Chapter 1: Kinetic Particle Theory

The kinetic particle theory states that:

• All matter is made up of tiny particles, and

• These particles are in constant, random motion
Properties of matter Solid Liquid Gas
Kinetic energy (α Low Higher than solid but Very high
Temperature) lower than gas

Forces of attraction Very strong Strong but weaker than Very weak
solid

Movement Vibrate about their Slide over one another Randomly at high
fixed positions speeds in all directions

Arrangement Closely packed in Closely packed in Very far apart in

orderly manner disorderly manner disorderly arrangement
*If the question asks for change in any of the 4 properties, just quote the properties of the initial and
final states from the table above. Do not attempt to craft your own answers.
Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape • Fixed Not fixed Not fixed

Strong intermolecular Arranged in Spread far apart
• •
• forces of attraction disorderly from one another
Vibrate about their manner Weaker Weakest forces
• •
• fixed positions forces of of attraction Not
Cannot move about attraction Not held in fixed
• •
freely held in fixed positions
positions Able to move rapidly
• •
Able to slide over one in all directions
another
Volume Fixed • Fixed • Not Fixed
• Particles are very Particles still packed Particles are very
closely packed • quite closely together far apart in
together Cannot be compressed • disorderly
• Cannot be further arrangement Space
compressed available for
further compression

Compressibility No No Yes
Melting

• Process where by a substance changes from solid to liquid state

• Occurs at melting point
Refer to your notes for the graph

A–B: As the solid is heated, the particles gain K.E. and vibrate faster, increasing the temperature of the
solid to freezing point, B, where it starts to melt.

B–C: Melting occurs at fixed temperature as particles do not gain K.E. Heat energy gained from heating
is used to overcome the forces of attraction between the solid particles instead of raising the
temperature. Particles start to break away from their closely packed and orderly arrangement. A
mixture of solid and liquid exists.

C–D: At C, all the solid has melted and the particles are closely packed in a disorderly arrangement.
Liquid particles gain K.E. and the temperature of liquid rises.

Boiling

• Process where by a substance changes from a liquid to gaseous state

• Occurs at boiling point
Refer to your notes for the graph

A–B: As the liquid is heated, the particles gain K.E. and vibrate faster, increasing the temperature of the
liquid to the boiling point, B, where it starts to boil.

B–C: Boiling occurs at fixed temperature as particles do not gain K.E. Heat energy gained from heating is
used to overcome the forces of attraction between the liquid particles instead of raising the
temperature. Particles start to break away from their loosely packed but disorderly arrangement. A
mixture of liquid and gas exists.

C–D: At point C, all the liquid has boiled and the particles are very far apart in a disorderly arrangement.
Gas particles gain K.E. and the temperature of gas rises.

Freezing

Process where by a substance changes from liquid to solid state

Occurs at melting point
Refer to your notes for the graph

P–Q: As the liquid is cooled, the particles lose K.E. and move slower, decreasing the temperature of the
liquid to freezing point, Q, where the liquid starts to freeze.
Q–R: Freezing occurs at a fixed temperature as the particles do not lose K.E. Heat energy lost is released
as the liquid particles slow down and take up fixed positions of the solid. A mixture of liquid and solid
exists.

R–S: At R, all the liquid has frozen and the particles are in fixed positions in an orderly arrangement.
Solid particles lose K.E. and the temperature of the solid decreases.
Condensation

• Process where by a substance changes from a gaseous and liquid state

• Occurs at any temperature, as long as it is cooler than the temperature of the gas
Boiling VS Evaporation
Characteristic Boiling Evaporation

State change Liquid to gas

Speed Fast Slow

Temperature At boiling point only Any temperature below boiling point

Site Throughout the liquid Surface of liquid

Evaporation

• Change in state from liquid to gas, below boiling point

• Water molecules at surface of liquid absorb heat energy from surrounding air
• Heat energy absorbed used to break the forces of attraction between water molecules
• Water molecules break free from liquid surface
Sublimation

• Iodine, dry ice(solid CO2), naphthalene, ammonium chloride

• Change in state from solid to gas, without melting
• Intermolecular forces of attraction between particles in liquid state are too weak for liquid to stay in
that state

Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration. (Can occur in both liquids and gases)

• Diffusion occurs despite external factors such as gravity (i.e. Diffusion occurs upwards, even though
the gas jars may be places vertically, until a homogenous mixture of gases is formed))

