Our Food

OurFood
Database of Food and Related Sciences
Karl Heinz Wilm

E-Mail: author@OurFood.com
August 21, 2007

2
Contents
1 Introduction 17
2 Food Allergies 25
EC labelling legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Evaluation of the Allergic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Developing Food allergies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Treatment of Food Allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Food intolerance: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Prevalence of food hypersensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Detection of food allergens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Allergies and cross-reactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3 Anthrax 59
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
History of Anthrax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Bacillus anthracis Cohn 1872,177.Al . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Culture of Bacillus anthracis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Pathogenesis of Bacillus anthracis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 Food poisoning 67
4.0.1 Algal Toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.0.2 Bacterial poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Changing ecology and toxic foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Origin of mercury in the Amazon region: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Chemical contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Inorganic Insecticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Miscellaneous compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Other contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Herbicides in rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Biopesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3
4
Conventional pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Antimicrobial agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sanitizers: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Agent Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Pollutants in milk and dairy products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Use of DDT for indoor spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chlorpyrifos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Plasticisers as possible cancer-causing agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Growth stimulating hormones in beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
International trade of Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
List of the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent of
banned or severely restricted chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Annex III - Chemicals Subject To The Prior Informed Consent Procedure
- Category Pesticide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Category Severely hazardous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Category Severely hazardous pesticide formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Category Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Non dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in feed and food . . . . 121
Tryptophan and eosinophilia-myalgia-syndrome (EMS) . . . . . . . . . . 125
5 General bacteriology 131

Classification of Aeromonas spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Further classification of aeromonads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Historical classification of aeromonads: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The culture of aeromonads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Family of Campylobacteraceae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Helicobacter: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Transmission and sources of infection of Campylobacter . . . . . . . . . . 150
Avoid contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Prevention of infection with Campylobacter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Isolation and identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Chlamydia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Clostridium perfringens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Diseases transmitted by water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Enterobacteriaceae, culture methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fluorescence methods for detection of Escherichia coli . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Thin layer chromatography with immunologic analysis to detect E.coli
0157:H7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identifying microorganism . . . . . . . 181
Impedance technologies for rapid detection and enumeration of bacteria . 182
OurFood (c) 1998 - 2005 by Karl Heinz Wilm 5
The ten most dangerous diseases of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Tetrahymena protozoan and Samonella and resistance to sanitizers . . . 192
6 BSE 197
7 Dioxin 221
8 Foot and Mouth Disease and other animal infections 227

New strain of Asia 1 FMD of Central Asia and China . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9 Food-borne diseases 237

9.1 Introduction: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Bacterial infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Cholera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Staphylococcus aureus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Moulds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Prevention and reduction of mycotoxin contamination in cereals . . . . . 248
Viral infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Avian influenza A and Newcastle disease: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
WHO Recommendations Regarding Avian Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Avian Influenza and food safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Still human death cases caused by H5N1 avian flue virus [1334] . . . . . 255
Norovirus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Reoviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Rotaviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Astroviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Adenoviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Parvoviruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Vaccine against H5N1 for humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Disaster plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Avian influenza and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Review of pathogens heat-resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10 Food, what is it? 285

Soy as supplement in infant formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Special purpose value added soybeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Plant sterols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Resolution of the European Commission 200/500/EG. Phytosterine rich
margarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6
Acid Value: AOAC pH-Metric Determination in Vegetable Oils without

Titration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Deep frying oil and shortenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Palmoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Toxicology of heated fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Colon carcinogenicity of heated oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Isomalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Seafood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Functional Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
The FINE Study [337] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Mood Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Cocoa and chocolate directive 2000/36 EC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Sales names and definitions of cocoa, chocolate and their products . . . . 384
Vegetable fats allowed to be added to chocolate and related products . . 388
Influenza and probiotic bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Acrylamide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Surface browning as indicator of acrylamide formation . . . . . . . . . . 395
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in grilled, fried or broiled meat
and cheese products [898] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Frozen Food Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Canned food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Dieting fads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Bromate in bottled water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Glycemic index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Encapsulation of flavours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
11 Baby Food and Infant Formulas 415

Infant Formula Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
11.1 Studies related infant formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
12 Food Advertising 425

Food industry forcing marketing to exploiting human weaknesses . . . . 425
International code needed to protect children from Internet and TV mar-
keting Excesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Pavlovian conditioning and food advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Debate over advertising children s products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Food labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Common nutrition labelling scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Mislabelling or Misdescription of foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Guidance on the use of marketing terms on food labels . . . . . . . . . . 440
UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

U. S. Food labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Misleading claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Examples of misleading packaging design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Universal Ethical Code for Scientists [971] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Little scientific evidence supporting corn oil health claim. . . . . . . . . . 451
UK Traffic Light and food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Brand Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
12.0.1 The aspartame controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Splenda an example of self-destroying marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
13 Genetic modification of food 465

Low-linolenic soyseeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Hybrid rice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Genetically modified rice in Japan [458] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Liberty herbicide and NAG (N-acetyl-L-glufosinate) . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Transporter IRTI for assimilation of iron [367] [368] . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Cultivation of genetic modified seeds in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Cloning of animals for better foods [420] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Australian GM field peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Lycopene from Fusarium sporotrichoides: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
GM Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Unwanted gene flow from canola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
EU concept of coexistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
USDA field test permission for genetically engineered crop [1500] . . . . . 518
Recommendations from the Canadia Canola Council Canola to farmers . 520
Genetic regulations in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Genetic risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus [1464] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Antibiotic resistance marker genes nptII in GM plants poses no risk to
human, animal or environment [1465] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Pharmaceutical rice [1475] [1476] [1477] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) [1482] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Transgenes in Mexican maize at the preliminary stage of climate change
[1486] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
14 Nutritional Genomics 555

The beginning of nutritional genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Nutritional genomics: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Uses of food genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Supplementation during pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
8
15 HACCP and ISO 9000 559

Food chain steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
What to take care of in order to ensure food safety . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
History of HACCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Hygiene regulations in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Production, improve the technical processing: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Health condition or the staff which comes in contact with food . . . . . . 574
Canadian IPM without methyl bromide [62] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
HACCP for supermarkets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
How to install an HACCP system for supermarkets . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Total Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Hyperlinked Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Introduction of the Hyperlinked Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Hyperlinked Management Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Software to handle Global Hyperlinked Management . . . . . . . . . . . 596
HACCP and small businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Regional Programmes for Food Security (RPFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Multilateral trade negotiations on agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
ISO 15161:2001, Guidelines on the application of ISO 9001:2000 for the
food and drink industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
ISO 22000: 200x Food Safety Management Standard . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Overview of the BRC/IoP Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Content of the BRC/IoP Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Certification bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
EN45011: The standard for the European Accreditation of bodies who
are involved in certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Detail of the Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
Auditing Standard ISO 19011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Deming’s Management-Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Arman Feigenbaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
Interoperability of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
The main producers of national standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
International Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
International Organization for Standardisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
ISO 9001:2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Control of non-conforming products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Economics of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Pork quality and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
EMAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
ISO 14001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
European food safety regulation activities in EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
EC General Food Law Regulation 178/2002 [46] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
16 Ingredients 623
No-effect-level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
International Numbering System for Ingredients INS- Number . . . . . . 628
E-Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Citric acid ester of mono- and di-glycerides replacing lecithin in chocolate
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
Lack of association between saccharin, aspartame and other sweeteners
and the risk of several common neoplasms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Smoke flavourings: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
Ezyme Commission number (EC number) [384] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
UniProt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Sodium benzoate as source of benzene in soft drinks . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
Benzene in foods without added benzoates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Natural cure for meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Feed ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
17 Food Supplements 685

Diabetes and carotenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Pros and cons related to supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Slimming ingredients, an unserious category? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) as food supplement . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), a review [497] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Memory Supplements without solid scientific support . . . . . . . . . . . 703
The controversity of fibre and colorectal cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
18 Hygienemonitoring 715
ATP-Bioluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Hygienemanagement in food industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Improving CIP technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Origin of Contamination of food with pathogen bacteria . . . . . . . . . 724
19 Radioactivity and food 727

Irradiated foods in EU [670] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
10
20 Moulds and yeasts 741

Allergies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
Culture media for moulds and yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Selective culture of Candida albicans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Determination of yeasts and moulds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
Yeasts identification methods [805] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Identification of yeasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
EFSA Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS) of Yeasts [820] . . . . . . . 761
Invasive aspergillosis and galactomannan test [824] . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
21 Organic food 767

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
Organic Food in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
The Proposal on Organic Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
Principles applicable to all organic production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
Principles applicable to organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
Production of processed organic feed and food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
General farm production rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Plant production rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Livestock production rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Production rules for feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
General rules on the production of processed food . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Label and advertising claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Imports from third countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
International harmonization of organic food - Codex Alimentarius [?] . . 778
Global situation of organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
NOP Standards (7 CFR Part 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
Other special food systems with organic claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)784
The IFOAM Principles of Organic Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Other special food systems with organic claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
AGL regulation for organic animal farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Labelling of organics: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Global situation of organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Social economic environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Alternative Diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Macrobiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Water for agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795

Environmental development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Other Agricultural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
Sustainable agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Agroecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Campylobacter in organic poultry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Recover of natural antioxidants of industrial fruit and vegetable waste . . 814
REPCO: Replacement of copper fungicides in organic production of grapevine
and apple in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Food and ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
Better cheese with corn silage feed milk than from fresh pasture milk [869]818
22 Vegetarianism 825
Food and ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
High consumption of red and processed meat linked breast cancer risk. . 828
23 Phytopathology, diseases of plants 831

Phenology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
Soybean diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Extreme heat and drought in some regions of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Genetic diversity within a species improves the ecosystem . . . . . . . . . 847
Insect Resistance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
Cassava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Iceberg lettuce breeding for high resistance to fungus and microbes [1120]
[1121] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
24 Physiology 857
Vegetarian food with animal ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Psychology of diet plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
The cause of failure of diet plans and how to do it better . . . . . . . . . 860
The separation diet of Dr. Howard Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
Good diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
The risks of bad diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
Evaluation of High-Protein Diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
Other low-carbohydrate diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
The Jo-Jo effect reviewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Moslems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
Shubhah (Mushbooh) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
Ritual slaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
What is behind a brand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Weight Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
12
Drugs to fight bodyweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

Xenical, the antifat drug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Orlistat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Amphetamines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Phentermin and norephedrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Aminorex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Phenfluramine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Physiology of hunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Appetite to specific foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Well-fed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Reductil, a suppressant of appetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
Xenical, The fight against fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
Use of Xenical in case of low body weight (BMI below 30) . . . . . . . . 900
Food with reduced fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Medical prescription of Xenical in case of BMI 30 to 40 . . . . . . . . . . 901
Use of Xenical in case of BMI over 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Xenical, the drug of the rich society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
Dexfenfluramin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
The Conference on Preventing Childhood Obesity, December 8, 2003 . . 903
Early Nutrition Programming Project EARNEST [1528] . . . . . . . . . 907
A classification and regression trees analysis on risk factors for childhood
overweight (CART analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
Dietary fibre and inflammation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
Dietary natural agents and cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Green Tea and weight reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
Green tea reducing cancer risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Cardiovascular protection of red wine and white wine . . . . . . . . . . . 927
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Dietary Reference Intakes
(DRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
Actual dietary references set from US Food and Drug Administration FDA932
Mangosteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
Methylmercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
Trans fat claims, FDA proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Low-calories, low dietary energy density and physical activity . . . . . . 966
Warning about high levels of multivitamins increasing the risk of prostate
cancers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
Protective effect of green tea and soy intake in relation to breath cancer
risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Flavonols in chocolate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
Legumin and homologous proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Industrial processing of cocoa discards epicatechin in commercial cocoa

[1099] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
25 Packaging 985
The war between glass and plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
German regulations concerning recycling of packaging: . . . . . . . . . . 989
The Euro glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
European regulations concerning packaging recycling . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Types of plastic packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Phthalates in medical devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Carbon monoxide treated meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Bioplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001
Biodegradable Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002
Degradable plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
Latex proteins from contact materials and food allergies . . . . . . . . . 1007
Polyhydroxibutirate (PHB), new biodegradable plastic from sugar [290] . 1010
Corkiness of wine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
Bioplastic packaging materials [297] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
26 Parasites and Pathogenic Protozoa 1015

Free-living amoebae as human pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
Fishborn flukes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Anisakis and Herring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
27 Bioterrorism 1033
Food and Bioterrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
The Bioterrorism Security Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Dangerous agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Emergency Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
Survival at home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
The German preparedness recommendation [665] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
The William Bell and Cham Dallas report on nuclear threat [666] . . . . 1040
Food terrorism and sabotage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
WHO Food Safety Response to Terrorist Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
Surveillance, Preparedness and Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
World Health Organisation and food terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
International Health Regulations (IH R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
28 Global Food Safety 1053

Global food safety and global food trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
14
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054

Convention on Biological Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
FAO Anti-Hunger Program: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
Famines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
Activities of the Third World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Food sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
WTO and the conference in Cancun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
The future of WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
Misuses of NAFTA: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
Mercosur and the South American Free Trade Area (SAFTA) . . . . . . 1062
The American Free Trade Area (AFTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Agriculture and plant protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Monocultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Agroecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Integrated Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Cuba agroecological example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
Intelligent Pest Management (IPM Systems) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Precision Farming Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
29 Future of Global Nutrition 1069

Global corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
Instruments of economic regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
World Trade Organization ( WTO ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Functions of WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
Agreements and other organizations resulting from WTO . . . . . . . . . 1072
WTO’s Agriculture Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
Suspension of the Doha negotiations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Transatlantic free trade zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures ( SPS ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Functions of the WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
The Ministerial Conference of WTO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
Codex Alimentarius Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Developing Countries and the WTO System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
Export Dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
The joint paper for Cancun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
Kyoto protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
Climate change makes near-surface fish grow faster . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
No chance for DOHA no chance for climate control no chance to avoid

nuclear war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Origin of GATT and other Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs1088
TRIPSs and Software: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
NAFTA and FTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Environment and trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
World Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
IMF International Monetary Fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development . . . . 1094
Excessive trade endangers species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
The Roadmap to Recovery of Marine Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
Destruction of the Amazon rainforest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Fermentation products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Particulate Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
Nanotechnology and food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Concerns about safety of Nanoparticles [1239] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105
Renewable fuel in the City of Portland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
30 Avoiding food scandals 1111

Increasing Food Safety with Predictive Microbiology . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
The ComBase Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
ComBase Predictor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Sea water and irrigation water as cause of food born diseases . . . . . . . 1115
Animal product health threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
Melamine in pet food and human consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
31 Food Processing Innovations 1121

31.0.2 Beta-glucan in food applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
Avoiding poison in containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
Renewable fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
New process for texturizing whey protein isolate (WPI) . . . . . . . . . . 1128
32 testtest 1291
Cardiovascular protection of red wine and white wine . . . . . . . . . . . 1293
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Dietary Reference Intakes
(DRI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
Actual dietary references set from US Food and Drug Administration FDA1298
16
Chapter 1
Introduction
OUR FOOD is a database containing information concerning food, related physiology, technol-
ogy, analytical methods, bacteriology and topics of general interest.
Disclaimer: OUR FOOD was compiled with great care. However the author does not take
any guarantee and denies any responsibility upon failures or damages caused by errors or mis-
understanding of the contents.
The author: Karl Heinz Wilm diplome biochemist, graduated in the Faculty of Pharmacy
of the University of Belém do Pará, Brazil.
As member of the Council of Pharmacy of Porto Alegre he became director of the section of
bacteriology of the Biochemical Laboratory Dr. Friedel in Sao Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul
Brazil, later chief chemist of the laboratory of food industry.
17
18
General information
Why a database on food ?

Health: No physician denies the truth that the most frequent causes of illness are based on
wrong behavior related to food.
More information about food is necessary to avoid unhealthy life-style and to cut cost of re-
sulting medical care.
You cannot avoid contaminants and other dangers of modern food.
Industrialization: Our food is being constantly industrialized. The bio food and alterna-
tive food are being commercialized.
Due to a wide distribution the shelf life must be kept long. Vitamins and proteins loses their
value.
You cannot avoid industrialized food.
Globalization of trade and industry: Globalization of multinational companies destroys

the ecological isolated markets introducing the global business. Dumping prices from abroad
destroy smaller industries killing jobs.
The self feeding units as seen in the Amazon rain forest will be destroyed by global think-
ing. Traditions and real target of life will be gone in a world which is being controlled by a
hand full of mighty global players. Economic and ecological isolated units like the habitation
in the Amazon jungle as self feeding unit will be a picture of the past:
Table 1.1: The great top 10 food giants (1998)
Company Home based Turnover food

USmm
Nestlé Switzerland 50
Phillip Morris USA 31
ConAgra USA 23
Unilever Netherlands 23
PepsiCo USA 22
20
Cargill USA 21
Coca-Cola USA 18
Diageo 18
Archer Daniels Midland USA 16
Danone 14
The recent opening of the European Common Market adds further power to giant industries.
Concentration on the retail sector has destroyed in Germany 60 000 full-time jobs.
Mergers and acquisitions are the prime culprit. When a smaller company is taken over, a num-
ber of duplicated functions are amalgamated growing to low-overhead companies with smaller
workforces. [261]
The retail sector is also getting global. Carrefour, a retail group with head in France reports
the opening of 10 new business fields in Brazil, China, the Czech Republic, Korea, Malaysia,
Mexico, Spain and Taiwan. The total number of stores of Carrefour come up to 345 in 20
different countries. [260]
The concentration of the market still goes on and increases new speed with the European
activity of the US giant Wal-Mart [357] buying at the end of 1998 the Interspar-SB warehouses.
Wal-Mart is interested to buy the Carrefour group.

Wal-Mart has already reached a turnover in 1997 of 200 billion Mark.It has a gigantesque
data-processing system which is only surpassed by the system of US Ministry of Defense in the
Pentagon.(Read all about Hyperlinked Management searching in INDEX to see the develop-
ment of data-processing in food management for the coming years.)
Wal-Mart controls according Jürgen Maximow the behavior of its clients utilizing data from
the buying checks client charts and interviews of its employees.
In this way Wal-Marts gets a picture of the behavior of the client, the speed of turnover of
the ware and regional different reactions of the market.
Wal-Mart has an enormous knowledge concerning its customers.

J”urgen Maximow says that the actual business is not middle classes friendly. in the Year 2005
less than ten retailing groups will be left over.
Table 1.2: Retailers and their turnover 1999

Retailer Home based Total Branch in
turnover
bn US Dollar
Wal-Mart USA 156 Canada, Mexico, Brazil,
Argentina, China, South Corea
and Germany
Metro Germany,Zwitzerland 46 West and East Europe, China,

The Kroger Co USA 45
Carrefour France 40
Alberton’s USA
Edeka Germany 37
Rewe Germany 36 Austria, Cherchenien, Slowakia,

Poland, Hungary, Italy,
and France
Royal Aholda Netherlands 35

Intermarché France 34
Tesco GB 32
The French group Intermarché has the majority of Spar enterprises.

The former head of the board of directors of the Daimler-Chrysler automobile group, Jürgen
Schrempp expects a wide dissolution of nations as a result of growing international fusion of
enterprises.
To the magazine ”Forbes” Schrempp stated: ”We are going to come to a transatlantic union
and then we should get ahead and finally build a world union without borders between coun-
tries [256].
As head of DASA(the aerospace division of Daimer-Benz) , now EADS, Schremp acquired the
Dutch aircraft manufacturer Focker in 1992 subsidizing the company with billions of Deutsche
Marks. Only four years later, in 1996 Daimler-Benz decided to stop putting more money into
Fokker that subsequently went bankrupt. Under the leadership of Schremp, Daimler-Benz
made the disastrous acquisition of the Chrysler Corporation to become DaimlerChrysler. In
May, 2007, facing tremendous losses, Daimler got rid of Chrysler and Schremp. This is an
example how the visions of powerful leaders may score own goals.
In 1971 Gudrun Tempel wrote that the world was becomming a small village governed by the
22
head of global companies which have more power than a president or a minister of finance [257].
Unfortunately the great global companies do not bring wealth or better life to the country
where they operate.
Oranges are being marketed in Brazil mainly by four companies: The Brazilian Cutrale and
Citrosuco,the French Coimbra and the US American Cargill producing 40% of world orange
juice. Price of fruits and pay for workers are kept at extreme low levels without benefits to
the workers of this giant industry. Globalization does not bring a better live to the world. It
destroys the basis of social organization. [133]
As former Foreign Minister of Germany, Hans-Dieter Genscher[353] considers 1989, the year
of the opening of the Wall of Berlin as a beam of the industrial as well as social globaliza-
tion. According to his words it is now time to get together and fight the common threats of
globalization which are:
• Mass poverty
• Ignorance and
• No access to education
At the end of the cold war when the scare which was paralyzing humanity had been lifted,
better transport and information flow was able to drive on development of technology and
business.
According to Mr. Genscher, globalization has to be carried by the spirit of tolerance to avoid
collision of cultures. Intolerance is often the product of ignorance.
It is therefore important to furnish information about other cultures in our schools.

As the availability of food resources depend on the political leadership of the countries where
basic foods grow the political configuration of the world in the 21.century is for food trade and
industry of crucial importance. Mr. Genscher says:
”Russia will remain a part of the power of the world.

China and India will play growing roles.
Japan will remain strong.
Brazil, despite its economical troubles will gain weight.
Regional unions like MERCOSUR in Latin America, the Gulf Cooperation Council ASEAN in
Southeast Asia and the European Union in Europe will built new economic blocks.The Euro-
pean Union is already of equal rank to USA.
A peaceful system of the world will in future only be possible on basis of the declarations
of human rights of UN and the spirit of tolerance.
The vitality of US democracy shown throughout history is on this matter a good omen for the
future.”
Globalization and the concentration on the power of worldwide companies are building great
factories and enormous agricultural fields of monocultures. In these factories and on these fields
there are small groups of workers which producing for the whole world. Small industries all over
the word disappear because they cannot survive in the struggle against the almighty presence
of these giants. Those who are jobless are put aside of society. They have no future. As the
number of unemployed rises the power of reaction against globalization grows.
The only way to save our planet and our society is to get back to economic and ecological
isolated systems. The regions must produce for themselves and avoid to be fed by imported
goods. In this way dumping prices destroying the local markets could be avoided. This social
revolution can take place like the fall of the Berlin Wall 1989 as a great part of the population of
the DDR recognized the dusk of the communist system. The legion of the unemployed persons
will recognize that global business destroys our society and will make a ban of global products.
You cannot avoid globalization.

You cannot turn back time, but you can inform yourself through databases like OUR FOOD.
Free databases like OUR FOOD provide information on how to avoid the menace of daily poi-
soning.
That is why databases on food are important. Be careful not to fall into sectarian thinking -
allow always arguments of the other side.
OUR FOOD wishes you success on your researches.

24
Chapter 2
Food Allergies
According to the European Federation of Allergy and Airways Diseases Patients Association
an estimated 4 per cent of adults and 8 percent of children in the European Union suffer from
food Allergies.
First signs of an allergic reaction to food:

- Running nose
- Itchy skin rash
- Tingling in the tongue, lips, or throat
- Swelling in the throat or other parts of the body
- Abdominal pain
- Eczema
- Dizziness
- Diarrhoea or vomiting
- Wheezing
Major serious food allergens: Cereals containing gluten (i.e. wheat, rye, barley, oats,
spelt or their hybridised strains, and products thereof), fish, crustaceans, egg (globulin; albu-
min; Apovitellenin; livetin; ovalbumin; ovomucin; ovomucoid; ovovitellin; phosvitin), peanut,
soybeans ( soy protein, textured vegetable protein TPV, hydrolysed plant protein, hydrolysed
soy protein, hydrolysed vegetable protein,), milk and dairy products including lactose (milk
sugar), nuts i.g. almond (Amygdalus communis), hazelnut (Corylus avellana),walnut (Juglans
regia), cashew (Anacardium occidentale),pecan nut(Carya illinoiesis), Brazil nut (Bertholletia
excelsa), pistachio nut (Pistacia vera), macadamia nut, Queensland nut (Macadamia ternifo-
lia), celery and other foods of the Umbelliferae family, mustard, sesame seed, sulphur dioxide
and sulphites (at concentrations of more than 10 mg/kg or 10 mg/litre expressed as SO2 ) are
the major serious food allergens.
The most common food allergens are found in a wide variety of processed foods and may cause
allergies or intolerances in consumers endangering their health.
25
26
Food allergens are part of a wide group of adverse reactions to foods.

In order to provide all consumers with better information and to protect the health of certain
consumers all ingredients must now be included in the list of ingredients.
Labelling: According to labelling Directive 2000/13, a full list of ingredient was considered
not to be compulsory when the compound ingredient constitutes less than 25% of the finished
product. Many of allergenic ingredients were so hidden.
The Directive 2003/89/EC amended Directive 2000/13. The mandatory inclusion on food labels
of the most common food allergen ingredients and their derivate is contained in this directive
which came into force in 2005.
A similar law goes into effect in the US on 1 January 20 due to the US Food Allergen and
Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA). Food makers have to list in lain, common language, the
presence of any of the eight major food allergens- milk, egg, peanut, tree nut, fish, shellfish,
wheat and soy a product’s label.
When cross-over of food allergens is not possible to be completely avoided, the warning ”
May contain traces of ...” should be included in the label.
Table 2.1: Frequency of food allergies

Foods Per cent
Milk (cow) 42.0
Egg (hen)
- Egg white 14.6
- Egg yolk 9.0
- Egg white and yolk 9.7
Fish 11.0
Citrus fruit 4.5
Legume 2.5
Horse meat 1.3
Meat 1.0
Vegetable 1.0
Onion 1.0
Nuts, chocolate and others 2.0
Food allergens and Good Manufacturing Practice: According to the Institute of Food
Science and Technology (IFST) the ”greatest care must be taken by food manufacturers to
formulate foods so as to avoid, whenever possible, inclusion of unnecessary major allergens as
ingredients.
Food makers must organise raw material supplies, production schedules and cleaning proce-
dures so as to prevent cross-contact of products by ”foreign” allergens.

Training of all personnel should be focused on the understanding of necessary measures and
the reasons for them.
Food manufacturers should comply with the relevant labelling legislation providing appropriate
warning, to potential purchasers, of the presence of a major allergen in a product.
An appropriate system for recall of any product found to contain a major allergen not indicated
on the label should be in place ”.
EC labelling legislation
[1171] The labelling legislation of the European Community is ruled by two main directives:
Directive 2003/89 EC [1172]
New labelling rules in European Directive (2003/89/EC) ensure that all consumers are given
comprehensive ingredient listing information and make it easier for people with food allergies
to identify ingredients they need to avoid.
The new rules came into force on 25 November 2004 establishing a list of 12 food allergens,
which have to be indicated by reference to the source allergen whenever they, or ingredients
made from them, are used at any level in pre-packed foods, including alcoholic drinks. The
list consists of cereals containing gluten, crustaceans, eggs, fish, peanuts, nuts, soybeans, milk,
celery, mustard, sesame, and sulphur dioxide at levels above 10mg/kg or 10 mg/litre expressed
as SO2 .
The new rules also removed the ”25%” rule in the previous legislation, which meant that indi-
vidual ingredients making up a compound ingredient did not have to be listed if the compound
ingredient made up less than 25% of the finished products. So, apart from a few exceptions,
all ingredients now have to be indicated on the label, even when they make up only a small
proportion of the product.
Mustard seed oil (allyl isothiocyanate) not exempted from labelling as allergen
[1173]
Mustard and products thereof are included in the list of the Annex IIIa of the Directive
2003/89/EC [1172].
Manufacturing process of mustard seed oil: Mustard seed from Brassica juncea are
ground, tap water is added and the slurry is incubated at 50C for 30 minutes. The allyl
isothiocyanate is released from its precursor by the enzyme myrosinase. The oil is obtained by
steam distillation under reduced pressure. The mustard seed oil is separated from water by
centrifugation and dried with sodium sulphate and filtered.
28
Allergic reactions of mustard: Mustard is known to trigger allergic reactions or intoler-

ances in sensitive individuals and was therefore included in this list and must be labelled..
International Flavours & Fragrances (IFF) requested the European Commission exempt mus-
tard seed oil from labelling European Food Safety Authority to evaluate the scientific data and
came to the following conclusion:
Arguments of IFF regarding safety of mustard seed oil: IFF claims that mustard seed
oil is not likely to trigger adverse reactions on the basis of two arguments: 1) the typical low
levels of mustard seed oil in foods, and 2) the in vitro demonstration that proteins are not
present in amounts higher than 1.5 microg/g in five samples of mustard seed oil analysed with
an ELISA test developed by the applicant.
According to the Panel IFF did not take into account the known toxicity of allyl isothio-
cyanate and its role in causing allergic contact dermatitis, or the possibility that proteins not
detectable with the ELISA test could cause an IgE-mediated reaction (Lerbaek et al., 2004;
Kohl and Frosch, 1990).
The main volatile component of mustard seed oil is allyl isothiocyanate (97-100%). which
has been classified as toxic by inhalation, in contact with the skin and if swallowed, and irri-
tating to eyes, respiratory system and skin
Allergic reactions to mustard, including severe anaphylactic reactions, are well documented
in clinical and laboratory studies. Mustard allergy may account for 1-7% of all food allergies
with regional variations.
Mustard allergens are resistant to heat and to enzymatic degradation, and therefore are not
markedly affected by food processing. The major mustard allergens identified are Sin a 1, be-
longing to the 2S albumin family, and Bra j 1, also from the 2S albumin family, with a MW.
A new major allergen in mustard seeds has been recently isolated and identified, an 11S globu-
lin called Sin a 2 with a MW of 51 kDa (Palomares et al., 2005), but not all mustard allergens
and their occurrence in different species are known. [1174] [1175]
In addition, allyl isothiocyanate is a major skin-sensitizing agent (non IgE-mediated mech-

anism). Mustard protein allergic individuals may react to the protein content of the oil. Indi-
viduals sensitised to the skin-sensitising component allyl isothiocyanate may react to oil even
in the absence of mustard proteins (Lerbaek, 2004).
Conclusions: Taking account of the potential allergen content and well documented clinical
allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to mustard (NDA, 2004a), it is appropriate for the
Panel to assess the likelihood that mustard seed oil may cause an allergic reaction in mustard-
allergic individuals.
Mustard seed oil (allyl isothiocyanate) will therefore not be exempted from labelling as allergen.
Directive 2005/26 EC [1176]

Some ingredients derived from the listed allergenic foods are so highly processed that they are
no longer capable of triggering an adverse reaction. A list of products that are temporarily
exempt (til 25 November 2007) from the labelling requirements of 2003/89/EC was published
as Commission Directive 2005/26/EC
May contain...warning [1171]

Manufacturers often use phrases such as ”may contain nut traces” to show that there could
be traces of nut in a food product, either in the ingredients, or because it has entered the
product accidentally during the production process. It is not a legal requirement to say on the
label that a food might contain traces of nut, but many manufacturers label their products in
this way. Some members of the public have expressed concern that ”may contain” labelling is
used too much and could undermine valid warnings on products and restrict people’s choice
unnecessarily.
EuroPrevall: EuroPrevall is an EU-funded multidisciplinary project aiming to improve qual-

ity of life for food allergenic people.
The partner organisations of the project will:

1- Characterise the pattern and prevalence of food allergies across Europe in infants, children
and adults.
2- Develop methods to improve the quality of food allergic diagnosis, reducing the need for food
challenge tests.
3- Determin the impact of food allergies on the quality of life and its economic cost for food
allergic people and their families, workplace and employers, and healthcare.
Document No. 00P-1322 International Dairy Foods Association: International Dairy

Foods Association IDFA helped develop new guidelines for clear labeling of allergenic ingredi-
ents on food labels and supports the implementation of these guidelines, encourages disclousure
of allergenic ingredients in clear and simple language, and is dedicated to assisting dairy pro-
cessors in preventing cross contamination. [1365]
IDFA urges all members to review their policies and verify that they are operating within
the new allergen guidelines. Further it ist being recommended that member companies follow
these recommendations:
30
1- Review formulations to identify the presence, if any, of the 8 major allergens.
2- Contact ingredient suppliers to determine if ingredients they supply contain any allergen,
including components of flavours, colors, incidental additives and processing aides, which may
not be required to list specific ingredients.
3- Review their current labels to ensure that if any allergen are present they are included
in the ingredient declaration in terms that are easily understood by consumers. The dairy
industry is currently using the following labeling guidelines, which are among the options listed
in the Allergy Labeling Guidelines issued by the Allergen Issues Alliance.
- Use of parenthetical statement following the ingredient name or class of names that identifies
the presence of an allergic ingredient. For example, caseinate (derived from milk); and
- Use of a commonly understood name that identifies the presence of the allergen such as ”nat-
ural walnut flavour.”
4- Advisory statement should not be used as a substitute for Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP). Only use advisory label statements such as ”may contain...” when all four of the cri-
teria established in the Allergen Guidelines are met. These criteria are:
- The presence of a major food allergen is documented throughout visual examination or ana-
lytical testing of the processing line, equipment, ingredient or product, or other means.
- A major food allergen is present in some, but not all, of the product.
- The presence of a major food allergen is potentially hazardous.
- The risk of presence of a major food allergen is unavoidable even when current GMP’s are
followed.
Food allergy diagnosis:Food allergy is diagnosed by a process of elimination.
The first step is a detailed patient history to establish a pattern of reactions to foods in order
to decide if the facts match with a food allergy. Other causes such as food intolerance or other
health problems, should at this point be excluded.
The diagnosis is usually based on the symptom and dietary histories and subsequently con-
firmed via more specific investigations including skin prick tests, blood chemistry, and response
to dietary restriction.
Evaluation of the Allergic State

