differ in how they attempt to work on these tasks and how
successfully they will be resolved, it is argued below that the nature of the developmental tasks will
allow certain career attitudes and perceptions to dominate individual life stages. Thus, the early
adult stages involve the tasks of both making commitments and of keeping options open.
Individuals will vary in the relative emphasis given to these tasks—they may virtually ignore one,
they may vacillate between the two, or they may work on each in different spheres of life.
Based on the contention that the entry to the adult world phase is provisional in terms of an
individual's commitments to an organization, other people, and activities, it is hypothesized that
individuals in this phase of their life will be less committed to their organizations, less involved in
their jobs, and less satisfied with their work in general than Individuals in any other age group.
Similarly, it is hypothesized that people in this group will express greater intentions to leave their
organization and willingness to relocate due to their attempts at continued career and life
exploration than people in other age groups. Due to their lack of work experience, it is predicted
that the job performance of individuals in this life stage will be lower than that of individuals in
any other life stage.
The age 30 transition is a time of instability and change. It is expected that commitment,
involvement, and satisfaction will remain relatively low during this period of time. Due to
instability and change, it is predicted that individuals at this time in their life will express greater
120 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

intentions to leave their eompany and to reloeate than at all periods of time other than during the
entering adult world phase. It is predicted that the job performanee of people in this stage will be
improved over those still in the entering the adult world stage, but lower than for people in other
life stages. This increase in performance can be accounted for by the greater work experience of
people in the age 30 transition stage.
The settling down period of the mid-late thirties in which people are concerned with re-
establishment of personal and professional goals and striving for advancement is likely to be the
period of greatest organizational commitment, job involvement, satisfaction, and performance.
Additionally, it is hypothesized that individuals in this life stage will be less likely than those in the
two earlier stages to express an interest in leaving the organization or in geographically relocating
due to their concern for stability and settling down in a community. It is expected that individuals
between the ages of 34-39 will be more interested in attaining promotions—and will want them
sooner rather than later—than individuals in other life stages. This is based on their striving for
professional advancement and accomplishment.
The mid-life transition, with its concomitant questioning and redirection, is likely to be a time
of decreased organizational commitment, involvement, satisfaction, and performance relative to
the settling dowfn stage. It is during this stage that Levinson et al. suggest individuals start
questioning the importance ofwork in their lives. Because of refocus on family, it is expected that
people at this age will express less intention to leave or relocate than people in the three earlier life
stages. This mobility reluctance can be derived from individuals' desire not to disrupt the family
(which at this point in time is likely to involve teenagers) to achieve greater organizational
attainment(s).
Entering middle adulthood is suggested to be a stage of relative tranquility during which
adjustments are made to decisions and actions taken during the mid-life transition. It is expected
that organizational commitment, involvement, satisfaction, and performance will all improve
during this period relative to the previous life stage. It is not expected, however, that these attitudes
and behaviors will be as strong (positive) as they were during the settling down period. This is
because the entering middle adulthood stage is less filled with pressure to advance and meet
personally determined goals than is the settling down stage.
Levinson et al. clearly identify that the age 50 transition will be more or less marred by conflict,
questioning, and change depending on the resolution of the individual's mid-life transition.
Assuming a mild degree of uncertainty about one's career aspirations and accomplishments at this
stage, it is expected that job attitudes such as organizational commitment, job involvement, and
overall satisfaction will be lower during this period than in the stages immediately preceding and
proceeding this one. By this point in the career, however, it is expected that other career attitudes
and performances will remain stable.
Finally, as individuals reach the culmination of middle adulthood, stability again returns as
individuals come to accept their work and family situation. Based on this, it is expected that job
attitudes and performance will remain stable.

