Emerging Materials Research Emerging

Pages 144–151
Materials
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/emr.12.00031
Research 00 [Month] 20## Issue 00
Research
Pages #–# Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/emr.11.000##
Volume 1
2 Issue EMR1
EMR3
Paper 1100##
Received 24/09/2012 Accepted 04/02/2013
<Article
StrengthTitle>
evaluation of clinker stabilized Received
Published##/##/20##
online 08/02/2013 Accepted ##/##/20##
Keywords:
Published online
BTS/fly
##/##/20##
ash/mine overburden/clinker/UCS/SEM
fly ash-mine
<Authors overburden composites as an
Sur Names> Keywords: <maximum 3 keywords>
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra

ice | science ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized

fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
1 Soumya R. Mallick MTech* 2 Manoj K. Mishra PhD
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, India Rourkela, India

1
   2   

Opencast coal mining plays a major role in meeting the demand for fossil fuel. Large capacity haul trucks are being
increasingly used to meet this demand. These trucks need well-designed haul roads. Opencast mining also imposes
adverse conditions on the area due to substantial overburden lying unreclaimed. The current fly-ash production is
about 180 MT that will rise to about 600 MT by 2030 in India. It adversely affects land, air and water resources. Strong
effort is required to address this issue. An investigation has been taken up to evaluate the use of both fly ash as well
as mine overburden material along with a selected additive to develop an alternative construction material to be used
in the sub-base of haul road. This article reports the detailed laboratory investigations carried out on the development
of Fly ash Composite Material (FCM) with mine overburden and clinker and determination of their suitability for haul
road. Proctor compaction test, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test, Brazilian Tensile Strength (BTS) test and
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were carried out. The composite with 62% fly ash, 30% overburden and 8%
clinker exhibited adequate strength value for the haul road construction.

1. Introduction go up to 50% of total cost incurred by an opencast mine.2 Gross

India is expected to generate more than 250 000 MW of power
during the 12th 5-year plan period. The coal production would
be 1000 MT per year. Mine activities will have to be expanded to
meet this demand. Carrying capacity of trucks/dumpers used in
opencast mines has grown from 10 T to 200 T in recent years, with
higher capacities being implemented at places. Introduction of large
capacity haul trucks demand well-designed haul roads. At present,
the design of haul roads is based on past experience and empirical
methods.
The sub-grade, sub-base and/or base of haul road typically
uses overburden materials as sandstone, silt stone, gravel, etc.
available within mine periphery. These materials are used only as
filling material. These materials do not offer any ground stability.
Pot holes, sinking, rutting etc. are major symptoms observed on
haul roads of almost all mines.1 Typically, truck haulage cost can
vehicular weight of heavy large capacity haul trucks is 4000 kN.
The tire pressure of haul trucks are typically in the range of 600
kPa to 700 kPa.3 Development of stabilized roads plays a vital
role in socio-economic growth of any country, because failure
to construct a stabilized road leads to high road maintenance
cost as well as vehicle maintenance cost. There are around 170
surface coal mines and most of them are nearer to thermal power
stations. Problems associated with vehicular breakdown and poor
performances as well as low morale work force of manpower
have been attributed to the poor condition of haul roads.
The current usage percentage of fly ash is about 50% leaving
the rest as plant waste occupying huge land area and creating
environmental problems. Dumped fly ash adversely affects land,
air and water resources. Therefore, its gainful bulk utilization is a
major challenge to India’s growing power sectors.