Test Diets: These are oral food challenge tests.
Skin prick tests: These tests are performed if history, diet diary or elimination diet sug-
gests a specific food allergy to be present.
A drop of allergen extract is placed on the skin of the lower arm, and the skin scratched with
a needle. A positive reaction is shown by the rapid development of a localised reddening and
swelling.
The only conclusive demonstration of food allergy (gold standard) is the result of a double-
blind placebo-controlled food challenge, which must be performed in hospital with resuscitation
facilities available because even extremely small doses can lead to a life-threatening reaction.
The sensitivity of in vitro immunoassays compared with prick/puncture skin tests has been
reported to range from 50-90% with an average of about 70%. Skin testing, therefore, contin-
ues to be the preferred method for the diagnosis of IgE-mediated sensitivity.
Total serum IgE (Radio-Immuno-Sorbens-Test RIST test) RIST Test evaluates only
the total amount of IgE antibody. The RAST test is much more complicated but gives the
answer to what allergen the patient is sensitive.
Allergen-specific IgE antibody testing (Radioallergosorbent RAST testing: The

allergen-specific IgE antigen testing is done to screen for a type I hypersensitivity to a specific
substance or substances in response to acute or chronic allergy-like symptoms in patients. The
specific serum IgE Testing incorporates the use of microwell plastic strips, which have been
coated with allergen proteins. Serum or plasma is exposed to the microwell and the bound IgE
antibody is detected using an enzyme labelled anti-human IgE antibody. Peroxide substrate
detects the levels of enzyme present, which is directly proportional to the level of specific IgE
bound to the specific allergen.
Food Sensitivity Panel: The measure of high levels of IgG, IgA and IgM antibodies in
serum for specific food antigens is a dependable diagnosis of specific forms of food sensitivity.
Testing about 96 different types of food indicates not only gastrointestinal diseases,but also
neuromuscular and cardiovascular events, as well as cross reactivity of food antigens with tis-
sue antigens as an initiating process in some autoimmune diseases.
Available are following test by ALLETESS Medical Laboratory of the serum of a patient [1357]:
- IgG/IgA to Gliadin
- IgG/IgA to Gluten
- IgG/IgA to Casein
- IgG/IgA to lactalbumin
- IgG/IgA to Ovalbumin
- IgG/IgA to beta-lactalbumin
- Reticulin Antibodies
- Tissue Transglutaminase (tTG)(Specific to Endomysium) Antibody IgA
32
Related tests: Complete blood count (CBC), white blood cell differential count, eosinophil
count, basophil count are blood tests for an indirect indication of an ongoing allergic process
with special attention to the eosinophils and basophils. Elevation of their number suggest an
allergy, but they may also be elevated for other reasons.[1342]
Table 2.2: Gell and Coombs Classification of Immune Reactions

Skin reaction time of
Reaction Description Antibody and cellular infiltrate Onset
Type I Anaphylaxis IgE Allergy skin test 1-20 min
eosinophils
Type II Cytotoxic IgG/IgM - -
Type III Immune IgG(IgM) Arthus reaction) 7-10 hrs
complexes (PMNs) ?-10 hrs
Type IV Delayed-type - TB skin test 1-3 days
hypersensitivity (DTH) mononuclear cells
Treating the allergic state: At present there is no cure for food allergy, The only op-
tion is to avoid eating the problem food. Food allergic young people between 16 to 24 years
are more likely to experience a severe allergic reaction leading to death.
The following measures can be taken:
1. Avoidance of all allergens if possible
2. Desensitisation (induce IgG)
3. Drug:
Antihistamines and decongestants
Corticosteroids
Cromolyn sodium
Ephedrine and isoproterenol
Incidence of most common food allergies: A relative small group of foods or food prod-
ucts are responsible for most cases of food allergies.[1341]
Milk allergies: Two out of a hundred babies under 12 month are allergic to cow’s milk.
It is the most common food allergen in childhood but nine out of ten milk allergic children are
no longer allergic by the age of three.
It is unusual for adults to be milk allergic, but a small number of children have an anaphylactic
reaction to milk and remain allergic into adulthood.
Because the proteins in milk are similar in sheep, goats and cows, people who are usually aller-
gic to cow’s milk are usually allergic to other milks and dietary calcium must be sourced from
non-dairy foods.
Egg allergies: Allergy to eggs also occurs in young children rather than adults. Most egg
allergies disappear with time but whilst allergic to hen’s eggs individuals are also allergic to
other eggs.
Shellfish allergies: Shellfish allergies are unusual in children, but reactions to fish are found
in both children and adults. Severe reactions are more frequently found with these foods, in-
cluding anaphylaxis.
Cooking does not destroy the proteins responsible for the allergy, but some people may be
allergic to the cooked food whilst they are able to eat raw fish.
Those who are allergic to cod are also allergic to hake, carp, pike and whiting. The protein
that causes shellfish allergy are usually found in the flesh whilst the proteins responsible for
allergy in foods such as shrimps are in the muscle and the shells.
Fruits and vegetable allergies: Generally they are mild. The proteins causing allergy
in fruits and vegetables are similar to pollen proteins. Four out of ten individuals who are
allergic to tree and weed pollens are also allergic to some fruits, and people who are allergic to
birch pollen are likely to be allergic to apples.
Many of fruit and vegetable proteins are destroyed by cooking. The cooked food may be safe
to eat. However, Kiwi fruit allergy , and peach and Rosaceae fruit allergies are severe and
life-threatening. Their proteins are resistant to cooking and are found in fermented products
such as wine and beer.
Peanuts allergies Peanuts are not nuts but legumes like soya, peas and beans. Peanuts
are one of most allergenic foods and cause severe reactions. This allergy persists throughout
life. Traces found in processed oils or on cooking or serving utensils can be sufficient to trigger
anaphylaxis.
Tree nuts allergies: They are also called as true nuts and almond, Brazil nut, cashew nut,
hazelnut, macadamia, pecan, pistachio, Queensland and walnut.
Developing Food allergies

Our body has a host of defensive mechanisms to prevent food from making contact with our
immune system. Even so some people have a tendency to react to particular foods and develop
food allergies.
34
This tendency is present from birth and may be affected by environmental factors such as
childhood infections.
Food tolerance is poorly developed in infancy and children become more susceptible to develop-
ing food allergies than adults. Children who are introduced to cow’s under the age of 6 month
are more likely to develop milk protein allergy. Some babies are sensitised to peanuts, milk and
eggs at or around birth. It is possible that they were exposed to these allergens in the womb
or during breath feeding.[1341]
Peanut, vaccination and atopic allergic disease revision.

The UK Department of Health advice issued by the Committee on Toxicity in Chemicals in
Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COT) issued in 1998 a precautionary advice
that pregnant or breast-feeding women with a family history of atopy, may wish to avoid eating
peanuts during pregnancy and lactation as this could increase the chances of peanut sensitisa-
tion in children.
Atopy or atopic syndrome is an allergic hypersensitivity affecting parts of the body not in
direct contact with the allergen. There appears to be a strong hereditary component linked
to genes such as 5q31-33 with a cluster of cytokine genes. The individual components, such
as asthma, eczema or hay fever, are all caused at least in part by type I I hypersensitivity
reactions.[1347] [1348]
Consumption of peanut during pregnacy: Dr. Tara Dean and Dr. Carina Venter as-
sessed the compliance with this recommendation and its impact upon peanut sensitization.
In this study children sensitized to peanuts were found, but their mothers had not consumed
peanuts during pregnacy. The scientists conclude therefore that maternal consumption of
peanuts during pregnancy was not associated with peanut sensitization in the infant.
The majority of mothers avoided peanut consumption during pregnancy. The authors found
that either the government advice is misunderstood by mothers, or that those who commu-
nicate the advice have not fully explained who it is targeted at, and stress the necessity of a
review of the 1998 COT document. The authors call for clear, consistent factual advice and in-
formation about the real risks associated with peanut consumption during pregnancy/lactation
and peanut allergy in the developing child, and specifically to whom these risks apply. [1349]
Atopy and vaccination: Analysing prevalences of allergic sensitization and atopic disease
in relation to vaccination coverage. Grüber and colleagues (2003) found that children with a
higher vaccination coverage seemed to be transiently better protected against development of
atopy in the first years of life. [1350]
Grüber reassured in 2005 that common childhood vaccines are unlikely to promote atopic dis-
ease. He wrote that possible future development of atopic symptoms is most likely not causally
related to vaccination but a coincidence. However, according to Grüber, vaccines specifically
designed to down-regulate Th-2 type immunity have to be further elucidated if they are safe
and effective in preventing the development of atopic disease. He concludes that effective pro-
tection against potentially life threatening or disabling infectious diseases should be offered to
every child-atopic or not. [1351]
According to Nakajima and colleagues in 2007 all few effects, which were seen in their study
concerning vaccination and atopic disease, were small and age-dependent. The study supports
numerous previous studies of no effect of vaccines on asthma. The authors conclude that the
fear of their child developing atopic disease should not deter parents from immunising their
children, especially when weighed against the benefits. [1352]
Western lifestyle and allergies: Contact with new drugs, cosmetics, exotic fruits and spices
can be one cause of growing number of food allergies in the industrial countries. Results of
studies suggest that a western lifestyle is associated with allergic diseases in childhood.[1353]
For 1995-1996, the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) found
prevalence of self-reported asthma symptoms in children aged 13-14 years at 2.6 to 4.4 per cent
in Albania, Roumania, Georgia, Greece and Russian Federation. In United Kingdom and Ire-
land these rates reached 32 percent, suggesting that western lifestyle is associated with allergic
diseases in childhood.
Table 2.3: Asthma Prevalence

Land Prevalence
UK 36%
Australia 33%
New Zealand 32%
Ireland 28%
USA 24% (Source ISAAC Study)
South Africa 16%
Japan 13%
China <5%
Indonesia <5%
India <5%
Gut microflora and immune system: Changes in gut microflora caused by widespread
use of antibiotics and today’s high fat, lowfibre diet could be responsible for a major increase
in allergies in recent years.
Gary Huffnagle is an associated professor of internal medicine and of microbiology and im-
36
munology at the University of Michigan. He says that researches indicates that microflora
lining the walls of the gastrointestinal tract are a major underlying factor responsible for the
immune system’s ability to ignore inhaled allergens. Changes in the microflora in the gut upsets
the immune system’s balance between tolerance and sesitization.
To test this hypothesis, Balb/C laboratory mice were given a five-day course of antibiotics,
killing their gut bacteria. A single oral introduction of Candida albicans stimulated an increase
of growth of this yeast in the gut of the mice. This is a common side-effect of antibiotics.
An increased airway hypersensitivity to ovalbumin (egg whites) inserted via nasal cavities was
noted.
Huffnagle says that differences in host genetics and the type of allergens does not matter as the
response had been identical in all studies. It confirms that microflora are the key to maintain
a balanced immune response. Changing the composition of microflora in the gut predisposes
animals to allergic airway diseases. Allergic sensitization can also occur outside lungs [1354].
However, an article by Sunia Foliaki, from the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in
Childhood (ISAAC) published in the International Journal of Epidemiology in 2004 says that
findings are generally not consistent with the hypothesis that antibiotic use increases the risk
of asthma, rhinitis, or eczema. If there is a casual association of antibiotic use with asthma
risk, it does not appear to explain the international differences in asthma prevalence.
It has been hypothesized that antibiotic use early in life may increase the subsequent risk
of asthma. Foliaki conducted an ecological analysis of the relationship between antibiotics sales
and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and atopic eczema in
99 centres from 28 countries[1355].
The findings of Huffnagle gives a new dimension to the relationship between gut microflora
and immunology trying to explain the different occurrence of East and West asthma.
Allergens: Allergens are macromolecules (usually proteins) which are involved in sensitis-
ing and eliciting allergic reactions.
The International Union of Immunological Societies (IUIS) published in 1986 the characteri-
sation and nomenclature of allergen which was revised (Official list of allergens I.U.I.S. Allergen
Nomenclature Sub-Committee 2003.03.02) http://www.allergen.org/Archive/Meetings/2003/List
20030302.pdf and List of allergens as of September 12, 2005 http://www.allergen.org/list.htm
standardisation allergen preparations guidelines.
Treatment of Food Allergy

Food allergy is a very individual problem. Treatment of food allergy involves changes in the
lifestyle.
Elimination diet: Food allergy is best treated by avoiding the foods that cause it.
Special diets are the most often used treatment for food allergies. If the patient is allergic to
only one or two foods, elimination of these foods may be the only treatment.
The best thing is to ban the foods which cause the problem from the kitchen. Ready to
eat meals from the supermarket must be carefully screened to avoid the offending ingredients.
New food labelling directives gives a better chance to avoid specific allergen.
Rotation diet: Rotation diets are necessary when a patient has multiple food allergies. The
foods causing the allergy must be eliminated and all other foods should be eaten in intervals
of four to five days. This reduces the exposure to many other foods to which the person has
also unknown subclinical allergies. This will avoid future intolerance to these foods. The ideal
rotation interval can vary from person to person and from food to food, but should never be
less than four days.
No food should be eaten in extremely large quantities. Rice should not make up half of the
food of the day. New and unusual foods should be included in the diet, to avoid eating one
food in large quantities.
Medication: Mild allergies may be controlled by nonprescription antihistamines. More se-

vere cases need epinephrine and antihistamine medication and a medical bracelet
Severe cases need an allergy kit that contains everything necessary for an epinephrine shot.
All child caregivers should know how to recognise the signs of a severe allergic reaction and
how to give an epinephrine shot.
Food intolerance:
Food intolerance do not involve the immune system. It includes reactions to histamines and
other amines found in the foods, and lactose intolerance, where individuals lack the enzyme
necessary to break down lactose in the gut. Such adverse reactions to food do not involve the
immune system and are also called non-allergic food hypersensitivity reactions. They are also
called pseudoallergy.
Food, additives and drugs are the main responsibilities for pseudoallergies.
Substances which may trigger a pseudoallergy are: Food colours, preservatives such as benzoic
acid and sulfite, acetysalicyl acid and other not steroidal antiphlogystica.
Salicilates contained in foods may cause pseudoallergies.

Foods high in salicilates are: Berry fruits, oranges, apricots (Prunus armeniaca), pineapple
(Ananas comosus), cucumber (Cucumis sativa), olives (Olea europaea), grapes and wine. The
38
treatment of pseudoallergies is similar to that of allergic diseases (antihistamine drugs, steroids,

B2 agonists, epinephrine).
Biogenic amines such as histamine, cadaverine and putrescine can be present in foodstuffs
or be formed during their storage by microbial decarboxylation of the corresponding amino
acids, mainly during fermentation processes. Elevated concentrations of these compounds also
indicate bad hygienic conditions during the fermentation process.
Foods produced with the help of bacteria have therefore often a high level of biogenic amines.
These foods are yeast extract, some types of cheese, sauerkraut, red wine and spoiled foods
containing meat or certain fishes.
Scombroid poisoning occur when the spiny-finned fish of the family of Scombridae undergoes
improper storage resulting scombroid toxin. Susceptible fish include albacore, amberjack, an-
chovy, Australian salmon, bluefish, bonito, kahawai, herring, mackerel, mahi-mahi, needlefish,
sauri, sardine, skipjack, wahoo and yellowfin tuna. Affected fish have a metallic or peppery
taste.
Biogenic amines are responsible for a pseudoallergy reactions such as headache, skin irrita-
tion or changes in blood pressure.
Milk allergy [1366]

Milk allergy is an immunologically mediated adverse reaction to one or more milk proteins.
In some children the ingestion of milk can trigger the body into launching an inappropriate
immune response to the proteins in milk resulting in an allergic reaction.
Currently the only treatment for milk allergies is total avoidance of milk proteins. Initially
if the infants are breastfed, the lactating mothers are given an elimination diet. If symptoms
are not relieved or if the infants are bottle-fed, milk substitute formulas are used to provide the
infant with a complete source of nutrition. Milk substitutes include soy milk, rice milk, and
hypoallergenic formulas based on hydrolysed protein or free amino acids.
Milk allergy is the most common food allergy. It affects somewhere between 2% and 3% of
infants in developed countries, but approximately 85-90% of children lose clinical reactivity to
milk once they surpass 3 years of age.
Lactose intolerance [1367] [1368]

Lactose intolerance is marked by a relative or absolute absence of the enzyme lactase in the
small intestine which prevents metabolism of lactose.
It is a clinical syndrome with symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, flat-
ulence, and/or bloating after ingesting lactose-containing substances. Lactose is not absorbed
in the gut, and can draw fluids into the intestine by osmosis, which produces diarrhoea, and the
carbohydrate can be metabolised by certain intestinal bacteria that produce carbon dioxide,
methane and hydrogen as waste products, thereby leading to flatulence.
Differences between primary, secondary, congenital, and developmental lactase deficiency are
discussed in a review from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
Treatment consists of use of lactase-treated dairy products or oral lactase supplementation,

limitation of lactose-containing foods, or dairy elimination. The American Academy of Pedi-
atrics supports use of dairy foods as an important source of calcium for bone mineral health
and of other nutrients such as protein, and riboflavin that facilitate growth in children and
adolescents. If dairy products are eliminated, other dietary sources of calcium or calcium sup-
plements need to be provided.
According to AAP pediatricians and other pediatric care providers should maintain aware-
ness of the benefits and controversies related to the consumption of dietary milk products and
milk-based infant formula. A lactose tolerance test, a hydrogen breath test, or a stool acidity
test is required for a clinical diagnosis.
Most adults in the world are lactose-intolerant: the majority of humans stop producing signifi-
cant amounts of lactase sometime between the ages of two and five. A relatively recent genetic
change caused some populations, including many northern Europeans, to continue producing
lactase into adulthood; these lactose-tolerant populations are in the minority. Lactose intoler-
ance is an autosomal recessive trait, while lactase-persistence is the dominant allele.
Important lactose intolerant ethnic groups are gathered in the south of Africa, China and
Hispanics ranging from 100 to 65% of cases. Meanwhile in UK, Germany and other states of
northern Europe have only 2% of persons suffering from intolerance to lactose.
Yoghurts containing live cultures are well tolerated by people with lactose intolerance because
the bacteria partially digest the lactose into glucose and galactose. Aged cheeses, such as Ched-
dar and Swiss, have lower lactose contents than other cheeses.
New lactic acid bacteria and a Streptococcus strain mix reduce milk allergenic-
ity [1369]
Kleber and her colleagues from the Germany’s University of Hohenheim report that over70% of
beta-lg antigenicity content in the sweet whey and 90% in skim milk were reduced using a wide
range of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus) independently or in mixture 1:1 with Streptococcus
thermophilus subspecies salivarius incubated at 400 C for 24 hrs.
The research is important because 80 per cent of all cases of milk allergies is caused by the
40
whey protein beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg) which is not present in human milk.
Antigenicity refers to the capacity to induce an immune response. In this study only the
antigenity of beta-lg was tested and not the allergenicity. The enzymes are reported to be more
or less specific with some better at reducing the beta-lg content in milk and/ or whey.
The research has industrial relevance regarding new fermented milk products with reduced
antigenic properties
Lactose intolerance [1370] [1371]

Lactose intolerance is caused by a shortage of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the
cells that line the small intestine. Lactase breaks down milk sugar into two simpler forms of
sugar called glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. Lactose in-
tolerance occurs in about 25% of people in Europe; 50-80% of people of Hispanic origin, people
from south India, black people, and Ashkenazi Jews; and almost 100% of people in Asia and
American Indians.Lactose intolerance is a problem caused by the digestive system.
Cow’milk intolerance: Symptoms are often the same of lactose intolerace. Cow’s milk is
an allergic reaction triggered by the immune system.
Symptoms of lactose intolerance: Common symptoms, which range from mild to severe,
include nausea, cramps, bloating, gas, and diarrhea. Symptoms begin about 30 minutes to 2
hours after eating or drinking foods containing lactose. The severity of symptoms depends on
many factors, including the amount of lactose a person can tolerate and a persons age, ethnicity,
and digestion rate.
Diagnosis: There are sophisticated tests for the diagnosis of lactase malabsorption,like the
Lactose Tolerance Test, the Hydrogen Breath Test and the Stool Acidity Test. However, the
diagnosis can be made easily on the basis of clinical history. Improvement in symptoms after
eliminating such foods and worsening when they are reintroduced confirms the diagnosis.
Classification of lactase deficiency and dietary measures: No treatment can improve

the body’s ability to produce lactase, but symptoms can be controlled through diet.
Primary lactase deficiency Lactase concentration after birth and declines after weaning.
In primary lactase deficiency lactase concentrations declines at the age of weaning. It is asso-
ciated with a recessive inherited trait, different between Europeans and Africans.
Treatment: In primary lactase deficiency the development of symptoms depends on how

much lactose needs to be ingested before the available lactase is saturated. Thus, most people
with primary lactase deficiency can ingest up to 240 ml of milk (12 g of lactose) without devel-
oping symptoms.
It may help to divide daily milk intake into several small portions and to take it with other
foods. Yoghurt, curds, and cheeses are better tolerated, because lactose is partially hydrol-
ysed by bacteria during their preparation and gastric emptying is slower as these products
have a thicker consistency. People with lactose intolerance should be encouraged to gradually
increase their intake of milk- this causes changes in the intestine that permit higher milk intake.
Milk-cereal mixtures delay the entry of lactose into the intestine, permitting better absorp-
tion. Since these are cheap and easily prepared at home, their use should be promoted.
Secondary lactase deficiency It results from injury to the small bowel mucosal brush
border secondary to viral or non-viral intestinal infection, common in developing countries.
Treatment is directed at the underlying cause.
Cogenital lactase deficiency It is characterized by minimal or absent lactase immediately

after birth. It is a rare disorder.
Developmental lactase deficiency It occurs in premature infants, because lactase levels do

not increase until the third trimester of a woman’s pregnancy. The deficiecy, however, rapidly
improves as the intestinal mucosa matures.
Lactase enzyme tablets For those who react to very small amounts of lactose or have
trouble limiting their intake of foods that contain it, the lactase enzyme is available without a
prescription to help people digest foods that contain lactose. The tablets are taken with the
first bite of dairy food. Lactase enzyme is also available as a liquid. Adding a few drops of the
enzyme makes lactose more digestible for people with lactose intolerance.
Young children and infants with lactase deficiency should not consume lactose-containing for-
mulas or foods until they are able to tolerate lactose digestion. Most older children and adults
do not have to avoid lactose completely, but people differ in the amounts and types of foods
they can handle.
42
Children with infective diarrhoea [1371]

Short periods of lactose intolerance are common after episodes of infective diarrhoea and may
prolong the diarrhoeal illness. a meta-analysis has shown that most children with acute diar-
rhoea can safely continue to receive breast or undiluted animal milk Milk-cereal mixtures given
at frequent intervals (nearly 2 g/kg/day of lactose or 40 ml/kg/day of milk) were well tolerated
by most children with persistent diarrhoea.
Non-responders will benefit from reducing lactose intake below their current threshold of tol-
erance, followed by long term steps directed at improving adaptation of the intestine.
Recent research shows that yogurt with active cultures may be a good source of calcium for
many people with lactose intolerance. Even though yogurt is fairly high in lactose, the bacte-
rial cultures used to make it produce some of the lactase enzyme required for proper digestion.
[1370]
Calcium RDI [1372]

The Institute of Medicine released a report listing the requirements for daily calcium intake.
How much calcium a person needs to maintain good health varies by age group. Recommen-
dations from the report are shown in the following table.
Age group Amount of calcium to consume

daily, in milligrams (mg)
06 months 400 mg
612 months 600 mg
15 years 800 mg
610 years 1,200 mg
1124 years 1,2001,500 mg
1950 years 1,000 mg
5170+ years 1,500 mg
In addition, pregnant and nursing women need between 1,200 and 1,500 mg of calcium daily
Calcium sources.
Many non-dairy foods are high in calcium, including dark green vegetables such as broccoli, or
fish with soft, edible bones, such as salmon and sardines.
Table 2.4: Calcium and Lactose in Common Foods [1373]

Vegetables Calcium Lactose Dairy products Calcium Lactose

mg g mg g
Soymilk, fotified, 1 cup 200-300 0 Yoghurt,plain,low-fat 415 5
1 cup
Sardines,with edible bones, 270 0 Milk,reduced fat 295 11
3 oz. 1 cup
Salmon,canned, with edible 205 0 Swiss cheese,1 oz. 270 1

bones, 3 oz.
Broccoli, raw, 1 cup 90 Ice cream,1/2 cup 85 6
Orange, 1 medium 50 0 Cottage cheese 75 2-3

1/2 cup
Pinto beans, 1/2 cup 40 0
Tuna,canned,3 oz. 10 0
Lettuce greens,1/2 cup 10 0
Yoghurt with active cultures may be a good source of calcium for many people with lactose
intolerance. Even though yoghurt is fairly high in lactose, the bacterial cultures used to make
it produce some of the lactase enzyme required for proper digestion.
Clearly, many foods can provide the calcium and other nutrients the body needs, even when
intake of milk and dairy products is limited. However, factors other than calcium and lactose
content should be kept in mind when planning a diet. Some vegetables that are high in calcium
(Swiss chard, spinach, and rhubarb, for example) are not listed in the chart because the body
cannot use the calcium they contain because these foods also contain substances called oxalates,
which stop calcium absorption.
Calcium is absorbed and used only when there is enough vitamin D in the body. A bal-
anced diet should provide an adequate supply of vitamin D from sources such as eggs and liver.
Sunlight also helps the body naturally absorb vitamin D, and with enough exposure to the sun,
food sources may not be necessary.
Hidden lactose: Although milk and foods made from milk are the only natural sources of
lactose, it is often added to prepared foods. People with very low tolerance for lactose should
know about the many food products that may contain even small amounts of lactose, such as:
Bread and other baked goods, processed breakfast cereals, instant potatoes, soups, and break-
fast drinks, margarine, lunch meats (other than kosher), salad dressings, candies and other
44
snacks, mixes for pancakes, biscuits, and cookies, powdered meal-replacement supplements.
Some products labeled non-dairy, such as powdered coffee creamer and whipped toppings, may
actually include ingredients that are derived from milk and therefore contain lactose such as
whey, curds, milk by-products, dry milk solids, and non-fat dry milk powder. They contain
lactose.
Prevalence of food hypersensitivity

About 5 per cent of the general population have some type of food allergy. Some bowl disor-
ders seem to trigger food hypersensitivity. In case of Irritable Bowel Syndrome 65 percent of
patients may be affected by food allergy.
IBS Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Irritable bowel syndrome is the most common functional
disorder of the gastrointestinal tract, characterised by abdominal pain, bloating and irregular
bowel function with constipation or diarrhoea. IBS is believed to affect more than 58 million
people wordwide, and more women suffer from it than men. It is untreatable and intervention
involves management of symptoms. It is not life threatening but it is a long-term condition
that involves abdominal discomfort.
IBS patients had higher IgG4 titers to wheat (PiÜ< 0.001), beef (<0.001), pork (<0.001),
and lamb(P=0.009), and soy beans (P=0.012) as compared with healthy controls.
The IgG4 titers to potatoes, rice, fish, chicken, yeast, tomato or shrimp were not signifi-
cantly different to titers found in healthy people.
Probiotic bacteria has been widely researched for its impact on gut health but few strains
have enough evidence to claim a benefit on IBS symptoms showing promise in normalising
bowel movements. The probiotic bacteria Lp299v (Lactobacillus plantarum 299v) is the first
probiotic targeting IBS symptoms. It helps to reduce intestinal discomfort and other symptoms.
International regulations mean that probiotic products cannot carry explicit disease preven-
tion or treatment claims. Probiotics are, however, marketed with ”friendly” or ”good” bacteria
that can redress the balance of flora in the gut and help the user to feel ”better” , other address
the improvement of the immune system.[1374]
Probiotics and allergy

Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 55730 is a probiotic (health-promoting) lactic acid bacterium widely
used as a dietary supplement to improve gastrointestinal, immune and oral health.
Dietary supplementation with the probiotic L. reuteri ATCC 55730 induces significant colo-
nization of the stomach, duodenum, and ileum of healthy humans, and this is associated with
significant alterations of the immune response in the gastrointestinal mucosa. [1375] [1376]
Probiotic bacteria taken by mothers may reduce the likelihood of eczema, also an allergic
disease. Children who were exposed to probiotics around the time of birth were 40 per cent
less likely to develop atopic eczema at four years of age than children in a placebo group.
However exposure to probiotics did not have any protective effect over asthma in this study.
Child care infants fed a formula supplemented with L reuteri or B lactis had fewer and shorter
episodes of diarrhea, with no effect on respiratory illnesses. These effects were more prominent
with L reuteri, which was also the only supplement to improve additional morbidity parame-
ters. [1377]
Dr Steve Allen is investigating the impact of probiotics on allergies giving Lactobcillus reuteri
supplements to mothers for four weeks prior to birth of their babies and these babies are now
being given probiotics for their first year.
Analysis of breast milk taken from the mothers a couple of days after giving birth showed
increased levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine (cell signal substance) IL-10 and reduced
levels of TGF-beta-2. The cytokine IL-10 is central to regulation of the immune system and
has anti-inflammatory properties. However the origine of TGF-B2 in breast milk is uncertain
because it is produced by many cell types and there is the possibility of an association with a
subclinical mastitis. [1378]
Milk kefir and soymilk kefir may help to prevent food allergies [1379]
Je-Ruei Liu and colleagues evaluated the effect of oral consumption of milk kefir and soymilk
kefir on in vivo IgE and IgG1 production induced by ovalbumin (OVA) in mice. They found
that both foods suppressed the IgE and IgG1 responses and altered the intestinal microflora.
The intestinal populations of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. were increased and
Clostridium spp., decreased. Disorder of the intestinal microflora is told to be closely related
to food allergy development,
According to the authors, milk kefir and soymilk kefir may, therefore, help to prevente food
allergy and enhancement of mucosal resistance to gastrointestinal pathogen infection.
Soybean lecithin and allergy

The protein fraction of soybeans are allergenic. The vast majority of this protein is removed in
the soy lecithine manufacturing process. The remaining trace levels of soy proteins in lecithine
are not suficient to produce allergic reactions in the majority of soy-allergic persons. Some
of the more sensitive persons, however should avoid soy-lecithine when used as ingredient in
food.Source labelling of soy-lecithine is provided in the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer
Protection Act of 2004.
46
Dr. Hefle and Dr. Taylor from the University of Nebraska advocate that no conceivable
allergenic risk would occur from the use of shared equipment for products that contain soybean
lecithin and products that do not. The transfered amount of soy protein will be verylow. An
”allergen-cleanout” is according to these authors not necessary. [1380]
The biochemistry of allergies: The immune system produces immunoglobulins which act
as defence against viral, microbial and fungal infections.
One particular for of immunoglobulins are immunoglobulin E (IgE) which respond to parasitic
infections such as malaria agents. Some of this group of immunoglobulins are a response to
contact with pollen, dust and food causing allergic reactions such as hay fever.
The normal function of the body produces IgG and IgA in response to food proteins. The
immune reaction of certain predisposed individuals result in the so-called Th2 response which
leads to the secretion of IgE immunoglobulins.
This response happens normally only in case of parasitic infectins such as malaria but also
happens in case of hypersensitivity to food allergens. This is called Th2 response.
Allergies develop in two stages:
Stage 1 - Sensitisation: Sensitisation occurs when an antigen comes in contact with cells
called progenitor B-lymphocytes. These cells break down the antigen in peptide fragments
which are bound in special molecules called hystocompatibility complex class II complex. This
complex is transported to the surface of the B-lymphocyte cell. The T-cell receptors of CD4
of another cell type, called T helper cell recognises the foreign peptide on the surface of the
B-lymphocytes, triggering the secretion of specific antibodies, the IgE immunoglobulins.
Stage 2 - Elicitation: During the elicitation of an allergic reaction, the IgE becomes as-
sociated with specific IgE receptors on the surface of basophile or mast cells. These cells are
packed full of inflammatory mediators such as histamine.
The cell-bound IgE is crosslinked by the agent in case of a re-exposure. The mast cell is
then caused to release the inflammatory mediators which trigger the allergic symptoms usually
within minutes following exposure, resulting in asthma, vomiting, eczema and hives (nettle
rash).
Table 2.5: Allergens

Food Allergen
Milk Casein, beta-lactoglobulin, alfa-lactalbumin
Eggs Ovomucoid, ovalbumin

Fish Parvalbumin
Shell-fish and Tropomyosin
Seafood
Peanut 7S seedstorage globulin, 11S seed storage globulins, 2S albumin
Soya 7S seedstorage globulin, 11S seed storage globulins,
Bet v 1 homologue, inactive papain-related thiol protease
Tree nuts 2S albumin, 7S storage globulins, 11S seed storage globulins
Non specific lipid transfer proteins, Bet v 1 homologue
Mustard, Sesame 2S albumin
seeds
Cereals wheat Seed storage prolamins, alfa-amylase, trypsin inhibitors,
Glycosylated peroxidase
Fresh fruit and vegetables Homologues of the major birch pollen allergen Bet v1
Kiwi, peach,celery Cysteineprotease, LTP
Detection of food allergens
Food manufacturers must comply with directives calling for mandatory declaration of major
allergens on labels. Special kits for the detection of some of these allergens are being developed
to help food manufacturers to screen their raw ware and their production lines for unforeseen
cross-over of traces of ingredients.
Many kits on the market only detect egg white and do not indicate the presence of egg yolk.
Biotrace Tecra Egg Via Kit detects both. Other kits avilable using simple extraction methods
and sensitive specific immunoassay techniques and ” on-site” tests highly effective in the food
industry as part of a HACCP programme: [1356]
- Wheat gluten
- Milk proteins (caseins/caseinates; whey protein and albumin; lactoglobulin)
- Peanut and sesame tests are directed towards their major components. The antibodies are
specific and can be used in a wide rage of food matrices, including chocolate-based foods, which
can sometimes cause problems.
- Soya protein
- Sesame protein
- Tree nuts
ELISA Systems Kits to Detect Food Allergens: The following rapid Elisa (enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay) kits are available:[1358]
- Almond (Prunus dulcis): It belongs to the tree nuts group. Almonds are a common cause to
food allergy.
48
- Beta-lactalbumin and casein: Non-dairy products should be tested to ensure raw and fin-
ished products have not been contaminated with milk proteins. Either beta-lactalbumin or
casein can be tested.
- Crustacean: Trompomyosin is a major protein in Crustaceans. It is the major shrimp al-

lergen and presents evidences of cross-reactivity among crustaceans and molluscs.
- Egg: It tests only egg white.
- Hazelnut (Corylus avelana): Detects heat stable protein component of hazelnut.
- Peanut: The proteins Ara h1 and Ara h2 of peanuts are focused. Ara h2 is heat stable
- Sesame (Sesamum indicum): Allergy to sesame seeds is increasing. In Israel sesame is a

major cause of food allergy. Anaphylaxis has been reported after ingestion of meat and sesame
seed oil.
- Soy: The incidence of allergy to soybean proteins is quite low in comparison to other major
food proteins. However, the increasing consumption of soybean products makes this test nec-
essary.
Allergies and cross-reactivity