Super's career development stages

' . . . my conceptual scheme differs radically from Levinson and others' (1978) formulation.
Although Levinson's scheme resembles mine when it is put in comparable graphic form, he views
the stages as rather firmly determined and as progressing in well-ordered sequence. My
formulation has sought to make it clear that not only are the ages of transition very flexible, but
each transition involves a recycling through the stages, a "minicycle"' (Super, 1984, p. 200).
Super clearly points out the key difference between his formulation of career stages and that of
Levinson et al. is that his model is one determined by an individual's current circumstances and
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 121

Table 2. Super's career development model

Career stages Psychological tasks that characterize each stage
Trial To identify interests, capabilities, fit between self
and work, and professional self-image
Establishment To increase commitments to career, career
advancement, and growth
To develop a stable work and personal life
Maintenance To hold onto accomplishments earlier achieved
To maintain self-concept
Decline To develop a new self-image that is independent
of career success

perceptions, whereas Levinson et al.'s is determined strictly by age. Although similar to Levinson
et al. in identifying 'minicycles' or subsystems of each major career- stage. Super and the
researchers employing his model have focused primarily on four major career stages. These four
stages are known as trial, establishment, maintenance, and decline and are described in Table 2.
Although it is generally expected that these stages proceed in chronological order, it is possible for
individuals to be at any stage at various points in their lives/careers. People can recycle through
these stages when major changes occur (e.g. change in job, company, and occupation) in their
career (Stout, Slocum and Cron, 1987).
There has been a paucity of research that has directly examined the model proposed by Super.
The majority of research on career stage has used his terminology (i.e. trial, establishment,
maintenance, decline) but has deviated from the theoretical rationale explicated by Super. Most
of the studies on Super's career stages have operationalized these stages by age rather than
psychological fit to a specific stage. For example, Gould (1979) and Slocum and Cron (1985) both
identified people as being in the trial stage if they are less than 30 years old, in the establishment
stage if they are between 31 and 44, and in the maintenance stage if they are over 45. Using these
groupings, Gould found that satisfaction was highest in the trial stage (contrary to expectations)
and that performance was highest in the establishment stage. Slocum and Cron (1985) found
exactly the opposite. They found that the highest performers in their sample were those in the
maintenance stage and that individuals in the trial stage were less satisfied with their work than
people in any of the other stages. Other researchers have operationalized Super's stages by the
amount of time an individual has been in a job (Gould and Hawkins, 1978; Mount, 1984; Stumpf
and Rabinowitz, 1981). Specifically, these researchers operationalized the trial stage as less than 2
years on the job, the establishment stage as between 2 and 10 years on the job, and the
maintenance stage as over 10 years on the job. In these studies it was found that satisfaction and
performance varied across the stages, but not in any consistent order. In one study that directly
tested the model of Super (1957) and Super, Zelkowitz and Thompson (1981), Cron and Slocum
(1986) found that people in the trial stage were significantly less satisfied, involved, and challenged
in their job, and were poorer performers than individuals in any of the other stages. Based on
these findings and the conceptual suggestions of Super, 22 hypotheses are proposed.
It is expected that individuals in the trial stage of their career will be less committed to their
organization, less involved with their jobs, and less satisfied with their work than individuals in
the establishment, maintenance, and decline stages. This is based on the exploratory nature of the
trial stage, as well as previous findings (e.g. Cron and Slocum, 1986). Based on the process of
exploration and lack of experience of people in the trial stage, it is also hypothesized that these
individuals will be poorer performers than people in any of the other stages. Finally, as people in
the trial stage are uncertain and looking to find their career niche, it is expected that people in this
122 S, ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

