Communication in IP-based Internetworks: Siemens

Communication in IP-based Internetworks Siemens
Communication in IP-based
Internetworks
Contents
1 The Client-Server Model 3
1.1 Overview of the Client/Server Model 4
1.2 The Functions of the Clients and the Server 6
1.3 How are the Clients/Server Addressed? 8
1.4 Examples - Application Protocols 10
2 Review of the OSI Model 13
2.1 Why a Model? 14
2.2 Communication between Layers 16
2.3 The Concept of Encapsulation 18
2.4 The OSI Reference Model 20
2.5 OSI Model and other Items 22
3 Glossary 25
4 Exercises 29
5 Solutions 35
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1 The Client-Server Model
Client-Server Model
Fig. 1 Client-server model
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1.1 Overview of the Client/Server Model

To truly understand how much of the Internet operates, including the Web, it is
important to understand the concept of client/server computing. The client/server
model is a form of distributed computing where one program (the client)
communicates with another program (the server) for the purpose of exchanging
information.
A server is an application that offers a service to users; a client is a requester of a

service. An application consists of both a server and a client part, which can run on
the same or on different systems.
Users usually invoke the client part of the application, which builds a request for a
particular service and sends it to the server part of the application using TCP/IP as a
transport vehicle.
The server is a program that receives a request, performs the required service, and
sends back the results in a reply. A server can usually deal with multiple requests
(multiple clients) at the same time.
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Client Client Client

Server
A B C
TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP
Internet Network
Fig. 2 The client/server model of applications
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1.2 The Functions of the Clients and the Server

The client's responsibility is usually to:
1. Handle the user interface.
2. Translate the user's request into the desired protocol.
3. Send the request to the server.
4. Wait for the server's response.
5. Translate the response into "human-readable" results.
6. Present the results to the user.
The server's functions include:

1. Listen for a client's query.
2. Process that query.
3. Return the results back to the client.
A typical client/server interaction goes like this:

1. The user runs client software to create a query.
2. The client connects to the server.
3. The client sends the query to the server.
4. The server analyzes the query.
5. The server computes the results of the query.
6. The server sends the results to the client.
7. The client presents the results to the user.
8. Repeat as necessary.
Example: going to a French restaurant

This client/server interaction is a lot like going to a French restaurant. At the
restaurant you (the user) are presented with a menu of choices by the waiter (the
client). After making your selections, the waiter takes note of your choices, translates
them into French, and presents them to the French chef (the server) in the kitchen.
After the chef prepares your meal, the waiter returns with your dinner (the results).
Hopefully, the waiter returns with the items you selected, but not always; sometimes
things get "lost in the translation."
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query
C lient C lient C lient

S erver
A B C
result of the query
T C P /IP T C P /IP T C P /IP T C P /IP
Internet N etw ork
Fig. 3 A typical client/server interaction goes like this:
takes note of your choices,

translates them into French,
the w aiter (the client) and presents them to the French chef
(the server)
in the kitchen
a French restaurant
you (the user)
the w aiter returns w ith your dinner (the results)
Fig. 4 Example going to a French restaurant
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1.3 How are the Clients/Server Addressed?

The answer will be: Ports -the connection between the client/server and the TCP/IP.
Applications communicate with the transport protocols through the use of "ports",
which are unique I/O identifiers used by the transport protocols and the specific
instance of the application protocol.
Example
"Ports" are conceptually similar to the mailboxes used at your local post office. When
a letter comes in for recipient, it is placed into a known mailbox reserved for that
specific recipient. Whenever the recipient comes by, he will pick up any messages in
that mailbox and process the data at his convenience.
Reality
Similarly, ports provide TCP and UDP with a way to deliver data to higher-layer
application protocols. Every time an application protocol opens a connection to one of
the transport protocols, it will allocate a port from the transport protocol, and then use
that port for all network I/O. Any traffic that is destined for that particular application
will be routed to the appropriate port for the application to deal with.
Some servers wait for requests at a well-known port (see "The Transport Layer " in a
later chapter) so their clients know to which end point (IP socket, see chapter "The
Transport Layer") to direct their requests. The client uses an arbitrary port for its
communication.
Some applications can open many simultaneous network connections, and in this
case, each instance would get its own port number.
TIP
For example an HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) server uses the well-known port
number 80. An HTTP client can choose the next available port number e.g. 1084.
(Another client e.g. 1127.) Another client on another physical device can choose also
1084. These clients with the same port number are then distinguished with the help
of there different network addresses.
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Client Client Client Server