Milk allergy: There are at least 30 antigenic proteins in milk. Casein is the most commonly
used milk protein in the food industry; lactalbumin, lactoglobulin, bovine albumin, and gama
globulin are other protein groups within the milk.
Digested fractions of milk proteins may induce the production of IgE, IgA, and IgG antibodies
and may trigger complex, variable immune responses. Skin tests with whole milk proteins are,
therefore, misleading because secondary antigens of digested proteins are not detected.
Accurate diagnosis is important in case of an immediate symptomatic hypersensitivity to cow’s

milk protein because a milk-free diet with substitute formula should be established.
Many children who are allergic to cow’s milk protein also show sensitivity to soy- based prod-
ucts. There are infant formulas in which the milk and soy proteins are degraded so the immune
system does not recognise the allergen and the product can be consumed safely.
alfa-lactalbumin: alfa-lactalbumin and beta-lactalbumin are the major cow’s milk allergens.
The presence of cow’s milk is widespread due also to its unlabelled inclusion as an ingredient,
or to errors in cooking, processing and preparation, especially in restaurants. For this reason,
individuals with milk allergies should avoid processed foods as much as they can and try to
consume foods prepared at home; only food items with all the ingredients listed on the label
should be consumed.
Hot dog, salad mayonnaise, dressings, and meat products are often produced using caseinates
as emulsifier. Caseinates replaces egg yolk in these products which resist deep freezing. The
same products produced with egg yolk are extremely sensitive to freezing.
A hot dog may contain caseinate.
Kiwi fruits allergies

Birch pollen and Kiwi allergy: Fruit allergy is frequently associated with birch pollen.
Kiwi allergy is a new manifestation of birch pollen-associated food allergy and is mediated by
cross-reacting antigens in the kiwi fruit. Kiwi allergy can be expected in patients with birch
pollen allergy exhibiting high levels of IgE to birch pollen. [1363]
Fahlbusch and associated scientists at the Institute of Clinical Immunology, at the Univer-
sity of Jena, Germany found that the major allergen for kiwi allergy is the 30 kDa protein
and additionally that the cross-rection between kiwi and birch pollen allergy is mainly due to
carbohydrate moieties. [1381]
Birch pollen associated Allergies: Basophil activation is associated with the expression
of CD63. In birch-pollen-associated food allergy to celery, carrot and apple, Bet v 1, Api g 1,
Dau c 1 and Mal d 1 are major allergens.
Basophil Activation Test (BAT) and birch pollen associated allergies: Recombinant
allergens have not yet been used in the CD63-based basophil activation test (BAT). However,
the BAT using recombinant allergens provides a valuable new in vitro method for the detection
of sensitization to foods.
In the presented study Erdmann determined specific IgE by the CAP method and basophil
activation by flowcytometry upon double staining with anti-IgE/anti-CD63 monoclonal anti-
bodies after incubating with purified recombinant Bet v 1, Bet v 2, Api g 1, Dau c 1 and Mal
d.
According to Erdmann double-blind placebo-controlled food challenges remain the gold stan-
dard to confirm food allergy, however, the CD63-based BAT with recombinant allergens may
supplement routine tests for allergy diagnosis.[1384]
50
The basophil activation test (using either CD203c or CD63 as activation marker) has become a
robust and reliable test for in vitro investigations of immediate allergy, complementary to other
existing in vitro tests. Inter-laboratory standardization in clinical decision-making is necessary.
Each allergen has to be assessed one by one to determine its optimal concentration as well as
the definition of the threshold for positivity (using ROC analysis).[1385]
Green and yellow cultivars of Kiwi and allergy The green-fleshed kiwi Actinidia de-
liciosa cv Hayward and the yellow-fleshed cultivar Actinidia chinensis cv Hort 16A are grown
commercially. According to findings of Bublin and associated scientists of the Department
of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Vienna, Austria. the IgE immunoblotting showed
marked differences in the allergen compositions of green and gold kiwifruit extracts.
Phytocystatin which is a novel plant food allergen, and a thaumatin-like protein were aller-
gens common for both cultivars. In the extract of gold kiwifruits two allergens with homologies
to chitinases were found. Actinid was detected exclusively in green kiwifruits.
Green and gold kiwifruit extracts were shown to be highly cross-reactive as determined by
the authors using IgE ELISA inhibition.
The authors conclude that the gold kiwifruit should be considered as new allergen source for
patients allergic to green kiwifruits because of the presence of common allergens and the IgE
cross-reactivity to green kiwifruit.[1364]
Fescue meadow pollen and kiwi: Fescue meadow pollen cross-sensitise to kiwi fruits. This
was found by Gavrovic-Jankulovic and associated scientists at the Department of Biochemistry
from the University of Belgrade using the sera from polysensitized patients with specific IgE to
grass pollen and kiwi fruit. According to their findings a 24 kDa kiwi glycoprotein represent
potential major allergen, which share common epitopes with Fes p 4 and 36kDa meadow fescue
allergen. [1359]
Rye, timothy and mugwort pollen and kiwi allergy: The cross-reactivity to birch, rye,
timothy, and mugwort pollen (Artemisia vulgaris) with kiwi was studied by Rudescko and asso-
ciated scientists at the the Institute of Clinical Immunology, at the University of Jena, Germany.
They found that an extract of kiwi was able to bind immunoglobulin E from kiwi-allergic
patients in the immunoblots and EIA. Immunoblots results revealed a broad spectrum of IgE
specificities; 12 allergens were identified within a range of 15 to 94 kDa, 10 of which cross-
reacted with birch, timothy, rye, and mugwort pollen, while two (25 and 30 kDa) were not
inhibited homologously by pollen. EIA additionally revealed kiwi-specific allergens. Three pro-
teins of the kiwi extract (25, 30, and 43 kDa) were considered to contain a carbohydrate miety.
Profilin seems to be relevant in cross-reactivity of kiwi allergens. [1362]
People who are allergic to birch pollen may react hypersensitively to soy products
too [1361]
People who are allergic to birch pollen react also to peanuts, hazelnuts, apples, strawberries,
carrots, celery and pulses. Certain proteins in these foods are so similar in structure to the
protein in birch pollen that triggers the allergy that the body manifests such cross allergy.
According to Professor Dr. Dr. Andreas Hensel, President of the Federal Institute for Risk
Assessment (BfR).BfR stresses that such cross allergy with soy products are possible.
The trigger of the cross allergy to soy is a protein (the PR-10 stress protein Gly m 4), which is
found in soybeans and is similar in structure to the birch pollen allergen Bet v 1.
The activity of the soy protein Gly m 4 can be dampened through heating to high tempera-
tures or the protein itself can be destroyed. Allergy sufferers can, therefore, eat most products
with soy ingredients which were heated during processing without suffering any health disorders.
BfR does not believe that it makes sense for the packaging of soy products to carry addi-
tional warnings for allergy sufferers. Not all soy products contain the protein Gly m4 that
triggers the allergy. At the present time, no official detection method is available. Further-
more, besides soy numerous other foods such as peanuts could trigger severe cross allergy in
people with a birch pollen allergy. They include apples, hazelnuts, and celery. Warnings on
soy products would not, therefore, protect people who are allergic to birch pollen from a cross
allergy.
Table 2.6: Food Allergens

Food Allergen IUIS Chemical Structure
Nomeclature
Milk beta-lactoglobulin
alfa-lactalbumin
Caseine
Serum albumin
Immunoglobulins
Chicken egg ovomucoid Gal d 1 Glycoprotein
Ovalbumin Gal d 2 Glycoprotein
Conalbumin Gal d 3 Glycoprotein
Lysozyme
52
Ovomucin Glycoprotein
Apovitellenin I
Apovitellenin IV
Livetin
Alfa-livetin Serum albumin
Beta-livetin
Gama-livetin
Phosvitin Glycophosphoprotein
Cod Allergen M Gad C 1 Glycoprotein
Common shrimp Antigen-I Glycoprotein
Antigen-II Glycoprotein
Sa-I
Sa-II Pen i-1 Trompomyosin
Sa-III tRNA
Pen a 1 Trompomyosin
Pen s 1 Trompomyosin
Met A 1 Trompomyosin
Par f 1 Trompomyosin
Peanuts Arachin Glycoprotein
Conarachin Glycoprotein
Ara h 1 Glycoprotein
Ara h 2
Aglutinin
Peanut 1 Glycoprotein
Concanavalin-A-reactive Glycoprotein
glycoprotein
wheat germ-lectin-reactive Glycoprotein
material
Soybean Glycinin Protein
Beta-conglycinin Glycoprotein
2S-Globulin
Kunitz Soybean
Trypsin inhibitor
Wheat Tri v BD 47 Protein
Tri v BD 17 Protein
Tri v BD 15 Protein
0.28 alfa-amylase- inhibitor
Alfa-amylase-inhibitor Protein
WTAI-CM 16
Barley Alfa-amylase (BMAI-1)
BTAI-CMb
Rice RP16KD
Tomato Profilin
Polygalacturonase 2A (PG2A)
Beta-fructofuranosidase
Superoxide dismutase (SOD)
pectinesterase (PE)
Avocado Prs a 1 Hevein-like domain
peptides
Mustard Sin a 1 2s-albumin
Bra j IE 2s albumin
Kiwi 24kDa kiwi glycoprotein Glycoprotein
43-kDa
Actinidin Act c 1
Strawberry 20/18-kDa homologues to Bet v 1
Banana Class I chitinases
with hevein-like domain
33kDa
37 kDa
Appel Skin-allergen Mal d 1 Protein similar to
Bet v I (birch)
Food Allergen IUIS Chemical Structure
Nomeclature
A potentially allergenic protein in transgenic Starlink maize [365] Starlink maize was
developed inserting the Cry9C-gene turning it resistant to plague insects. Starlink had been
approved for use in feed and industrial uses, not for human consumption due to Cry9-protein
potential’s to cause allergic reactions. In September 2000 taco-shells in retail-stores contained
meal from StarLink corn were found, triggering a recall. Aventis had to buy back all harvested
Starlink maize as well as Starlink sowing seed.
In July 2001 EPA expert panel concluded that Starlink maize could result in allergy and
decided that it should not be used for human consumption (www.epa.gov/scipoly/sap/). As
contamination of maize for food purposes with fodder maize can not be avoided, cultivation of
Starlink was no longer allowed. Although traces of Starlink can still be expected in the food
chain, it has never been detected in products on EU-markets.
54
Commercial enzymes of no concern with regard to food allergy [366]

Carsten Bindslev-Jensen and colleagues studied the possible allergenicity of a wide variety of
enzyme classes and origins, including enzymes produced by genetically modified organisms us-
ing prick test, histamine release and oral challenges.
Some positive skin prick test result or a positive histamine release were not supported by
oral challenges using exaggerated dosages of the enzymes, and the findings were seen without
clinical relevance.
No allergenic findings of clinical relevance were related and the authors concluded that inges-
tion of food enzymes in general is not considered to be a concern with regard to food allergy.
Lactococcus lactis IL-10-secreting strain reduces anaphylaxis and allergy responses

[1618] [1619]
Christophe Frossard and Philippe Eigenmann from the University Hospital of Geneva in a
study published in March 2007 found that Lactococcus lactis, bioengineered to deliver murine
IL-10, can decrease food-induced anaphylaxis. According to the authors, this may provide an
option to prevent IgE-type sensitization to common food allergens. The anti-inflammatory
interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a potential regulator for food tolerance.
The researchers administered the transfected Lactococcus lactis to mice and induced oral sen-
sitization with -lactoglobulin in the presence of cholera toxin. Anaphylaxis and blood levels of
antigen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) were found to be significantly reduced in mice which
had received the L. lactis strain
Premature and low birth weight babies may develop less allergies in later life when
they are exposed to allergens early. [?]
Liem and colleagues (2007) in a Canadian study, found that immaturity of the gastrointestinal
tract or immune response of prematurity and low birth weight does not change the risk for
development of IgE-mediated food allergies allergy in childhood.
The researchers disagree with previous studies indicating that at an age less than 3 years
the immature gastrointestinal tracts result in an increased uptake of food antigens, increasing
the risk for sensitization but in this study they found that food allergy was associated with a
maternal history of asthma and food allergy.
The authors write that a development of immunologic tolerance of the immature immune
system to orally ingested allergens may take place, preventing sensitivation.
They call for more studies to find out how early exposure to food antigens, such as pre- and
probiotics traces of peanuts, may protect premature children by increasing immune tolerance
to those antigens.
The PARSIFAL study: Unpasteurised farm milk protecting from allergies [1620]
[1621]
The PARSIFAL study - Prevention of Allergy Risk factors for Sensitisation in Children related
to Farming and Anthroposophic Lifestyle -looked at farm children from rural and suburban
communities in Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland.
Waser and colleagues report that consumption of farm milk, whether boiled or not, was associ-
ated with a reduction in the occurrence of asthma by 26%, hay fever by 33%, and food allergy
by 58%. No effect was observed for eczema. Other farm-produced products were not related
to any allergy-related health outcome.
It is not know what components of the raw milk may be responsible for such effects, but
it could be linked to the pathogenic and non-pathogenic microbe levels in the milk, a kind of
action observed with probiotic bacteria which may reduce the risk of certain allergies.
The authors, however, warn that raw milk may contain pathogens such as salmonella or en-
terohaemorrhagic E coli and they do not recommend to drink unheated milk. The authors call
for more studies on the omega-3 fatty acids profile in addition to the microbial content of the
farm milk.
D-apha tocopherols, phytosterols and phytosterol esters derived from soybean oil
not of allergen concern [1622] [1623]
Soy is a common dietary constituent and allergic reactions to soy proteins are well described.
Soy allergy prevalence studies are lacking, estimated prevalences are about 0.5% in the general
population with about 3-6% of allergic children being allergic to soy proteins. Clinical reactions
are similar to those observed with other major food allergens, such as milk, egg or peanut and
include systemic anaphylaxis.
The ADM and Cargill asked for an exemption of allergy warning for natural mixed toco-
pherols (vitamin E, E306) and a range of D-alpha tocopherols acetate and succinate derived
from vegetable oil (soybean oil). Natural mixed tocopherols are mainly used as antioxidants in
fatty foods at a concentration of about 50 mg/kg (referring to the fat fraction of the specific
food). Natural mixed tocopherols are also used as dietary supplements.
The application covers phytosterol esters produced from vegetable oil (soybean oil). Phy-
tosterol esters are currently commercially available in selected foods in several EU countries.
The EU regulations limit exposure to a maximum of 3 grams per day of phytosterols through
labelling requirements and maximum concentrations in certain food categories in order to avoid
intakes above the recommended limits from multiple sources of intake. Plant sterols under con-
sideration are derived from soybean oil deodorised distillates.
56
Considering the information provided by the applicant regarding the starting material, the
subsequent production process, and the demonstration of low residual protein content, the
Panel of the European Food Safety Authority considers that it is unlikely that natural mixed
tocopherol/D-alpha tocopherols from soybean sources and vegetable oils derived phytosterols
and phytosterol esters from soybean sources will trigger a severe allergic reaction in susceptible
individuals. The mixed tocopherols from soybean will therefore exempted from labelling of
allergy warning.
Wheat-based glucose syrups including dextrose not of allergen concern [1624]

Since wheat is relevant both as a source of epitopes known to induce coeliac disease and as
a source of allergens triggering wheat allergy, it is appropriate to investigate wheat products,
namely wheat starch hydrolysates, for their potential to induce coeliac disease or trigger wheat
allergy.
The Association des Amidonneries de Cereales de lUnion Europeenne AAC provides informa-
tion on wheat starch hydrolysates, particularly concerning the potential effects of wheat-based
glucose syrups including dextrose in coeliac disease and wheat allergy. The history of safe use
of wheat-based glucose syrups including dextrose is claimed based on the safe use of wheat
starch-based gluten-free diet in coeliac disease.
Wheat-based glucose syrups including dextrose may contain low levels of proteins and pep-
tides. It is not known at which levels of intake glucose syrups including dextrose would cause
allergic reactions in wheat-allergic individuals. Nevertheless, taking into account all the sci-
entific information provided and in particular the levels of wheat proteins reported in glucose
syrups including dextrose, the Panel considers that it is not very likely that this product will
trigger a severe allergic reaction in susceptible individuals.
For coeliac disease, assessment of the evidence provided including a new clinical study in-
dicates that wheat-based glucose syrup is unlikely to cause an adverse reaction in individuals
with coeliac disease provided that the (provisional) value of gluten considered by Codex Ali-
mentarius for foods rendered gluten-free is not exceeded.
The Codex Standard for Gluten-Free Foods (Codex Stan 118-1983) specifies that the nitro-
gen content of food ingredients derived from gluten containing cereals may not exceed 0.05 g
per 100 g on a dry basis (or 0.31 % protein/ds, Nx6.25), when they are used in a gluten-free
food. [1625]
Chromium (VI) in leather clothing and shoes problematic for allergy sufferers!
[1626]
BfR recommends strictly limiting levels in leather goods.
Studies by the regulatory authorities of the federal states reveal that many leather goods like
gloves, shoes or watch straps which come into direct contact with the skin contain high levels
of chromium (VI). Hexavalent chromium is a strong allergen and it can lead to allergic skin
reactions like contact eczema in sensitised individuals.
Clinical picture of Chromium VI allergy

The typical clinical picture is allergic contact eczema on the areas of the skin which come into
contact with chromium (VI). Clothing which has direct skin contact should not, therefore, con-
tain any chromium (VI).
Even the lowest levels of chromium (VI) in leather are sufficient to trigger an allergic reac-
tion in hypersensitive individuals. At a level of 5 mg per kg leather half of the sensitised
individuals already manifested allergic skin reactions like for instance contact eczema. The
only effective protection for them against skin disorders is to avoid any contact with products
containing chromium (VI).
Regulation
At the present time the chromium content of leather goods has not been regulated by law apart
from industrial safety provisions. In 2006 a DIN standard stipulated that the chromium (VI)
levels in work gloves must be below the detection limit of three milligrams chromium (VI) per
kilogram leather.
In more than 50% of leather goods such as gloves and shoes and other ware which is worn
close to the skin like watch straps, chromium IV was found up to 10 mg/kg
Tanning processing of hides

Normally, chromium (III) sulphate is used as the tanning agent. Chromium (VI) either appears
as an impurity in the tanning substance or it is formed through oxidation from chromium (III)
in the ensuing processing stages. There are methods available which can considerably reduce
the chromium levels in the leather or even completely remove the chromium (VI). Chromium-
free tanning methods are another option.
Chromium free leather processing or mandatory declaration

The BfR believes that leather goods that come into contact with skin should not, if possible,
contain any chromium (VI). At the very least, the levels should be reduced as far as possible.
At the present time, the analytical detection limit is approximately 3 mg per kg leather. The
studies by the regulatory authorities and the standard for work gloves prove that this limit can
be complied with by using the corresponding technologies.
58
On the other hand, mandatory declaration could help allergy sufferers to consciously avoid
purchasing products containing chromium (VI).
Chapter 3
Anthrax
Introduction
Anthrax is a zoonosis, a pick it up from contaminated soil by either eating or inhaling the spores.
Animals which suffer a sudden death caused by Anthrax show blood and bloody fluids coming
out of body orifices. Anthrax bacteria which are present in this blood and fluids draining into
the soil form spores which were proved to be alive after 70 years. Burying infected materials
such as carcasses, blood into pits is a menace to further generations as memory of the site
goes lost and spores are liberated because of earth work such as construction of roads, new
plantations or even installing a new grave.
The anthrax bacteria in the carcass of died animals are likely to be killed by the bacteria
of putrefaction. The main danger lies therefore on blood and fluids draining into soil as due to
specific conditions of environment and temperatures sporulation can take place [695].
History of Anthrax
The Bible as deep source of ancient knowledge of food, veterinary, and human medicine cites
at Exodus the Sixth Plague killing livestock and affecting people with black spots.
Homer in his Iliad refers to what probably was a plague of Anthrax as a punishment im-
posed by Apollo.
Virgil in his Georgics writes about a disease spreading from animal to human[695]
Bacillus anthracis Cohn 1872,177.Al

Anthrax bacteria belong to the Bacillus genus which has only one aerobic form. This form is
Bacillus anthracis which causes skin anthrax or if inhaled the serious form of pulmonary an-
59
60
thraxThe spores are ellipsoidal, located in the middle of the vegetative form, without enlarging
the original form. After a certain time the vegetative form decays due to autolysis. The spores
remain in union with the previous spores through a thin layer. In this manner log chains of
spores are formed.
This organism was seen hundred years ago in the blood of animals ill with anthrax. Robert Koch
1877 proved it to be the cause of the disease by inoculating pure cultures into susceptible cattle:
Characteristics: Gram-positive rods with square end shape, tending to form long chains
(Bamboo cane like), which is very specific. The germ is not motile. This is important to dis-
tinguish it from other sporulating aerobic bacteria.
The rods measure 1-1,2 micra in width and 3,5 micra in length. The vegetative form are de-
stroyed by chemical and physical agents but the spores can survive for decades in dust or soil
and on other objects. The spores survive 5 minutes boiling and ordinary disinfectants.
Sterilisation and disinfection: The spores are sterile in dry heat of 150oC only after 60
minutes.
In humid atmosphere anthrax spores die in 5 to 10 minutes at 100o C.
In threads of silk the anthrax spores are sterilised at 121o C in 15 minutes. This has been
used to test the function of autoclaves using dried threads of silk or hair which had been in-
oculated with anthrax spores. Because of the danger of handling such pathogen germ anthrax
spores are now substituted by not pathogenic earth bacteria.
Disinfection of hands: Wash carefully with water and soap. Do not use nail brushes as
small damage to the skin may happen permitting anthrax spores to get into deeper layers of
the skin.
Hands may be disinfected using 0,2% peracetic acid (or 0,5% Wolfasteril 2 X 1 minute.
Disinfection is made with 10% formalin for 2 hours. The spores are resistant to 5% solu-
tion of phenol.
Surfaces can be disinfected with 1% peracetic acid (or 2,5% Wolfasteril for 20 minutes)
The spores are not formed in living animals or even mankind, but are present in large number
in agar culture and in dead organism.
Culture of Bacillus anthracis

Media: Anthrax bacteria grow well in standard media. For diagnostic blood-agar is often used
with little or no hemolysis. The bacilli have capsules in the animal body but are not capsulated
in artificial culture.
Morphology of the colonies:On agar plates the colonies are large, white and rough and
have ”curled hair” edges.
Identification of Bacillus anthracis Direct sputum, smears of wounds, stool, from hairs,
hides, feedstuffs,fertilisers, soil or enrichment broth are plated on blood-trimethoprim-agar
plates ( Art nr. 1611e Heipha Diagnostika), incubation for 18 to 24 hours at 36+-1oC
Morphology of colonies on BTP-Agar:Most of Bacillus spp can grow rapidly on this Agar.
The selective supplement Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazol inhibits completely Bacillus subtilis
and to a high degree the Bacillus licheniformis is suppressed. The growth of Gram-positive
cocci such as Staphylococcus and Enterococcus as well as Enterobactericeae is very reduced.
Sheep blood supports the growth. A strong hemolysis is typical for other Bacillus spp. such as
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus mycoides.
All colonies of Bacillus anthracis present definitely no hemolysis at Blood-Trimethoprim-Agar.
Bacillus anthracis grows as white, great colonies (2-6 mm in diameter) with characteristic
dull surface.
Gram-positive rods,spores, smooth ends, no beta-hemolysis, capsules.
Table 3.1: Blood-Trimethoprim-Agar
Substance gram/litre
Peptone from casein 14,0 g
Peptone from beef 4,5 g
Yeast extract 4,5 g
NaCl 5,0 g
Agar 16,0 g
Sheep blood 50 ml
Trimethoprim 1,6 mg
Sulfamethoxasol 6,4 mg
pH 7,3 +- 0,2 light-red colour
Identification on Cereus-Ident-Agar should be made of the suspected colonies:
62
Table 3.2: Cereus-Ident-Agar
Substance gram/litre
Special peptone 21,0 g
Growth supplement 17,0 g
Chromogenic selective
supplement 2,7 g
Agar
pH 7,3 +- 0,1 teh medium is clear and light-yellow
The chromogenic substrate X-myoinositol-1-phosphate can be broken by enzymes from Bacillus
cereus to the chromophor X-(5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indoxyl) which precipitate in the inside of the
colony with the characteristic turquoise colour.
Differentiation between Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus

The suspected colonies from the Blood-Trimethoprim-agar plate should be transfered to a
Cereus-Ident-Agar (Art Nr. 174e Heipha Diagnostika).
Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis as colonies with up to 4 mm as diameter and turquoise
colour. Bacillus anthracis colonies have the same size ( up to 4 mm ) but they are white. Bio-
chemical reactions and PCR should be performed with these colonies.[733]
Disease Anthrax disease is found in sheep,cattle and pigs.

Before terrorists disseminated spores of anthrax in America infection in human was rare and
occurred by handling products or eating meat from infected animals. Today the disease is still
common in South and Central America, Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and the
Caribbean
Intestinal anthrax:The spores in animal feed, in dust of infected soil with excreta or car-
casses of diseased animals are ingested and can cause an intestinal infection.
Contaminated food can also bear anthrax bacteria. The disease can turn out to be fatal if
not treated.
Skin anthrax: Man can get skin anthrax handling infected animals, their hides, wool, hair
and bristles.
Diagnosis is done by gram-colouring and culture of exudates or smear.
Pulmonary anthrax: Is acquired by inhaling anthrax spores from wool or hair of diseased
animals.The disease can turn out to be fatal if not treated
Diagnosis is made from culture of blood. The culture of the sputum is often negative.
The source of animal epidemics is animal feed.

The source of infections of man is wool, hair or hides. Contaminated bristles of shaving brushes
causing facial pustules have been reported. [734] [735] [736] [737]
Revocation of the Lather Brushes Regulation in 1998 [738] All these reported cases
of human anthrax infection with hairs and brushes date before 1930. FDA states that no case
of cutaneous anthrax in the United States has been associated with lather brushes since 1930,
and the continuation of existing requirements is unnecessary to protect the public health. And
CDC revoked the Lather Brushes Regulation pertaining to the treatment, sterilization, han-
dling, storage, marking, and inspection of lather brushes. 42 CFR 71.151 on January 11, 1985
(50 FR 1516), in 1998.
Therapy: Beta-lactame, Penicillin and other antibiotics such as Ciprofloxacin and Penicillin
V Fluorochinolone, Doxycyline and macrolide (erytromicin, spiramycin, josamycin and azalide)
[746].
Pathogenesis of Bacillus anthracis

Death is most likely due to O2 depletion, secondary shock, increased vascular permeability
followed by respiratory and cardiac failure.
The pathogenesis depends on two virulence factors[747]:
1. Poly-D-glutamic acid capsule
2. tripartite toxin
Poly-D-glutamic acid capsule: is encoded by the plasmid pX02, which can be transferred
to a nonencapsulated Bacillus anthracis by transduction resulting in a capsulated phenotype.
The capsule is non toxic but protects the bacterium from bactericidal components and from
phagocytosis.
Tripartite toxin is mediated by the temperature sensitive plasmid pX01. The toxin con-
sists of three parts:
82.7 kDa protective antigen (PA)
90.2 kDa lethal factor (LF)
64
88.9 kDa oedema faktor (OF)

-Remark: ”Da” stands for Dalton- other findings of Bradley et al and Andrew Panifer et al
published in Nature 2001,414 225-233 give hope to the development of new therapeutics against
anthrax and the tumours caused, being interesting for farmers of the regions where anthrax is
prevailing.
Control of animal anthrax: The spread of the disease is being controlled by use of a vaccine
of avirulent spores and safe disposal of carcasses.
The disease may be imported from other countries by means of hides, leather and wool with
origin from anthrax epidemic regions.
Diagnosis The diagnosis is positive when large gram-positive rods are found in smears of pus
from a typical malignant pustule with black edges giving the skin anthrax disease the name of
”carbuncle” which means ”charcoal”. Further cultivation may be necessary, showing charac-
teristic colonies on nutrient agar. Genetic identification follows.
In the mid 70th a 48 years old German died of intestinal anthrax after eating meat and sausages
from an animal from emergency slaughtering.
A sever intestinal disease caused by Anthrax took place in April 1979 in the city Sverdloosk
causing 64 human death resulting from tainted meat.
In 1994 one case of skin Anthrax was known in Germany.
Bacillus anthracis is similar to Bacillus cereus
Virulent and avirulent strains can be differentiated from Bacillus cereus using the API sys-
tem.
Table 3.3: Different characteristics of B. anthracis and B. cereus [696]
Characteristics B. anthracis B. cereus

Motility - +
Lysis by gama phage + -
String of perl test(10 U + -
ml− 1 penicillin G)
Growth on
Chloralhydrate agar - +
2-Phenylethanol agar d +
Polymyxin-lysozyme- + -
EDTA-thallous acetate agar
Phosphatase - d
Degradation of tyrosine - d
War reminescence: During the cold war several tons of Anthrax bacteria were stock piled
in the city of Sverdlovsk as a weapon. Later on, Mikhail Gorbachev decided the Anthrax should
be destroyed. The whole stockpile was bleached and poured into the ground of Vosrozhdeniya
(Renaissance) island in the Aral Sea.
Tests of soil samples from six of 11 vast burial pits show that some of the spores were still
alive in 1999.
The spores are highly resistant to inactivation and may be present in soil for decades. They
may infect animals that ingest the spores while grazing. Uzbek and Kazakh experts fear the
buried anthrax spores could escape their sandy tomb, stirred up by carriers like gophers and
other rodents, lizards and birds, and be brought to Uzbek and Kazak territory.
Central Asian and U.S. officials fear that, as access to the island eases, the buried anthrax
could be used by terrorists to make more of the deadly agent.
[697]
The Pentagon sent a team of 113 people to the island to neutralize between 100 and 200 tons
of anthrax in 2002. [698]
66
Chapter 4
Food poisoning
4.0.1 Algal Toxins

Algae Algae may present variable morphology. Species are known being unicellular, other
algae may grow up to 20 to 30 meters of length.
Algae serve as food for marine animals, they may be used as ingredients such as the production
of agar agar, used in food, in drugs, as basis for bacteriological medias and is used in many
other ways. Chlorophyll is often hidden by yellow, brown,blue and red pigments.This gave the
origin to a classification of algae in Xantophyceae, Cyanophyceae or Rodophyceae.
Algae produce starch, mannite, leucosine and oil.
Algae are generally inhabitants of water. Algae adapted to life in contact with air are found
on the surface of rocks, on the bark of trees and at soil. In extreme cases they may survive at
700 C (Cyanophyceae).
Algae are an important factor of regeneration of water and treatment of drinking water. Mi-
croscopical identification of algae is used in the characterisation of quality of water.
Algae are important part of marine plankton serving as food for a variety of aquatic animals.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, unicellular alga was studied as a possible food. Rodoficeae are industri-
ally used to obtain natural carotene. In reduce amount dehydrated algae are used as food in
Japan.
Classification of alga [87] Classifications are often not up to date but some are didactical
and will still be used even when there is a new classification proposed so this is why the present
classification proposed by Strasburger is used here: The plant kingdom is divided in 7 great
divisions :
1. Bacteriophyta containing bacteria
2. Cyanophyta containing the blue-green Alga
67
68
3. Phycophyta containing all other alga
4. Mycophyta containing mushrooms
5. Bryophyta containing the mosses
6. Pteridophyta containing ferns
7. Spermatophyta containing plants with seeds
Alga which produce toxins are settled in division 2 Cyanophyta and division 3 Phycophyta.
Division 2: Cianophyta: The division contains the following orders:
• Chrooccocales: generally unicellular, forming jelly on rocks.
• Hormogonales: filaments
Division 3: Phycophyta: This division contains algae organised as Flagellatae with the
following orders:
• Chrysomonadales
• Heterochloridales
• Cryptomnonadales
• Dinoflagellatae
• Euglenales
• Protochloridales
• Volvocales
The Flagellatae have subdivision
• Chlorophytina includes the green algae (Chlorophyceae).They live mainly in fresh water as
plankton and form the green coating on rocks and on the bark of trees. The Chlorophyceae
contain Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Chlorella vulgaris. The latter can live in symbiosis with
other individuals.
• Pyrrhophytina
• Euglenophytina
• Phaeophytina
• Rhodophytina
• Cyanophyta
Classification of microorganism according Streble [91]
1. Phylum Bacteriophyta(Bacteriae) Order Eubacteriales

Order Actinomycetales
Order Chlamydobacteriales
2. Phylum Cyanophyta(Blue algae) Order Chroococcales

Order Pleurocapsales
Order Chamaesiphonales
Order Stigonematales
3. Order Chrysophyta(Yellow algae) Class Chrysophyceae(Gold algae)

Order Chrysomonadales
Order Rhizochrysidales
Order Chrysocapsales
Class Bacillariophyceae, Diatomae ( Diatom )
Order Centrales
Order Pennales
Class Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green algae)
Order Heterogloeales (Heterocapsales)
Order Heterococcales
Order Heterosiphonales
4. Euglenophyta Order Euglenales

Order Peranematales
5. Phylum Dinophyta Class Dinophyceae

Order Peridiniales
6. Phylum Cryptophyta
70
7. Phylum Chlorophyta(Green Algae) Class Chlorophyceae