Stage will express the greatest intentions to leave their jobs and willingness to geographically
relocate.
Because the establishment stage is a time of growth, advancement, and stabilization, it is
expected that individuals in this stage will express the greatest commitment to, involvement in,
and satisfaction for their jobs and employing organizations. It is also expected that these people
will be significantly better performers than individuals in the trial stage. Based on the increased
need for advancement and achievement during this stage, it is hypothesized that individuals in the
establishment stage will express the greatest willingness to relocate to further their careers the
highest promotion aspirations, and a greater desire for more immediate promotions than will
individuals in any other stage.
As the maintenance stage is in essence an adaptation to the achievements of the establishment
stage, it is expected that job attitudes and performance will remain at essentially the same levels
they reached during the establishment stage.
The decline stage in which people are withdrawing from their jobs/careers is expected to be a
time of less positive job attitudes and poorer job performance than exhibited in the prior two
stages. Because they are withdrawing from their job/career, it is expected that individuals at this
stage will be least willing to relocate for the company.
Super suggests people may be in any career stage at various times in their life, while Levinson et
al suggests that career development is linear and progresses according to biological age.
Accordingly, these models make different predictions about the attitudes and behaviors that
people are likely to experience over the course of their career. Because it is not at all clear which
model may best account for differences in job attitudes and behaviors, no specific hypotheses
regarding comparisons of the models were developed. Similarly, although it is expected that there
will be interactions between these models, these could be of any nature. No hypotheses can be a
priori specified.

Methods
Subjects and procedure
Five hundred and thirty-five salespeople (96 per cent male) employed at seven different firms
participated in this study. The employing organizations all manufacture industrial equipment and
supplies and sell these items on a national basis. Although sales is an entry level position in all
these firms, it is a position in which many individuals remain for their entire career. This is
reflected in the age range (21-69) of the respondents. The mean average for the sample was 39.3
years.
Survey booklets containing all the measures to be used in this study were distributed to
salespeople in two ways. Two-thirds of salespeople participated in the study at their national sales
meetings. The other third participated at meetings held at their home offices.' All surveys were
administered by one of the researchers.

Measures
Career stage
Super e( al (1981) Career Concerns Inventory—Adult Form was used to determine individual
career stage. Each stage was measured by 15 Likert-type scales. Salespeople responded on a scale

'No differences were found between those people who completed the survey at their national meetings or home office.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 123

of 1 to 5, where 3 indicated the scale item represented a current career concern for the individual, 1
indicated the item had never concerned the individual, and 5 indicated the item was no longer of
concern for the individual. People were classified as being in the stage in which their average score
was closest to three. Internal consistency reliabilities for each subscale were: trial, a = 0.94;
establishment, a = 0.91; maintenance, a = 0.88; decline, a = 0.92.

Career attitudes
One item was selected from Veiga's (1981) study. Intention to leave was measured by asking
salespeople about their plan for working for the same company in five years. This was measured
on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the salesperson would definitely be working for the same
company and 5 indicated the salesperson would definitely not be at the same company. Three
other items were selected from Slocum and Cron (1985). Willingness to relocate was determined
by asking if the individual would be willing to relocate if a promotion required a move. This was
rated on a 7-point scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely). Promotional aspiration was
determined by asking individuals to rate whether they definitely wanted to get promoted (1) or did
not want to get promoted (7). Finally, salespeople were asked about their preferences for the
timing of subsequent promotions. They were asked to indicate whether they would like a
promotion immediately (1) or never (7).

Job attitudes
Three measures of job attitudes were adapted from the work of Hall (Hall and Lawler, 1970; Hall,
Goodale, Rabinowitz and Morgan, 1978). Job involvement, the extent to which individuals
psychologically identify with their jobs, was assessed on a4-item Likert-type scale (a = 0.80). Job
challenge, the extent to which individuals feel their jobs are challenging and utilizes their skills,
was assessed on a 4-item Likert-type scale (a = 0.79). Psychological success, measuring an
individual's feeling of competence, was assessed on a 6-item Likert-type scale (a = 0.75).

Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction was measured using Smith, Kendall and Hulin's (1969) Job Descriptive Index.
This index measures satisfaction on five dimensions: work (a = 0.69), supervision (a = 0.87), pay
(a = 0.73), promotion (a = 0.86), and co-workers (a = 0.87). A measure of overall satisfaction was
also determined (a = 0.91).

Organizational commitment
Porter, Steers, Mowday and Boulian's (1974) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire was
used to determine individual's dedication and loyalty to their employing organizations. This
15-item Likert-type scale has often been used in organizational research and was found to have a
reliability of a = 0.82.