*Corresponding author e-mail address: mallicksoumyaranjan@gmail.com

144
Emerging Materials Research
Volume 2 Issue EMR3
Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com
Author copy for personal use, not for distribution
The unconfined compressive strengths for fine ash are higher than
those for the coarser ash.4 The Unconfined Compressive Strength
of British fly ashes (UCS) increased from 390 to 900 kPa at 7
days curing and 400–1200 kPa at 90 days curing compacted
at Proctor’s maximum dry densities.5 The percentage of lime,
available as free lime, in the form of calcium oxide (CaO) or
calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2), controls self-cementing property
of fly ashes.6 The unconfined compressive strength of fly ashes
represents percentage of free lime present.7 The unconfined
compressive strength of fly ash increases exponentially with
the free lime content.8 The class-F fly ash achieved unconfined
compressive strength of 126 kPa at 7 days and 137 kPa at 28 days
curing.9
The major advantage of fly ashes with regard to shear strength in the
compacted and saturated condition is that the variation of effective
frictional angle is negligible, irrespective of whether it is obtained
from consolidated drained test or consolidated undrained test.10 The
shear strength of class-F fly ash, primarily, depended on cohesion
when it was in partially saturated conditions.11 When the sample
was fully saturated or dried, it lost its cohesive strength. When the
density of fly ash increased, its friction also increased.12 The shear
strength parameters, as angle of internal friction and cohesion of
typical Indian fly ashes, obtained by drained test under compacted
condition, are in the range of 33–430 and 16–93 kPa respectively.
Similar results were obtained from un-drained test under compacted
condition and were in the range of 27–390 and 16–96 kPa for angle of
internal friction and cohesion respectively.13
This investigation has characterized fly ash, mine overburden
material as well as clinker. Geotechnical properties of untreated
fly ash, mine overburden, fly ash-mine overburden mixes and
clinker treated fly ash-mine overburden mixes were determined.
Clinker percentage, curing period as well as fly ash percentage
were observed to have strong influence on the strength parameters
of the developed FCMs. The best material obtained was 62%
FA+30% O/B+8% CL. Microstructural analysis such as SEM was
carried out to confirm the values.
2. Materials and methods
The fly ash was collected by Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) from
a thermal power unit of Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP). The fly ash is
of class F type. The overburden, used in this study, was collected
from Basundhara Surface Coal Mine. Clinker was selected as an
additive for the investigation. The tests carried out to determine
Atterberg limits, Specific Gravity, Grain Size Distribution, pH,
Compaction Characteristics, Unconfined Compressive Strength
and Brazilian tensile strength and so on, as per International
Standards (IS).
For the determination of grain size, a standard set of sieves were
used as per IS: 2720-Part 4 (1985). The material passing through the
Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra
75 micron size was collected carefully and grain size distribution
analysis was performed by using Hydrometer method.
The Atterberg limits of the mine overburden were determined as
per IS: 2720-Part 5 (1985) and Part 6 (1972). The liquid limit is
the minimum moisture content at which the soil type material can
flow under a specified small disturbing force. The liquid limit of
mine overburden was determined using Casagrande apparatus.
The liquid limit of fly ash was determined by the cone penetration
method as per BS: 1377-Part 2 (1990) due to difficulty in cutting a
groove using Casagrande device. The plastic limit is the minimum
water content at which soil ceases to behave as a plastic material.
It was determined by rolling about 5 g of wet soil into a thread
of 3 mm diameter on a glass plate with finger tips. The shrinkage
limit is the maximum water content below which the soil ceases
to decrease in volume on further drying. It was determined using
shrinkage limit dish.
Free Swell Index (FSW) of the overburden and fly ash was
determined as per IS: 2720-Part 40 (1977).
The specific gravity of the mine overburden and fly ash were
determined using volumetric flask method as per IS: 2720-Part 3
(1980). Loss on ignition of overburden and fly ash were determined
as per IS: 1760-Part 1 (1991).
The pH was determined as per IS: 2720-Part 26 (1987) to identify
the acidic or alkaline characteristic of overburden and fly ash.
The measurement of pH was carried out using pH meter (make:
Systronics, India) with accuracy up to +0·02 units. The instrument
was calibrated with three standard buffer solutions of pH 7·00, 4·00
and 10·00 at 25ºC. The suspension was stirred well and allowed to
attain room temperature (25+1°C) before taking the pH reading.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is an important analytical
method for the evaluation of particulate matter. Scanning Electron
Microscope is capable of analyzing selected point locations
on the sample and is particularly useful to determine chemical
compositions. The SEM analyses were conducted in a JEOL JSM
6480 LV, (Japan) model operated at 15 kV and equipped with an
Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) attachment. Microstructure and
chemical composition of the samples were examined by SEM and
EDX techniques.
Higher compaction is needed to meet the bearing capacity for heavy
vehicular transportation. Typically, the machineries operated in
surface coal mines weigh about 80 T. Modified Proctor compaction
test is typically used to give a higher standard of compaction. It was
performed to determine the maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content of the material. The sample was compacted in the
mould in five layers using a rammer of 4·9 kg mass with a fall of
450 mm by giving 25 blows per layer. The compacted energy value
given was 2674 kJ/m3.
145
Emerging Materials Research Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
Volume 2 Issue EMR3 fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra

Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com

Author copy for personal use, not for distribution

Fly ash (%) Overburden (%) Clinker (%) Fly ash (%) Overburden (%) Clinker (%)

90 10 0 70 30 0
88 10 2 68 30 2
86 10 4 66 30 4
84 10 6 64 30 6
82 10 8 62 30 8
80 20 0 60 40 0
78 20 2 58 40 2
76 20 4 56 40 4
74 20 6 54 40 6
72 20 8 52 40 8

Table 1. Various proportions of fly ash, mine overburden and clinker.

2.1 Sample preparation

The fly ash-overburden-clinker composite materials were prepared Property Fly ash O/B
at their respective Optimum Moisture Content and Maximum Dry
Density was obtained from the Modified Proctor Compaction Test Specific gravity 2·10 2·63
for determination of Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and Atterberg limits
Brazilian Tensile Strength. The raw materials such as fly ash, mine Liquid limit (%) 31·57 26·90
overburden and clinker were blended together in required proportions Plastic limit (%) non-plastic 17·10
in dry state. Then, the required amount of water was added to
Shrinkage limit (%) 16·02
respective mixtures and mixed thoroughly. The wet mixtures were
compacted in the mould as per sample preparation guidelines. The Plasticity index (%) 9·80
aim of the investigation was to develop and evaluate the performance Sieve analysis (%)
of the fly ash major composite materials for haul road application. Gravel (>4·75 mm) 8
Hence, the fly ash amount was kept to be more than 50% (Table 1).
Sand (4·75–0·075 mm) 18 27
Silt (0·075–0·0 02 mm) 79·8 57
2.2 Sample preparation for UCS Test
Clay (<0·002 mm) 2·2 8
Split mould of 38 mm diameter and 76 mm length was used for
the preparation of the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test pH value 7·10 5·5
samples as per IS: 2720-Part 10 (1991). Samples were prepared with Free swell index negligible 18·18
uniform tamping. Two circular metal spacer discs of height 5 mm and
diameter 37·5 mm each with base (7 mm height, 50 mm diameter) Table 2. Physical properties of fly ash and mine overburden.
were used at the top and bottom ends of the mould to compact the
sample such that the length of the specimen was maintained at
76  mm. Then the discs were removed and another spacer disc of
height 100 mm and diameter 37·5 mm with a base (height 7 mm, 3. Results and discussion
50 mm diameter) was used to remove the sample from the mould. The aim of the study was to develop and evaluate fly-ash-based
The final prepared specimen had length to diameter ratio of 2. composite material to replace the common sub-base material
typically used in the haul road of a surface coal mine. The
experiments and their results are reported below.
2.3 Sample preparation for BTS test
The tensile strength is determined in accordance with ASTM
D3967. The sample for Brazilian tensile strength test was prepared 3.1 Physical and chemical properties
using the same mould of UCS test samples. For this purpose, two The fly ash was collected in dry state and was in loose stage. Its
circular metal spacer discs of heights 5 mm and 62- and 37·5-mm average water content was less than 1%. The fly ash used had a
diameters with base (height 7 mm, 50 mm diameter) were used. powdery structure with medium to dark gray color indicating
The final prepared specimen had length to diameter ratio of 0·5. low lime content.14 The physical properties of fly ash and mine

146
Emerging Materials Research Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
Volume 2 Issue EMR3 fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra

Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com

Author copy for personal use, not for distribution

Constituents SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO K2O MgO TiO2 NaO2 SO3 LOI

Mine O/B 48·24 29·18 8·36 1·10 0·40 1·30 0·69 --- --- 10·73
Fly ash 53·11 33·64 6·44 0·55 1·45 0·83 2·05 0·13 --- 1·8
Clinker 20·46 4·52 3·57 66·38 0·68 2·01 --- 0·16 1·39 0·75

Table 3. Chemical composition (% by weight) of mine overburden, fly ash and clinker.