A B C
Port Port Port Port
TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP
an arbitrary Internet Network well-known

port port
Fig. 5 How are the clients/server addressed?
HTTP- HTTP- HTTP- HTTP-

Client Client Client Server
A B C
Port Port Port Port
1084 1127 1084 80
TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP
an arbitrary Internet Network well-known

port port of
HTTP is 80
Fig. 6 HTTP client/server
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1.4 Examples - Application Protocols

Most of the application protocols use the client/server model of interaction.
They can be user-written applications or applications standardized and shipped with
the TCP/IP product.
End-user related protocols
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Mail-related protocols
POP3 Post Office Protocol
IMAP Internet Message Access
Protocol
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail
Exchange
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol world-wide web related protocol
Interactive protocols
TELNET logging into a network element or
host, and sending characters to this
RLOGIN Remote Login
machine. Typically, these protocols
are used to configure network
elements or hosts, but they may
also be used to work on the host as
if direct access via a directly
connected terminal was available.
File related protocols
FTP File Transfer Protocol for transferring files from one host
to another one via the data
TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
network.
NFS Network File System
Directory and naming protocols
DNS Domain Name System mapping names to IP addresses
(or vice versa)
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access for querying databases via the IP
Protocol protocol
Background protocols
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration running in the background used for
Protocol configuration or network
management purposes. They may
BOOTP Boot Protocol
either be triggered at system start
SNMP Simple Network Management up time, or, in the case of network
Protocol management, run continuously.
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Voice over IP protocols

H.323 Protocol Family (H.225, H.245) A number of protocols used for the
support of voice sent over an IP
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
network exist.
MEGACO Media Gateway Control Protocol
RTP Real Time Transport Protocol Data transfer
Application Protocols
End-user related protocols
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Exchange
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Interactive protocols
TELNET Remote Terminal Protocol
RLOGIN Remote Login
File related protocols
FTP File Transfer Protocol
Fig. 7Application Protocols I
Application Protocols
Directory and naming protocols
DNS Domain Name System
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
Background protocols
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
BOOTP Boot Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
Voice over IP protocols
H.323 Protocol Family (H.225, H.245)
RTP Real Time Transport Protocol
Fig. 8 Application Protocols II
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2 Review of the OSI Model
Review of the OSI Model
Fig. 9 Review of the OSI model
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2.1 Why a Model?

Understanding, designing, and building a computer network would be too difficult a
task unless the problem were partitioned into smaller subtasks, traditionally by
dividing the problem into layers.
The idea behind layering is that each layer is responsible for providing a service to
the layer above by using the services of the layer below.
Another opportunity of layering is that it would be possible to exchange an
implementation of one layer through another implementation without changing the
implementations of the other layers. Thinking about IP as an implementation of the
network layer it is possible to change IPv4 with IPv6 without any changes of the
layers above or below.
Layer
Layer
Communication Layer
Layer
in a computer network Layer

Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
would be too difficult Layer

Layer
Layer
Layer
Fig. 10 Communication
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service
service
using
the services of service
service
the layer below
service
service
service
service
service
service providing a service
to the layer above
service
service
service
service
SAP:
SAP:
service
service access
access point
point
Fig. 11 Layer and services
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
IPv4
IPv4 IPv6
IPv6
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Fig. 12 Opportunity of layering
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2.2 Communication between Layers

Horizontal communication
Each layer communicates with its peer layer (the layer of the same level) in another
node through the use of a protocol. Because only in the lowest layer there is really a
physical connection, nearly in all the cases these peer-to-peer connections are only a
virtual connection.
This communication is accomplished through the vertical connections and at least
through the direct communication of the lowest layer.
Vertical communication
The communication between layer n and layer n-1 is known as an interface. The
connection points between the different layers are called service access points
(SAP). Between two layers there are normally more than one SAPs. With the help of
a SAP the layer above have access to a special service, laying in the layer below. In
the other direction a service can offer its result (service) to the higher layer with the
help of this SAP.
Data Units
In the vertical communication let us assume that layer n want to give information to
the layer below. This information is called service data unit (SDU). The layer below
adds to this given SDU its own information. Then you will have the SDU of the lower
layer and so on. To determine of which SDU you are spoken simple the name of the
corresponding layer is preadded. For example you speak of NSDU - meaning the
network SDU when you means the SDU of the layer with the name network.
In the horizontal communication you have in the most cases (excluding layer1) a
virtual communication between the peers. This information are called protocol data
unit (PDU).
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node 1 node 2
Communication
peer
peer peer
peer
Vertical
Horizontal
Communication
Fig. 13 Communication
node 1 node 2
protocol data unit Layer

Layer nn
Communication
Layer
Layer nn
(PDU)
Vertical
SDU SDU
Layer
Layer n-1
n-1 protocol data unit Layer
Layer n-1
n-1
(PDU)
Horizontal
SDU...
SDU... service
service data
data unit
unit
Communication
Fig. 14 Data units
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2.3 The Concept of Encapsulation