Order Volvocales
Order Tetrasporales
Order Chlorococcales
Order Ulotrichales
Order Ulvales
Order Prasiolales
Order Microsporales
Order Chaetophorales
Class Oedogoniophyceae
Class Bryopsidophyceae
Order Cladophorales
ivermectin Order Sphaeropleales
Class Conjugatophyceae
Order Mesotaeniales
Order Gonatozygales
Order Desmidiales
Order Zygnemales
8. Phylum Rhodophyta(Red algae) Order Banglales

Order Nemalionales
Order Cryptonemiales
9. Phaeophita(Brown algae) Order Ectocarpales
10. MycophytaOrder Archimycetes Order Phycomycetes

Order Ascomycetes
Order Basidiomycetes
Order Fungi imperfecti
Algal toxins Beside useful algae there are many single cell algae which produce toxins. These
species develop rapidly under favourable conditions forming algae carpets in seawater killing
fish in Mexico gulf and North Sea (such as Microcystis).
Marine animals such as oysters,Crustaceae and different types of fish may eat the toxic algae
storing the toxins. This can lead to serious poisoning.
According to the species of algae the symptoms of poisoning are[84]:
1. Damage of the nervous system (Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning)(PSP)

2. Loss of memory(Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning)(ASP)

3. Neurotoxic phenomenons(Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning)
4. Sodium channel blocking in nervous cells(Tetrodotoxin)(TTX)
In the summer the temperature of seawater rises causing high growth of algae. In the Nether-
lands the harvest of oysters are stopped at this time of the year or the oysters are transfered
to unpolluted water tanks to regenerate.
The alga Fibrocapsa japonica was found in the German Bay. This alga produces a toxin
which is associated with the death of seals. According to Ursula Siebert from the Forschung
und Technologie Zentrum , Büsum, Germany, was found in samples of the German Bay for the
first time in 1995. How the toxin of Fibrocapsa japonica acts and if it can harm humans is
unknown[428]. In USA and Canada the maximum tolerable value of saxitoxin is 0,8 mg/Kg
of mollusc meat. In Germany absence of liposoluble DSP is provided by regulations. Water
soluble PSP should not exceed 400 micrograms/Kg of mollusc meat. The maximum tolerable
amount of dominoic acid in Germany is 20 mg DA/kg mollusc meat.
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB): Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) is a natural disaster which
has attracted global attention in recent decades since it threatens greatly public health, causes
economic damage to fisheries and tourism. Fibrocapsa japonica is one of HAB causative or-
ganisms which caused significant loss to coastal fisheries in Japan. From the 1990’s it was also
reported frequently in European coastal waters.
In a work of the University of Oldenburg, the toxicity of Fibrocapsa japonica algal cells was
first established by Artemia salina biotest. Fibrocapsins was screened step by step through
Artemia salina biotest, bioluminescence inhibition biotest and erythrocyte lysis assay methods,
isolated then in HPLC.
The chemical natures of fibrocapsins 1, 2 and 3 were determined finally as 6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic

acid, all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid and all-cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid by HPLC-
MS, IR, GC-(HR)MS, NMR experiments and biotest. The toxins are unsaturated fatty acids.
(Isolation and characterisation of toxins from Fibrocapsa japonica (Raphidophyceae) / Meng
Fu. - 2003. - V, 85 Bl. - Oldenburg, Univ., Diss., 2003)
Harmful algae blooms buoy: Dr. Phil Culverhouse from the University of Plymouth devel-
oped the HAB (harmful algae blooms)-Buoy. This project was funded by the European Union.
The buoy is a swimming microscope coupled natural object recognition software. It can image
and recognise harmful algae. It will be operated either underwater suspended from a buoy
or on a mussel-producing raft, or in the laboratory to monitor algae. The relevant specimens
which are scanned from filtered water will be further analysed to decide on their species label.
72
This enables shell fishery staff to have advance warning that HAB species are present. Tests
are instruments will be located in Galicia in Spain, Galway in Ireland, and the Gulf of Trieste
in Italy.
Damage of the nervous system (Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning)(PSP) They are

caused by toxins produced by Dinoflagelata such as Alexandrium spp. The PSP toxins are
water soluble.
Analytical methods Mouse-Bioassay: A biological test giving immediate informations

about the activity of the toxins in whole. To study the different paralytic toxins chromatography
methods are necessary, such as the use of the ionicpair chromatography with RP-C18 and a
step gradient making possible to separate PRP toxins.
Damage of the digestive tract (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning)(DSP): Toxins of Di-

arrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) are okada acid (okadaic acid) the Dinophysis toxin, the
pectenotoxins and yessotoxin which are liposoluble causing strong diarrhoea.
Analytical methods At the beginning there were only biological tests in rats and mice, the
Bioassays and immunological tests, the immunoassays. Modern HPLC methods with deriva-
tization before column with fluorescence marker using a fluorescence detector can detect very
small amounts of toxins.
Using HPLC/MS coupling with Atmospheric Pressure/Electrospray Ionisation (API/ESI)-Interfaces
better results may be achieved.
Loss of memory (Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning)(ASP) A poisoning with ASP in Canada

affecting about 100 persons was related in 1987. These persons had eaten meat of mollusks
which were intoxicate with ASP. The survivals had amnesia. This gave the name of the poison-
ing which is caused by the dominoinic acid of the alga Nitzschia pungens. This alga is found
also in Europe turning oysters poisonous. The maximum tolerable amount of dominoic acid in
Germany is 20 mg DA /Kg mollusc meat.
Analytical methods HPLC is used as analytical method of ASP using an RP-C18 column
without derivatization. Dominoinic acid down to 1,0 mg/kg mollusc meat can be detected with
this method. Making derivatization of dominoinic acid before the column using fluorenilme-
toxicarbonylchlorid. Amounts below 1 mg/Kg can be detected.
Neurotoxic phenomenons(Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning): The NSP toxins are pro-

duced by Gymnodinium breve, also denominated as Ptychodiscus brevis.
This alga has several times caused death to fish in the Gulf of Mexico.
APS toxins may be classified in to types: Brevetoxin A and Brevetoxin B. They are a group of
polyethers.
Analytical methods: HPLC and immunoassays and HPLC with MS coupling.
Sodium channel blocking in nervous cells (Tetrodotoxin)(TTX) Tetrodotoxin is also

called fugu-toxin. It may be produced by some fish of the family of Tetradontidae (Takifugu
sp.). This ball-fish is being consumed in Japan causing sometimes severe poisoning.
The toxin TTX blocks the sodium channel of nervous cells acting neurotoxic.
This toxin has no absorbtion of ultra violet light and is not fluorescent.
HPLC is used with derivatization before column, producing a fluorescent derivate with sodium
hydroxide.
The HPLC/MS coupling with an API/ESI interface is used with good results and in some cases
chromatography with mass spectrometry recheck.
Saxitoxin: Saxitoxin is an algal toxin of the PSP type, being water soluble. More 20 derivates
of saxitoxin are produced by Dinoflagelata such as Alexandrium spp.
Analytical method to determine Saxitoxin [74] Summary:Saxitoxin is an algal toxin

which is extracted in acid solution.
After extraction the toxin is purified with periodic acid in alkaline medium. Saxitoxin is then
read fluorimetricaly against a standard curve.
The food to be analysed is triturated in trichloracid 1 N and hydrochloric acid 0,2N in equal
parts.
After 20 minutes heating it is filtered, taken to pH 5.2 +-0.1 with potassium hydroxide 1 mol/l
and centrifugated and transfered to a column with ion exchange resin in ME+ form 50 to 100
mesh to purify the saxitoxin.
The column is then washed with 100 ml buffer of potassium acetate at a pH of 5.2+-0.1 followed
with 50 ml distilled water.
Saxitoxin is then eluated with sulfuric acid 0,5N until 20 ml are obtained in a volumetric flask.
The velocity of elution should not exceed 3 ml/minute.
2 ml of the elution are mixed with 2 ml NH4 OH 1,2 N and 100 microliter of periodic acid 0.1
ml/l. After 15 Minutes 200 microliter of glacial acetic acid are added to the solution and read
against a blank containing the same components as before having periodic acid changed with
water.
Standard solution: Saxitoxin dissolved in acetic acid 0,1 ml/l. Further dilution are made with
sulfuric acid in a way that 2 ml of the dilutions are added to 2 ml NH4 OH 1,2 N and 100
microliter of periodic acid. Reading is made at 388 nm. The blank should be subtracted from
the value of the sample. Before using purifying column the resins must be suspended three
74
times in 50 ml chloridric acid 3N and washed with distilled water until reaction is neutral.
Again the resin must be suspended 2 times in 50 ml acetic acid 2mol/l. The upper layer is
then exchanged by 150 to 200 ml acetic acid and the pH is adjusted to 5.2+-0.1 with acetic
acid. The resin can be kept until use under a buffer solution of potassium acetate 0,2 mol/l
at an pH of 5.2+-0.1 adjusted with acetic acid. The column of 1 cm diameter is charged with
approximately 5 g resin which gives a length of 5 cm.
Health regulations related to bivalve molluscs and other marine species [75]
Health concerns related to shellfish, live bivalve molluscs and other aquatic animals contam-
inated with coli, salmonella or other bacteria or viruses as well as algal toxins are of public
concern. Actual global warming may spur micro organisms in water turning and turn it neces-
sary to tighten safety control on molluscs.
The Council Directive 91/492/EEC of 15 July 1991 lays down the health conditions for the
production and the placing on the market of live bivalve molluscs. It define production areas
from which molluscs can bet gathered for direct human consumption, or from which they have
to be purified or relayed.
It is primarily the responsibility of the producers to ensure that the bivalve molluscs are
produced and placed on the market in compliance with the health requirements prescribed;
whereas the competent authorities must, carry out checks and inspections, to ensure that pro-
ducers comply with those requirements do not contain microorganisms and toxic substances in
quantities which are considered to be dangerous to human health.
Live bivalve molluscs from purification areas must not exceed the limits of a five-tube, three-
dilution MPN-test of 6 000 faecal coliforms per 100 g of flesh or 4 600 E. Coli per 100 g of flesh
in 90% of samples.
Live bivalve molluscs from areas where they do not exceed the limits of a five-tube, three-
dilution MPN-test of 60 000 faecal coliforms per 100 g of flesh.can be collected but placed on
the market only after relaying over a long period (at least two months).
Requirements concerning live Bivalve Molluscs intended for immediate consump-

tion 1. The possession of visual characteristics associated with freshness and viability, includ-
ing shells free of dirt, an adequate response to percussion, and normal amounts of intravalvular
liquid.
2. They must contain less than 300 faecal coliforms or less than 230 E. Coli per 100 g of
mollusc flesh and intravalvular liquid based on a five-tube, three-dilution MPN-test or any
other bacteriological procedure shown to be of equivalent accuracy.
3. They must not contain salmonella in 25 g of mollusc flesh.
4. They must not contain toxic or objectionable compounds occurring naturally or added
to the environment such as those listed in the Annex to Directive 79/923/EEC. [76]
5. The upper limits as regards the radionuclide contents must not exceed the limits for food-
stuffs as laid down by the Community.
6. The total Paralytic Shellfish Poison (PSP) content in the edible parts of molluscs (the
whole body or any part edible separately) must not exceed 80 microgrammes per 100 g of
mollusc flesh in accordance with the biological testing method - in association if necessary with
a chemical method for detection of Saxitoxin - or any other method recognized in accordance
with the procedure laid down in Article 12 of this Directive.
If the results are challenged, the reference method shall be the biological method.
7. The customary biological testing methods must not give a positive result to the presence of
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poison (DSP) in the edible parts of molluscs (the whole body or any part
edible separately).
8. In the absence of routine virus testing procedures and the establishment of virological
standards, health checks must be based on faecal bacteria counts.
Algal toxins, new detection methodes [77]

Algal toxins may be present in shellfish, molluscs and other marine and fresh water inhabi-
tants. Global warming may spur algal blooms which highlights the importance of algal toxins
detection.
Maximum levels and Detection methods are described in the Decision 2002/225 EEC.
(1) Chapter V, point 7, of the Annex to Directive 91/ 492/EEC provides that the customary
biological testing methods must not give a positive result to the presence of diarrhetic shellfish
poisoning (DSP)in the edible parts of molluscs(the whole body or any part edible separately).
(2) It has been scientifically proven that certain marine biotoxins such as those of the diar-
rhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP)complex (okadaic acid (OA)and dinophysistoxins (DTXs)) and
also yessotoxins (YTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs)and azaspiracids (AZAs), pose a serious hazard
to human health when present above certain limits in bivalve molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates
76
or marine gastropods.
(3) In the light of recent scientific studies it is now possible to establish maximum levels and
methods of analysis for those biotoxins.
This Decision lays down the maximum levels for the marine biotoxins of the diarrhetic shellfish
poisoning (DSP)complex (okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins), yessotoxins, pectenotoxins and
azaspiracids and the methods of analysis to be used for their detection. It applies to bivalve
molluscs, echinoderms, tunicates and marine gastropods that are intended for immediate hu-
man consumption or for further processing before consumption.
Maximum levels
Okadaic acid, dinophysistoxins

and pectenotoxins together 160 g of okadaic acid equiv./kg.
Yessotoxins 1 mg of yessotoxin equivalent/kg.

Azaspiracids 160 g of azaspiracid equivalents/kg.
Detection methods Detection methods are described in the Decision 2002/225 EEC. Bio-
logical methods: Use mice or rats. The tests involve the death of the animals.
Alternative detection methods: A series of methods such as high performance liquid

chromatography (HPLC)with fluorimetric detection, liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spec-
trometry (MS), inmunoassays and functional assays such as the phosphatase inhibition assay
can be used as alternative or complementary methods to the biological testing methods, pro-
vided that either alone or combined they can detect at least the following analogues, that they
are not less effective than the biological methods and that their implementation provides an
equivalent level of public health protection:
- okadaic acid and dinophysistoxins: an hydrolysis step may be required in order to detect
the presence of DTX3, - pectenotoxins: PTX1 and PTX2, - yessotoxins: YTX, 45 OH YTX,
homo YTX, and 45 OH homo YTX, - azaspiracids: AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3.
On market available kits for the detection of algal toxins Saxitoxin (STX) is a neu-
rotoxin found in marine dinoflagellates (algae). It is a selective sodium channel blocker. It is
so strong that it is known as ”TZ” chemical weapon by the U.S. military with the Lct50 of 5
mg . min/m3 . [78] The medical importance is in relation to red tide in shellfisch because of
the paralytical shellfish poisoning (PSP) food poisoning. The blocking of the sodium channel
produces a flaccid paralysis that leaves its victim calm and conscious through the progression.
Death is caused by respiratory failure. [78]
A Saxitoxin (PSP) algal toxin immunoassay ELISA kit is now commercially available among
others: The Direct ELISA Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) has proved to be a
sensitive and rapid method for phycotoxin detection, such as:
Yessotoxin (YTX): Yessotoxin and its analogues produced by marine algae, in particular
Protoceratium reticulatum and Gonyaulax polyedra. YTX is known to accumulate in shellfish
meat and is regarded as hepatotoxic and cardiotoxic when ingested above a certain level. The
yessotoxins have previously been included in the diarrhetic shellfish poison (DSP) group, but
the YTX chemistry and toxicology differ distinctly from the DSP toxin family. The European
Commision recently placed the yessotoxins in a separate phycotoxin group, and implemented
a maximum permitted level (MPL) of 1 mg YTX eqvivalents/kg shellfish intended for human
consumption (Directive 2002/225/EC). [79]
Microcystins / nodularins and its congeners detection kit: It responds to a broad

range of the toxic microcystin congeners, as well as the structurally related nodularin toxins.The
ELISA is derived from antibodies recognizing 6E-ADDA,the common structural feature present
in the toxic congeners of microcystins and nodularins. [80]
Dominoic acid: The amnesic shellfish poison (ASP) toxins, domoic acid (DA) and DA iso-
mers are water-soluble neurotoxins produced by a number of marine algae, in particular by
the microalgae of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia. Blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. may lead to
the accumulation of DA in shellfish filter feeders and other marine species. Ingestion of DA
contaminated shellfish may lead to amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) by affecting the central
nervous system, and has caused the death of both animal and human consumers in severe cases.
The European Commission Directive 2002/226/EC implemented a maximum permitted level
(MPL) of 20 mg DA/kg shellfish intended for human consumption. This MPL is adopted by
the regulatory authorities in most other countries. This quantitative DA EIA kit detects DA
in water samples shellfish and algal extracts The assay is primarily intended for use in routine
monitoring of DA levels in bivalve molluscs to comply with the regulatory MPL, but is also
applicable for DA quantification in the marine matrixes. [81]
Cylindrospermopsin: It is a naturally produced toxin of several cyanobacterial strains and

has been found in fresh water throughout the world. Certain strains of Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii (Australia, Hungary, United States), Umezakia natans (Japan), Aphanizomenon
ovalisporum (Australia, Israel) have been found to produce cylindrospermopsin.
The production of cylindrospermopsin seems to be strain specific and not species specific. The
78
antibody binds Cylindrospermopsin The assay sensitivity allows the determination of Cylin-
drospermopsin in a range of environmental samples (water, fish tissue, fish plasma, etc.). [82]
Microcystine ELISA Test: Microcystins and the structurally related nodularins are toxins
produced by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Acute poisoning in humans and animals can be
caused by these toxins and in several cases has led to death. These toxins inhibit liver function
and might act as tumor promoters. Many different structural variants (congeners) are found,
with the most common variant being microcystin-LR. To protect public health, the WHO has
proposed a provisional upper limit for microcystin-LR of 1 ppb in drinking water. [83]
4.0.2 Bacterial poisoning

Bacteria can settle on food. Due to industrialisation and globalization they can be widespread
turning:
• endemic[88]
The spread of a disease is called endemic when there are continuously a certain number
of infections left in a region.
• epidemic
The spread of a disease is called epidemic when there is an increase of the normal number
of infections in a region.
• pandemic
The disease is told to be pandemic when an epidemic is spread over many countries.
The bacteria present in food can:
• Spoil the food causing off-taste and off-smell.
• Produce toxins under favourable conditions of growth, causing acute poisoning or suba-
cute but very harmful alterations such as cancer.
• Be infectious causing diarrhoea and other serious diseases
• Be opportunists[89]
Facultative pathogenic bacteria may be harmless to people with strong immunological
system. Small children and people with weak immunological system can be attacked by
the opportunists. They generally cause isolated cases and very rarely epidemics.
Examples of microorganism which spoil food: Molds, yeasts, Escherichia coli, Proteus
etc.
Examples of microorganism producing toxins: The microorganism cited below can pro-
duce toxins when present in food and having sufficient time during storage under appropriate
temperatures. In this case the microorganisms don’t necessarily need to be alive when reaching
the final consumer.:
Laboratory diagnosis: Sometimes the microorganism which spoiled the food are dead be-
cause the food was sterilised after deterioration. In this case chemical analysis may bring the
evidence of undesired microbiological activity, such as the rise of ergosterol or rise of acidity in
salads or succinic acid in egg yolk.
Bacillus cereus produces endotoxin about which there is little known. Bacillus cereus pro-
duces hemolysin and lecithinase which is not toxic and is a phospholypase.
Campilobacter jejuni produces endo- and enterotoxin.
Clostridium botulinum produces exotoxins from type A, B, C, D, E and F.

They are the strongest toxins which are known and act as neurotoxins. They inhibit the ex-
cretion of acetylcholine avoiding thus the transmission of signals from the nerve to the muscle
causing paralysis comparable to the effect of curare, the poison of South American Indians.
The endotoxins which are thermo unstable are formed in canned food with a pH higher than
4.5 and about 6 month of storage.
This toxin is destroyed when food is cooked before serving.
Clostridium perfringens produces an enterotoxin formed in bad refrigerated precooked food.
Escherichia coli produces an enterotoxin under bad hygienic conditions.
Listeria monocytogenes produces listeriolysine.
Salmonella enteritides produces a heat unstable exotoxin mainly in ground meat, in eggs, in
poultry, in milk powder, in chocolate and fine salads.
Salmonella typhimurium produces a heat unstable exotoxin.
Shigella dysenteriae and Shigella sonnei produce endotoxin or heat unstable exotoxins.
Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella sonnei and Staphylococcus aureus, produce thermostable toxins.
The toxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus can be classified serologically as toxin A, B, C1,
C2, D, E and F.
About 19% of Staphylococcus aureus are toxin producing strains.
The toxin A and B are resistant to very high temperatures and may resist even to 20 minutes
at 121,10 C . Often there are no sensory changes in food with staphylocoxin.
80
In the production of industrialised food all efforts should be made to avoid a contamination of
food with Staphylococcus aureus, paying great attention to avoid handling of food by person
with suppurative focuses.
Streptococcus faecalis, produces thermostable toxins
Vibrio cholerae produce enterotoxin.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus produces exotoxin.
Yersinia enterocolytica produces enterotoxin.
Examples of microorganism causing infections :

All microorganism cited as producer of toxins of the above paragraph are able to cause infec-
tions. The microorganism must be alive and in sufficient number to cause an infection.
Staphylococcus aureus penicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus has experienced in-

creasing resistance to antibiotics. The first reports from penicillin-resistant isolate, type 80/81,
came from Australia and Canada in 1953, causing skin lesions, sepsis and pneumonia in children
and young. The hospital and community acquired infections were treated in the 1960s with
meticillin
Community-acquired MRSA (ca-MRSA) Emerging infections with community-acquired

MRSA (Ca-MRSA) picked up in public places is resistant to meticillin antibiotic. It is believed
that the strain of Staphylococcus aureus may have evolved from the 80/81. Key regions in genes
of community-acquired MRSA are identical to the genes of the 80/81 strain. It is therefore
believed that the cMRSA strain has developed from this strain through several intermediate
steps. The total genetic code differs from the hospital form.
One important toxin of cMRSA Staphylococcus aureus is Panton-Valentin-Leukozidin (PAL),

responsible for the necrosis of wounds, abscesses and pustules and is determined by the gene
lucks-Luke.
The Ca-MRS strain was described in USA and Canada in 1994. The germ has a specific gene
”lucks-Luke” which produces a necrotic toxin causing deep necrotic wounds. These wounds
must be surgically drained. Sometimes amputations becomes necessary.
German, French and Swiss samples of cMRSA are resistant to fusidin acid. This indicates
the formation of a new strain of Staphylococcus aureus. Intercontinental spreading of the
cMRSA is demonstrated by the finding of the MLST- Type STr with the element SCCmec type
IVa in USA as well in Germany. [1131][1132]
There are nasal carriers which may spread the bacteria causing what is called a skin and
soft tissue infection SSTI. Contamination occurs during body contact, smears by hand contact,
crowded living conditions. Insufficient personnel hygiene.
Avoiding cMRSA: Strict personnel hygiene, Hexachlorophene Hexachlorophene should be

used for hand disinfection. Avoiding crowded living conditions. Football and wrestling being a
sport with body contact should take precautions on these matters.[1133]
An undersupply of vitamin complex B due to a food insufficiency or single-sided nutrition may
lower immunity regarding pustules. Yeast extract or food supplement of complex B vitamines
may be useful to body’s defence, and may in some cases even avoid infection.
Examples of microorganism which can act as opportunists: Candida albicans can

cause infections of mouth and digestive tract by persons with weak immunological system.
Yeasts being found in food should be controlled in regard of the presence of Candida albicans.
Mycotoxins Mycotoxins are poisonous metabolites of certain moulds which can cause patho-
logical changes in human and animals. The most important species which produce mycotoxins
are Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium.
Intoxication takes place through ingestion of contaminated food more seldom by inhalation or
skin resorption.
Mycotoxins unlike the bacterial or algal toxins generally do not produce acute intoxication but
they are known as strong carcinogenic, teratogenic with chronic activity.
Contamination with mycotoxins Direct contamination with mycotoxins can take place
when moulds grow on the food.
Indirect contamination can take place mycotoxins contaminated feed is ingested by cattle and
pork. Milk, eggs and meat are examples of indirect contamination of food caused by spoiled
feed containing Aflatoxins Ochratoxin A and some of the Fusaria toxins.
The direct contamination caused by on food growing moulds is of great importance on cereals,
oil seeds, coffee, fruits, vegetables, spices some types of cheese like Roquefort cheese and meat
products.
Aflatoxins Aflatoxins are mycotoxins which are exclusively produced by the mould As-
pergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Of importance are the aflatoxins B1 , G1 and G1 .
Aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxin B1 is the strongest carcinogenic compound known. It causes liver

cancer. In food aflatoxin M1 is sometimes present and is almost as poisoning as aflatoxin B1
82
Aflatoxin B
1
AFB1 O
O
Changing the hydrogen

O
with an OH group
results Aflatoxin M
1 H
AFM1
H
O
O
CH
3
In animal feed the most frequent aflatoxin is B1 being often found together with Aflatoxin B2 ,
G1 G2
Ochratoxins
Fumonisins
Trichothecens
Zearalenon
Citrinin
Patulin
Fusaria toxins [416] Fusaria toxins is a generic term for the so called fade-toxin produced
by Fusaria moulds which produce wrinkling of plant parts.
Moulds which produce fusaria toxins are:
Fusaria sporotrichiella
Fusarium tricinctum Fusaria diverisporum Gibberella zeae There are not enough official data
related to fumonisin available in order to define limits of fusaria toxins in food. The following
results of tests are published:
Maize flour, polenta, maize semolina:

290 samples were analysed with following results:
58% below 30 mug/Kg

23% from 30 to 500 mug/Kg
17% >500mug/Kg
The highest result was 9818 mug/Kg. The group of maize products has therefore the highest
concentration of fusaria toxins of all food on test.
Fumonisin was found over all in Italian maize and over 1000 mug/Kg in biological maize
cultures.
Extruded products, Breakfast cereals:

The content of fumonisin of these products is much lower as found in maize:
About 25% below 30 mug/Kg
74 % from 30 to 500 mug/Kg
1% > 500 mug/Kg up to 1600 mug/Kg
Sweet corn:
Fumonisin content found in sweet corn was very low.
More than 85% had not detectable amounts of fumonisin.
5% from 100 to 500 mug/Kg
Baby food. From 149 samples only 2 samples were positive to fumonisin with a maximum
concentration of 55 mug/Kg.
According to the German Institute of Consumer Health Protection and Veterinary Medicine
(Bundesinstitut für gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin BgVV in Berlin
the contamination of cereals with Fusaria is increasing resulting in higher content of fusaria
toxins in baby Food containing cereals.
The Fusaria moulds grow on the cereal stalk and transfer their toxin to the grain. The most
important of these toxins are desoxynivalenol (DON)also known as vomitoxinVomitoxin), and
fumonisin. They damage cells und interfere in the immune system. In wheat and maze prod-
ucts there were found up to 600µg/kg food.
Desoxynivalenol may coexist with Zeralenone. Desoxynivalenol causes growth depression and
suppression of the immune system. 1 ppm limit in the sole feeding should not be exceeded.
Zearalenone may cause fertility disturbances on the oestrogen production in pigs.
Consuming one or several meals with 20 g of fusaria contaminated cereals the tolerable daily
intake (TDI) of 1µg will be surpassed. All effort should be made to discard batches of wheat,
maize, and cereals with fusaria toxins. The control of the raw material should be intensified in
order to guarantee low levels of fusaria toxins.
Wheat, beer, oil seeds and spices:
640 samples were analysed with no positive findings.
84
Fusarium sporotrichoides This mould grows in the surroundings of the Baykal sea and
other parts of east Siberia, in the north of China and North Korea. It grows on cereals producing
toxins which cause the Kaschin-Beck-disease which is a chronic osteoarthrose which begins in
early childhood resulting in heavy disorder of growth, deformation of the extremities.The toxins
of Fusarium sporotrichoides contract the vascular system which serves the epiphysic cartilage
and metaphysis resulting in disorder in the growth of cartilage which can be observed not
only in humans but also in dogs and rats which had been fed with corn covered by Fusarium
sporotrichoides.
Other Fusarium:Fusarium poae, Fusarium lateratium , Alternaria and Cladosporium

fagi can produce toxins resulting in the toxic aleukie. The moulds grow on cereals specially on
millet left during the winter on fields.
The disease develops in two phases : First there is a burning feeling in mouth and throat,nausea,gastroent
and diarrhoea.After these signs there is a leucopenia within two month which may result in
sepsis. Additionally there comes to trombopenia and aplasie of red marrow. The mortality is
high.The toxins are not inactivated by cooking. There are three toxins known: Sporofusario-
genin, epicladosporic acid and fagicladosporic acid .
Ochratoxin A Ochratoxin A [417] is a mycotoxin produced by moulds of genus Penicillium

and Aspergillus. It is a water soluble cumarin derivate
Ochratoxin
OH O
C6H5 CH2 CH NH CO O
COOH CH3
Cl It is found in cereals,coffee,
spices and other foods.
The growth of moulds and production of ochratoxin A is speeded by high temperatures and
high moisture during:
Harvest,
handling,
drying,
storage and
transport.
The daily intake of ochratoxin A in Europe is 0,7 to 4,6 ng/Kg/day.
In Germany the daily intake of ochratoxin A is estimated 0,9 ng/Kg/day.
Sources of ochratoxin A are: Cereals with 0,5 ng/Kg, coffee with 0,2 ng/Kg and beer with 0,2
ng/Kg.
Ochratoxin A is carcinogenic and genotoxic in mice and rats.
Recommended limits of ochratoxin A are:
Cereals and their derivates maximum 3 micrograms/kg
Ingredients for baby foods maximum 0,3 micrograms Coffee green or roasted maximum 3 mi-
crograms/kg. Mixing of different charges of coffee to reduce the content of ochratoxin A is not
allowed.
Inactivation of ochratoxin and other mycotoxins in cereals Heating during cooking

and backing does not inactivate ochratoxin.Stored cereals can be decontaminated with an at-
mosphere of 2% NH3 at 20 degrees during 4 to 6 month. Regarding cost and danger which this
decontamination can bear it should always tried to avoid initial contamination of food storing
the cereals under proper conditions of humidity and temperature and reducing the storage time.
Harmful chemicals in hatcheries: Residues of drugs ’to prevent diseases’ are found in
fish meat up to 6 months after administration of the drug. Feed with animal origin with BSE
material fed to routs, salmon and eels. Fish of hatcheries being fed with prion contaminated
meat is a possible source of human CJD disease. Antibiotics and hormones to speed weight
gain are of general concern. Drugs to combat worms are found in samples of fish meat from
hatcheries.
Addictive drugs Some vegetable substances and their derivates are toxic and create addic-
tion, such as excessive consumption of alcohol, smoking or taking drugs.
Alcohol classified as carcinogenic substance A German commission of the German as-

sociation of research (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) [92]classifying ingredients of
working materials has recently classified alcohol as carcinogenic substance[92].
As alcohol is used as cleaning agent such as window cleaning product, disinfection agent in
health care and in many other working materials the recent publication has given ground to
many discussions about toxicity and addiction.
As the commission was designated to classify working materials she was not allowed to extend
their results to food ingredients.
86
It is obvious that the lobby of beverage industry makes everything possible to avoid the exten-
sion of the classification of alcohol in food as carcinogenic and addictive drug.
According to the commission alcohol is transformed in the body to acetaldehyde which on his
turn damages the genotype.
The commission of the DFG created a new classification of cancerogenic substances, including
alcohol in the ” class of substances whose activity is so small that below a maximum concentra-
tion on working place (Maximale Arbeitsplatzkonzentration ) ( MAK ) there is no significant
risk of cancer expected.” This classification includes however also formaldehyde, styrol, lindan
and hexachlorbenzol at a concentration below MAK.
The former rule that any cancerogenic substance should be avoided because even a single
molecule is able to start cancer is now discarded.
Toxicologists on their turn argue that alcohol is a part of the normal metabolism.
They say: ”Resulting cancerogenic activity of normal metabolism is unavoidable. A small
increase of the normal level of alcohol due to a limited amount of external origin does not
significantly increase the cancer risk.” Heavy drinking does significantly increase the risk.
Alcohol as addictive drug Le Monde presented at the 17.of June 1998 the report of the
professor of pharmacy Bernard Roques concerning the risk of addictive drugs[90].
Bernard Roques had been appointed by Kouchner (state minister for health of the Ministry
for Work and Solidarity of France ) to name a commission to screen the international scientific
literature related to addictive drugs.
Bernhard Rouques is head of a section of of the National Institute for Health and Medical
Research (Inserm).
The report was made under his direction.
It is based mainly on medical molecularbiological knowledge. It does not consider historical,
psychological and cultural aspects of the consumption of addictive drugs.
Some drugs are still not sufficiently known, such as ecstasy which is feared to produce heavy
damage of the nervous system.
Should this fear proof to be true, ecstasy must be inserted in the first group of the very hard
addictive drugs.
Having some weak points, however, the Roques - Report is in his basic message correct and
represents the trend towards the classification of alcohol as addictive drug.
Health risks of different addictive drugs, according Rouques - Report
Table 4.1: First category of dangerous substances according the Rouques - Report
Harm Heroin(opiate) Alcohol Cocain
Physical addiction very strong very strong weak
Psychic addiction very strong very strong strong,changing