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

• Mr (Relative molecular mass) o The smaller the molecular mass, the lighter it is and hence, the
faster it diffuses
• Temperature
o The higher the temperature, the higher the amount of K.E. harnessed by the particles, the
faster they move and hence, the faster the rate of diffusion

Chapter 2: Measurement and Experimental Techniques

SI units

1. Mass
a. kg (kilogram)
b. Measured with electronic balance (Accuracy: ±0.01g)
2. Time
a. s (second)
b. Measured with digital stopwatch (Accuracy: ±0.01s, but recorded to 1dp to account for
human reaction time)
3. Temperature
a. K (Kelvin)
b. Temperature in K = Temperature in °C + 273
c. Measured with mercury/alcohol-in-glass thermometer (Accuracy: ±0.5°C)
4. Volume
a. m3
b. Volume of liquids measured with beaker, measuring cylinder, burette (Accuracy: ±0.05cm 3)
and pipette (for fixed volumes i.e. 20.0/25.0cm 3)
c. Volume of gases measured with gas syringe

Collection of gases

1. Downward displacement in water

a. For gases that are insoluble in water
2. Upward delivery
a. For gases that are soluble in water and less dense than air (M r of air: approx. 30)
3. Downward delivery
a. For gases that are soluble in water and denser than air
Gas Solubility in water Density relative to air Gas collection method
Hydrogen Not soluble Less dense Downward displacement of
water
Oxygen Very slightly soluble Slightly denser
 Carbon dioxide Slightly soluble Denser
Chlorine Soluble Denser Downward delivery
Hydrogen chloride Very soluble Denser
Sulfur dioxide Very soluble Denser
Ammonia Extremely soluble Less dense Upward delivery
Drying of gases

1. Conc. Sulfuric acid

a. For all gases except basic gases (Neutralisation reaction between acid and base)
2. Quicklime (aka calcium oxide)
a. For ammonia gas and other basic gases
3. Fused calcium chloride
a. For all gases except ammonia (Ammonia gas will be removed in reaction with fused CaCl)

Chapter 3: Purification and Separation

A pure substance is a single element or compound that is not mixed with any other substance.

A mixture is 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined.

Determination of purity

• Paper chromatography
• Melting and boiling points o Impurities lower melting points and increase boiling points o
Impurities cause melting and boiling over a range of temperatures

Filtration

• Separate insoluble solid from mixture

• Procedure o Filter the mixture and obtain ___________ as the filtrate and ____________ as the
residue

Evaporation to dryness

• Separate thermally stable soluble solid from mixture

• Resulting solid may be impure and can only be anhydrous (Water of crystallization removed)

Crystallization

• Separate pure thermally unstable soluble solid from mixture

• Procedure
o Heat the solution until it is saturated. Allow the hot saturated solution to cool and observe
the formation of ______ crystals. Filter the mixture and obtain the crystal as the residue.
 Wash the crystals with a little cold distilled water and press dry between pieces of the filter
paper.

Using a suitable solvent

• Separate soluble solid in a particular solvent from an insoluble solid in the same solvent Sublimation

• Separate a solid that sublimes (i.e. dry ice, ammonium chloride, iodine) from one that does not

Using a magnet

• Separate a magnetic solid from one that is non-magnetic

Simple distillation

• Separate pure solvent from solution

• Position of thermometer bulb next to the side arm of flask to measure the temperature of the
vapour distilling over
• Water inlet from the bottom and outlet from the top o To ensure the entire condenser is filled with
water o Keep the bottom part of the condenser cooler so that most of the vapour can condense,
maximizing yield of distillation

Fractional distillation

• Separate multiple pure solvents from a solution of miscible liquids (differing boiling points of
individual fractions)
• Glass beads in the fractionating column increase surface area for vapours that have not reached
boiling point to condense and fall back into the round bottomed flask, ensuring the purity of
distillate

Separating funnel

• Separate immiscible liquids

Chromatography

• Separate components of a substance using a suitable solvent

• Basic principle: relative solubility of components in the solvent o The more soluble the component,
the faster and further up the chromatogram it will travel
• Rf value is the ratio of the distance travelled by the substance to the distance travelled by the
solvent (Rf value is of the component in a particular solvent, not of the solvent itself) o The higher
the Rf value, the more soluble the component is in the solvent o Remains constant with same
solvent and temperature
• Locating agent used for colourless substances to make them visible/coloured Chapter 4:
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into 2 or more simpler substances by a
chemical process.