Performance
Each individual salesperson's performance was assessed by managerial ratings on seven
dimensions of sales performance. These dimensions included sales volume, new account
development, full-line selling, leadership ability, planning, initiative, and resourcefulness. These
dimensions have been found to be representative of criteria generally used to assess salespeople's
performance (Stanton and Buskirk, 1983; Slocum, Cron, Hansen and Rawlings, 1985). A final
measure of performance was determined by summing together the managers' ratings on each of
these dimensions (a = 0.89).
124 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

Construct validity for this performance measure was evaluated by comparing the sales
manager's ratings with each salesperson's actual sales volume for the operating year in which the
data were collected. While the job scope for salespeople in this study includes a variety of
non-selling activities, short-term sales volume is the primary responsibility of each company's
salespeople and should be positively related to overall performance evaluation. The average
correlation between annual sales volume and the field sales manager's ratings was r = 0.59 {p
<0.01). The correlations ranged from 0.36 to 0.71.

Data analysis

Preliminary analyses
To determine if the various sets of dependent variables actually assessed different constructs,
multiple analyses of variance (MANOVA) were conducted. Each of the four career attitude items
were included in the first MANOVA. The three job attitude measures were included in the second
MANOVA. The five facets of job satisfaction were included in the third MANOVA. The three
dimensions corresponding to personal definitions of success were entered in the fourth
MANOVA. For each MANOVA, the Wilk's criteria was computed and in each case a highly
significant F value was found (all/>'s <0.001).

Tests of hypotheses
Hypothesis testing proceeded along two lines. Planned contrasts were conducted to assess the
specific predictions about the patterns of responses across age categories. In addition, to
determine any other systematic variation in responses across ages, analyses of variance
(ANOVA)—and where appropriate Newman-Keuls/7oj/-/?oc tests—were conducted.

Results
Levinson's life stages
Only one-third of the hypotheses regarding Levinson's life stages were supported by the planned
contrasts. In general, many of the hypotheses about the earlier stages were supported while few
involving the later stages were supported.

Entering the adult world

As indicated in Table 3, three of the six hypotheses were supported via the planned contrasts. As
predicted, job involvement was found to be significantly lower at this age than in all other age
categories (F= 4.64,/? <0.05). Intentions to leave the company and willingness to relocate were
greater than in any other age group (respectively, F- 4.33,p <0.05; F- 8.73,p<0.005). Contrary
to expectations, sales performance ratings were found to be significantly higher than in all other
ages {F - 4.5, p <0.05). No support was found for the predictions that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment would be less than at any other age.
The ANOVAs (presented in Table 4) and post-hoc tests revealed few differences between
individuals in the entering the adult world phase and people in the six other life stages. Table 5
indicates the only two differences that were identified. Individuals at this age were more interested
in being promoted and wanted these promotions sooner than were people at any other age.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 125

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Table 4. Results of 2-factor ANOVA for all dependent variables

Age' Stage" Agex stage'
Dependent variable F F F n'
Intention to leave 4.59t 0.05 l4.20t 0.07 .23 0.04
Relocation 7.30t 0.07 7.65t 0.04 0.98 0.03
Promotion aspiration 12.40J 0.12 9.3lt 0.05 0.48 0.01
Promotion timing 4.101 0.01 5.5Ot 0.03 0.42 0.01
Job involvement 3.97t 0.04 10.34J 0.05 .81* 0.05
Job challenge 2.52 0.03 4.56t 0.02 '' J.82t 0.09
Psychological success 1.35 0.01 13.48t 0.07 ().77 0.02
Performance 1.21 0.01 8.05J 0.05 .38 0.05
Overall satisfaction 1.58 0.02 5.70t 0.03 .80* 0.06
Work satisfaction 1.01 0.01 2.79* 0.02 .82* 0.06
Supervisor satisfaction 0.81 0.01 3.88* 0.02 ().69 0.02
Pay satisfaction 1.22 0.01 1.04 0.01 .32 0.04
Promotion satisfaction 5.4lt 0.06 2.87* 0.01 .31 0.04
Co-worker satisfaction I.IO 0.01 2.08 0.01 .22 0.04
Organizational commitment 1.58 0.02 15.04t 0.08 .92* 0.06

'df- 18.
*p<0.05.
tp<0.01.
tP<O.OOI.