Data transfer across layers
When using the services of a subordinate layer, the higher layer transfers its data to
the subordinate layer. The lower layer adds layer-specific information – mostly in the
form of a header – and, if necessary, transfers the data further down.
We must keep this principle in mind when we look at the communication between two
different partners.
Connecting two systems

When connecting two end systems, the data is first transferred downwards from layer
7 to 1 in the sender, then upwards in the reverse direction in the receiver.
In each layer, the data receive a header (cell header) and, if necessary, a trailer
(information at the end of the frame). By “packing” the user data layer-by-layer, i.e.
adding new information in each layer, the data packet increases in size.
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Data Transfer Across Layers
Send Receive
Layer n+1
n+1 n+1
n + 1 Data n + 1 Data
Header Header
Layer n
n n
n Data n Data
Header Header
Fig. 15 Transfer of data across layers
Sending and Receiving Data in the Layer Model
Send Receive
Data Data
5-7 Data 5-7 Data
4 5-7 Data 4 5-7 Data
3 4 5-7 Data 3 4 5-7 Data
2 3 4 5-7 Data 2 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2
1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2 1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2
Fig. 16 Sending and receiving data in the layer model
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2.4 The OSI Reference Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines seven layers, as
shown in the figure. There is nothing magic about the number seven or the
functionality in the layers. The reference model was designed before the protocols
themselves, and then committees were set up to design each of the layers.
Many of the layers were subsequently subdivided into further layers. (e.g. by IEEE
the Data Link Layer was subdivided into Logical Link Sublayer (LLC) and the media
control sublayer (MAC) ).
Layers defined by ISO:
Physical Layer:
The physical layer transmits bits of information across a link. It deals with such
problems as size and shape of connectors, assignment of functions to pins,
conversion of bits to electrical signals, and bit-level synchronization. It is usual for
several different types of physical layers to exist within a network and even for
multiple different types of physical layers to exist within a node, because each
technology requires its own physical layer.
Data Link Layer:

The Data Link Layer transmits frames across a link. It deals with such problems as
checksumming to detect data corruption; according the use of shared media, as in
LAN (local area network); and physical addressing (when multiple systems are
reachable, as in LAN). Again, it is common for different links to implement different
data link layers and for a node to support several data link layer protocols, one for
each of the types of links to which the node is attached.
The Network Layer:

The main task of the network layer must find a path through a series of connected
nodes, and nodes along the path must forward packets in the appropriate direction.
The network layer deals with such problems as route calculation, packet
fragmentation and reassembly (when different links in the network have different
maximum packet sizes), and congestion control. On this layer you will find the logical
address.
Transport Layer:
The Transport layer establishes a end-to-end connection, a reliable or non reliable
communication stream between a pair of systems. It deals with errors that can be
introduced by the network layer, such as lost packets, duplicated packets, packet
ordering, and fragmentation and reassembly (so that the user of the transport layer
can deal with large size messages and so that less-efficient network layer can deal
with larger-size messages and so that less-efficient network layer fragmentation and
reassembly might be avoided). The transport layer can react to congestion in the
network by sending more slowly in response.
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The next three Layers are in the most cases not separately implemented. They are
often integrated in the application. However, here are the different tasks:
Session Layer:
It deals with dialog control (enforcing a particular pattern of communication between
systems) and chaining (combining groups of packets so that either all or none of the
packets in the group gets delivered).
Presentation Layer:
The goal of this layer is to agree on representation for data so that people defining
structures don't have to worry about bit/byte order or what a floating point number
looks like. ISO standardized on ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation 1).A lot of the IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force) standards use it.
Application Layer:
Applications include file transfer, virtual terminal, Web browsing, and so on. It is
common for multiple applications to be running concurrently in a node.
Application
Application Layer
Presentation
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport
Transport Layer
Layer
Network
Network Layer
Layer
Data
Data Link
Link Layer
Layer
Physical Layer
Fig. 17 OSI reference model
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2.5 OSI Model and other Items