The particle size distribution of the material has a strong influence

MDD on the density. The overburden contains sand-size fraction with
Compositions (Kg/m3) OMC (%) appreciable amount of nonplastic fines or fines with low plasticity.
It is typically described as poorly graded sand-silt mixtures and
Fly ash 1296 22·3 belongs to SM group. It contains 27% of sand, 57% of silt and
Mine overburden 1941 14·2 8% of clay size particles. The United States Classification Systems
(USCS) of soils do not classify the coal ashes satisfactorily because
90%FA+10%O/B+0%CL 1330 19·5
of their non-plastic nature. Hence, the geotechnical classification
88%FA+10%O/B+2%CL 1341 18·5 system, developed for the purpose, has been followed.21 The fly ash
86%FA+10%O/B+4%CL 1369 17·7 belongs to non-plastic inorganic coarse silt sized fractions (MLN)
group as it contains more than 50% of fine particles in the range of
84%FA+10%O/B+6%CL 1408 17·1
20–75-µm diameter.
82%FA+10%O/B+8%CL 1413 21·3
80%FA+20%O/B+0%CL 1428 18·9 Atterberg limits, such as Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic Limit (PL),
78%FA+20%O/B+2%CL 1441 16·9 Plasticity Index (PI) and Shrinkage Limit (SL), are important factors
in material identification and classification. These parameters reflect
76%FA+20%O/B+4%CL 1447 16·3 a few geotechnical problems as swelling potential and workability.
74%FA+20%O/B+6%CL 1478 21·6 The respective values of LL for fly ash and overburden are 31·57
72%FA+20%O/B+8%CL 1487 17·8 and 26·90%, respectively. Though both values are close, overburden
material is less workable than that for fly ash. The tests also confirm
70%FA+30%O/B+0%CL 1495 16·5
that fly ash is noncohesive and has negligible shrinkage limit and is
68%FA+30%O/B+2%CL 1499 18·1 thus most suitable for geotechnical applications. Free swell index
66%FA+30%O/B+4%CL 1508 17·1 of the fly ash is found to be negligible due to flocculation, which
confirms to that reported elsewhere.13
64%FA+30%O/B+6%CL 1534 16·6
62%FA+30%O/B+8%CL 1559 16·9 The chemical compositions of fly ash, overburden and clinker are
60%FA+40%O/B+0%CL 1566 16·8 important indicators of suitability of a material for geotechnical
applications. The chemical composition of fly ash indicates
58%FA+40%O/B+2%CL 1576 17·3
that it has not only less calcium content but also the quantity of
56%FA+40%O/B+4%CL 1589 16·5 (SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3) exceeds 90% (Table 3).Thus, it is classified
54%FA+40%O/B+6%CL 1604 16·1 as “Class F” type (ASTM 618). The fly ash and mine overburden
mainly consist of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and iron oxide
52%FA+40%O/B+8%CL 1619 16·7
(Fe2O3). Oxides of calcium, magnesium, potassium, titanium and
Table 4. Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content sodium are also present in small quantities. The major constituent
values of developed composites including fly ash and mine of clinker is calcium oxide at (67%).
overburden.

3.2 Compaction characteristics

overburden are reported in Table 2. The specific gravity of fly ash
and mine overburden obtained are 2·10 and 2·63. The specific gravity
of fly ash is less than that of mine overburden, due to the presence
of large number of cenospheres and less iron content. The materials
with higher iron content have relatively high specific gravity.10
The maximum dry density values of untreated composites varied
between 1300 and 1600 kg/m3. It reduced as the quantity of fly
ash increased in the composites. However, the trend is reverse for
the optimum level of moisture holding capacity of the composites.
As the fly ash percentage was increased, the values for OMC also
increased. The aim of the investigation was to develop an alternative

147
Emerging Materials Research Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
Volume 2 Issue EMR3 fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra

Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com

Author copy for personal use, not for distribution

engineering material with mine overburden and fly ash stabilized
with clinker. Accordingly samples were prepared. The specimen
behavior changed when clinker was added in various proportions.
The maximum dry density values of all composite materials
increased with increase in clinker content (Table  4). It confirms
the similar observations for fly ash–soil–lime mixtures.15,16
3.3 Unconfined compressive strength
The unconfined compression test is one of the widely used laboratory
tests in pavement design and soil stabilization applications. It
is often used as an index to quantify the strength enhancement
of materials due to treatment. The results of UCS tests for both
untreated and treated composites are reported. The UCS values of
untreated fly ash and overburden composites, immediately after
preparation, could not be obtained as they failed immediately after
loading. Marginal increase in UCS values was observed at different
curing periods (Figure 1).
The compressive strength values changed dramatically with the
addition of clinker. The composites achieved UCS value between
0·15 and 1·1 MPa, which were significantly dependent on clinker
content as well as on curing period (Figure 2). The composite,
70%FA+30%O/B with 2 to 8% clinker, shows highest strength
(0·32–1·09 MPa) as compared with other composites at 7-day curing
(Figure 2). The composite, 62%FA+30%O/B, stabilized with 8%
clinker achieved UCS value of 1·4 MPa at 28-day curing (Figure 3).

1·4 90%FA+10%O/B+0%CL 1·4

90%FA+10%O/B+2%CL 28 days cured
90%FA+10%O/B+4%CL
90%FA+10%O/B+6%CL
1·2 90%FA+10%O/B+8%CL 1·2
90%FA+20%O/B+0%CL
90%FA+20%O/B+2%CL
90%FA+20%O/B+4%CL
1 90%FA+20%O/B+6%CL
90%FA+20%O/B+8%CL 1
90%FA+30%O/B+0%CL
90%FA+30%O/B+2%CL
UCS (MPa)

0·8 90%FA+30%O/B+4%CL
UCS (MPa)

90%FA+30%O/B+6%CL
90%FA+30%O/B+8%CL 0·8
90%FA+40%O/B+0%CL
90%FA+40%O/B+2%CL
0·6 90%FA+40%O/B+4%CL
90%FA+40%O/B+6%CL 0·6
90%FA+40%O/B+8%CL

0·4
10%O/B
0·4 20%O/B
0·2 30%O/B
40%O/B
0·2
0 0 2 4 6 8
7 14 21 28
Curing period (days) Clinker content (%)

Figure 1. Effect of curing on UCS. UCS, unconfined compressive Figure 3. UCS values of fly ash-mine overburden-clinker composites
strength. at 28 days curing. UCS, unconfined compressive strength.

1·1
7 days cured
8

0·9

0·8

0·7
UCS (MPa)

0·6

0·5

0·4

0·3 10%O/B
20%O/B
0·2 30%O/B
40%O/B
0·1
0 2 4 6 8
Clinker content (%)

Figure 2. UCS values of fly ash-mine overburden-clinker composites

at 7 days curing. UCS, unconfined compressive strength. Figure 4. Postfailure profiles of Brazilian tensile test samples.

148
 Emerging Materials Research Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
Volume 2 Issue EMR3 fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra

Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com

Author copy for personal use, not for distribution

It showed that the availability of additional clinker produced At 28 days curing, all composites showed more than 40 kPa
enhanced bonding between reactive elements. Each composition strength values with maximum values at 8% clinker with 62% fly
exhibited higher strength values with increase in clinker content ash and 30% overburden. The sample exhibited 150 kPa at 28 days
and curing period. These values are far above the minimum values curing (Figure 5). Brazilian tensile strength of all the composites
suggested for subgrade.17 was between 40 to 150 kPa at 28 days of curing. The fly ash mixed
with 30% mine overburden and 8% clinker exhibited maximum
The composite containing 62% fly ash and 30% mine overburden tensile strength as compared to that of other composites at 28
with 8% clinker exhibited maximum compressive strength days of curing. The strength achieved in all the composites in this
as compared with other composites at 7 and 28 days of curing. investigation is above these values after a period of curing and
Typically the stress values at the base/sub-base layers of mine haul hence useful for mine haul road construction.
road for 35-170 T dumpers are 300–650 kPa, respectively.1 The
strength achieved by almost all the mixes in this study is above
3.5 Scanning electron microscopy
these values after curing and is hence suitable for mine haul road
It is observed that the glassy portions of the spheres of the composite
construction.
are potentially attacked by calcium oxide. The SEM images show
development of gel at different stages of pozzolanic reaction. It
3.4 Brazilian tensile strength confirms the observation that, during early stages, the reactive
Tensile strength is an important property to predict the cracking particles in the fly ash-overburden-clinker composite served as
behavior of pavement structures using stabilized soils.18 The
tensile strength is a vital parameter to evaluate the suitability of (a)
stabilized soil or fly ash as road base material. In the present study,
tensile test was conducted on developed composites to evaluate the
tensile strength as well as the cracking behavior of clinker treated
fly ash–overburden material. The tensile strength of untreated fly
ash, untreated overburden as well as untreated fly ash–overburden
composite materials was very low and hence not reported here.
However, the behavior of composites changed dramatically and
values were recorded as clinker was added. The treated fly ash–
overburden composite materials at 7 and 14 days exhibited marginal
values due to low strength and hence not reported here. All the
specimens failed more or less at the middle through an induced
force, which is tensile in nature (Figure 4). The failure occurred
within 60 to 100 S.
20 kU ×500 50 µm 11 56 55 P