Age 30 transition
Of the 7 hypotheses involving individuals at this life stage, two were supported by the planned
contrasts. Job involvement was found to be significantly lower during this period than in all
periods other than entering the adult world (F= 13.61, p <0.00I). Similarly, as hypothesized,
intention to leave was greater in this stage than in all subsequent periods (F= 12.84, p <0.0005).
Contrary to expectations, individuals at this age groups were much less willing to relocate if their
jobs required it than were people in the previous phase (F= 4.34,/) <0.05). Similarly, contrary to
the hypothesis, they were equally willing to relocate as individuals in all the other age groups. The
predictions that commitment and satisfaction would be lower during the thirties transition due to
instability were not supported. Finally, sales performance was not determined to be significantly
better during the thirties transition than it was in the previous stage nor was it found to be
significantly worse than in all subsequent stages. As indicated in Table 5, the post-hoc analyses
revealed no additional differences between the responses of people in this phase and those in the
others.

Settling down
Surprisingly, none of the hypotheses regarding this life stage were supported by the planned
contrasts. Individuals at this period of time were expected to be more committed, involved, and
satisified with their work, desire promotions and desire them more immediately than people at
other ages. It was also expected that due to the desire for advancement and achievement people at
this time would be the best performers. Because of the stability component of this stage, it was
expected individuals at this age would be less willing to either leave the company or relocate with
the company than people at younger ages. The post-hoc test (see Table 5) also revealed little
differentiation between this phase and the others. In no cases were the responses of individuals at
this phase significantly different from all, or even the majority, of other groups.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 127

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128 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

Mid-life transition
Only two of six of these hypotheses were supported by the planned contrasts. It was found that
people at this stage were less likely to leave their company and less willing to relocate than people
in the three earlier stages (respectively, F - 4.86, p <0.05; F = 4.41, p <0.05). Neither commitment,
involvement, satisfaction, nor sales performance were lower than in the previous stages as
expected.
Although the contrasts yielded few statistically significant results, i\\t post-hoc tests revealed an
interesting pattern. An examination of the pattern of means shows a gradual shift in career
attitudes at this life stage. The means in this stage are similar to those in both the preceding and
proceeding stages although the means in those stages generally differ. Thus, although there is
weak support for the contentions of Levinson et al for a significant decrease in individual's job
and career attitudes at this point, it may be that a gradual transition does begin to take place at
this life stage.

Other life stages

None of the planned contrasts supported any of the hypotheses. Similarly, the post-hoc tests
revealed virtually no differences among these groups on any dimension. The only significant
finding is that individuals in the culminating middle adulthood phase (56-60) were much less
satisfied with their promotional opportunities than were people at any other stage.

Super's career stages

As indicated in Table 6, half of the hypotheses regarding Super's career stages were supported by
the planned contrasts. Support was spread equally across the four stages.

Table 6. Results of hypothesis testing about career stages

Trial Establishment Maintenance Decline
Dependent (T) (E) (M) (D)
variables
Organizational
commitment <E,M,Dt >T,D* = E§ <E,M
Job involvement <E,M,D >T,D = E§ <E,M
Overall
satisfaction <E,M,D >T,D = E§ <E,M
Intention to
leave <E,M,D NH NH NH
Willingness
to relocate >E,M,D >T,M,D* NH <T,E,M*
Performance <E,M,Dt >Tt = E§ <E,M
Promotion
aspiration NH >T,M,D* NH NH
Promotion timing NH >T,M,D* NH NH
•p <0.05.
tp<0.001.
NH indicates no specific hypothesis was generated.
§Contrast revealed these means were not significantly different as predicted.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 129