• All known elements are shown in the periodic table. Not in periodic table = not an element.
Copy chemical symbols directly from the periodic table, including uppercase and lowercase
letters
Properties Metals Metalloids Non-metals
Appearance Shiny (lustrous) Shiny (lustrous) Not shiny (Nonlustrous)

Physical state at Mostly solids (except Solids Gases, volatile liquids,

r.t.p mercury) or solids
M.p. and B.p. High (except for sodium, High Low (except for carbon
potassium and mercury) and silicon)
Heat and electrical Good Moderate Poor (except for carbon
conductivity in the form of graphite
and diamond)
Ductility and Ductile (can be drawn into Brittle Brittle if solid
Malleability wires), Malleable (can be
hammered into different
shapes) and Sonorous
(produces a ringing sound
when struck)
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical properties of the element. A
molecule is a group of 2 or more atoms that are chemically combined.

• Molecules that comprise atoms of the same element are known as elements (H 2, O2, P4, S8)
• Molecules that comprise atoms of different elements are known as compounds (CO 2, NH3, H2O)
A compound is a pure substance that contains 2 or more elements that are chemically combined in a
fixed ratio.

• Compounds have names that describe the elements that it contains

• Compounds have chemical formulae that show the fixed ratio of the elements it contains A mixture
is made up of 2 or more substances that are not chemically combined.

• Mixtures of 2 elements (H2 gas and O2 gas)

• Mixture of 2 compounds (CO2 gas and NH3 gas)
• Mixture of an element and a compound (H 2 gas and CO2 gas)

Mixture Compound
Separation Physical methods Chemical methods
 Properties Same as components Different from components
Energy changes No chemical reaction Little/no energy Chemical reaction takes place Heat and
change light usually given off
Composition No fixed ratio Fixed ratio

Chapter 5: Atomic Structure

Subatomic particle Relative charge Relative mass Location
Proton (p) +1 1 In the nucleus
Neutron (n) 0 (neutral) 1 In the nucleus
Electron (e) -1 1/1840 (negligible) Electron shells around the nucleus
Deflection of subatomic particles in an electric field

Angle of deflection α (Directly proportional to) charge/mass

• Neutrons will travel straight through the electric field without being affected
• Protons will deflect towards the negative plate at a smaller angle of deflection than electrons
deflecting towards the positive plate

Atomic/proton number = number of protons = number of electrons (all atoms are electrically neutral)

• Unique to every element. No 2 elements have the same proton number.

• Always the smaller of the 2 numbers (except H)
Nucleon/mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

• Relative atomic mass of the atom

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and electrons, but with
different number of neutrons. (Same proton number but different nucleon number)

• Nucleon number of certain elements are not whole numbers because the nucleon number is a
weighted average of all the isotopes of that element o Nucleon number = sum (percentage of
isotope × mass of isotope)
• Similar chemical properties due to same number of valence electrons, differing physical properties
due to different number of neutrons

The arrangement of electrons in an atom in the different electron shells (or principal quantum shells) is
known as the electronic structure of an atom.

• Electron shells numbered from that closest to the nucleus

• Electron shells nearer to the nucleus experience greater electrostatic forces of attraction to the
nucleus and are hence, of lower energy levels o Electrons filled from innermost shell of lowest
energy level, making the atom most stable
• From the 2nd shell onwards, electrons are filled singly first, then paired up, due to the electronic
repulsion between electrons close to one another
• Outmost electrons and shells are known as valence electrons and shells
The periodic table

• Horizontal rows called periods (Written in standard numerals, i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc.) o

Elements in the same period have same number of electron shells
• Vertical columns call groups (Written in roman numerals, i.e. I, II, IV, etc.) o Elements in
the same group have same number of valence electrons and hence, similar chemical
properties
Chapter 6: Chemical Bonding

Particles undergo bonding because every atom aims to attain the stable electronic configuration of a
noble gas/noble gas configuration.

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has an electrical charge.