Neurotoxic weak strong strong
General toxicity strong strong strong
Social danger very strong strong very strong
Treatment chances yes yes yes
Table 4.2: Second category of dangerous substances according the Rouques - Report
Harm Ecstasy psychostimulants benzodiazepine tobacco
Physical addiction very weak weak middle weak
Psychic addiction no informations middle strong very strong
Neurotoxic very strong strong 0 0
General toxicity very strong strong very weak very strong***
Social danger weak weak weak 0
Treatment chances no no no research yes
***Cancer
Table 4.3: Third category of dangerous substances according the Rouques - Report
Harm Cannabinoides
Physical addiction weak
Psychic addiction weak
Neurotoxic 0
General toxicity very weak
Social danger weak
Treatment chances no research
The use and abuse of alcohol in pharmacy Alcohol is used in many medicaments mainly
as solvent and preservative of herb extracts, tinctures, antitussives, tonics, sedatives and many
other traditional pharmaceutical preparations and last but not least it is used to improve
the taste of certain medicaments. The above mentioned publications are a great challenge to
pharmacy to reduce the use or ban alcohol in their preparations because of following reasons:
1. Alcohol, even in small doses is carcinogenic Alcohol was classified as carcinogenic sub-
stance by a German commission of scientists of DFG classifying ingredients of working
materials.
2. Alcohol is an addictive drug of first category The Rouque - Report has classified the
dangerousness of alcohol as strong.
3. Alcohol should not be taken together with certain medicaments. Alcohol is listed in
the incompatibility list of medicaments such as antibiotics, neuroleptics and many other.
88
Patients under antibiotics have to avoid tonics or other additional medicaments because
of their content of alcohol.
Dioxin in milk [120] The great demand of orange juice has cause intensive farming of orange
trees in Brazil. Derivates of this farming are orange oil and the peel which is dried as pellets
used as cattle fodder in Germany.
These Brazilian orange peel pelletsmainly exported by ”Coimbra Frutesp” company together
with calcium of combustion exhaust washer was responsible to an increase of dioxin levels
in milk, butter, cream and meat in Germany. The average level of dioxin in milk was 0,5
Picogramm in one gram fat. In August 1998 this level was three times as high as four month
ago. In Süd Baden (Germany) milk with 4,83 Picogramm had to be destroyed as special
garbage.
The orange peel pellets from Brazil used as fodder had 147 picogram dioxin per gram.
According to Abecitrus this contamination comes from the use of perchloretylene containing
mineral oil used to dry the pellets. Chalk used to wash combustion gases from smokestacks
had also been added to the bovine fodder. The real origin of the dioxin in the citrus pellets
therefore could not be found.
Dioxin in feed
In the beginning of 2006 pig, poultry and rabbit farms in Europe were supplied with dioxin
contaminated feed.
The Netherlands and Belgium announced that some of the meat from contaminated farms
was sold in shops over the last two months, but no serious risk to public health was expected.
Tessenderlo, a feed ingredients company was the source of the contamination, blaming an
inadequate PCB test which was not suited for testing dioxins as the cause had of the error.
The first alert came from pig fat originating from Belgium with 25 times the maximum per-
mitted concentration in pork fat.
Two defective filters at Tessenderlo Chemicals caused an error in the treatment of hydrochloric
acid which was then used by PB Gelatin to extract pig fat from the process of making gelatin
at PB Gelatins, a unit of Tessenderlo, a Belgian chemical company. The extracted fat was later
distributed to animal feed producers such as Leroy and Algoet, it said. The level of toxicity
equivalent, or TEQ, in the contaminated fat was 400 picograms per one gram of fat. The
maximum acceptable level is 2 picograms.
Dioxin contaminated feed was then distributed to pork farms in Belgium, Germany and The
Netherlands.The dioxin was no longer present in subsequent batches of extracted fat at PB
Gelatins [132]
Recent meat pollution:
• 1999 dioxins in pigs and chicken
• 2002 illegal hormone given to pigs in the Netherlands.
• 2004 dioxin in pork due to dioxin contaminated Dutch potato feed.
Maximum levels of sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs

The European Commission has adopted in 03.02.2006 new implementing legislation setting
maximum levels for the sum of dioxins and dioxin-like Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in
food and feed.
Maximum levels for dioxins in food of animal origin and all animal feed have been applica-
ble since July 2002. However, due to lack of sufficient data and scientific information at the
time, no levels were set for dioxin-like PCBs. Since 2002, new data on dioxin-like PCBs has
become available, and the legislation adopted today lays down mandatory limits for the com-
bined level of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs.
From November 2006, any food or feed in which the sum of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs
exceeds these maximum levels will not be allowed to be marketed in the EU. [121]
Food poisoning Food may contain toxins originated by a biological activity such as myco-
toxins, pollutants resulting from pollution of the environment such as dioxins and poisons re-
sulting from human activities such as antibiotics, hormones, antihelmintica and other pesticides
(lindane, carbendazim and chlopyrifos) resulting from animal breeding, mercury in fish from
industrial sewage,PAC (polycyclic aromatic carbon) resulting from smoke used in food,dioxin
(Polychlorated dibenzodioxin PCDD) , dibenzofuran (PCDF), Heavy metals such as arsenic,
lead, cadmium, Japan had two great food poisoning:
1954 - contaminated fish with cadmium causing the ”Itai-Itai disease. 1968 - contaminated fish
with mercury in Minamata, resulting from industrial sewage. Mercury is found in mediteranean
fish, such as tuna in concentrations up to 1 mg/Kg. Fish is the most important poison source
for mercury.
Changing ecology and toxic foods

The Minamata disease in Japan: The disease was first known in Japan where 1,500 citizens
of the small village Kumamoto on the shore of the Minamata bay contracted symptoms in the
1950s after an industrial release of mercury in the waters of the Minamata Bay. The Japanese
victims had eaten the mercury contaminated fish.
90
The disease in Tapajós region: Minamata disease has been found in the fishing communi-
ties of the Tapajós River in Brazil’s Amazon basin. It causes serious damage to the nervous
system, resulting in uncontrollable shaking and muscle wasting. It also produces deformities in
the children of offsprings.
Origin of mercury in the Amazon region:

A research team analysing the problem includes specialists in cytogenetics, ethnobotany, bio-
geochemistry, sociology, the environment, and forestry from the Amazonian Federal University
of Pará(UFPa) in Belém, the UFPa outreach campus in Santarém, the Federal University of
Rio de Janeiro, UQAM, and the Grupo do Defencia do Amazona in Santarém. Their work is
supported by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC).
Gold mining: Gold-mining activity was blamed to be responsible for the presence of mer-
cury in the Tapajós. Independent miners mixe elemental mercury with river sediments and
soil in order to extract the gold. It has been calculated that only 68 tonnes mercury/year
due to poorly conducted amalgamation practice by volatilisation during amalgam distillation
are liberated in the environment and is left there in the metal form. This is a small amount
compared with the size of the problem.
The Minamata cases involve soluble methyl mercury, and the sufferers live hundreds of kilome-
ters from the nearest mine.
The ecology Slash and burn: In addition, ”slash and burn” agricultural practices, leading
to large-scale deforestation and erosion of soil heavily laden with natural mercury, are a major
source of mercury pollution. The mercury content in wood is about 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. Slash an
burn liberates this mercury.
Heavy agricultural activities such as cattle pastures, soybean, maize and cotton plantations
will promote further erosion of soil which will increase mercury in the rivers of the Amazon
region.
Fish from reservoirs in Northern Manitoba showed high Hg levels. Forest fires may be ex-
pected to mobilise Hg contained in biomass and redistribute it into the atmosphere either as
vapor or attached to particulates.
Wild forest fires and wood combustion: Wild forest fires are estimated to release 20
tonnes of Hg to the atmosphere, which is less than 1% of natural emissions. Intentional wood
combustion represents 60 to 300 tonnes of Hg about 5% of all man-made emission.
Deforestation: The deforestation by fires in the Amazon liberate about 75 tonnes of mercury
in the atmosphere every year. The land is generally used for pasture and reburned in a cycle
between 2 to 7 years.
Cerrado vegetation, which is mainly grass and bush, covers wide area of Brazil takes up mer-
cury from soil and deposition by rain. Only 10% of the biomass burnt is from the deforestation
and 90% is from cerrado burning.
Emission from vegetation: The formation of methylmercury called methylation, in the

Amazon region differs from temperate regions due to specific sediments, floating macrophyte
mats and flooded soils, together with the unique aquatic and semi-aquatic systems of the Ama-
zon and the high mercury content of organic soils. This favorises the methylation of mercury
in the region.
Mercury is present as an environmental contaminant in foods, notably in fish and seafood

in the form of methylmercury. Vulnerably groups in particular select fish from a wide rage of
species without consuming too much large predatory fish that tend to contain higher levels of
methylmercury, such as swordfish and tuna.
The provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of methylmercury established by FAO/WHO

and Food Additives (JECFA) is 1.6 microg/kg body weight. The US National Researche Coun-
cil has set a maximum of 0.7 µg/kg body weight per week.
Fish as local food: Predator fish contain the highest mercury levels because it has an upper
place in the food chain. Eating herbivorous fish and choosing low mercury species the intake
of this metal can decrease. The local population, however, eat what they can get and this is
most often the predator fish.
Flooded soil Bacteria living in oxygen-starved conditions in river sediments are believed
to convert inorganic mercury into the dangerous methylated form. Flooded soils and semi
aquatic sediments had higher Hg-methylation potentials than river sediments. The high net
Hg-methylation potentials found in newly flooded soils are interesting, because vast areas of
the Amazon are flooded in annual cycles.
As we know how dreadful the poisoning with mercury in the bay of Minamata (Japan) was
all efforts should be made to avoid a total poisoning of the Amazon region. Gold mining us-
ing elementary mercury, deforestation and agriculture causing leaching of mercury should be
prohibited.
92
PCB in fish from the North Sea According to the Belgian Ministry of Health in June
2000 the amount of PCB ( polychlorinated biphenyl) in fish from the North Sea is in some cases
as high as 500 Nanogram in one gram fat.In 30% the upper limit for meat of 200 Nanogram
PCB in 1 g fat is surpassed.
The Belgian Health Ministry urges the European Commission to establish an upper limit for
PCB in fish.The limit used for meat does not apply for fish because of the low fat content of
fish compared to meat. The upper limit for PCB in fish is therefore expected to be set much
higher as 200 Nanogramm /g fat.
Poison of heated foods HAA, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines: They are cause by
heating protein rich foods.They are carcinogenic.
PAK Polycyclic Aromatic Carbon and PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrogen:Thy are
formed when fat drips from grill foods and are brought back with smoke and flames contami-
nating the foods which are done.They are carcinogenic.
To avoid heterocyclic and polycyclic aromatic toxic compounds one should take care not to
overheat foods, discard burned parts and refuse smoked food.such as smoked ham.
Hydrocyanic acid Hydrocyanic acid HCN is a strong poison which is present in certain
foods, cigarette smoke and exhaust gases from cars.
Hydrocyanic acid in food is present as hydrocyanic glycoside, nitrilosid or cyanoside. These
compound can liberate hydrocyanic acid.
Acute intoxication can be cause by intake of great amount of bitter almonds and some kernels
of apricots, cherry, peaches, poppy seed, lima beans and millet. A chronic intoxication can be
caused by manioc.
Definitions
Chemical contaminants
: ”Contaminant ” means any substance not intentionally added to food which is present in
food as a result of the production (including operations carried out in crop husbandry and
veterinary medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation,treatment, packaging, transport or
holding of such food, or as a result of environmental contamination. Extraneous matter, such
as, for example, insect fragments, animal hair etc are not covered by this definition (Codex).
Pesticides: Pesticides are substances which are used to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate
any pest. This includes herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fumigants and algaecides.
Other contaminants of food:
• Chemicals of environment
• Chemicals of industrial origin

• Chemicals of warfare such as Agent Orange
They are found in food, water and environment.

Regulations for pesticides: Important regulations in EU are the Directive 90/642/EC set-
ting Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) for pesticides on raw agricultural products.
According to Directive 97/41/EC Maximum Residue Levels on processed products should be
derived of the MRLs for the raw materials.
Important herbicides:Herbicides are the most widely used pesticides in agriculture.
Table 4.4: Important Herbicides

Herbicide Use as growth control Possible harm
Atrazine: Weed in crops of corn, Possible carcinogen.

member of soybeans and sorghum. Harm aquatic microorganism.
steriazine group Inhibit photosynthesis Slight tendency to
bioaccumulate
Metachlor: Grasses and weeds in crops Possible carcinogen.

member of beans,corn, cotton, Moderate toxic to fish.
chloracetamides peanuts, peas, potatoes, It does not bioaccumulate.
safflower, sorghum, soybeans
sunflowers.
Perturbe protein synthesis
Alachlor: Grasses and many broadleaf Restrict use because of

member of weeds in crops of beans, corn, groundwater contamination
chloracetamides cotton, milo, peanuts, peas Toxic to saltwater fish and water
soybeans and sunflower. plants.
Perturbe protein synthesis.
2,4-D Agrotect: Stimulates plant growth Toxic to fishes and aquatic

member of the hormones (auxin), causing invertebrates. Because these
Chlorophenoxy uncontrolled cell proliferation compounds contain chlorine,
acetic acid Because these compounds they may change to dioxin.
herbicides contain chlorine, they pose
a risk for dioxin formation
94
Trifluralin Grasses and broadleaf weeds in Harmful to fish and aquatic life.
Member of the a variety of tree fruit, nuts Practically non-toxic to man.
Dinitroaniline vegetables and grain crops such The enzymatic process that is
herbicides as soybeans, alfalfa and cotton. disrupted in plants is different
Nitrosamine in some technical enough from that of humans and
products. animals that the later experience
no effects from the chemicals.
Glyphosphate: Inhibits synthesis of essential Glyphosate is probably not a

Member of the aminoacids and promotes carcinogen, group E. Possibility
Organophosphate destruction of photosynthetic for toxicity when glyphosate is
herbicides(non- pigments in foliage applied to aquatic environments.
nitrogen based
herbicides a) Isopropylamine salt, control According to Myriam
of weeds in broadleaf and Fernandez of the Semiarid
grasses. Prairie Agricultural Researche
Centre in Swift Current
b) Sodium salt, growth regulator Saskatchewan, glyphosate-
for peanuts and sugar cane. treated wheat appeared to have
higher levels of Fusarium head
c) Monoammonium salt, control blight (a toxic fungal disease)
of weeds in tea plantation, that wheat fields where on
orchards, rubber, plantation glyphosate had been applied.
corn, sugarcane and forests.
Dicamba: Broadleaf weeds, Chickweed, Dicamba is not carcinogenic

Member of the mayweed and bindweed in
benzoic acid and cereals and other related crops
and analogue
herbicides
Cyanazine and Grasses and broadleaf weeds in Cyanazine: Cancer-causing

simazine: cereals, cotton, maize, onions potential in experimental
Members of the peanuts, peas, potatoes, animals and possible risks to
s-triazine soybeans, sugar cane and wheat humans. The rat strain used was
herbicides fallow predisposed to develop the
mammary tumours observed.
Practically nontoxic.
2,4,5-T Stimulate plant growth May lead to teratogenic effects

Member of the hormones (auxin), causing in mammals.
chlorinated uncontrolled cell proliferation
phenoxyalkanoic Because these compounds
aciherbicideses contain chlorine, they pose a
acid herbicides risk for dioxin formation
Table 4.5: Important Insecticides

Insecticide Insecticide Breakdown Remarks
groups
Organophosphates Malathion Easy No residues in crops, not stored

Ethyl- in animal tissue.
parathion
Diazinon These pesticides affect the
nervous system by disrupting the
enzyme that regulates
acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter.
Most organophosphates are
insecticides. They were
developed during the early 19th
century, but their effects on
insects, which are similar to their
effects on humans, were
discovered in 1932. Some are
very poisonous (they were used
in World War II as nerve agents).
However, they usually are not
persistentin the environment.
Organosulfurs Tetradifon
Carbamates Carbaryl Degradade They are a danger to many useful

rapidly in the insects, especially honeybees.
environment They affect the nervous system
96
by disrupting an enzyme that

regulates acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter. The enzyme
effects are usually reversible.
There are several subgroups
within the carbamates
Formamidines Amitzaz
Dinitrophenols 2,4
Dinitrophenol
Organotins Cyhexatin
Pyrethroids Permethrin Pyrethroid Pesticides were

developed as a synthetic version
of the naturally occurring
pesticide pyrethrin, which is
found in chrysanthemums. They
have been modified to increase
their stability in the environment.
Some synthetic pyrethroids are
toxic to the nervous system
Nicotinoids Imidacloprid
(Gaucho)
Acetaprimid
Fiproles Fipronil
Pyrroles Chlorofenapyr
Pyrazoles Tebufenpyrad
Pyridazinones Pyridaben No residues in crops, not stored

in animal tissue
Chlorinated Persistence - Accumulate in the fat tissue. Harms

hydrocarbons its resistance fishes, earthworms, and robins.
(DDT) or organo to breakdown They were commonly used in the
chlorines(Such as in the past, but many have been
DDT, HCC, environment removed from the market due to
Dieldrin, is enormous their health and environmental
Toxophene effects and their persistence (e.g.
DDT and chlordane
Table 4.6: Natural Insecticides
Botanicals (Plant Insecticide Extracted from

extracts)
Pyrethrum Pyrethrum Flowers of a

Chrisanthenum. Kenia and
Ecuador
Nicotine Nicotine Tobacco
Rotenone Rotenone Legumes
Limonene Limonene Citrus peel
Table 4.7: Fumigants
Fumigants Insecticide Remarks
(They become gas above Methylbromide The most frequent used

40C and contain the fumigants
halogens Cl, Br or F
Ethylene dichloride Ethylene dichloride
Phosphine gas (PH3 ) Phosphine gas (PH3 )

Insect repellents: Before a more edified approach to insect olfaction and behaviour was
developed, it was assumed that if a substance was repugnant to humans it would likewise be
repellent to insects.
98
Table 4.8: Insect Repellents
Repellent Registration Agent Remarks
Benzyl benzoate Registration lost

Indalone Registration lost
Rutgers 612 Registration lost
Dibutyl phtalate Registration lost
MGK repellent 326 Registration lost Dipropyl It is used to expand

Potential cancer isocinchomeronate the repellency of
risk.New analysis DEET, MGK 264,
of risk pyrethroids, and
other active ingredients.
N-butyl acetanilide Registration lost Repellent for

military clothes
Dimelone Registration lost Dimethylcarbamate
DEET, Delphene(r) Still registrated N,N-Dimethyl-meta- DEET is used

toluamide worldwide for
biting flies and
mosquitos.No harm
if used as labelled.
Bananas and chemicals: United Fruit Company used pesticides like Counter and Mocap
(Nematicide-Insecticide). They are being sprayed by crop planes. Honduras and Costa Rica
are strongly affected by the way United Fruit handles pesticide programs and social affairs.
Chemicals used in Water treatment Algaecides: Chelated Complex Copper Algaecide

in 9 percent formulation for very effective control of a broad range of planktonic, filamentous
and macro algae. Copper sulfate is also used as bactericide.
Other aquatic herbicides Fluridone: It is a systemic herbicide that kills the entire plant
and is generally nonselective since most submersed plants will be killed or affected by a whole
lake treatment. It inhibits the formation of carotene, chlorophyll without the protection of
carotene is then degraded by sunlight.
The contact time between the plant and Fluridone must be maintained for many weeks, other-
wise the plant can regenerate.
There are no swimming, fishing or drinking water restrictions for the application of Fluri-
done. It is moderately persistent in water of ponds and lakes. Average half-life in pond water
is 21 days and 90 days in sediments, being degraded by sunlight and bacteria. Residues may
persist longer depending on the amount of sunlight and the water temperature. Fluridone is
not considered to be a carcinogen or mutagen and is not associated with reproductive or de-
velopmental effects in test animals.
Treated water should not be used for irrigation for thirty days because some terrestrial plants
may be damaged, even by low concentrations of Fluridone.
Glyphosate for aquatic use: It is the same active ingredient of Roundup. It has been
formulated for safe aquatic use. It is very effective for emerged aquatic weed control and shore-
line vegetation.
Granular 2,4-D and liquid 2,4-D Amine: It is effective for control of many submerged,
emerged and floating aquatic weeds. 2,4-D kills the entire plant, what is called to be a systemic
herbicideindexHerbicide, systemic, acting as stimulant of plant stem elongation. It generally
targets the broad-leaved plants (dicots) such as milfoil. Most other aquatic plants are monocots
(grass-like) which are not affected by 2,4-D.
Cutrine: It is a chelated copper which stays in solution to continue controlling a broad range
of algae long after application. There are no water use restrictions after application. Cutrine
is used to control planktonic and filamentous algae, Phythophora, diatoms Chara, Nitella and
Hydrilla verticillata. It was used in trout raceways and irrigation canals and is the favourite
algaecide for fish farms.It is also being used to reduce secondary bacterial or fungal infections
by reducing the phytoplanctonic irritants exposing the gill surface of the fish.
Diquat dibromide: It is a quarternary ammonium herbicide for watermilfoil, Parrot Feather

(Myriophyllum), Hydrilla, Water Hyacinth, Water Lettuce, Giant Salvinia and Brazilian Elodea.
Diquat is often used to dessicate potato vines to make harvesting of underground tubers easier.
It also promotes peridem formation in the tubers. Diquat should not be applied to potatoes if
the soil is very dry, because under such conditions, the water may move from the shoots to the
tubers via xylem instead of the normal opposite direction. Tubers, close to the surface become
green, treated with Diquat, they may be damaged.
Diquat is nonselective, any plant can be damaged when light and chlorophyl is present.
100
Inorganic Insecticides
Sulfur: Sulfur is the oldest known, effective insecticide. Sulfur and sulfur candles were burned
in the past for every purpose. Sulfur is used in integrated pest management programs targeting
specific pests.
Sulfur dusts are especially toxic to mites of every variety, such as chiggers and spider mites,
and to thrips and newly-hatched scale insects. Sulfur dusts are also used as fungicides, such as
powdery mildews.
Mercury: Very toxic.
Boron: Boric acid is being used against cockroaches and other crawling household insects.
Sodium borate: It is being used to treat lumber and other wood products to control de-
cay by fungi, termites and other wood infesting pests.
Thalium:
Arsenics: Copper arsenate, Paris green, lead arsenate and calcium arsenate. The arseni-
cals uncouple oxidative phosphorylation, inhibit certain enzymes that contain sulfidryl (-SH)
groups and coagulate protein by causing the shape or configuration of proteins to change.
Antimony
Fluoride: Sodium fluoride, barium fluosilicate, sodium silicofluoride and cryolite are used
as insecticides. Cryolite is a relative safe fruit and vegetable insecticide used in integrated pest
management programs.
Silica gels or silica aerogels: Silica dusts are light, white, fluffy and are used in combi-
nation with pyrethrum in household insect control.
Miscellaneous compounds
Pyriproxyfen: It is a pyridine.
Buprofezin: It is a thiadiazine. Both are used to control the whitfly complex, a universal
problem in cotton farming.
Clofentezine: It is a member of the group of the tetrazines, used as an acaricide/ovocide

for fruits, citrus, cotton, cucurbits, vines and ornamentals,inhibiting mite growth.
Enzone(r) sodium tetrathiocarbonate: It is used only on grapes and citrus applied as

a water application and irrigated into the soil. It breaks down in the soil to form carbon disul-
fide, which acts rapidly, decomposes quickly being active against nematodes, soil insects and
soil borne diseases.
Clandosan(r): It is dried, powdered, chitin protein isolated from crustacean exoskeletons

and blended with urea. It stimulates growth of beneficial soil microorganisms that control
nematodes, but does not have a direct adverse effect on nematodes as such.
Other contaminants
The Regulation 466/2001/EC sets maximum for other contaminants in foodstuffs. Relevant for
palmoil is the maximum level of lead in fats and oils for human consumption of 0,1 mg/KG.
The regulation 2375/2001/EC sets maximum levels for dioxinsin fats and oils meant for hu-
man consumption. In this regulation the limit for dioxin is set at 0,75 pg/g for all vegetable oils.
Copper: Various copper salts, including basic copper sulfate, coppersulfatechloride, -carbonate,
-hydroxide and -oxychloride are able to cause serious intoxication
Ingestion of food, water and beverages,contaminated with copper have been related. Soft drinks
like orange juice dispensed in contact with chromium plated copper tubes have caused intoxica-
tion. The acid of juices can cause migration of copper from the tube as soon as the chromium
surface is corroded, leaving free the copper to react.
Lead: Lead is found in the ice of Greenland dated back to the Romans and the Greeks 2000
years ago. Layers or permafrost ice are a kind of deposition of almost every environmental
contaminant.
In order to reduce the consumption of lead contaminated food, it is useful to avoid the use
of glazed pottery and pewter dishes to serve or store food, to avoid the storage of beverages in
leaded decanters, to keep the home clean and as dust free as possible, to eat a variety of foods
and to eat foods rich in calcium, iron and vitamin C so the body will absorb less lead from
specific food sources that have been exposed to lead
Lead absorption is increased with iron and calcium deficiency and nutritional deficiency.
Old paint is the most important source of contamination of the environment.
Lead water pipes are even more dangerous when they transport hot water.
Tin-coated lead foil capsules on wine bottles were banned in 1996. According to a study of
the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms 3 to 4 percent of wines were being contaminated
during pouring from lead residues deposited on the mouth of the bottle by the foil capsule.
Lead-soldered food cans were banned in 1996. Some countries still use lead-soldered cans for
food and are still sold in ethnic grocery stores.
102
Lead was banned from house paint in 1978, and phaseout of lead in gasoline was completed in
1995.
Lead in drinking water should not exceed 5 ppb. This is the detection limit of general available
methods for water analysis.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

IPM represents an alternative to chemical poisoning of nature promoting minimised pesticide
use, enhanced environmental stewardship and sustainable systems.
A public-private partnership resulted in The National Integrated Pest Management Network

(NIPMN). It provides the latest informations on IPM on the World Wide Web.
IPM research develops alternatives to pesticides, using integrated management tactics such as:
• Attractants
• Biopesticides
• Transgenic plants
• Cultural practices(such as altered row spacings that reduce weed populations, alternative
rotation patterns and physical barriers such as mulches)
• Host resistance
• Pheromone mating disruptors
• Host plant resistance (Enhanced host plant resistance either by traditional breeding meth-
ods or genetic engineering techniques.)
• Pesticide resistance management (Greater knowledge of natural and artificial selection
increasing pest resistance to pesticides to design IPM systems to avoid the development
of such resistance)
• Application technology (Application of minimum amount of pesticides necessary to con-
trol the pest and reducing adverse impacts on non-target organism.)
• Forecasting movement and dispersal (Forecast of aerial movement of pests and their
natural enemies)
• Decision support systems (Systems assisting growers in pest management decisions and
educational programs.)
Table 4.9: Volatile chemicals with environmental impact
Chemicals hazard
Benzene Freshwater, life, salt water

Carbon Tetrachloride Aquatic life, cancer risk
Chlorobenene Aquatic life, cancer risk
Toluene Aquatic life, cancer risk
Vinyl chloride Packaging
Table 4.10: Non-volatile chemicals with environmental impact
Chemicals hazard
Pentachlorphenol Aquatic life, Human consumptin

Acrylamide Human consumption
Polychlorinated Aquatic life, human consumption, cancer risk

Biphenyls
2,3,7,8-TCD Aquatic life, human consumption, cancer risk

(dioxin)
Herbicides in rainfall
Agricultural practices in the United States require extensive use of herbicides for producing
three principal row crops-corn, soybeans, and grain sorghum.
Approximately 140 of the 218 million kilograms of herbicides used at the beginning of the
90th were mainly atrazine and Alachlor applied in the upper Mississippi River drainage basin,
the Corn Belt of USA which is parts of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Minnesota, and Nebraska.
They came into the atmosphere by volatilisation and entrainment on dust particles. Winds
transported them to the region of the Great Lakes. The rainfall in this region contained
atrazine and Alachlor as most frequent herbicide.
The degradation of atrazine in water is about only 1 % per year.Therefore this herbicide accu-
mulates in the lakes.
104
Biopesticides
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from natural materials
Classes of biopesticides:
Microbial pesticides: They consist of a microorganism, such as bacteria, fungus, virus or
protozoans as the active ingredient. Important microbial pesticides are strains of Bacillus
thuringiensis which produce mixtures of proteins killing specificly one or a few related species
of insect larvae. While some Bt’s control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt’s are specific
for larvae of flies and mosquitoes. The target insect species are determined by whether the
particular Bt produces a protein that can bind to a larval gut receptor, thereby causing the
insect larvae to starve.
Plant-Incorporated-Protectans (PIPs): They are pesticidal substances that plants pro-

duce from genetic material that has been added to the plant, such as genes from Bacillus
thuringiensis. Those who deny genetic engineering do not use plant-integrated-protectans.
Biochemical pesticides: Biochemical pesticides are substances, such as insect sex pheromones,
that interfere with mating, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to
traps by non-toxic mechanisms. Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic
materials that directly kill or inactivate the pest.
Conventional pesticides
Atrazine: It is the most widely used pesticide, controlling broadleaf and grassy weeds. It was
registered in December 1958. Its estimated production is 76 to 85 million pounds annually.
It is used in the culture of corn, sugarcane, residential lawns, sorghum, guava, hay, macadamia
nuts, pasture, winter wheat and on non-agricultural sites.
Atrazine is not likely to be carcinogenic to humans, however, it has been associated with
imbalances in hormone levels in laboratory animals, possibly disrupting reproductive and de-
velopmental processes.
Azinphos-methyl: It is an organophosphate insecticide used on fruits and vegetables. It

is a risk to children ages of one to six years and agricultural workers. It can over stimulate
the nervous system causing nausea, dizziness, confusion, and at high exposures, respiratory
paralysis and death.
Desert Locust [127]

Yemen is facing its worst Desert Locust outbreak since 1993, FAO warned on 6 June 2007. An
intensive survey and aerial control campaign using helicopters needs to be mounted to avoid
massive locust infestations and serious damage to food crops.
If locust infestations are not controlled in time, agricultural crops in Wadi Hadhramaut and
other areas including the Sana’a highlands will be at risk.
Locusts are migratory grasshoppers that often travel in vast swarms. A Desert Locust lives
about three to five months. The life cycle comprises three stages: egg hopper and adult.
Eggs hatch in about two weeks, hoppers develop in five to six stages over a period of about
30-40 days, and adults can mature within three weeks. Swarms can travel from 5 to 130 kilo-
metres or more in a day with the wind.
A Desert Locust adult can consume roughly its own weight in fresh food per day about two
grams. A very small part of an average swarm eats the same amount of food in one day as
about 500 people.
Contaminants in food [122]

The European Commission noted on the 7. June 2007 what has been undertaken to reduce
contaminants in food. According to the definition adopted by the EU, contaminants are sub-
stances that have not been intentionally added to food. These substances may be present in
food as a result of the various stages of its production, packaging, transport or holding. They
also might result from environmental contamination. Some contaminants have already studied
by food safety authorities, such as mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fusarium-toxins, pat-
ulin), metals (cadmium, lead, mercury ,inorganic tin), dioxins and PCBs, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), 3-MCPD and nitrates Ongoing investigations are:
Acrylamide - The Commission will collect data concerning surveys of acrylamide made by
member states over three years between 2007 and 2009. [123]
Organotins - chemicals which can be found in water systems due to their presence in paints
as anti-biofouling agents e.g. used on the hulls of ships and marine apparatus. The European
Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has issued an opinion on the health risks to consumers associ-
ated with exposure to organotins in foodstuffs.
Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER) has recently adopted an
opinion on the risks to health and the environment associated with the use of 4 organotin com-
pounds. In this opinion food and non-food exposure routes were assessed. More informations
are available at the EFSA opinion, SCOOP Report. [124]
106
Furan - has been identified in a number of foodstuffs that undergo heat treatment such as
canned and jarred foodstuffs. A report on provisional findings on furan in food has been com-
piled by EFSA. [125]
EFSA is currently collecting more data on furan .e.g. on its mode of formation, levels in food
and toxicity. [126]
Ethyl carbamate - a compound that can naturally occur in fermented foods and beverages.
It often occurs in alcoholic beverages (in particular stone fruit brandies). Ethyl carbamate is
formed by ethanol and certain precursors in the fruit mash under the influence of light during
the distillation process. EFSA is currently collecting data on the presence of ethyl carbamate.
Control of locusts [128]

The Desert Locust is a difficult pest to control. Early warning and preventive control is the
strategy adopted by locust affected countries in Africa and Asia to try to stop locust plagues
from developing and spreading .FAOs Desert Locust Information Service (DLIS) in Rome, Italy
monitors the weather, ecological conditions and the locust situation on a daily basis. Results
and warnings are available on the FAOs Locust Watch web site. FAO also provides information.
An ecological method to control Desert Locust is with natural enemies. These include predatory
anand parasitic wasps and flies, predatory beetle larvae, birds and reptiles, but are not suffi-
cient to control great swarms Another old African method is by putting poisonous or aromatic
plants next to the crop they are trying to protect.
Organophosphate insecticides [128]

At present the primary method of controlling desert locust infestations is with organophosphate
insecticides applied in small concentrated doses by vehicle-mounted and aerial sprayers. The
insecticide must be applied directly to the insect.
Biological control of locusts Biopesticides include fungi, bacteria, neem extract and pheromones.
The effectiveness of many biopesticides equals that of conventional chemical pesticides. They
are usually harmless to other creatures and the environment.
Biological control of locusts [128]