Trial
Planned contrasts provided support for two of the hypotheses about individuals in the trial stage
of their career development. Individuals at this stage were found to be less committed to their
company than individuals in the establishment, maintenance, and decline stages of their careers
(F = 7.10, p <0.01). The planned contrasts supported the hypothesis that people at this stage
would be poorer performers than those in the other three stages (F = 24.46, p <0.0001). No
support was found for the predictions that people in the trial stage would be less involved in their
work and less satisfied than others. Similarly, no support was found for individuals in this stage
expressing greater intention of leaving or being more willing to relocate than others.
The ANOVAs (see Table 4) and post-hoc tests revealed many differences between the attitudes
of people in the trial stage and the other three stages. The post-hoc analysis is a more liberal test
than the planned contrasts and revealed that individuals in the trial stage were much more likely
to express intentions to leave than individuals in the other three stages (see Table 7).
Additionally, ihe post-hoc tests revealed that these people were much less satisfied—on an overall
basis as well as with work and their supervisors—than were the others. The analyses also indicated
that trial stage individuals were less challenged in their jobs and perceived themselves as less
successful than did people in the other stages.

Establishment
The planned contrasts supported the hypotheses regarding desire for promotion ( F = 3.91,/?
<0.05), immediacy of desired promotion (F= 2.29,p <0.05), and willingness to relocate {F= 3.39,
p <0.05). In all cases, people in this stage wanted promotions, wanted them sooner than people
in the other stages, and would consider a relocation to gain a promotion. Commitment was also
found to be greater than in the trial and decline stages {F= 5.25,p <0.05). Performance was found
to be significantly greater in this stage than in the previous trial stage (F= 24.78, p <0.0001).

Table 7. Means for all dependent variables according to stage

Stage
Trial Establishment Maintenance Decline
in = 74) (n= 189) (n = 2IO) (n = 62)
X* = 33.5 X = 37.9 X = 40.0 ^ = 48.1
Dependent variable 8* = 8.2 8= 11.1 6=11.4 6=10.6
Intention to leave 2.57333 1.8691b 1.8226b 1.731 lb
Relocation 4.3514a 4.4031a 3.9858a 3.0323b
Promotion aspiration 3.0667b.c 2.7696c 3.4450b 3.9516,
Promotion timing 3.6986a,b 3.5027b 4.0874a 4.0164,
Job involvement 13.0676b 15.3613a 15.7299a 15.7099,
Job challenge 18.3919b 19.7749a 19.6698, 19.2581,
Psychological success 28.4324b 31.7460a 32.5498a 33.0161,
Performance 20.3714b 23.9769o 23.0615a 24.1167a
Overall satisfaction 9.5294b IO.682la 10.7264, 10.3818,
Work satisfaction 2.1127b 2.3167a 2.3301, 2.2881,
Supervisor satisfaction 2.2029b 2.5114a 2.4851, 2.5818,
Pay satisfaction 1.5278 1.6066 1.6942 1.7000
Promotion satisfaction 1.5833. 1.9071a 1.8350, 1.6102,
Co-worker satisfaction 18.4533, 19.1368a 19.2028a I8.758la
Organizational commitment 7l.52IOb 81.289, 81.943a 80.355,
*Means and standard deviations are reported for the ages of people within each stage.
Across rows, means not sharing a common subscript differ at the 0.05 level or beyond according to
the Newman-Keuls procedure.
130 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

Neither of the hypotheses regarding job involvement and overall satisfaction were supported by
the planned contrasts. However, as shown in Table 7, the post-hoc tests indicated that individuals
in this stage were more involved, challenged, psychologically successful, and satisfied (on all
dimensions) than people in the trial stage. Thus, there does seem to be some support for there
being a change in attitudes between the first and second career stages.

Maintenance
It was hypothesized that attitudes and performance would remain stable in this stage relative to
their levels in the establishment stage. In all cases, this was found to be true.
The post-hoc tests reveal only two differences between maintenance and establishment stage
responses. Individuals in the maintenance stage are less interested in promotions and would like
these promotions further in the future than would those in the establishment stage. In interpreting
these results, however, one must keep in mind that these maintenance stage people have self-
selected to remain in sales and with their organizations.