0·16 28 days cured

(b)
0·14
Brazilian tensile strength (MPa)

0·12

0·1

0·08

0·06

10%O/B
0·04 20%O/B
30%O/B
40%O/B
0·02
0 2 4 6 8 20 kU ×1500 10 µm 11 56 55 P
Clinker content (%)

Figure 5. BTS values of fly ash-mine overburden-clinker composites at Figure 6. (a) SEM image of 68%FA+30%O/B+2%CL and (b) SEM image
28 days curing. BTS, brazilian tensile strength. of 62%FA+30%O/B+8%CL. SEM, scanning electron microscopy

149
Emerging Materials Research
Volume 2 Issue EMR3
Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com
Author copy for personal use, not for distribution
nucleation sites for hydration and pozzolanic reaction products as
(C-S-H, C-A-H, C-A-S-H).19
The cementitious compounds formed around the fly ash and
overburden particles (Figure 6(a)). The composite, (62%FA +
30%O/B+8%CL) at 28 days, exhibited dense gel - like mass
covering all reactive particles completely and filling up the inter-
particle spaces with blurred grain boundaries (Figure 6(b)). It
appears like a massive unit compared to the other composites. The
dense gel acted as a binding substance and appears to be evenly
distributed to form compact structure, thus creating more contact
and higher cohesion that in turn reflects in greater strength values.
It was observed from static laboratory tests that all the samples
exhibited maximum strength values at 28 days. Therefore, its SEM
analysis was carried out to understand the micro-structural aspects.
The CBR of lime kiln dust amended soil-fly ash mixtures increased
with increasing curing time due to the formation of Calcium
Silicate Hydrate (CSH) and Calcium Aluminate Silicate Hydrate
gels (CASH) around soil and fly ash particles.20
4. Conclusions
(1) Different mixtures of fly ash–mine overburden, without
additive, do not have sufficient strength to be used as
subbase material.
(2) The maximum dry density of all the treated composite
materials increased with increase in clinker percentage.
(3) The unconfined compressive strength increased with
increase in clinker percentage and curing period.
(4) The surface image of all the mixes showed the formation
of hydrated gel as C-A-H, C-S-H and C-A-S-H at 28-day
curing. The voids between the particles were filled by
growing hydrates with curing period and clinker percentage.
(5) Clinker content showed a significant effect on the strength
development and pozzolanic reaction rate of natural
pozzolans.
(6) The composite with 62% FA, 30% O/B and 8% clinker
exhibited maximum compressive strength of 1·4 MPa at
28-day curing as compared with other developed composites
and found suitable for use in sub-base of haul road.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial assistance provided by the
Council of scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)-New Delhi
under EMR-II Scheme Vide letter No. 22/0474/09/EMR-II dated
12-02-2009.
REFERENCES
1. Tannant, D. D.; Regensburg, B.  Guidelines for Mine Haul
Road Design. Canada: University of Alberta, 2001.
2. Thompson, R. J.; Visser, A. T.  Mine Haul Road Maintenance
Management Systems. Johannesburg: The South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2003, 303–312.
150
Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra
3. Tannant, D. D.; Kumar, V.  Properties of fly ash stabilized
haul road construction. International Journal of Surface
Mining Reclamation and Environment 2000, 14,
121–135.
4. Leonards, G. A.; Bailey, B.  Pulverized coal ash as structural
fill. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 1982, 108,
517–531.
5. Gray, D. H.; Lin, Y. K.  Engineering properties of compacted
fly ash. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering 1972, 98, 361–380.
6. Sherwood, P. T.; Ryley, M. D.  Use of stabilized pulverized
fuel ash in road construction. London: Road Research
Laboratory Report, Ministry of Transport, 1966, 49, 1–44.