Up to layer 3 you are inside the network. Transport layer and higher layers are inside
the station.
That means a station is addressed via its logical address (e.g. IP@). Up to here the
information was running over a network (could be the whole world e.g. the Internet).
In the network information is transmitted over several devices such as repeaters,
hubs, bridges, switches and routers.
As to see in the figure on the next page depending on the layer they are working the
devices have different names.
A repeater or a hub has no knowledge about physical addressing or layer 2
information. These devices are only working up to layer 1.
A bridge or as the vendors named these devices a switch is only working up to layer
2. These devices have no knowledge about anything that have to do with upper
layers.
A router is working up to layer 3. It is handling the routing, finding the best way
through the network.
A gateway is a device inside the network, which is working up to the highest layer.
However, it can translate from one application into another (e.g. X.400 to SMTP).
Reaching the destination station now the transport layer and higher layers are asked.
Remembering the task of the transport layer it will give the higher layers a end-to-end
connection. With the help of the port number the information will reach the
application.
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inside the station
gateway
gateway Application
Application Layer
application
application
Presentation
Presentation Layer
Session
Session Layer
Layer port
Transport Layer
router
router Network
Network Layer
Layer using logical addresses
network
bridge,
bridge, switch
switch Data
Data Link Layer using physical addresses
repeater,
repeater, hub
hub Physical
Physical Layer
Layer
Fig. 18 Corresponding items
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3 Glossary
What´s the
meaning of ...?
Fig. 19 Glossary
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ASN.1 Abstract Syntax Notation 1

BOOTP Boot Protocol
client A client is a requester of a service.
client/server The client/server model is a form of distributed computing where
model one program (the client) communicates with another program
(the server) for the purpose of exchanging information.
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DNS Domain Name System
FTP File Transfer Protocol
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
I/O Input/Output
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 IP version 4
Ipv6 IP version 6
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
LLC Logical Link Layer
MAC Media Access Control
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Exchange
NSDU Network Service Data Unit
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
PDU Protocol Data Unit
RLOGIN Remote Login
RTP Real Time Transport Protocol
SAP Service Access Point
SDU Service Data Unit
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server A server is an application that offers a service to users.

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
TCP Transport Control Protocol
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4 Exercises
Fig. 20 Exercise
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Exercise 1
Title: OSI Model
Task
Please explain the different types of communication within the OSI model.
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Exercise 2
Title: OSI Model
Task
Please name the different layers of the OSI reference model.
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5 Solutions
Fig. 21 Solution
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Solution 1
Title: OSI Model
Task
Please explain the different types of communication within the OSI model.
Horizontal communication
Each layer communicates with its peer layer (the layer of the same level) in another
node through the use of a protocol. Because only in the lowest layer there is really a
physical connection, nearly in all the cases these peer-to-peer connections are only a
virtual connection.
This communication is accomplished through the vertical connections and at least
through the direct communication of the lowest layer.
Vertical communication
The communication between layer n and layer n-1 is known as an interface. The
connection points between the different layers are called service access points
(SAP). Between two layers there are normally more than one SAPs. With the help of
a SAP the layer above have access to a special service, laying in the layer below. In
the other direction a service can offer its result (service) to the higher layer with the
help of this SAP.
The kinds of information are called service data units or protocol data units.
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Solution 2
Title: OSI Model
Task
Please name the different layers of the OSI reference model.
Application
Application Layer
Layer
Presentation
Presentation Layer
Layer
Session
Session Layer
Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Fig. 22 OSI reference model
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Communication in IP-based Internetworks Siemens

1 The Client-Server Model

Fig. 1 Client-server model

1.1 Overview of the Client/Server Model

A server is an application that offers a service to users; a client is a requester of a

Client Client Client

TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP

Fig. 2 The client/server model of applications

1.2 The Functions of the Clients and the Server

The server's functions include:

A typical client/server interaction goes like this:

Example: going to a French restaurant

C lient C lient C lient

T C P /IP T C P /IP T C P /IP T C P /IP

Internet N etw ork

Fig. 3 A typical client/server interaction goes like this:

takes note of your choices,

you (the user)

the w aiter returns w ith your dinner (the results)

Fig. 4 Example going to a French restaurant

1.3 How are the Clients/Server Addressed?

Client Client Client Server

Port Port Port Port

TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP

an arbitrary Internet Network well-known

Fig. 5 How are the clients/server addressed?

HTTP- HTTP- HTTP- HTTP-

TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP

an arbitrary Internet Network well-known

Fig. 6 HTTP client/server

1.4 Examples - Application Protocols

Voice over IP protocols

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

Fig. 7Application Protocols I

Fig. 8 Application Protocols II

2 Review of the OSI Model

Review of the OSI Model

Fig. 9 Review of the OSI model

2.1 Why a Model?

in a computer network Layer

would be too difficult Layer

Fig. 11 Layer and services

Fig. 12 Opportunity of layering

2.2 Communication between Layers

protocol data unit Layer

Fig. 14 Data units

2.3 The Concept of Encapsulation

Connecting two systems

Data Transfer Across Layers

Fig. 15 Transfer of data across layers

Sending and Receiving Data in the Layer Model

1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2 1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2

Fig. 16 Sending and receiving data in the layer model

2.4 The OSI Reference Model

Layers defined by ISO:

Data Link Layer:

The Network Layer:

Fig. 17 OSI reference model