• Electrical charge brought about by atoms losing or gaining electrons to attain the stable electronic
configuration of a noble gas/noble gas configuration (duplet/octet configuration) o Metals tend to
lose electrons to form cations (positively charged ions) o Non-metals tend to lose electrons to form
anions (negatively charged ions) o Magnitude of the charge is the number of electrons lost/gained
to form the ion

An ionic bond is the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions

• Occurs when atoms transfer electrons (usually from a metal to a non-metal)

• Positive and negative charges must be equal since the ionic compound is electrically neutral
• Strength of ionic bonds o Charges on ion
▪ The higher the charge on the oppositely charged ions, the stronger the electrostatic
forces of attraction between them
o Size of ions
▪ The smaller the ions, the stronger the ionic bonds (Stronger electrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged nucleus and electrons)

Dot-and-cross diagram

• All ions must be enclosed in a square bracket with the charge written at the top right corner
• Legend is very important and must be written for marks to be awarded
• Use different symbols to represent electrons from different elements
Physical properties of ionic compounds

As long as the question quotes the phrase ‘in terms of structure and bonding’, the answer must include
‘giant ionic crystal lattice structure’ (structure) and ‘electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions’(bonding).
Property Explanation
Hard Giant ionic crystal lattice structure results in a large amount of energy being
required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions
Brittle When a large enough force is applied, the layers of ions can slide, bringing ions of
like charges next to each other, causing them to repel one another and resulting in
the shattering of the ionic lattice structure
High mpbp Giant ionic crystal lattice structure results in a large amount of energy being
required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the
oppositely charged ions
Electrical Bad electrical conductivity in solid state: Ions are held in fixed positions in a giant
conductivity ionic crystal lattice structure by strong electrostatic forces of attraction, indicating
a lack of mobile ions as mobile charge carriers
Good electrical conductivity in molten and aqueous states: Ions are mobile and act
as mobile charge carriers
Solubility in Generally does not dissolve in organic solvents
different solvents Dissolves in water and ethanol: formation of ion-dipole interactions (attraction
between water molecules and ions), releasing energy to overcome the strong
electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions
A metallic bond is the electrostatic attractive force between the positively charged metal ions and the
‘sea’ of negatively charged delocalized electrons

Physical properties of metals

As long as the question quotes the phrase ‘in terms of structure and bonding’, the answer must include
‘giant metallic structure’ (structure) and ‘electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged metals ions and delocalized electrons’(bonding).
Property Explanation
High density Giant metallic lattice structure with metal cations in a closely packed and orderly
arrangement surrounded by delocalized electrons, resulting in high mass per unit
volume
Malleability and Metal cations of the same size are arranged in a regular and orderly manner,
ductility allowing the layers of cations to slide over on another easily when a force is
applied without breaking the strong metallic bonds due to their non-directional
nature
High mpbp Giant metallic structure results in a lot of energy being required to overcome the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the cations and the delocalized
 electrons
Good electrical Presence of mobile valence electrons which can migrate freely though the metallic
conductivity structure and act as mobile charge carrier
Good thermal Presence on mobile valence electrons that collide rapidly with other mobile
conductivity valence electrons to quickly transfer energy from one electron to another
Solubility Insoluble in both water and organic solvents
Alloys are mixtures of a metal and small amount of other metals or non-metals.

• Size of atoms of added metal/non-metal is different compared to atoms of parent metal, disrupting
the regular, orderly arrangement of metal atoms
• More energy required for atoms to slide over one another, strengthening the metal Exam skills

General exam skills

• Read the questions carefully and understand what they are asking for before attempting to answer
them
• When you approach a question, identify the topic and the relevant concepts, and then work from
there
• If you get stuck at any question for more than 2 minutes, move on and come back later
• Pace yourself through the exam and leave some time for checking your work
MCQ

• Take note of questions that are out to trick you with ‘not true’ or ‘not correct’
• If you have no idea how to do the question, use a process of elimination to improve your chances

Structured questions

• Take note that for questions that use phrases like ‘using data from the table’ or ‘with reference to (a
certain concept)’, you have to make the necessary references to score the mark
• If the question asks for ‘explain your answer’, write the relevant concept first, then the application
of the concept for the question
• Look at the mark allocation to figure out how much to write for your answer (Do not waste 5 mins
writing an answer for a 2-mark question)
• Give all numerical answers to 3sf, no fractions will be accepted
Most importantly, remember to include key words and phrases in your answers that indicate an
understanding of the concepts taught