7. Singh, D. N.  Influence of chemical constituents of fly ash
characteristics. Madras: Proceeding of Indian Geotechnical
Conference, 1996, 227–230.
8. Yudhbir; Honjo, Y.  Applications of geotechnical engineering
to environmental control. In Proceeding of 9th Asian Reg.
Conference on S. M. and F. E., Bangkok, Thailand, 1991, 2,
431–469.
9. Ghosh, A.; Dey, U.  Bearing ratio of reinforced fly ash
overlying soft soil and deformation modulus of fly ash.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 2009, 27, 313–320.
10. Sridharan, A.; Pandian, N. S.; Chitti Babu, G. Strength
behaviour of Indian coal ashes. Technical report of task
force on characterization of fly ash, Technology Mission-Fly
Ash Disposal and Utilization, Department of Science and
Technology, Government of India, 2001, 4.
11. Mclaren, R. J.; DiGioia, A. M.  The typical engineering
properties of fly ash. Proceeding of Conference on
Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal (Geotechnical
special publication No. 13) (Wood, R. D. (ed.)). New York:
ASCE, 1978, 683–697.
12. Capco.  Pulverized Fuel Ash as Reclamation Fill. Hong
Kong: Report of the China Light and Power Co. Ltd., 1990,
1–34.
13. Pandian, N. S.; Rajasekhar, C.; Sridharan, A.  Fly ash-
lime systems for the retention of lead ions. Bangalore:
Proceeding of Indian Geotechnical Conference, 1995, 1,
219–222.
14. Meyers, J. F.; Pichumani, R.; Kapples, B. S.  Fly Ash
as a Construction Material for Highways (Report No.
FHWA-FP-76-16). Washington: US Department of
Transportation, 1976.
15. Arora, S.; Aydilek, A. H.  Class F fly-ash-amended soils
as highway base materials Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering 2005, 17, 640–649.
16. Consoli, N. C.; Prietto, P. D. M.; Carraro, J. A. H.;
Heineck, K. S.  Behavior of compacted soil fly ash-
carbide lime mixtures. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental 2001, 127, 774–782.
17. Das, B. M.  Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (3rd ed.).
Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company, 1994.
Emerging Materials Research
Volume 2 Issue EMR3
Offprint provided courtesy of www.icevirtuallibrary.com
Author copy for personal use, not for distribution
18. Baghdadi, Z. A.; Fatani, M. N.; Sabban N. A. Soil
modification by Cement kiln dust. Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering 1995, 7, 218–222.
19. Lav, A. H.; Lav, M. A.  Microstructural development of
stabilized fly ash pavement base material. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering 2000, 12, 157–163.
Strength evaluation of clinker stabilized
fly ash-mine overburden composites as an
alternative haul road construction material
Mallick and Mishra
20. Cetin, B.; Aydilek, A. H.; Guney, Y.  Stabilization of
recycled base materials with high carbon fly ash. Resources,
Conservation and Recycling 2010, 54, 878–892.
21. Sridharan, A.; Prakash, K.  Geotechnical Engineering
Characterization of Coal Ashes New Delhi: CBS Publication,
2007.
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
To discuss this paper, please email up to 500 words to the
managing editor at emr@icepublishing.com
Your contribution will be forwarded to the author(s) for
a reply and, if considered appropriate by the editor-in-
chief, will be published as a discussion in a future issue of
the journal.
ICE Science journals rely entirely on contributions sent in
by professionals, academics and students coming from the
field of materials science and engineering. Articles should
be within 5000-7000 words long (short communications and
opinion articles should be within 2000 words long), with
adequate illustrations and references. To access our author
guidelines and how to submit your paper, please refer to
the journal website at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/emr
151