A biological control product is Green Muscle. It is based on a naturally occurring ento-
mopathogenic fungus which is a fungus which infects fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var.
acridum This fungus infects many groups of insects. It is harmless to humans and other
mammals and birds. It is recommended for use mainly against hoppers, the wingless early
stages of locusts. it allows the natural enemies of locusts and grasshoppers to continue their
beneficial work.
Biopesticides are also safer to use in environmentally sensitive areas such as national parks
or near rivers and other water bodies.
Green Muscle was developed under the LUBILOSA project Pathogens have the advantage
that they can be produced in artificial culture in large quantities and be used with ordinary
spraying equipment. The fungal spores are sprayed in oil. Oil-based formulations allow the
application of fungal spores under dry conditions such as found in deserts.
Most insects living near the soil have evolved natural defenses against entomopathogenic fungi
like M. anisopliae. This fungus is therefore locked in an evolutionary battle to overcome these
defenses, which has led to a large number ofstrains that are adapted to certain groups of insects.
Some strains are so specific that they have attained variety status, like Metarhizium anisopliae
var. acridum, which almost exclusively infects grasshoppers. The use of Metarhizium anisopli-
aein the control of malaria mosquitos coating mosquito nets or cotton sheets attached to the
wall with them.is under investigation. [129]
Antimicrobial agents
Antimicrobial agents are substances used to destroy or suppress the growth of harmful microor-
ganisms whether bacteria, viruses, or fungi on inanimate objects and surfaces. More than 8000
antimicrobial products, containing about 300 different active ingredients, are sold as sprays,
liquids, concentrated powders, and gases, ending in the environment.
Types of Antimicrobial Products Non-public health products: are used to control

growth of algae, odour causing bacteria, bacteria which cause spoilage, deterioration or fouling
of materials and microorganisms infectious only to animals. They are used in cooling towers, jet
fuel, paints, and treatments for textile and paper products. Public health products: They
are intended to control microorganisms infectious to humans in any inanimate environment.
The more commonly used public health antimicrobial products are:
Sterilisers (Sporicides): Used to destroy or eliminate all forms of microbial life including
fungi, viruses, bacteria and their spores.
The term Sporicide is to be considered synonymous with ”Steriliser”. Sterilisations used to con-
trol infection and is widely used in hospitals on medical and surgical instruments and equipment.
Types of sterilisers include steam under pressure (autoclaving), dry heat ovens,UV rays, low
temperature gas (ethylene oxide), and liquid chemical sterilants. Gaseous and dry heat sterilis-
ers are used primarily for sterilisation of medical instruments. Liquid sterilants are primarily
used for delicate instruments which cannot withstand high temperature and gases.
108
Disinfectants: Disinfectants are used to destroy or inactivate infectious fungi and bacte-
ria but not necessarily their spores. There are the type for hospital and the type for general
use
Hospital type disinfectants: They are the most critical to infection control and are used on
medical and dental instruments, floors, walls, bed linens, toilet seats, and other surfaces.
General disinfectants: They are the major source of products used in households, swim-
ming pools, and water purifiers.
Sanitizers:
Sanitizers reduce, but not necessarily eliminate, microorganisms from the inanimate environ-
ment to levels considered safe. Sanitizers include food contact and non-food contact products.
The food contact sanitizers are used to rinse surfaces and cooking utensils, as well as equipment
of food-processing plants, and eating and drinking establishments. Non-food contact sur-
face sanitizers include carpet sanitizers, air sanitizers, laundry additives, and in-tank toilet
bowl sanitizers.
Pesticides
Chromated Copper Arsenate: This denomination is used for mixtures consisting of three
pesticidal compounds (arsenic, chromium, and copper) which are registered for wood preserva-
tive uses.
The majority of the wood used outdoors is pressure-treated with this wood preservative to
protect it from rot and decay. Heavy contamination of the soil of playgrounds with arsenic (up
to 177 ppm) coming from wood treatment with chromated copper arsenate.The standard of
risk for residential cleanup is 7.6 parts per million according to the Michigan’s Department of
Environmental Quality.
Arsenic is a known human carcinogen. A substitution for chromated copper arsenate should
be developed. Sealants which stop the arsenic from coming out of the wood are not a good
alternative, because arsenic remains in the environment.
Agent Orange
Approximately 20 million gallons of the herbicide Agent Orange was used in Vietnam from 1962
to 1971 to defoliate trees under which the enemy was hiding or some killed crops to deprive
Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops of food. It was a mixture of:
2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), contaminated with dioxin,

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D),
cacodylic acid and picloram.
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were developed during World War II for destruction of the enemies crop
but came not in use. With the beginning of its production in 1940 it was used in large scale by
farmers, foresters and homeowners to control weed and brush. A byproduct of the industrial
production of 2,4,5-T was a dioxin which was the toxic cancer causing component of the Agent
Orange.
Effects of Agent Orange on mangrove Trees: Besides the cancer causing effect of Agent
Orange the herbicide killer about 36% of the mangrove trees in the Southern part of South
Vietnam were killed because of their high sensitivity to it. The mangrove trees will not return
without extensive reseeding.
Persons exposed to herbicides similar to Agent Orange or some of its components have a
high risk of Chronic LymphocyticLeukaemiaa,Diabetes, Hodgkins disease, multiple myeloma,
prostate cancer, lung cancer. Highest use was in the period 1962-1971 for agricultural purposes,
on lawns and turf, along rights-of-way, on private forests, to kill aquatic plants, and for other
purposes. Almost everyone all over the world was in contact with this poison, a careless lack
of knowledge.
Other herbicides were sprayed in Vietnam varying according the season, different vegetation
and environment.
Other chemicals used for military activity: During 2000, the US Congress planned to use
the fungus Fusarium as a biological control agent to kill coca crops in Colombia and another
fungus to kill opium poppies in Afghanistan. These plans were dropped because the rest of the
world could see it as unilateral biological war.
Sanho Tree is the director of the Drug Policy Project at the Institute for Policy Studies, Wash-
ington,DC says the US has supplied tens of thousands of gallons Roundup to the Colombian
government for use in aerial fumigation of coca crops by crop dusters to dump glyphosate over
hundreds of thousands of acres in one of the most delicate and bio-diverse ecosystems in the
world.
Late sequelae of agent orange defoliant herbicide in Vietnam made by Monsanto

and Dow [130]
110
The Vietnamese Association of Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA) will launch their ap-
peal at a federal court opening on 18 June 2007 in New York against 37 US companies that
produced Agent Orange, a poisonous defoliant that the US army showered forests and rice
paddies with during its war against Vietnam.
VAVA presented a claim against 37 companies who produced Agent Orange, among them
being Dow Chemical and Monsanto, in January 2004. The claim specifies that the production
of dioxin and other toxic substances used as weapons by US military forces against Vietnam
has a direct link with extreme health problems and deformities of three millions of people in
this country.
In 2005, VAVA’s initial case was rejected as the court determined there were no legal grounds
for the trial.
The US has compensated its own army veterans who have developed certain cancers since
serving in Vietnam, but little has been done for the Vietnamese. In 1999, 20,000 South Kore-
ans filed a lawsuit in Korea and in January 2006, the Korean Appeals Court ordered Monsanto
and Dow to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 Koreans.
Hai Bluhm a Vietnamese person seeking asylum in Potsdam, Germany is heavily signed by
agent orange. He is one of the witnesses which will be heard by the court. The appeal is
launched against the chemical factories of the defoliant because the constitution of the united
States of America does not allow in this case action lawsuit to be been filed against the US
Government. [131]
Reduction of input of pesticides: The government of Ontario launched a pesticide re-

duction program in 1982 based on rotation of the fields between corn and soybeans. The use of
pesticides went down by 40 percent. At the same time the use of pesticides in USA increased
by 10 percent. More effort should be spent in order to reduce the use of pesticides developing
farming knowledge.
Pollutants in milk and dairy products

Pesticides in milk have their origin in animal feed. There is much being done in Europe regard-
ing safety of feed.
The fat soluble pesticides like polychlorated hydrocarbons can contaminate easily milk. Pes-
ticides such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and isomers of
hexachloro cyclohexane (HCH) are used in agriculture or are found on the fields.
Low concentration of pesticides in animal feed store in the body of animals and can be detected
in the milk in high level.
Polychlorated biphenyl(PCB): Chlorated hydrocarbon such as Polychlorated biphenyl (PCB)

were used in the past in transformers, refrigerators, in hydraulic oil and as all round chemicals.
Its level in milk has decreased after the use of PCB has been reduced. Other chlorated hy-
drocarbons such as polychlorated dibenzodioxine ( PCDD ) and polychlorated dibenzofurane (
PCDF ) are also present in the human milk and in the milk of cows, but not as high as Chlorine
hydrocarbons ( HCB, DDT and PCB ).
The identification of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans requires expensive equip-

ment. Many countries with low budge neglect the surveillance of these contaminants.
Use of DDT for indoor spraying

[1185]
In September 2006 WHO issued a clear statement outlining their position on indoor spraying
with long-lasting insecticides such as DDT, specifying where and how spraying will be imple-
mented in accordance with WHO guidelines, and how they will provide all possible support to
accelerate and manage this intervention effectively.
According to Dr Arata Kochi, Director of WHO’s Global Malaria Programme, one of the
best tools against malaria is indoor residual house spraying DDT.
Indoor residual spraying is the application of long-acting insecticides on the walls and roofs
of houses and domestic animal shelters in order to kill malaria-carrying mosquitoes that land
on these surfaces.
The Presidents Malaria Initiative (PMI) is a five-year initiative to control malaria in Africa.
Announced by President Bush on June 30, 2005, it is a collaborative U.S. Government effort
led by USAID
The PMI used initially pyrethroids, however, Anopheles funestus developed resistance to this
insecticide and the indoor residual spraying moved to DDT. Only Mozambique refused the use
of DDT and accepted the use of carbamates such as Bendiocarb and Propoxu. [1184]
Insecticide-treated mosquito nets

The use of bed nets has long been encouraged by WHO, the recent development of ”long-lasting
insecticidal nets” (LLINs) has dramatically improved their usefulness. Unlike their predeces-
sors, the long-lasting nets need not be re-dipped in buckets of insecticide every six months as
they remain effective for up to five years without retreatment.
112
Uganda and DDT [1185] The health minister of Uganda Jim Muhwezi has told the Par-
liamentary Committee on Social Services that government will soon start indoor spraying of
DDT. Uganda is proposing that DDT is only used indoors, and not outdoors. It will be sprayed
onto the inside walls of houses and is expected to dramatically reduce the number of mosquitoes
in residential accommodation. Consequently the incidence of malaria in Uganda should fall dra-
matically.
However outdoor spraying of DDT was halted in Europe and America in the 1960s after it was
discovered that it can accumulate in the food chain.
The one proviso should be that government puts in place strict safeguards to ensure that
no outdoor spraying of DDT takes place in Uganda. If this happened and was detected by the
European Union, exports of agricultural and horticultural products could be banned.
Chlorpyrifos
The indoor exposure of young children to the semivolatile pesticide chlorpyrifos is higher than
previous estimations. Gurunathan and colleagues found that the pesticide continues to accu-
mulate on children’s toys and hard surfaces 2 weeks after spraying. [1182] [1186]
According to a joint agreement between the U.S. EPA and the registrants of chlorpyrifos-
based products Chlorpyrifos and products based on in 1997, a number of indoor uses of the
pesticide, including broadcast spraying and direct uses on pets will be phased out. While crack
and crevice treatment of insects (such as cockroaches and termites) by chlorpyrifos will still
continue, it appears prudent to explore other insect control options, including the use of baits,
traps, and insect sterilants and growth regulators.
Mycotoxines (aflatoxins): Aflatoxins such as aflatoxin B1 may be present in ground peanuts

or cotton seeds come in through animal feed. The cows changes the aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin M1.
This is why animal feed should be protected against deterioration. Feed with mould should be
discarded.
Heavy metals: Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury are of small importance
because their concentration in milk is low due to their low solubility. All efforts should be
made to avoid contamination because milk is used to feed children and dairy products such
as cheese or yoghurt are consumed in large scale. Concentration in human fat depot takes place
Contagious diseases: Foods bearing pathogenic bacteria viruses or other agents of diseases
like BSE should be avoided through rigorous epidemiological measures.
Contaminated or spoiled food should not be fed to animals. Often spoiled food and cere-
als are given to the production of animal feed in order to get rid of them.
Radioactive pollution of milk: In Europe the nuclear accident of Tschernobyl had caused
a considerable increase of radioactivity in milk and milk products in 1986.
The amount of radioactive material which was liberated into the atmosphere was several times
the amount liberated by the Hiroshima bomb in 1945. Immediately after the accident due to
west bounded winds there were the following radionuclides found in West Europe: Iodine-131,
cesium-134 and cesium-137 and a small amount of Strontium-90.
Strontium-90 is still very high in Brazil nuts of the Amazon region originated from nuclear
bomb test in Nevada, in the forties. The radioactive pollution was carried through the Strato-
sphere and came down as fall-out in the rain forest.
These incidents show how carefully radioactivity should be handled. In milk the nuclides
are concentrated in the whey and remain there. That is why whey powder was highly contam-
inated causing headlines. The contamination with Strontium 90 in butter was low.
In whey powder due to the concentration, radioactivity can increase from 200 Bq/liter to 7.200
Bq/kg. In 1986 500 tons of whey powder were discarded in Germany having high radioactivity
resulting from the concentration of cesium. In cheese the remaining cesium amount is very low.
After some weeks only cesium -134 and cesium -137 were left.
Low levels of radioactivity are told to increase the efficiency of the DNA repair-system in-
creasing the activity of the immune system. This is not valid for nuclide in food because they
are deposited in bones and organs and with the time this material is being concentrated in the
body. Damage of cells is than possible.
Therefore radioactivity in food must be kept as low as possible.
Pollutants in milk and dairy products in Bavaria,(South of Germany): The pollutants in milk
and dairy products are being controlled over 25 years by the laboratory MUVA Kempten (Vet-
erinary medical analytical office of Kempten). This laboratory has monitored the organochlor-
pesticides, PCB, halogenated solvents and heavy metals.
The results of these analyses made it possible to find the cause of the contamnation and helped
to reduce it. At the moment most of the former pollutants of organochlor-pesticides have fallen
below detection level in milk from Bavaria. Only lindan is still increased.
This is an example of handling the environment problems making long term monitoring of
food with the cooperation of the laboratory, the agriculture and the industry.
114
One important concern of the laboratory is the contamination of food caused by migration
of packing components into the food, such as styrol from polystyrol, dioxines from cardboard,
plasticiser, heavy metals, nitrosamines from rubber, and (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether), prob-
lems which come from coating of tin cans. About 70% of canned food were found to be con-
taminated with BADGE and BFDGE (Bisphenol-A-diglycidilether) according to the French
magazine ”test achat”. Heavy contamination was found in cans containing fish and foods with
high amount of acid like lemon, vinegar or tomatoes.
BADGE / BFDGE: The European Commission has completed in early 1999 a study con-
cerning the safety of BADGE. According to this study there is no danger coming from BADGE.
Therefore the Commission decided to rise the maximum allowed amount of BADGE in foods
from 20 microgram in one kilogram up to 1 milligram in one kilogram food.
This is intended only for tin cans coated with plastics. As there are no limits established
for coatings with clear varnish, many countries use this high value also for varnished cans. The
toxicology of BADGE and the catabolic products of BADGE and BFDGE are still unknown.
Discarding the immersion brine can reduce Badge and BFDGE of canned foods.
The cooperation between official supervision of food, agriculture and industry has brought
good results in research and improvements since repressive supervision had been changed to
open discussion and mutual good will of all parts engaged in the long way from farming to the
consum.
Levels of dioxins and environmental pollutants PCBs in UK food: According to

the survey of 2001 the total amount of dioxins in the diet has fallen by around 50 per cent for
all age groups since the last survey in 1997.
Exposure to dioxins in food has fallen by around 85 per cent over the last 20 years and continues
to fall steadily.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) tend to accumulate particularly in foods containing fat,

such as milk, meat, fish and eggs. Any potential health risks will only come from long term
exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs at the highest levels found in foods.
Table 4.11: PCBs

PCBs WHO TEQ/kg WHO TEQ/kg UK Tolerable Daily Intake
bw/day bw/day (TDI)WHO TEQ/kg
1997 2001 bw/day2001
average adult 1,8pg 0,9pg 2pg

Children 1,6-5,1pg 0,7-2,3pg Source: FSA UK
Only 1 per cent of adults are now estimated to exceed the TDI for dioxins from the aver-
age diet, falling from 35 per cent in 1997. The percentage of schoolchildren likely to exceed the
TDI for dioxins from an average diet has also fallen considerably - from 62 per cent in 1997 to
10 per cent in 2001. The percentage of toddlers likely to exceed the TDI for dioxins is now 37
per cent, falling from 97 per cent in 1997.
Dioxin and dioxin-like PCBs in fish oil supplements: The FSA controlling 33 prod-
ucts of fish oil, found a wide range of concentration of dioxins.
According to the FSA, exposure to dioxins has decreased by 75 per cent over the past 20
years. Consumers should not avoid fish oils as a result of the survey, since the benefits of the
product far outweighed the potential risks if taken in the right amounts.
Organohalogens and vitamin A metabolism: Contamination of foods by organohalogens,

in particular dioxins (PCDD and PCDF) and dioxin-like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)
PCBs are of concern. The most toxic dioxin is TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin).
Dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs affect the skin, the liver, and the nervous system but also have
some effect on cancer development, disturbance in the immune system and on the growth and
development of the foetus.
Dr. Abraham Brouwer at the Institute for Environmental Studies in Amsterdam, leading an EU
project, concluded that organohalogens disturbed processing of retinoid-controlled pathways.
The organohalogens cause a functional hyper-vitaminosis A with increased concentrations in
plasma, liver and kidney, which can result in developmental abnormalities resembling the symp-
toms of excessive vitamin A intake.
Contaminants in baby foods: In baby food phthalat DBP and DEHP were found.They
have endocrinous activities, hormone disruption.Milk used as ingredient for these products was
the source of these plasticisers.(Bavaria, MUVA Kempten)
Use of Phthalates as Plasticiser:

Table 4.12: use of Phthalate as Plasticiser
Phthalates Abbreviation
116
Dietylhexylphthalate DEHP
Dibutylphthalate DBP
Diisodecylphthalate DIDP
Butylbenzylphthalate BBP
Bisphenol A BPA
Diisononyl phthalate DINP
In Western Europe, about one million tonnes of phthalates are produced each year, of which
approximately 900,000 tonnes are used to plasticise PVC (polyvinyl chloride). All efforts should
be made to reduce or even to avoid the possibility of contamination of the milk on its origin.
Plasticisers as possible cancer-causing agents

BPA is a synthetic resin used in food packaging and polycarbonate plastic products. and BBP
is a widely used plasticiser used in food wraps and cosmetics. These compound can leach out
of the plastic and migrate into the food when plastic is heated, old or scratched
According to Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia, BPA and BBP are environmental
estrogens capable of affecting gene expression in the mammary glands of young female labo-
ratory rats exposed to the compounds through their motherś milk. The changes of the gene
expression profile of mammary tissue changes occording to the age. The decrease of the ex-
pression of the GADI gene is one of these changes. The GADI gene encodes a key enzyme
of the GABA-ergic system, which could be involved in hormonal regulation and breast cancer
development. GADI has consistently been overexpressed in primary breast cancer.
BBP exposure modifies the genomic expression of the mamary gland, more studies are there-
fore necessary to see wether these estrogens can lead to cancer and its implications to human
kind.[1187]
Growth stimulating hormones in beef

Growth stimulating hormones and other chemicals are present in animal feed, beef and related
products in Brazil and other developing countries. The most impportant are:
Dietylstilbestrol: It is a growth stimulating hormone.
Zeranol: (6-(6, 1C-dihydroxyundecyl) -resorcylic acid -2lactone) Non-hormonal anabolic agents

for use as implants in several countries of the American continent. It is sold under the com-
mercial brand-name of Ralgro.
Nortestosterone: Nortestosterone is a hormone that helps to increase protein synthesis, de-

crease protein breakdown, and increase workout intensity, increasing muscle size.
Trembolone: Trembolone acetate is a steroid having a short half life, probably no more
than a day or two, though it is an extraordinarily potent AAS, being about three times as
effective as testosterone esters.
Hexestrol: Is a diethylstilbestrol derivative having the uses of estrogen.
Dinestrol: It is an estrogen hormone.
Estradiol: Estradiol is the most active of the estrogens, the female sex hormones, and is
responsible for the development of female sex organs and characteristics.
Testosterone: Testosterone is the most important representative of the male sex hormones
collectively called androgens.
Medroxyprogesterone It is a growth stimulating hormone.
Salbutamol It is a beta sympathomimetics.
Clenbuterol It promotes muscle gains as well as fat loss and weight loss.
International trade of Pesticides

The Rotterdam Convention on for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International
Trade text was agreed by governments in Rotterdam in September 1998. It requires 50 ratifi-
cations before it will come into force, and so far 20 governments have done so.
Growth in internationally traded chemicals during the 1960sand 1970s led to increasing concern
over pesticides and industrial chemical use, particularly in developing countries that lacked the
expertise or infrastructure to ensure their safe use. Therefore the following organisations were
founded:
International Code of Conduct for the Distribution and Use of Pesticides by the Food and
Agriculture Organisationn (FAO)
London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade by

the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous
118
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade September 1998.
The convention covers the export and import of hazardous chemicals and, by implication,
their use and regulation.In both instances, less-advantaged importing countries often lack the
means to manage hazards chemicals throughout their life cycle, from importation through use
and safe disposal.
Many countries also face the problem of huge quantities of unused chemicals, dumped illegally
or forgotten in unsafe storage areas, which can contaminate soil, water and air. Effective dis-
posal systems for hazardous chemicals rarely exist. This was the case of the nitrofen scandal
in animal feed in Germany where a warehouse, formerly used as nitrofen storage contaminated
large quantities of feed grain.
List of the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent of banned or

severely restricted chemicals
The list covers 29 of the most hazardous chemicals, most of them pesticides. The most impor-
tant are:
Binapacryl: It is toxic to the liver, kidney and nervous system, especially among workers
in hot environments. Can cause toxic psychosis and convulsions.
Ethylene dichloride: Effects range from liver and kidney damage to death from pulmonary
oedema. Shown to cause stomach, lung, breast and other types of cancer in animals.
Ethylene oxide: Exposure results in respiratory tract irritation, sleeplessness, muscular weak-
ness, diarrhoea, nausea, conjunctivitis and neurological disorders.
Toxaphene: Severe poisoning provokes convulsive seizures and coma. In some cases, it leads
to hyperthemia, rapid heartbeat and death.
Granox TBC: In July 2000, sixteen farmers in Senegal died due to intoxication with Granox
TBC and Spinox T, used to protect newly planted groundnut seeds against fungus and insects.
Spinox T
Parathion
Tetraethyl lead
Tetramethyl lead
Tributyltin oxide
Monocrotophos: It is an insecticide that is applied in many developing countries, partic-

ularly in Asia, to control insects and spider mites and weedkiller.
DNOC: It is a fungicide which is highly toxic to humans.
All forms of asbestos.
Annex III - Chemicals Subject To The Prior Informed Consent Procedure - Cate-
gory Pesticide
2,4,5-T
Aldrin
Captafol
Chlordane
Chlordimeform
Chlorobenzilate
DDT
Dieldrin
Dinoseb and dinoseb salts
1,2-dibromoethane (EDB)
Fluoroacetamide
HCH (mixed isomers)
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Lindane
Mercury compounds, Pesticide including inorganic mercury compounds, alkyl mercury com-
pounds and alkyloxyalkyl and aryl mercury compounds
Pentachlorophenol.
Heptachlor in feed with fishmeal [1188]

According to the EFSA Scientific Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain heptachlor was
commercially introduced as a non-systemic contact insecticide in 1945. It was also a major
constituent (about 10%) of technical chlordane.
Heptachlor was used for agricultural purposes, soil and seed treatment, wood protection and
termite- and household insect control. It has been banned for use in the European Union since
1984 and in most other countries worldwide because of the persistency in the environment of
the two break-down products heptachlor epoxide and photoheptachlor.
120
All these compounds are lipophilic and particularly heptachlor epoxide and photoheptachlor
tend to accumulate in the food chain.
Toxicity: Heptachlor shows moderate acute toxicity and heptachlor epoxide and photohep-
tachlor are more toxic than heptachlor. In mammals, the main target organs are the nervous
system and the liver, but also the reproductive and the immune system are affected. Heptachlor
and heptachlor epoxide cause liver tumours in mice, but are not genotoxic.
Heptachlor is classified by IARC as possibly carcinogenic to humans (group 2B). Heptachlor is

moderately or highly toxic to fish exposed via water, but no data from oral studies have been
found.
Food chain: Amongst the species studied, the domestic hen is the most sensitive species and
egg production and hatchability are the critical endpoints. Total heptachlor (sum of heptachlor
and heptachlor epoxide) is not frequently found in feed commodities. When present, it is mostly
in fish derived products and only very infrequently in feed materials of plant origin. Heptachlor
epoxide is the predominant contaminant.
Human exposure to heptachlor: The present dietary exposure of the adult population to
total heptachlor is below 1 ng/kg b.w. per day, which is two to three orders of magnitude below
the tolerable daily intake of 0.0001 mg/kg b.w. as established by WHO in 2006.
Recommendations: To reduce human exposure to heptachlor Scientific Panel on Contami-

nants in the Food Chain recommends to increase surveillance of feed:
- the Besides heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide, the analyses of feed samples, especially of
marine origin, should also include the determination of photoheptachlor.
- In the clean-up of samples, treatment with sulfuric acid must be avoided in order to prevent
the decomposition of the analytes.
- Inter-comparisons performed on biological samples revealed large discrepancies in the perfor-
mance of laboratories, indicating scope for improvement of the analytical methods.
- Toxicity and kinetic studies in fish exposed to heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide via the diet
are lacking and should be conducted.
- The Members States are requested by the Commission to report the results of their monitoring
programmes on undesirable substances in animal feed.
- Special attention should be paid to the control of feed materials coming from areas of the
world where heptachlor has recently been or still is used.
Category Severely hazardous

Methamidophos
Category Severely hazardous pesticide formulation

Monocrotophos
Phosphamidon
Methyl-parathion
Parathion
Category Industrial
Crocidolite
Polybrominated biphenyls (Hexa-, Deca-, Octa-)
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT)
Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate
Non dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in feed and food

[1189] Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) cover a group of 209 different PCB congeners which
can be divided into two groups according to their toxicological properties. One group, con-
sisting of 12 congeners, show toxicological properties similar to dioxins, is therefore termed
”dioxin-like PCB” (DL-PCB), and these have been included in the ”Risk Assessment of Diox-
ins and Dioxin-Like PCBs in Food” performed by the EU Scientific Committee on Food (SCF).
The other PCB, referred to as ”non dioxin-like PCB” (NDL-PCB), have not been previously
evaluated by the SCF or EFSA. Both groups of PCB, NDL-PCB as well DL-PCB, are usually
found in feed and food.
PCB were widely used in a number of industrial and commercial applications. It is estimated
that more than 1 million tons of technical PCB mixtures were produced world-wide since their
first commercial use in the late 1920s. Although produced by comparable production pro-
cesses, technical PCB mixtures contain both DL and NDL-PCB and may vary considerably
with respect to their congener composition due to differences in the amount of chlorine and the
reaction conditions applied.
Moreover, technical PCB mixtures contain other dioxin-like compounds as impurities, such
as polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF). The different compositions as well as the presence
of toxicologically relevant impurities may have a significant impact on the results of toxicolog-
ical studies with technical PCB mixtures.
Although the manufacture, processing and distribution of PCB has been prohibited in almost
122
all industrial countries since the late 1980s, their entry into the environment still occurs, espe-
cially due to improper disposal practices or leaks in electrical equipment and hydraulic systems
still in use. PCB are highly persistent and are globally circulated by atmospheric transport
and thus are present in all environmental media.
Data on the occurrence of NDL-PCB in food and feed have been reported in different ways:
1. as the sum of three PCB congeners (PCB 138, 153 and 180)
2. as the sum of six PCB congeners (PCB 28, 52, 101, 138, 153, 180) often referred to as
indicator PCB. The sum of these six indicator PCB represent 50% of total NDL-PCB in
food, and is being used by the EU Scientific Committee on Food (SCF)
3. as the sum of seven (sum of six indicator PCB plus PCB 118).
Accumulation of NDL-PCB and carry-over

Following exposure of farm animals, NDL-PCB will accumulate in meat, liver and particularly
in fat tissues. PCB 138 and 153, both with six chlorine atoms, show the highest carry-over
into milk and eggs, in the order of 50-60%. After cessation of exposure, levels in eggs and milk
initially decrease rapidly to about 50%, followed by a slower elimination phase. In fattened
animals like calves, piglets, and poultry, and also farmed fish, no steady state is obtained, due
to the fact that these animals are slaughtered at a young age.
More than 90% of the NDL-PCB exposure in the general population is via food. Average
daily dietary intakes of total NDL-PCB can be estimated to be in the range of 10-45 ng/kg
body weight (b.w.) per day. Limited exposure data for young children, up to six years of age,
indicates that the average intake (breastfeeding excluded) of total NDL-PCB is about 27-50
ng/kg b.w. per day. However, where data on both adults and children within a specific pop-
ulation were available, in general children had exposure levels 2.5 fold higher than adults. In
specific subpopulations with high dietary PCB exposure such as Baltic Sea fishermen the daily
intake from fish of the sum of the six NDL-PCB could be about 40 ng/kg b.w., corresponding
to an intake of total NDL-PCB of 80 ng/kg b.w. per day before taking into account the rest of
the diet. Breastfed infants are a group of high NDL-PCB intake which might be two orders of
magnitude higher than adult exposure.
Other routes of exposure such as ambient and indoor air, dust and soil, do not usually contribute
significantly to the body burden of the general population. However, there are situations in
which contribution from contaminated indoor air could be considerable.
Technical PCB mixtures used in toxicity studies contain both NDL-PCB and dioxin-like com-
pounds such as DL-PCB. These mixtures exert a variety of toxicological effects such as effects
on liver, thyroid, immune function, reproduction and behaviour as well as carcinogenicity. The
adverse effects reported in laboratory animals following exposure to individual NDL-PCB were
effects on the thyroid, liver and brain biochemistry, as well as immunotoxicity, oestrogenicity,
and reproductive and neurodevelopmental effects. The latter effects are particularly found in
the offspring of rodents following in utero exposure. However, these effects are not all specific
for NDL-PCB but are also to be seen following exposure to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins,
polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and DL-PCB.
Several NDL-PCB congeners are metabolised to hydroxy-PCB and/or methylsulfonyl-PCB.

Some of these metabolites may contribute to hormone-like effects seen with PCB.
Results of in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity studies indicate that PCB are not mutagenic at
the gene or chromosome level. Some NDL-PCB, in particular the lower chlorinated congeners,
caused DNA damage, probably resulting from the formation of reactive oxygen species. In
two-stage initiation-promotion studies, technical PCB mixtures containing NDL-PCB as well
as DL-PCB promote liver carcinogenesis in rats, following initiation with genotoxic carcinogens.
Data from animal experiments with several technical mixtures (Aroclor 1016, 1242, 1254 and
1260) indicate that PCB can cause liver and thyroid neoplasms in rats.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified PCB in Group 2A (prob-
ably carcinogenic to humans), based on limited evidence in humans and sufficient evidence in
animals. Evaluation of the cancer studies in rats with technical PCB mixtures, and comparison
with data obtained with TCDD, indicate that the dioxin-like components in technical PCB
mixtures are likely to be responsible for the carcinogenic response of these mixtures. No peer
reviewed data are available on the carcinogenicity of individual NDL-PCB congeners.
Occupational exposures to PCB have been reported to be associated with an increased risk
of cancer of the digestive system and possibly other sites. Some studies suggest that environ-
mental PCB exposure may be linked to the development of breast cancer, although perhaps
only in certain vulnerable sub-groups.
The most sensitive effects seen in studies with individual NDL-PCB congeners in experimental
animals were liver and thyroid toxicity.
Considering that the ”lowest observed adverse effect level” BB for the most sensitive effects
(liver, thyroid) were 10 times higher than the NOAEL BB (400, 800, and 1,200 microg /kg
b.w. for PCB 28, 128, and 153, respectively), the Panel chose an overall body burden of 500
microg /kg b.w. as a representative conservative body burden at the NOAEL (NOAEL BB) for
all individual NDL-PCB and for the sum of NDL-PCB occurring in human tissues. Based on
the median total concentration of all NDL-PCB measured in human milk sampled in European
countries of about 240 nanog/g fat, and assuming 20% fat content in the human body, a median
124
human body burden of about 50 g/kg b.w. was estimated. Consequently the overall NOAEL
MoBB is about 10.
During the nursing period, breastfed infants may have daily intakes, on a body weight basis, of
NDL-PCB estimated to be about two orders of magnitude higher than the average adult intake.
This elevated intake by the infants is related to the mother’s long-term intake of NDL-PCB
with food. However, the subtle neurodevelopmental effects that were reported in some studies
of human infants were mainly associated with exposure to a mixture of NDL-PCB, DL-PCB,
and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and any causal role of
NDL-PCB is unclear. The Panel noted that in many other studies of infants, breastfeeding was
associated with beneficial effects, in spite of the contaminants present in human milk.
Conclusion
In conclusion, no health based guidance value for humans can be established for NDL-PCB
because simultaneous exposure to NDL-PCB and dioxin-like compounds hampers the interpre-
tation of the results of the toxicological and epidemiological studies, and the database on effects
of individual NDL-PCB congeners is rather limited.
There are however indications that subtle developmental effects, being caused by NDL-PCB,
DL-PCB, or polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans alone, or in com-
bination, may occur at maternal body burdens that are only slightly higher than those expected
from the average daily intake in European countries.
Because some individuals and some European (sub)-populations may be exposed to consid-
erably higher average intakes, a continued effort to lower the levels of NDL-PCB in food is
warranted.
Dichlorovos [1190]
Dichlorvos is an organophosphate insecticide that acts by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE),
which results in a disturbance of nerve signal transmission and induces rapid respiratory fail-
ure in most insects. The same mechanism is responsible for the acute toxicity in mammals,
including humans. Dichlorvos is highly toxic by oral, dermal and inhalatory exposure (oral
LD50 is 80 mg/kg b.w., dermal LD50 is 120 mg/kg b.w. and LC50 is 0.083 mg/l). It was also
demonstrated to be a skin sensitizer.
The only use of dichlorvos supported by one applicant is against flower bulb pests during
storage.
Dichlorvos has been evaluated for carcinogenicity in five long-term studies in mice and in six
long-term studies in rats. The substance was administered orally via the diet in the drinking
water or by gavage, or by inhalation (one study in rats).
Most of the studies provided no evidence for the induction of neoplasia and only in two gavage
studies, one in F344/N rats and the other in B6C3F1 mice, was there some evidence for neo-
plastic responses. In these studies, increases in the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemia in
male rats, mammary fibroadenomas combined with adenomas in female rats, pancreatic acinar
adenomas in male rats and forestomach tumours in male and female mice were reported. Af-
ter considering all of the available data the PPR Panel concluded that with the exception of
tumours of the forestomach in mice, there was no convincing evidence for a compound-related
increase in tumour incidence. The response on mouse forestomach was a consequence of local,
rather than systemic, exposure.
The PPR Panel concluded that the available data clearly demonstrate that dichlorvos is an
in vitro mutagen, and that there is some limited evidence that dichlorvos is a site-of-contact
in vivo mutagen but that the mechanism of this effect is unclear; the evidence for alkylation of
DNA in vivo, a possible mechanism, is very weak.
The Panel was of the opinion that the weight of evidence suggests that this would not oc-
cur at the levels of exposure that would be encountered by the proposed use of the compound.
In addition severe systemic toxicity would occur before any concentration in tissues other than
in the forestomach is reached that would induce the tumourigenic effect.
Tryptophan and eosinophilia-myalgia-syndrome (EMS)

Tryptophan became popular in the 1970s as a safe, nonaddictive treatment for insomnia, pre-
menstrual syndrome and depression. [1191]
Tryptophan had been produced for many years using non-genetically engineered bacteria con-
vert nutrients into L-tryptophan. In the late 1980’s the company Showa Denko decided to
introduce a new, genetically engineered bacterium called Strain V.to accelerate and increase
the efficiency of tryptophan production.
The product was released without primary tests and sold in 1988. It caused the deaths of
37 people and caused 1500 more to be permanently disabled. EMS is a debilitating disease
characterized by severe muscle and joint pain, weakness, swelling of the arms and legs, fever,
skin rash, and an increase of eosinophils in blood.
EBT (1-1-ethylidenebis tryptophan), was identified as a dimerization product of tryptophan.