Decline
As hypothesized, individuals in the decline stage indicated less willingness than all others to
relocate for their jobs (F- 5.61, p <0.05). No other hypotheses were supported. Contrary to our
hypotheses, people at this stage did not express poorer attitudes and were not poorer performers
than people in other stages. Perhaps the criteria sales managers use to evaluate performance
changes according to a person's seniority.

Supplementary analyses

Interactions
As indicated in Table 4, interactions between age and stage were found for five variables—^j
involvement, job challenge, organizational commitment, overall job satisfaction, and satisfaction
with work. In all cases, the cause of the interaction is the differences in responses of people in the
entering adult world and trial stages. Among people in the trial stage, those between the ages of
22-28 (i.e. in the entering adult world stage) had significantly more positive attitudes than those
who were older than 29 (i.e. in latter life stages).

Comparisons of age and stage model

Although no explicit hypotheses were stated concerning the predictive power of either career
model, one of the stated reasons for this study was to determine which, if either, model explained
more of the variation in individuals' attitudes and behavior across their careers. To determine this,
eta squares (rj^), indicating the amount of variance accounted for by each effect were computed
for each main effect and interaction. As shown in Table 4, none of these main effects accounted
for a great deal of variance. Neither model appeared to do a significantly better job than the other
across all dependent variables. Levinson's model seems to account for more variance than Super's
model when the dependent variables are external to the work itself (e.g. relocation, promotion
aspiration, pay satisfaction, and promotions satisfaction). Super's model, on the other hand,
accounted for more variance when individual perceptions about the work itself were the focal
issues (e.g. intentions to leave, job involvement, psychological success, organizational
commitment, and overall satisfaction). Super's model accounted for significantly more variance in
sales performance than did Levinson's model.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 131

Discussion
The results of this study suggest that both Levinson et a/.'s adult development model and Super's
career stage model contribute to an understanding of career development. As expected given the
different foci of each model, the Levinson et al. model better explains individuals' attitudes and
behavioral intentions about events external to the work itself (e.g. promotional aspirations,
willingness to leave the company), while the Super model focuses on attitudes relative to the work
itself (e.g. job involvement, satisfaction).
The results of this study support Levinson et a/.'s contentions about the early phase of a career.
They suggest that early on in a career, people only make provisional commitments to their jobs.
This was supported by the findings that people in the entering adult world stage and the thirties
transition phase were less involved in their jobs and were more willing to relocate and leave their
company than were people at any other age. Our findings did not, however, confirm the
prediction that people in their mid-late thirties would settle down in to their jobs and become
more involved, committed, and satisfied. Nor did our findings confirm the contentions by
Levinson that individuals at the mid-life transition would suddenly be less interested in their work.
One possible explanation for this lack of support can be attributed to the specific measures
selected for this study. We found the Levinson model better explained variables that were external
to the work itself, while the vast majority of measures selected for use in this study assessed
individuals attitudes toward their jobs. Another possible explanation is cohort effects. These
effects 'are the result of successive cohorts bearing the stamp of their childhood environments'
(Rhodes, 1983, p. 330). Our results may reflect variations in values and norms accepted by people
of different ages. Even though there is not strong statistical support for the Levinson model, the
overall pattern of means was generally in the predicted direction.
The trend of support for the Super model was similar to that for the Levinson et al. model. The
findings support the prediction that individuals in the trial stages of their careers were less
committed, satisfied, involved, and challenged by their jobs and were evaluated by their
immediate superior as being poorer performers than people in other career stages. The findings
also support the predictions that individuals in the establishment and maintenance stages will
have similar attitudes toward work. The surprise findings were that people at the decline stage did
not report lesser degrees of job satisfaction, commitment and involvement with their work—
although they were less interested in promotions and relocations.
Looking across both models, two findings stand out as particularly interesting. First, although
the average age of individuals increases from the trial through decline stages (as may be expected),
people in the middle two stages—establishment and maintenance—are much closer to each other
in age than they are to people in either other stage. This may help account for their sharing similar
attitudes toward work. Looking at the average ages of people in these stages {X = 37.9, X = 40.0
respectively) it also comes as little surprise that their work attitudes are similar to those expressed
by people in Levinson's settling down and mid-life transition stages (where the ages are 33-39,
40-44, respectively). Second, it is particularly interesting to note that most often the differences
across age and stage categories were between individuals in the first category (entering adult work,
trial) and individuals in all other categories. A similar pattern of results has been reported by
Gould and Hawkins (1978), Stumpf and Rabinowitz (1981), and Hafer (1986). These researchers
found that the first stage (defined in terms of age or time on the job) was most different from the
others. The beginning phase of a career—defined by age or psychological adjustment—is the one
that is most distinctly different from the others. One reason for this may be because at the
beginning of a career most people have a similar lack of work experience that results in less
variance in perceptions about work compared to people in other stages. Another explanation is
132 S. ORNSTEIN, W. L. CRON AND J. W. SLOCUM JR