The high yields of tryptophan using the GM method made it possible for these compounds to
react with themselves, generating the toxin. The activated charcoal used in filtering the tryp-
tophan was reduced from 20 to 10 kilograms per batch to reduce costs. The desire to increase
productivity and failing to comply with safety tests resulted in this catastrophe.
126
Studying samples of lots which caused the EMS epidemic outbreak in 1989 using RP-HPLC,
six contaminant peaks were traced. Further contaminants could be classified as tryptophan
metabolites, non-physiological oxidation compounds or carbonyl condensation compounds.
The authors stress the fact that knowledge of the identity and formation conditions of these
contaminants may help to prevent their formation in a prospective manufacturing practice to
comply strict demands on purity by licensing authorities and the etiologic agent of EMS is still
not been identified beyond all shadow of doubt.
Simat and colleagues conclude that biotechnological processes require high purification pro-
cess of the end-product because of side reactions of the fermentation. The purification process
causes price difference between tryptophan for feed or for infusion quality. The purity criteria
that must be complied with, set by the European Pharmacopoeia is 400 ppm of substances
which are detected at 220 nm and includes all contaminants which might be responsible for
EMS disease. [1192]
Chloropropanol in Soy sauce and vegetable hydrolyses.

Chloropropanols were found in surveys of acid hydrolysed vegetable protein (acid HVP) and
some soy sauces and related products. The chloropropanols are 3-monochloropropane-1, 2-diol
(3-MCPD) and 1, 3-dichloro-2-propanol (1, 3-DCP). Both are suspected carcinogens.
All sauces with high chloropropanols had been produced using an acid hydrolysis process.
Soy sauces manufactured using only a traditional fermentation process did not give rise to the
chloropropanols. It seems that acid hydrolysis was introduced to cut costs in the production of
soy sauce, whereas the traditional process of fermentation was much expensive but the safe way.
3-MCPD (3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol) is a chemical which may be formed in foods by the

reaction of chloride with lipids. It is the most commonly found member of a group of chemical
contaminants known as chloropropanols. More recent evaluations by the European Commis-
sion’s Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) and other expert committees have concluded that
there is a lack of evidence of in vivo genotoxicity and proposed a provisional TDI level of 2
microg/kg body weight/day for the amount of 3-MCPD
Conotoxins [1193] A conotoxin, discovered in venom from the fish-eating cone snail Conus
magus or magician’s cone, made it possible to develop a pain treatment medicine, Prialt.
Cone shells are carnivorous; they eat other mollusks, worms, or fish. Cone shells are pre-
dominantly nocturnal, burrowing in the sand and coral during the daytime. The cone shells
injects paralytic and lethal oligopeptide toxins in its preys,The venom mixture is specific to
each cone shell species, containing 30-200 conotoxin peptides.
• alfa-conotoxin attacks acetylcholine receptors at nerves and muscles.
• delta-conotoxin inhibits the inactivation of voltage-dependent sodium channels.
• kappa-conotoxin inhibits potassium channels.
• µ-conotoxin inhibits voltage-dependent sodiumm ion channels in muscles.
• omega-conotoxin inhibits N-type voltage-dependent calcium channels. Because N-type

voltage-dependent calcium channels are related to algesia (sensitivity to pain)in the ner-
vous system, omega-conotoxin has an analgesic effect: the effect of omega-conotoxin M
VII A is 100 to 1000 times that of morphine. Therefore omega-conotoxin M VII A is
used as an analgesic drug named ziconotide; it is marketed under the brand name Prialt.
[1201]
According to Michael McIntosh, a new alpha conotoxin OmIA isolated from a cone snail species
named Conus omaria was discovered. The conotoxin blocs nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It
activates production of the hormone dopamin which is deficient in Alzheimer patients. Cono-
toxins will be a useful tool in designing new medicines for a variety of brain disorders, including
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, depression, nicotine addiction and perhaps schizophrenia.
Novel Class of Nicotinic Receptor Antagonists from snail Conus [1194]

The venoms of predatory marine snails (Conus spp.) contain diverse mixtures of peptide toxins
with high potency and selectivity for a variety of voltage-gated and ligand-gated ion channels.
The authors describe the chemical and functional characterization of three novel conotoxins
alfa D-VxXIIA, alfa D-VxXIIB, and alfa D-VxXIIC which are potent inhibitors of nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).
What to eat and drink in case of food poisoning

Food poisoning may be cause by chemicals (pesticides, heavy metals ...), bacteria (Salmonella,
Shigella...)or their poisons (Staphylococcin...). Appropriate medication is necessary. See your
doctor.
Mineral water cannot harm. Eat as little as possible. Take the food you have appetite for.
Follow the diet given by your doctor.
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids as undesirable substances in animal feed [1195]

The European Food Safety Authority released an opinion concerning pyrrolizidine alkaloids
(PAs), a group of more than 350 individual compounds that share as a basic structure one of
the four necine bases platynecine, retronecine, heliotridine, or otonecine. PAs are produced as
128
secondary metabolites of more than 6000 plant species, belonging to the families of Boragi-
naceae, Compositae (Asteraceae) and Leguminosae (Fabaceae) and occur world-wide.
Basic alkaloids seem to accumulate in the seeds, whereas the respective N-oxides dominate
in the green parts of a plant. In farm animals, however, acute intoxications caused by PAs are
rare, as animals avoid PA containing plants if other feed is available. However, this recognition
fails in preserved forages such as silage and hay.
PAs intoxication in animals: Acute intoxications: hepatotoxicity and hemorrhagic liver

necrosis. Long-term exposure: hepatic megalocytosis, veno-occlusion in liver and to a lesser
extent in the lungs, proliferation of the biliary tract epithelium, fatty liver degeneration and
liver cirrhosis.
PAs intoxication in humans: In humans, PAs cause primarily hepatic veno-occlusive dis-
ease (VOD). Toxicological concerns about the potential human exposure to PAs were based
on the results of extensive rodent studies indicating a carcinogenic potential of this class of
compounds, and on the in vitro investigations that convincingly demonstrated that the de-
hydropyrrolic metabolites of PAs can form DNA-adducts, DNA-cross links and DNA-protein
cross links, and result in genotoxicitiy and mutagenicity in a variety of bioassays conducted in
rodent models.
PAs carry over in food: PAs are excreted with milk of dairy cows (and lactating sheep)
albeit at a low rate, varying between 0.04 and 0.08% of the ingested dose. Analyses in Australia
indicated the presence of certain PAs in eggs. No residues have been found in other animal
tissues. The contribution of the residues in animal derived tissues to human exposure is low;
however, honey, in which PA residues are regularly found, deserves special attention.
Bitter apricot kernel warning [1196]

The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment says that bitter apricot kernels can lead to
poisoning. These kernels are being sold increasingly on the Internet. In some cases it is claimed
that they can help to fight cancer.[1197] However, there is no scientific evidence to back this
claim. [1198] [1199]
According to the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment bitter apricot kernels have
a high natural level of amygdalin. During digestion hydrocyanic acid is released from the gly-
coside which can lead to severe, acute poisoning. At high doses it can even prove fatal. Hence,
bitter apricot kernels may involve health risks. Eating just a few kernels can already lead to
the onset of acute poisoning symptoms. [1196]
Consumers should not, therefore, eat more than one or two bitter apricot kernels a day or
even none at all for precautionary reasons. Unsubstantiated health claims, which could encour-
age desperate sick people to buy them, are irresponsible. [1196]
Amygdalin (called here vitamin B17)has been studied by FDA in USA and found useless to
fight cancer. [1200]
The claim cancer cells have within them an enzyme which unlocks the poison in the amyg-
dalin, and in this way the cancer cells are destroyed. Normal, healthy cells do not have this
enzyme. Is not backed by any study. [1199]
Acute cyanide intoxications may arise from eating apricot kernels, choke cherries, and other
stone fruit kernels with high concentrations of cyanogenic glycosides. Inadequately prepared
cassava, when constituting the major part of the diet, may be hazardous. Amygdalin is also
present in some sorts of cassava. [1200]
130
Chapter 5
General bacteriology
General classification of bacteria related to food science Great efforts were made to
classify all living beings.There are three related fields of activities concerning taxonomy:
Nomenclature: Nomenclature provides names to the different groups.
Identification: Identification verifies if an organism belongs to an already described group.
Classification:
Classification tries to group bacteria on the basis of similarities or relationships. Bacteria are
classified in[63]:
Taxonomic rank:
• Kingdom
• Division
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
• Subspecies
intrasubspecific rank Subspecies may be divided into groups with special characters, the intra-
subspecific ranks, which are very important in daily practical bacteriology but not part of the
official nomenclature.
Intrasubspecific ranks are:

• Biovar or biotype have special biochemical or physiological properties.
131
132
• Serovar or serotype have distinctive antigenic properties.
• Pathovar or pathotype have pathogenic properties for certain hosts.
• Phagovar or phagotype have ability to be lysed by certain bacteriophages.
• Morphovar or morphotype have special morphological features.
Sections The Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology has grouped bacteria in differ-
ent ”sections” based on a few readily determined criteria.
The binary nomenclature was introduced in 1735 by the Swedish scientist C.von Linn contain-
ing usually informations about the genus and the species. It may be completed by the name of
the author of the first description followed by the year of the publication.
New discoveries turn out to be necessary to change the position of bacteria in the classification
what sometimes means to change their name.
So it may come that in older books one germ is described under a different name as found in
new books.
For example the Escherichia coli was described in old publications under the name of Bac-
terium coli.
The usual classification which is also used in ”Our Food” follows the Bergey’s Manual of
Systematic Bacteriology vol I to IV.
As many bacteria described in Bergey’s Manual are not living any more and her description
is still incomplete an international community made a general revision of the content of the
manual and presented a list denominated as Approved List(Skerman et al.,1980).
Classification of important bacteria found in food The sections of Bergey’s Manual

are:
Section 1 Spirochaeta Includes the genus Spirochaeta, Treponema, Borrelia and Lep-
tospira.
Section 2 Aerobic/microaerophilic, motile, helical, vibrioid, Gram- negative bacte-

ria Includes the genus Campylobacter and Spirillum.
Section 3 immobile (or rarely motile ), Gram-negative curved bacteria

Section 4 Gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci Includes the family Pseudomonadaceae
with the genus Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas,
the family Azotobacteriaceae with the genus Azotobacter and Azomonas,
the family Rhizobiaceae with the genus Rhizibium and Agrobacterium,
the family Methylococcaceae with the genus Methylococcus and Methylomonas,
the family Halobacteriaceae,with the genus Halobacterium and Halococcus,
the family Acetobacteriaceae with the genus Acetobacter and Gluconobacter,
the family Legionellaceae with the genus Legionella,
the family Neisseriaceae with the genus Neisseria, Moraxella and Acinetobacter.
In section 4 are also included the genus Flavobacterium, Alcaligenes and Brucella.
Section 5 Facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rods Includes the family Enterobac-

teriaceae with the genus Escherichia, Schigella,Salmonella, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, Enterobac-
ter, Erwinia, Serratia, Hafnia, Edwardsiella, Proteus, Providencia, Morganella and Yersinia,
the family Vibrionaceae with the genus Vibrio,Photobacterium,Aeromonas and Plesiomonas.
Section 6 Anaerobic Gram-negative straight, curved and helical rods
Section 7 Dissimilatory sulfate- or sulfur-reducing bacteria
Section 8 Anaerobic Gram-negative cocci
Section 9 The Rickettsias and Chlamydias
Section 10 The Mycoplasmas
Section 11 Endosymbionts
Section 12 Gram-positive cocci Includes the family of Micrococcaceae with the genus
Micrococcus, Stomatococcus, Planococcus, Staphylococcus. Section 12 includes also the genus
Streptococcus, Enterococcus,Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Sarcina.
Section 13 Endospores producing Gram positive rods and cocci Includes the genus
Bacillus, Sporolactobacillus, Clostridium, Desulfotomaculum, Sporosarcina and Oscillospira.
The genus Bacillus has only one aerobic form. This form is Bacillus anthracis which causes
skin anthrax or if inhaled the serious form of pulmonary anthraxThe spores are oval
134
Bacillus anthracis This organism was seen hundred years ago in the blood of animals ill
with anthrax. Robert Koch proved it to be the cause of the disease by inoculating pure cultures
into susceptible cattle: Characteristics: Gram-positive rods, tending to form long chains, not
motile. The vegetative form are destroyed by chemical and physical agents but the spores can
survive for years in dust or soil and on other objects. The spores survive 5 minutes boiling and
ordinary disinfectants.
Section 14 Gram-positive regular formed, not sporulated rods Includes the family
Lactobacillaceae with the genus Lactobacillus, Carnobacter,Listeria and Erysopelothrix.
Section 15 Gram-positive, irregular formed, not sporulated rods Includes the genus
Corynebacterium, Clavibacter, Aureobacterium, Arthrobacter, Propionibacterium, Actinomyces
and Bifidobacterium.
Section 16 Mycobacteria Includes the family Mycobacteriaceae with the genus Mycobac-
terium.
Section 24 Streptomyces and related genus Includes the genus Streptomyces.

Streptomycetes are the source of an antibioticum Gibco BRL anti PPLO[878]it is Tyclocine
and is sold under the name of Tylan. It has a good activity against PPLO from chicken,
horses, human and pigs. In cell cultures it has an antiviral activity acting aswell against
Meningopneumonitis from mouse and ornithosis. It is not toxic even in high concentrations.
In vitro it is more bactericide than bacteriostatic.
Detailed description of some important bacteria
Section 2
Genus Spirillum The Genus Spirillum has a spiral form, is Gram-negative, aerophylic and
microaerophylic. The Genus contains only one species the Spirillum volutans which is the
greatest bacteria known. Its length goes up to 60 micrometers.It grows only in culture under
microaerobic conditions. Oxidase and phosphatase are positive,catalase is negative.The germ
inhabits water and feces of pigs.It produces volutin, a polyphosphate.
Section 4 Family Pseudomonadaceae are straight, curved or ellipsoidal Gram-negative rods,

monotrichous or polytrichous. The family is obligatory aerobic,catalase positive, and generally
oxidase positive.
The family grows from 40 C and below, up to 430 C.
Its habit is water, plants, vegetable products and soil. Some species produce diseases on plants.
The genus Pseudomonas can produce yellow-green, blue or red partially fluorescent pigments.These
pigments can diffuse in the culture medium.
The genus Pseudomonas is found in soil, water, other substrates and food producing deterio-
ration due to proteases and lipases which decompose albumin and fatty acids with production
of bad smell and mucus.
The bacteria prefer a medium without carbohydrates.

There are psychotropic species which are specialized in refrigerated products such as dairy
products, meat, fish, poultry and eggs, spoiling these products even under good refrigeration.
With 10.000 germs/g alterations of taste and smell starts. With 100.000 and more there is
production of mucus in meat and fish. Pseudomonas grows only at high value of aw (water
activity)(0,97 and higher).
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are frequently found. They may pro-
duce alimentary poisoning.
Genus Xanthomonas The genus Xanthomonas is closely related to the genus Pseudomonas
and also belongs to the section 4. Xanthomonas has phytopathological species. It grows on
agar plates as yellow colonies. This gave the name from Greek xanthos = yellow.
Nitrates are not reduced.
Some variants of Xanthomonas campestris are used industrially to produce Xanthan.
Family Halobacteriaceae The family Halobacteriaceae belongs to section 4. It has Gram-

negative rods with various shapes or malformed cells.
The family is characterized for necessitating a high concentration of around 15% of salt in
the medium, as well as 0,1 to 0,5 mol of MG++ producing carotenoid yellow to strong red pig-
ments. Its name comes from Greek halos=salt.The internal osmotic pressure corresponds to the
pressure of the exterior medium turning mechanical supporting of the membrane of the cell un-
necessary. These cells die when transfered to water or another medium with low content of salt.
The family grows best at 20% to 30% of NaCl and 400 C to 500 C . Below 100 C there is no
growth.
The Halobacteriaceae family lives in salted lakes, in concentrated salt solutions, in meat, in
fish, intestines and other salted food
136
Family Acetobacteraceae (Aceto=vinegar, bacterion=rods) Recent cultures are Gram-

negative,old cultures are Gram-variable.
The germs are rigorously aerobic, generally catalase positive having oxidative activities. They
oxidize ethylic acid in acetic acid.
Acetobacter is used in industry to produce vinegar and acetic acid.

The best temperature for growing is 250 C to 300 C the best ph is 5.4 to 6.3. The genus Aceto-
bacter is undesired in the production of beer and wine because of the resulting acidity.
Acetobacter xilinum causes great damage to non-alcoholic beverages growing in form of a

white layer and superficial mucus.
Acetobacter xilinum, Acetobacter aceti- and Acetobacter pasteurianus inhabits fruits and veg-
etables.
The genus Gluconobacter with the old denomination of Acetomonas also belongs to the family
of Acetobacteraceae.
Gluconobacter oxidans is found in flowers, fruits, vegetables, bakery yeast, beer, wine and soil.
The germs are ellipsoid or in form of rods. They are Gram-negative weak Gram-positive as
they grow old. The germs are isolated, rarely in chain. Some strains produce mucus and a
water soluble brown pigment.
Gluconobacter oxydans is obligatory aerophylic, catalase positive. Ethanol is oxidized to acetic

acid and glucose to gluconic acid. This has given the name to the genus. Acetate and lactate
are not oxidized because of absence of enzymes of the citric acid cycle.
Growth is best at 250 C to 300 C and ph between 5.5 to 6.0.
Neisseriaceae The family Neisseriaceae belongs to the section 4 and bears the genus Neis-
seria, Moraxella, Acinetobacter and Klingella.
The genus Moraxella has isolated coccoid form or Gram-positive diplococcus. Oxidase and
catalase are positive. Moraxella lacunata is psychotropic spoiling meat, fish and shrimp.
The genus Flavobacterium (flavus=yellow) is aerophylic or anaerophillic,Gram- negative rods

and produces yellow or red pigments which are insoluble in water. Almost all species are psy-
chophylic and proteolytic. They produce putrefaction and modification of color on fish, poultry,
eggs, milk and butter.They are found in in fresh unheated milk, in vegetables, in water and in
soil.
Flavobacterium multiplies in the first phase of sauerkraut.One species is pathogen.
The genus Alcaligenes is obligatory aerophylic, Gram-negative rods, rarely coccoid. Its colonies
are flat, gray, yellow or brown. Some types are nitrate positive. They do not hydrolyze gelatine
and casein. Carbohydrates are not transformed in acids. There is production of alkalinity from
amides and other organic salts. This property has given the name to the genus.
There are many species which are generally inhabitants of the intestines from vertebrates as
saprophytes.They may act as opportunists on human infections.
Alcaligenes may be present in milk, spoiled eggs and other food.

The most common germ is Alcaligenes faecalis
Achromobacter is an old denomination.Many species from this genus were included in the
genus Alcaligenes.
The genus Brucella was denominated in honor to Sir David Bruce. It has Gram-negative
short rods or coccoid forms. The germs may present itself isolated or in chain.They are oblig-
atory aerophylic, immobile, growing up to 400 C. The best ph is 6.6 to 7.4.Catalase is positive
and nitrate is reduced to nitrite.
Culture media for Brucella must contain peptons, liver extract, yeast extract and vitamins
such as thiamin, biotin and nicotinic acid. Initial culture needs 5% to 10% CO2.
Brucella causes brucellosis, an infection of animals which can be transmitted to man under
the name of bang. The transmission is direct , very seldom the transmission is caused by con-
taminated milk and milk products.
Brucella abortus and Brucella suis are old denominations which were included under the name
of Brucella melitensis.
Section 5
Aeromonas Aeromonas bacteria can be present in fresh waters, tap waters and food such
as fish and other marine animals. It can cause infections in animals and man. That is why
controlling water, faeces and food in general is of high importance.
Classification of Aeromonas spp.

Recent genetic studies have cleared some of the confusion in the classification of Aeromonas.
The genus Aeromonas has Gram-negative rods is facultative anaerobic,is oxidase positive, cata-
lase positive, resistant to 0/129 vibriostatic agent (2,4-diamino-6,7-diisopropylpteridine).The
genus can show very easily two groups:
138
Aeromonas salmonicida: psychrophilic, non-motile. Some species are pathogenic to frogs, fish
and humans. Human disease is usually diarrhoea or bacterimia. Aeromonas hydrophila: motile
The group Aeromonas hydrophila was according to Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteri-
ology (1984) divided into three species, being increased today to 12 species. The three species
of the classification of Bergey’s are:
• Aeromonas hydrophila
• Aeromonas caviae
• Aeromonas sobria
Table 5.1: Different Aeromonas species

Aeromonas hydrophila caviae sobria
Esculin hydrolysis + + -
Gas from glucose + - +
Voges-Proskauer + - V
Acid from arabinose + + -
Further classification of aeromonads

The phenotyping of Aeromonas has been for long time confused and is still not yet ready.
Historical classification of aeromonads:

Bacillus punctatum, in 1890 classified by Zimmermann: bacillus Gram-negative not sporulated,
motile found in tap water.
Bacillus ranicida, classified by Ernst, isolated from frog with red leg disease.
Bacillus stereatothermophilus Donk 1920 The name of this bacterium is presumably

intended to mean fat and heat loving. The most distinctive characters are capacity to grow at
65o C and a limited tolerance to acid. Bacillus strains capable of growing at temperatures of
65o C and above do not belong to a single species, it is however a useful diagnostic character.
Bacillus stereatothermophilus occurs in soil, hot springs, desert sand, arctic waters, ocean sed-
iments, foods and compost.
The biochemical characteristics of bacillus stereatothermophilus are:
Catalase = positive
Voges-Proskauer test = negative
Acid from D-glucose = positive

Acid from L-arabinose = differ
D-xylose = differ
D-mannitol = differ
Gas from glucose = negative
Hydrolysis of casein = differ
Hydrolysis of gelatin = positive
Hydrolysis of starch = positive
Utilization of citrate = differ
Degradation of tyrosine = negative
Desamination of phenylalanine = negative
Nitrate reduced to nitrite = differ
Formation of indole = negative
Dihydroxiacetone = negative
Sodium and potassium chloride required = negative
Alantoin or urate required = negative
Allen (1953) has pointed out that fresh isolates tend to diversity of characteristics. When
maintained in culture for some times they are readily classifiable.
The bacterium has a vital importance for canning factories. Bacillus stereatothermophilus,
together with Bacillus coagulans as well as other bacteria have high heat resistant spores. The
temperature maximum where growth still takes place is 75oC. The best growth temperatures
for Bacillus stereatothermophilus is 55 to 60oC. Bacillus stereatothermophilus is the bacterium
whose spores can survive at temperatures higher than other bacteria.
In hot springs bacteria may be found which resist temperatures higher than that.
D-value (Decimal reduction time):The D-value is the time which is necessary at a specific
temperature to reduce the initial population of a bacterium down to 10%. This means it kills
90% of the bacteria. It is measured in minutes. The temperature must always be cited.
For Bacillus stereatothermophilus a D-value of D121,1C = 4 to 5 minutes are given.
D-values for other bacteria in order to draw a comparison:

Clostridium botulinum type A and B D121,1C = 0,1 up to 0,2 minutes.
Clostridium sporogenes D121,1C = 4 up to 5 minutes.
Clostridium thermosoccharolyticum D D121,1C = 3 up to 4 minutes.
Desulfotomaculum nigrificans D121,1C 2 up to 3 minutes.
For tropic conserves the sterilization has to be done carefully as Bacillus stereatothermophilus
grows at storage temperatures higher than 37o . Below of that there is no growth. To kill its
spores F121,1C = 15 to 30 minutes must be used in case of canned food. Another example of
high temperature resistant spoilage of canned food is the mould Byssochlamiy nivea which is
140
sometimes found in canned cucumber resisting up to 98degree centigrades in acid medium.

Byssochlamis isolated from canned cucumber and cultivated on yeast chloramphenicol dextrose
medium:
Bacillus hydrophillus fuscus from the lymph of a frog with haemorrhagic septicaemia. In 1936
Kluiver and Van Niel created the genus Aeromonas. In 1943 Stanier grouped and rearranged
all strains of Aeromonas under the sole species Aeromonas hydrophila. In 1984 Popoff has
included the genus Aeromonas under the family of Vibrionaceae under Section 5, facultatively
anaerobic Gram-negative rods. He divided the group of A. hydrophila from Stainer in four
species:
Some bacteria from underheated food may turn it sour without gas. This is called “flat
sour spoilage”. Only smell, taste and color may be changed. Deterioration with production of
gas such as produced by Clostridium botulinum can easily be detected because of the pressure
which is created inside.
• Aeromonas caviae
• Aeromonas salmonicida Later studies using DNA-DNA hybridization has shown 12 genospecies
of which 11 phenotypes were named:
• Aeromonas caviae predominates in sewage
• Aeromonas eucrenophila
• Aeromonas hydrophila found in all types of water, rivers, lakes and sewage. A.hydrophila
can be isolated from faeces of warm-blooded animals and in man with up to 11,7%.
Food such as fish, meat,milk , vegetables and tap water are very important place for
A. hydrophila. Food can therefore be a source of human infection.In fresh unpolluted
drinking waters Aeromonas hydrophila is predominant.
• Aeromonas jandei
• Aeromonas media
• Aeromonas schbertii
142
• Aeromonas trota
• Aeromonas veronii
• Aeromonas salmonicida being found in fish but not in water. When found in water they
are associated with fish.
Aeromonas can be present in water with a ph from 5.2 to 9.8, growing by 100 C up to 450 C being
350 C the optimum. They can grow in water with very low organic matter as well in sewage
with high content of organic matter. They are not found in sea water an they do not grow
in vitro with 4 % of salt. They have been isolated from unchlorinated as well as from chlori-
nated water. A new family Aeromonadaceae, independent from Vibrionaceae is being proposed.
The culture of aeromonads

Aeromonads grow well on any complex medium such as Nutrient Agar or Trypticase Soy Agar
as well as selective media for faecal coliforms such as McConkey Agar.The most common se-
lective media for aeromonads use carbohydrates as the main carbon source.
Pathogenesis in animals and human. Aeromonas hydrophila is being found in fish, reptiles
and turtles. Under certain conditions it may cause infections of the host, such as the haemor-
rhagic septicemia and the red leg disease. Water is the principal source of Aeromonas infections
in man.
Section 2
Campylobacter[1]
History 1886- Theodore Escherich discovered a non-culturable, spiral-shaped bacterium in

stools of children and gave him the name of Vibrio felinus.
Other classification followed such as: Vibrio fetus, Vibrio jejuni .

1963- All above micro-organism were united in the new genus of Campylobacter.
1973- Butzler and colleagues in Belgium isolated Campylobacter by filtration techniques from
diarrheal stool.
1977- Skirrow in England using blood agar with antibiotics demonstrated that Campylobacter
jejuni was responsible for human diarrhoea.
1989- The number of outbreaks caused by Campylobacter surpasses since 1989 the number of
outbreaks caused by Salmonella.
1991- Vandamme proposed the following classification:
Family of Campylobacteraceae
Genus
• Campylobacter: with 19 species and subspecies
• Arcobacter : with 4 species
• Helicobacter : 18 species
Description: Campylobacter are Gram-negative, slender spiral curved rods. They need a
micro-aerobic atmosphere to grow. The pathogenic species grow at 420 C and 370 C.
Pathogenesis Campylobacter may cause rare infections in disseminated systemic form. How-
ever Campylobacter are the most frequent agents of watery and bloody diarrhoea in the world.
Campylobacter-species can cause severe genital or intestinal disease in meat producing life-
stocks and poultry.
Genus
Campylobacter has the following species :
C.coli: is together with C.jejuni ssp. jejuni the most common cause of disease in human and
in animals.
Infection takes place during handling raw poultry or eating raw or undercooked poultry meat.
[244]
C.conscious
C.curvus
C.fetus ssp.fetus : important animal pathogen associated with abortions in sheep and cattle
and human disease such as diarrhoea, meningitis, peritonitis, salpingitis, septic abortion, sep-
ticemia in older patients and in immune suppressed persons.
C.fetus ssp.venerealis: causes infertility and embryonic death in cattle and abortion in infected
cows. It does not infect man.
C.hyointestinalis
C.jejuni ssp.jejuni : It is together with Campylobacter coli the most common cause of disease
in human and in animals such as diarrhoea in calves and abortion in sheep. In human it
may cause septicemia, appendicitis and the Guillain- Barre syndrome (an acute inflammatory
polyneuropathy).
C.jejuni ssp.doylei
C.lari: isolated from human , dogs and cat outbreaks.
C.mucosalis
C.rectus
C.sputorum biovar bubulus
C.sputorum biovar fecalis
C.sputorum biovar sputorum
144
C.upsliensis: isolated from human, dogs and cat outbreaks.

C.helveticus
C.showae
C.hyoillei
C.gracilis Campylobacter jejuni: It is spiral formed, Gram-negative microaerophil rod.
To cultivate it is necessary to reduce the oxygen between 5% to 7%. Campylobacter jejuni
grows at 430 C but there is no growth at 250 C.
The germ is very sensible to heat, chilling, and acids.

The resistance to heat in skimmed milk = D 550 C is 1 to 3 minutes.
Resistent to chilling temperatures: after 5 to 8 days there were no bacteria alive left from a
population of 107 in skim milk at - 200 C .
Resistent to acids: At pH 5,0 all Campylobacter jejuni died after 24 hours.
Campylobacter jejuni can be isolated from feces of children, animals water, beef, in partic-
ular poultry (chicken, duck, turkey), on vegetable,fruits and marine animals. An infection with
Campylobacter jejuni is characterized with diarrhoea, fever and vomit.
Campylobacter jejuni does not normally multiply outside the host. However the bacteria have
the ability to survive a long time in the environment. It is very infectious. If one bird is in-
fected the whole flock will be affected. For the production of Campylobacter free poultry rapid
diagnostics are necessary to avoid the contamination to spread out.
If poultry is infected nearly 100% will be bacterial carriers, therefore only a few birds in a
flock need to be tested to ensure that the whole flock is Campylobacter free.
Very few cells can produce an infection it is therefore important to enrich suspected mate-
rial. The infectious level is 103 an 105 germs/g It is being told that even 50 bacteria can cause
an infection. [739]
Incubation is two to five days.The onset of symptoms is sudden, often preceded with one or two
days with fever and headache with sudden watery and sometimes bloody diarrhoea,abdominal
cramps,fever and headache.
After settling in the intestine Campylobacter produces a protein called “adesin” which acts
as a glue between the germ and the wall of the mucosa.causing the adhesion to the wall of the
intestine which makes the invasion of the tissue possible.C. Jejuni, C.coli and C. lari produce
an enterotoxin, in some cases Zytotoxin is reported.
Complications with Campylobacter infections

A possible complication with Campylobacter infections is an autoimmune disease called Guillain-
Barre syndrome which results in weakening and paralysis. It seems that the similar surface
of Campylobacter to the surface of the human nervous system can cause the production of
antibodies that cross-react with the nervous tissue during an infection. The antibodies will
attach to the peripheral nerves causing the disease.
Sources of infection: Infected poultry (up to 80% of broiler flocks), untreated water, cattle,
pigs, pets, wild animals, birds, Fruits, marine animals.
Detailed informations about Culture of Campylobacter: Enrichment broth is spread

with a loop on specific agar and typical colonies are inoculated on Columbia Agar. Biochem-
istry, Latex agglutination and genetic methods like polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Detection of Campylobacter jejuni :Detection of Campylobacter is made using enrich-

ment broth according to Wesley et al. 1983 or Blase and Wang (1979)or Campylobacter -
selective - broth, under anaerobic atmosphere (5% O2, 10% CO2, 85% N2) at 420 C for 24
hours. The atmosphere is easily obtained with the Campylobacter - Gas Generation-Kit from
Oxoid.
Table 5.2: Enrichment broth for Campylobacter jejuni Wesley,Swaminathan and Stadelman
1983 Composition/Liter
ingredients amount
Iron sulphate 0,25 g
Sodium metabisulfit 0,25 g
Sodium piruvate 0,25 g
Bicine 10 g
Haematin solution
Rifampin 25 mg
Cefsulodin 6,25 g
Polymyxin B 20.000 IU
The enrichment broth according to Wesley can demonstrate up to less than 1 germ/g
Table 5.3: Enrichment broth for Campylobacter jejuni Blaser and Wang 1979,composition/liter
ingredients amount
Vancomycin 10 mg
Trimethoprim 5 mg
146
Polymyxin B 2500 IU
Amphotericin 2 mg
Selective Breeding The enrichment has to be transfered to a selection such as selective

medium according to Weslei 1983, Blaser and Wang (1979) or Campy BAP Agar and other.
Incubate at 420 C for 48 hours under the atmosphere described above.
Biochemical confirm Suspicious colonies are examined under a phase contrast microscope
searching for comma formed bacteria.
• No growth at 250 C under microaerophylic conditions.
• No growth under aerophylic conditions
• No growth with 3,5% NaCl.
• Resistant to cephalotin (30 microgram). Often sensible to nalidixic acid. (30 microgram)
• Catalase and oxidase positive
• Glucose negative
• H2S from TSI negative
As basis for the biochemical reactions of Campylobacter jejuni use Brucella broth with 0,16%
agar.
Comparison of the methods of standard microbiological culture versus RFLP-PCR for the
identification of Campylobacter was done by V. Atanassova and Ch. Ring. They found that
75.64% of swab samples collected from laying hens were tested positive by RFLP-PCR and
only 33.33% by standard microbiological culture[659].
DNA based methods for the Campylobacter diagnostics [739] DNA diagnostics of
Campylobacter is the most specific and sensitive detection technique reducing the diagnostic
time of 4 days with normal culture bacteriology to 4 hour with DNA techniques starting from
intestinal content and faecal samples. This makes tests of poultry possible prior to slaughter
in order to guarantee Campylobacter free products.
The current DNA based tests are not able to distinguish living and dead microorganisms.
The DNA based tests follow the way of separation from matrix, cell lysis, DNA purification
and detection. System used are such as Genpoint AS Oslo, Norway.:
The sample is added to a buffer containing magnetic beads which are coated with a surface
which absorbs bacteria. The bacteria are immobilized on the beads. The beads are pulled to
the side of the tube by a magnet and the sample solution can be removed. Bacterial lysis and
DNA immobilization follows so pure DNA is bound to the beads.
This technique allows to isolate and detect several strains and species simultaneously using
PCR amplification of the specific DNA labeling it with specific primers and followed by hy-
bridization of the probes to oligonucleotide array giving a signal for the different bacteria in
the sample.
New Zealand produces update on work related to Campylobacter [740]

As concern around New Zealand’s high rates of campylobacteriosis continues, the New Zealand
Food Safety Authority (NZFSA) has put together a a report ”A Background to Campylobac-
ter” [741] which sets out, in easy-to-understand terms, the scientific research that NZFSA has
collated on Campylobacter in food and the practical measures currently in place to contain it,
as well as an update on what is happening in this regard overseas.
Campylobacter is naturally present throughout the environment, in water, on animals (in-

cluding birds and pets) as well as being found on meat and food products.
While different interventions may offer reductions in hazard levels at certain points in the
farm-to-fork continuum, it is a combination of measures that is more likely to achieve the
greatest reduction in risk to consumers.
According Steve Hathaway, Director of NZFSA, the agency is considering some short-term
measures that will decrease contamination rates in poultry. However, the aim has always been
to focus on not just removing the high levels of the pathogen from the food chain, but to find
ways to prevent it getting there in the first place.
Genus Arcobacter The genus Arcobacter is composed of Campylobacter - like bacteria.