that the early stages of adjusting to work are qualitatively different from the mid and late stages
due to the unfamiliarity of the adjustment process involved at work and outside of work.
Based on Levinson et al.'s contention that there are life periods of stability followed by periods
of questioning and change and Super's contention that people maintain relatively stable attitudes
toward their job and company across their career stages, it was expected that there would be many
significant interactions. Our data indicated numerous main effects, thus indicating that these
models appear to be related to different attitudes and behavioral intentions. This pattern of results
mitigates against interactions. In the five cases where there were interactions, they could all be
accounted for by significant variation within the preliminary career stages. For each variable,
attitudes were more positive for employees in the entering adult world stage than they were in the
trial stage. This created a statistical interaction when all the rest of the scores across all the rest of
the stages were essentially equal. An explanation for this may lie in the distribution of ages within
the trial stage. Only 22 (of the 74) people in the trial stage were between the ages of 22 and 28 and
the mean age in the trial stage was 33.5 compared to the mean age in the entering adult world
stage of 25. It may be that as people get older and have not yet psychologically advanced out of
the initial career stage, they develop less positive attitudes toward work and their employing
organization (note that the five interactions all occurred for job and organization specific
attitudes).
The results of this study suggest that managers and human resource professionals may want to
target their career programs toward those employees in their early career stages. Because there is
greater similarity in responses of these people, programs directed at their needs may be more
efficient than programs developed for people more advanced in their careers. Specifically, these
programs might focus on increased organizational socialization and better job training to improve
performance. In addition, programs to increase managerial awareness of early career issues may
be helpful.
Finally, this study suggests numerous directions for future research. For instance, although the
amount of variance explained by life and career stages is generally in line with that of similar field
studies (Peterson, Albaum and Beltramini, 1985), there is considerable unexplained variance in all
the dependent measures examined. This suggests that future research on both career and life
stages should investigate the possibility of intervening and moderating variables infiuencing
attitudes and behaviors during specific career stages. A particularly fruitful direction for future
research would be the influence of organization structures on individual behavior and attitudes
during different career and life stages. For example, Cron and Slocum (1986) observed that
territories with different sales growth and competitive dominance characteristics influenced sales
force performance differently across the various career stages. Another line of research is
suggested based on the process of maturity or experience that accounts for reasons why some people
move through all four of Super's stages in sequential order over a career and others remain in the
trial stage throughout their career. Additionally, future studies may examine individual difference
variables relative to career development across ages or stages. In order for there to be a meaningful
accumulation of research results, future researchers should operationalize their constructs in a
manner faithful to the authors' original intent. Additionally, longitudinal studies would greatly
add to knowledge about career development. These studies would also help to more clearly
identify whether the Levinson et al. or Super model, or some combination of the two, best
explains various career attitudes and behaviors. Finally, as the career development literature to
date has focused almost exclusively on males, it is imperative that future study of career
development include much greater numbers of females in an attempt to understand their career
development patterns.
 LIFE STAGE VERSUS CAREER STAGE 133

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