They were found associated with bovine and porcine abortion. They are aero tolerant,gram
negative and are strongly motile.
Arcobacter spp. has its habitat in animals like bovines,swine, primates and poultry;human
beings are not excluded.
Occurrence of Arcobacter spp. in Food[414]:
148
• Poultry 20%
• Red meat 0,5 - 5 %
Diseases caused by Arcobacter spp.:
Acute diarrhea,appedicitis,septicemy and diarrhea in animals.
Culture of Arcobacter spp Culture of Arcobacter spp.[415] is made with enrichment broth
and isolation medium followed by biochemical and serological identification.
Enrichment in Arcobacter-Selective-Broth (ASB)
Composition of the broth:[415]

28 g Brucella broth powder (Difco) in 910 ml A.dest. After sterilization and cooling at about
50-60oC.
Add 50 ml of lysated horse blood, 75 mg piperacillin (Sigma) dissolved in 10 ml Aqua dest.,
sterilized by filtration, 32 mg ceferoperazone (Sigma) dissolved in 10 ml Aqua dest., steril-
ized by filtration, 20 mg trimethoprim (Sigma)dissolved in 4 ml ethanol (96%) and 6 ml Aqua
dest.sterilized by filtration, and 100 mg Cycloheximide (Serva) dissolved in 10 ml Aqua dest.,
sterilized by filtration. Final pH should be 7,0 +-0,2. Distribution should be made in 10 ml
portions in tubes.
Isolation medium for Arcobacter spp.:

Isolation is made using Arcobacter selective Medium ASM
Composition 21 g Mueller-Hinton-Broth (Oxoid) and 2,5 g Agar Nr.3 (Oxoid) in 960 ml

Aqua dest.
After sterilization and cooling to 50o C add all substances cited under ASB medium with ex-
ception of blood.Final pH should be 7,4 +- 0,2.
20 g of product to be tested is homogenized in 180 ml physiological Na Cl solution.
1 ml of the suspension is added to 10 ml broth. Incubate 48 hours at 24o C.
Identification:Spraying of Arcobacter spp. biochemical and serological identification.

The genus Arcobacter has four species:
Arcobacter cryaerophilus
Arcobacter butzleri: was first describe by Kielbauch et al. Later Vandamme et al. changed
this classification to Arcobacter butzleri. These organisms could grow in presence of air and
300 C which made the distinction to Campylobacter and were found in diarrhoeas in blood and
in peritonial fluids. They were found also in not sufficient cooked poultry, cattle, swine, ovine,
equine,primates, sewage and water.The serotyping based on slide agglutination on living bac-
teria distinguishes between 73 serogroups and biotyping finds out 16 biotypes.
Aerobacter nitrofigilis
Aerobacter skirowii
Helicobacter:
The genus contains 16 species. The most important human pathogen are:
Helicobacter pylori
Helicobacter cinaedi
Helicobacter fennelliae
Adult animal pathogen, not found as human pathogen:
Helicobacter mustelae: In 1980 Marshall and Warren cultured in campylobacter media a spiral
bacteria from gastric biopsy.
These bacteria were later denominated as Helicobacter pylori being responsible to gastritis and
duodenal ulcers and are associated to gastric carcinome and gastric lymphoma.
Claims of an association between Helicobacter pylori and atheroma leading to artheriosclerosis

have become less credible, as the organism has not been detected directly from atheromatous
lesions and 18 serological studies have failed to support the association [742].
It is being spread from person to person among the family. Cats may harbor the organism.
The genus Helicobacter was created by Goodwin et al. in 1989

Helicobacter grows slowly on brain heart infusion BHI. Growth at 300 C. No growths at 250 C ,
optimum at 370 C . Colonies: non colored, translucents 1 - 2 mm
mobility: rapid.
Glycine: Growth with 0,5% Glycine and 0,04% triphenyltetrazolium chloride.
NaCl: No growth with 3,5% NaCl.
Catalase: positive
Urea: positive
H2S: negative on TSI and variable on lead acetate paper.
Nitrate: Variable
Hipurate: Variable
Alkaline phosphatase: positive
Gama-glutamyltranspeptidase: positive
Leucine arylamidase: variable
Susceptible to: penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, erythromycine, gentamicin, kanamycin, ri-
fampin, tetracycline.
Resistant to: vancomycin, sulfonamides, and trimethoprim. Variable resistance: nalidixic acid,
cephalothin, metronidazole and polymyxin.
Isolation: from the gastric mucosa of primates and ferrets.
150
Pathogenity: human gastritis and peptic ulcereation (gastric and duodenal)
It includes two species:

Table 5.4: Helicobacter mustelae and Helicobacter pylori
H. mustelae H. pylori
0
Growth at 42 C + -
Growth in 10% CO2 - +
Growth on PSD agar - +
Growth with 1% Glycine d -
Nitrate reduction + -
Susceptible to Cephalothin 30 - +
Causes type B gastritis and
gastric and duodenal ulcers - +
Causes gastritis and ulcers in
adult animals + -
Cellular fatty acids 3-OH 18:0 - +
PSD agar: Peptone-starch dextrose agar (Dunkelberg et al Appl.Microbiol. 19: 47-52 , 1970)
Transmission and sources of infection of Campylobacter

Enteritis cause by Campylobacter is a zoonosis, resulting from contact to poultry, cattle, raw
milk, surface water and pets, following the faecal-oral route.
The consumption of undercooked chicken is one major cause of outbreaks.
Avoid contamination
To avoid contamination it is necessary to interrupt the chain of cross-contamination in kitchen
caused by utensils, chopping-boards, hands and raw vegetables, handling poultry and red meats.
Campylobacter were found in 5% of retail red meats and ground beef in USA and Canada
and up to 23% in beef in UK. Important outbreaks were noted in Water and raw milk , espe-
cially in school children who drank raw milk.
Pasteurization kills Campylobacter. A contamination after pasteurization however cannot be

excluded.
Nonchlorinated water can be contaminated with sewage, birds and animal faecal material, so
that there were many outbreaks of Campylobacter caused by municipal waters in USA and
Sweden.
In England the findings of Campylobacter in sea water and fresh water from rivers were always
associated with Escherichia coli.

The infection dose is very low: 2 bacteria/ml which turns the contamination through water
very likely.
The transmission from person to person is however very unlikely with exclusion in the case
of mother/neonate.
More likely is however the transmission from dogs and cats, birds or monkeys.
The infections prevail in the summer, in the equatorial zone during the rain season.
Campylobacter should always be presumed as a traveler risk. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli
are present in up to 100% in broiler chicken and as normal intestinal flora or domestic animals
such as poultry and turkeys.
Prevention of infection with Campylobacter

General hygienic measures will prevent the spread of infection. Hand washing after contact
with animal or their products, proper cooking and storage of food, pasteurization of milk and
chlorination of water are important to prevent the disease.
Irradiation of food should be allowed to reduce significantly the number of food born pathogens.
Isolation and identification

Phenotyping of Campylobacter includes species identification, serotyping , biotyping, phagetyp-
ing.
Molecular genotyping methods includes pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) random ampli-
fied polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
Selective medias such as charcoal media filtration techniques on media without antibiotics
are used to grow Campylobacter which do not grow on media with antibiotics.
Enrichment broth: is used only on food and water.

Presumptive identification: Gram-stain, wet mount for specific motility, oxidase test and
hyppurate hydrolysis.
Presumptive confirmation:commercial latex tests are avaliable: Campyslide (BBL) which

identifies the genus and Meritec-Campy (Meridian Diagnostics) to identify C.jejuni, C.coli, and
C. upsaliensis.The use of nalidixic acid as antibiotic to select Campylobacter is not reliable
because the bacteria has developed resistance to quinolones Non-culturable forms:
Campylobacter as well as Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella enteritides and enteropathogenic E.coli
152
have developed Campylobacteroid forms to resist environmental conditions which do not grow
on media. To recover these forms a passage in suckling mice is necessary.
The polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) has made possible to detect non-culturable forms
by amplification of specific DNA sequences.
PCR with a primer for the flagellin gene is used to detect Campylobacter jejuni and Campy-
lobacter coli in stools in chicken and in water.
Indoxyl acetate hydrolysis test: Specification of Campylobacter which can be used as a simple
test.
Table 5.5: Biotyping scheme of Campylobacter by Lior
C.lari C.jejuni spp.jejuni C.coli C.lari C.lari C.lari C.lari C.lari C.lari
biotype I II III IV I II I II
Test
Hippurate hydrolises + + + + - - - -
Rapid H2S test - - + + - - + +
DNA hydrolysis - + - + - + - +
Serogroups 74 46 0
Culture of Campylobacter spp using filter technique from the Veterinary depart-
ment of Münster,1998 20 ml or 20 g of the sample are minced with a scissors and tweezers.
Mix without shaking (squeeze by hand) in 90 ml Preston-Broth and incubate at 42o C.
Place a filter type DA, 0,65m, Fa Millipore, Kat Nr. DAW PO 4700 avoiding air bubbles.
Distribute 300l from the enrichment broth on the filter paper. Incubate the Petry plate for 1
hour at room temperature.Remove the filter and incubated the medium at 42o C microaerophile
for 48 hours
Escherichia Coli [60] Escherichia coli is a normal inhabitant of the intestinal human and
animal tract.
His presence in food is considered to be an indicator of faecal contamination and causes dete-
rioration.
Some strains of Escherichia coli can however be pathogenic. The number of food born infections
are increasing continuously.The outbreaks become greater by high shelf life of raw material and
end products, increasing number of communal feeding and worldwide increasing distribution of
food and animal food.
In 1982 a great food born infection caused by underheated hamburger lead to the discover-
ing of Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). It was the E.coli O 157:H7 strain.
In 1955 there was a great outbreak of EHEC-bacteria in Bavaria, Germany.

EHEC are intestinal pathogenic bacteria producing watery and bloody diarrhoea with colical
intestinal pain, the haemorrhagic colitis, HC.
This infection can develop with life menacing complications in children under six years and in
old people.
First there are intestinal symptoms followed after three to twelve days after contamination
by an haemolitic uraemic syndrome, (HUS) with damage of the kidneys with 10% of obit,
another 10 to 30% develope a permanent kidney damage which makes a lifelong dialysis neces-
sary.
Neurological and artheroschlerotic complications may also occur.
In Germany there are about 8.000 to 16.000 cases of EHEC each year.
Most common places of infection are communal feeding, such as nurseries,kindergarten, old
people’s home and restaurants, especially fast food.
Most likely contaminated food are ground meat, underheated hamburgers, sausage,turkey sand-
wiches and underheated milk, all animal food, especially of ruminant origin as most important
reservoir of EHEC and contaminated vegetables.
Prophylaxis should be concentrated on proper instalation of toilets and hygienical conditions.

Other important focus of infections are water, salads, vegetables, fresh appel juice and contam-
ination by smear infection caused by diseased persons.
Smear infection seams to have very great importance in infection with EHEC. The diag-
nostic of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli EHEC is made by isolation of the germ using
enterohemolisine-agar and using latex agglutination test.
Escherichia coli strains may produce verotoxine. The strains of Escherichia coli which pro-
duce verotoxine are labeled as VTEC-bacteria. EHEC-strains are classified under the group of
VTEC- strains.
Other denominations of strains are:
Escherichia coli enteroinvasiv (EIEC) This group produces disenteria.It is similar to

Schigella and may penetrate the cells of the mucous membrane and cause their death.
The germs are none motile, they are gas negative and do not ferment lactose in 24 hours.
Virulence of EIEC strains are due to the presence of the plasmids 120- until 140-kDA.
These plasmids bear the code for different proteins of the cell membrane, being reponsible for
the ability of invasion.
Among these proteins there are filamentous fibrils with which the germ may fixate to the
154
host cells. EIEC has great affinity to the small intestines.
Escherichia coli enterotoxic ETEC Escherichia coli enterotoxic ETEC characterizes bac-
teria which produce thermolabile and or thermostable.
The diarrhoeas caused by this group of bacteria are aqueous, accompanied by low fever and
nausea. In acute cases they behave cholera accompanied by acute dehydration.
Infection occurs by ingestion of food and water with faecal contamination.

The ETEC group is responsible for most of the diarrhoea during travels (Travellers diarrhoea).
To develop his toxic activities it is necessary to produce fibrils whose code is placed in the
plasmids.With theses fibrils the germ can fixate itself to the host cell and start the invasion.
There is a small affinity to the colon.
Enterotoxines thermolabiles (LT) There are toxins whose code is situated in the plasmids
such as the serogroup (LT-I) with the toxins LTh and LTp.
Less frequent is the enterotoxine of the serogroup II (LT-II) whose code is situated in the
chromosomes.These toxins are similar to the toxin of cholera. The toxins are composed by part
A and part B.
Part A can be separated in the subunits A1 and A2 with trypsin. The subunit A1 is re-
sponsible for the toxic activity producing cyclic AMP (cAMP) which produces cholera similar
diarrhoea.
unit B is built of 5 identical parts. This subunit is responsible for the union of the toxins with
the cell receptor gangliosides of the host as well as it is responsible for the union of the toxins
with the enterocites (epitelial cells of the colon).
Enterotoxines thermostable (ST) The toxins ST from type A stay active even after heat-
ing at boiling point for about 15 to 30 minutes (stable up to 1200C ) and are stabil against
many proteases.
The toxin ST A is believed to activate the guanilateciclase stimulating thus the formation of
GMP which produces loss of liquid similar to cAMP.
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli ( EPEC)

causes diarrhoea different from that of Shigella and different from EIEC.They do not produce
enterotoxines ETEC.
Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli EPEC produces typical lesions. Especially dangerous are
the serotypes O55, O111, O 127, O86 and others being found in babies. Diagnosis of outbreaks
in nurseries is only possible through culture and identification of the germ using biochemistry
and serology.
Other diagnosis are done using hibridisated DNA sonde with the adherence factor (EAF) plas-
mid from the EPEC group.
In milk and meat products VTEC- bacteria, but no EHEC strains were recently found in
milk,yoghurt, cheese, meat products, fine salads and meals from great kitchens.
The main danger is therefore unheated or underheated ground meat and milk.
Heat treatment makes sausages safe if there is no reinfection after heating.
Ways of infection with EHEC The most important reservoir of the bacteria are rumi-
nants.Unheated ground meat and unheated milk are the main source of infection.Human car-
rier of the bacteria are an important vector of the disease through smear infection of food
and utensils as well as direct contact.Very important is the hygiene of communal toilets in
kindergarten,in home and in homes for old people.
Measures to avoid contamination with EHEC

• Heat food at at least700 C .The bacteria are killed at this temperature and their verotoxins
are denaturated.This is most important in case of risk groups such as babies, children,
old people and immune weakened persons.
• Avoid cross infection by keeping unheated food separated from heated food.
• Use careful hygiene in storage and handling of food.

• Infection with EHCE is bound to faecal contamination.Personal hygiene is most impor-
tant, specially washing and disinfection of hands.About 90% of infections could be avoided
with perfect handling of food.
Food spoiling [3] Bacteria which may spoil mayonnaise, ketchup, sauces and salads are :
Yeasts, molds, lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus.
Salads with pH under 4.5: Lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and molds.
Salads with pH over 4.5:Lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and molds, Enterobacteriaceen, Salmonella
and coagulase positive Staphylococcus.
Ketchup may be spoiled by:
Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus stearothermophilus, yeast, molds

lactic acid bacteria such as: Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and
156
Pediococcus, acetic acid, thermophilic Bacillus

Sauces and dressings are spoiled by:
Acid resistant microorganism such as yeasts, molds and lactic acid bacteria.
Frozen Food:
During the feezing of food water activity is reduced to a point where bacteria cannot divide
and her biological activity is significantly reduced.
A part of the bacteria die during freezing. Another part is sublethal damaged so that special
revival medias are necessary for further detection. A greater part of the bacteria remain alive
and can start the activity as soon as temperatures rises.
Important bacteria in frozen food are: Staphylococcus aureus coagulase positive Escherichia
coli,Enterobacteriaceae,
Clostridium perfringens in precooked meat,
Salmonella, especially in poultry, fish, crustaceans, eggs and milk,
Salmonella serotype Enteritides in poultry and in Eggs.
In live state, poultry is recognised as a major reservoir of various salmonella serotypes that
can cause food poisoning and infection on man. The body temperature of poultry is 38o C
allowing the germs to settel iheated n the intestinal trackt and breeding stock were eggs may
be contaminated with Salmonella.
To reduce the danger of contamination of entire flocks, feed should be heated at 85o for 12
minutes in the presence of 15% moisture.
EU Regulation on the control of Salmonella and other zoonosis [41] Salmonella spp.
is one of the major causes of food borne illnesses in humans. According to the Community
Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses[1] a total of 192 703 cases of human
salmonellosis were reported by 25 Member States in 2004.
Pork, after eggs and poultry meat, is a major source of human food borne salmonellosis in
the European Union (EU), although the participation of pork-associated salmonellosis in food
borne salmonellosis varies between countries or is unclear as, for most Member States, data on
the true contribution of pig/pork to human food borne salmonellosis are not available.
Regulation (EC) No 2160/2003 on the control of Salmonella and other specified zoonotic
agents[2] provides for the setting of Community targets, for reducing the prevalence of Salmonella
serovars with public health significance in pig herds.
The most frequently reported zoonotic diseases in humans are salmonellosis and campylobac-
teriosis. Listeria monocytogenes accounted for the highest number of reported fatalities (107
deaths) in 2004.
According to EFSA, the report targets the reduction of Salmonella in laying hens in accordance
with Article 4 of Regulation No 2160/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council on
the control of salmonella and other specified food-borne zoonotic agents. A final report will be
released in October 2006.
Two main options exist for the implementation of monitoring schemes aimed at detecting/evaluating
Salmonella prevalence and/or previous exposure to Salmonella in pig production. These op-
tions are based on bacteriological and immunological methods. When used appropriately, for
specific purposes, each of these approaches is of benefit. However, for monitoring purposes
the results of immunological and bacteriological investigations cannot be compared directly, as
they give different information. The choice between immunology and bacteriology, or their use
in combination, therefore, will depend on the actual situation and the questions that have to
be answered.
Bacteriology can be of use when (a) isolation of the strain is necessary for identification, (b) in-
formation about all Salmonella infections (all serovars) is required, (c) antimicrobial sensitivity
testing is required, (d) the current Salmonella status of individual animals is to be determined,
(e) a description of the general diversity of infections with different Salmonellaserovars in a
population is the purpose of the investigation, and (f) the evaluation of Salmonella-free status
of herds is required. Immunology can be of use for the screening of large numbers of blood and
other samples, for example, for monitoring the effectiveness of control programmes in endemic
regions or establishing the current immunological status of a population (e.g. herd) and the
prevalence of infection.
Risk mitigation options were identified according to three lines of defence formulated by the
World Health Organization (WHO): the first line focuses on the control of Salmonella in the
food producing animal (Pre-harvest control), the second line deals with improvement of hygiene
during slaughter and further processing of meat (Harvest control) and the third line concen-
trates on measures during the final preparation of the food and the education of the industry
and the consumer concerning the application of effective hygienic measures (Post-harvest con-
trol).
In general, the control of Salmonella is based upon the implementation of preventive actions
throughout the whole production chain.
More specifically, measures should be addressed to (i) the prevention of introduction of Salmonella
into the herd, (ii) the prevention of in-herd transmission, and (iii) the increase of the resistance
to the infection.
158
No universal mitigation option capable of eliminating Salmonella entirely from the harvest
and post-harvest level was identified. A combination of measures aimed at the prevention of
vertical and horizontal transmission is likely to be the most effective approach, as is the case
with most other food borne pathogens.
Reduction of the pathogen load in live pigs in each phase of the food chain, including the
transportation phase, can be incrementally achieved by separation of batches, the implementa-
tion of Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) and hygiene management and optimisation of transport
and lairage time.
Slaughter and dressing has to be performed with a high level of hygiene, according to Hazard
Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) principles in association with GHP, and focus-
ing on the avoidance of direct or indirect faecal/intestinal contamination of carcasses. Logistic
slaughter is a further option for reducing the pathogen load on the carcasses of slaughtered pigs.
Meat/carcass decontamination may be considered in specified situations, under the supervi-

sion of the competent health authorities. However decontamination should not be regarded as
a substitute for any of the above mentioned recommendations.
Risk mitigation during processing requires maintenance of the cold chain and the application
of the so-called ”hurdle concept” and the implementation of GHP and the principles of HACCP.
At retail and consumer level mitigation includes hygienic handling and proper cooling or heat-
ing of pork and pork products. These options and procedures should be communicated to
retailers and consumers.
Monitoring at harvest level is of relevance in regard to both process hygiene evaluation pur-
poses and evaluates the current Salmonella status of the entire food chain. For human exposure
assessment, monitoring requires to be conducted at the pre-consumption level.
The EU Zoonose Directive [42] The Community system for monitoring and collection
of information on zoonoses was established by Council Directive 92/117/ECC (The Zoonoses
Directive).The new Zoonoses Directive 2003/99/EC was adopted by the Council and the Eu-
ropean Parliament on 17 November 2003.
This Directive setting rules for the Member States of European Union (EU) to collect, evaluate
and report to the Commission, each year, data on specific zoonoses and zoonotic agents in
animals, foodstuffs and feedingstuffs.
Summary Report of Zoonosis 2004 [43] EFSA’s First Community Summary Report on
Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Antimicrobial resistance in the Euro-
pean Union in 2004 was published in December 2005. The zoonoses, meaning infectious diseases
transmissible from animals to humans, affected over 380,000 EU citizens in 2004.
Often the human form of the disease is acquired through contaminated food. According to
the report, the two most frequently reported zoonotic diseases in humans were Salmonella and
Campylobacter infections. These bacteria were also commonly found in food and animals. The
report includes information of 11 zoonoses, antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic agents as well
as foodborne outbreaks.
The five most frequently isolated Salmonella species in the EU were, in descending order:
Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Infantis, Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella Mbandaka
and Salmonella Livingstone.
Data on Salmonella were reported for a wide range of foodstuffs. The majority of samples were
collected from various types of meat and meat products. The lowest levels of contamination in
poultry, pig, and bovine meat during the last ve-year period have been reported from Finland,
Sweden and Norway.
Salmonella was detected at all levels of the poultry meat production, with the highest rates of
contamination observed at the slaughterhouse and processing plants. Proportions of positive
samples in poultry meat were generally lower than 10%, with the lowest proportions reported
in countries with control programmes in the poultry production. At retail Salmonella was re-
ported in fresh poultry meat ranging from 2% to 18.5% positive samples.
A general decreasing trend of Salmonella in table eggs was observed in those countries that
had reported consistently. In pig meat, no clear trend was discernable, except for The Nether-
lands where a clear reduction was observed. Most countries reported Salmonella prevalences
in pig meat below 10%. The contamination levels in bovine meat were generally considerably
lower.
Some Member States reported contamination of ready-to-eat-meat products at the same level
as in fresh meat. Such products constitute a particular risk to human health. In milk and dairy
products Salmonella was rarely reported. Several surveys covering spices and herbs revealed
relatively high Salmonella contamination.
Salmonellosis along with campylobacteriosis, are by far the most frequently reported food borne
diseases in the EU. Both diseases are frequently caught through ingesting poultry and poultry
products, such as eggs. On average about one in five large scale commercial egg producers have
laying hens infected with the Salmonella spp. pathogen.
The testing did not find the Salmonella spp. species in any large scale commercial egg produc-
160
ers in Luxembourg and Sweden. The maximum level was found in Portugal, where about 80
per cent of the holdings had at least one hen test positive for the pathogen.
Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium were not found in Sweden, Ireland, Cyprus,
Luxembourg, Latvia. Meanwhile, about 64 % per cent of the egg farms in the Czech Republic
tested positive, followed by Poland, where 56 % had one or the other species of the pathogen,
and Estonia, with 52 % testing positive.
According to EFSA holdings having Salmonella enteritidis vaccinated flocks were less likely
to test positive for the pathogen. However in eight countries with both vaccinated and unvac-
cinated flocks, there was no different in the proportion of laying hens infected with Salmonella
enteritidis. At EU-level the presence of any Salmonella spp. was detected in about 31 per cent
of the large-scale laying hen holdings surveyed. The number of positive samples in a holding
varied between one and seven, with an important proportion of the holdings found positive on
the basis of only one or two of the tested samples.
Food-borne outbreaks were reported by eight new Member States. The Czech Republic re-
ported proportionally more outbreaks than any other Member States in the EU, predominantly
caused by Salmonella. The Czech Republic reported also 547 Campylobacter outbreaks (44%
of the outbreaks) affecting 1,555 people with 90 hospitalisations. Hungary reported one large
waterborne outbreak of campylobacteriosis. Lithuania and Poland recorded together 8 out-
breaks of trichinellosis.
With few exceptions, levels of Salmonella contamination in new Member States that reported
testing for in food, were similar to that of the old Member States. Some higher prevalences were
reported by Malta in fresh pig meat at slaughter (32.8% Salmonella positive) and by Cyprus
in fresh broiler meat at processing (36.6% positive). New Member States also reported testing
for Campylobacter in food, particularly in poultry meat.
Considerable prevalences (30-40%) were recorded by the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Cyprus.
Testing for Listeria monocytogenes in food was performed in all new Member States across a va-
riety of foods. The level of contamination was in general similar to the level in the old Member
States, although Estonia found 22.9% samples of shery products positive for L. monocytogenes.
Seven new Member States reported testing for VTEC in food. Cyprus, Estonia and Slove-
nia did not detect any VTEC from the samples tested. Poland reported 8.3% of bovine meat
samples were positive and Latvia reported 4.9% of pigs tested were positive.
The new Member States reported lower incidence of brucellosis in humans and animals com-
pared to the old Member States. This also applies to tuberculosis in cattle. Many of the new
Member States are seeking to receive an ofcially free status regarding these diseases in accor-
dance with the EU legislation.
The new Member States reported the majority of rabies cases in animals, where wildlife (espe-
cially foxes) were frequently infected. Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia
reported cases both in farm animals, pets and wildlife.
Some new Member States reported ndings of parasites from slaughter animals. Lithuania,
Poland and Slovakia found Trichinella in slaughter pigs, and Poland reported remarkable high
Echinococcus ndings in sheep, goats and pigs.
Data on antimicrobial resistance, primarily in Salmonella from humans, food and animals,
was received from eight new Member States: Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania,
Latvia, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. In general, the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance
reported by new Member States was similar to, or lower than, the prevalence reported by old
Member States.
Unsafe EU food safety From Farm to Fork [44] [45]

UK Cadbury Schweppes pleads guilty for selling chocolate contaminated by a leak-
ing waste water pipe with causing Salmonella montevideo strain outbreak.
According to the Birmingham City Council the company knew about the contamination but
still sold the product, recalled the chocolate bars only after the UK Food Standards Agency.
and the Health Protection Agency got envolved on the fact that 37 people were reported being
infected by Cadbury chocolate products from January to June 2006.
Cadbury is accused of not reporting positive private tests revealing the presence of salmonella
strain in January last year alleging the levels present did not pose a danger.
This is an infringement against article 19 (3) of the EU General Food Law. Food business
operator is obliged to immediately inform the competent authorities if it considers or has rea-
son to believe that a food which it has placed on the market may be injurious to human health.
Cadbury Sweppes allege that the low level of Salmonella had been considered by them as harm-
less and will get through the loophole of the Food Law, which leaves up to the producer to
decide whether or he responds to the deviation. [?]
Dripping wate water contaminated the chocolate crumb (a mixture of sugar, milk and co-
coa) during production at the plant in Marlbrook, Herefordshire.
Poor layout of the factory and inadequate drainage and disinfection equipment. and not having
the EU hygiene rules Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) analysis in place
are the cause of this scandal.
162
Affected Cadbury products: [47]

Cadbury Dairy Milk Turkish 250g; Cadbury Dairy Milk Caramel 250g; Cadbury Dairy Milk
Mint 250g; Cadbury Dairy Milk eight chunk; Cadbury Dairy Milk 1kg; Cadbury Dairy Milk
Button Easter Egg 105g; Cadbury Freddo 10p.
According to bacteriologist Professor Hugh Pennington of Aberdeen University the fat in choco-
late actually preserves the salmonella from the normal intestinal defences. Very few salmonellas
cause an infection. The infection dose from chocolate is a thousand times smaller than eating
it from traditional sources like meats.
According to the Food Standards Agency the presence of salmonella in ready-to-eat foods
such as chocolate is unacceptable at any level.
Serious situation of European food industry ethic: The responsible head of Cadbury
Sweppes has overlook serious problems of the layout of the factory. This situation must have
gone on for a long time. The head of the company has knowingly failed to report and recall
contaminated products. This is a serious disruption commitment to ethic The company pro-
ducing 97,000 tonnes of milk chocolate crumb every year placed financial costs over food safety,
selling chocolate with poisonous bacteria and disgusting waste water.
Serious situation of the official controls: The Food authority in UK not noticing poor
layout of the Cadbury factory during normal check ups is an alarming loophole of the European
food safety system and private certification auditings.
Stronger surveillance by food authority of factories producing high fat and high sugar items
are necessary. Carelessness in cleaning and disinfection is frequent with these produces because
they do not present signs of spoilage. UK food authority surveillance is to be blame, at least
in part, for the Cadbury Sweppes salmonella scandal.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus in fish and crustaceans: Is a Gram-negative mobile rod. It

belongs to the family of Vibrionaceae being found in fish, mussels oysters and shrimps.
It grows between 50 C and 440 C , it is halotolerant (it can grow at high content of salt), growing
between 2% and 3% of salt and pH 4.8.
Food with high contamination with Vibrio parahaemolyticus (1.000.000 /g) cause vomits, di-
arrohea and haemolysis
positive at Wagatsuma-Agar = Kanagawa positive.
Table 5.6: Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Cytochromoxidase +
Motility +
Katalase +
L- Arginindihydrolase -
L-Lysinedecarboxylase +
Growth at 420 C +
Voges Proskauer -
TSI Agar
inclined surface basic (red)
bottom sour ( yellow )
gas negative
H2 S negative
Enriching culture: Demonstrate the presence or absence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus
100 ml or g food are mixed with Broth.
Incubate at 370 C C for 18 +- 2 hours Inoculate the broth at TCBS-agar. Incubation and
biochemical differentiation.
Total count: On TCBS-agar on surface, incubated at 370 C for 18 hours
Kanagawa reaction
Point inoculum of dried Wagatsuma-agar. Incubate at 370 C for 18 hours +- 2 hours. Colonies
with positive haemolysis are labeled as Kanagawa positive.
MPN-method MPN= most probable number(using 3 tubes )

This method is used for total count with very low contamination.
Dilution
Make dilutions with peptone-salt-broth (0,1% Peptone,3% Salt).
1 ml of the dilutions are added to 10 ml SPB-broth.
incubation: 370 C for 18 +- 2 hours.
Identification Inoculate the highest dilution on TCBS-agar. Incubate at 370 C for 18 hours.
Typical colonies are 2 to 3 mm in diameter with green-blue center. Differentiated in mediums
with 2% to 3% NaCl.
Table 5.7: TCBS-agar (Merck Art.Nr. 10263)
gram per liter

Peptone from casein 5,0
Peptone from beef 5,0
164
Yeast extract 5,0

Sodium citrate 10,0
Sodium tiosulphate 10,0
Dried bovine bile 5,0
Sodiumcholate 3,0
Saccharose 20,0
Sodium chloride 10,0
Iron III-citrate 1,0
Thymolblue 0,04
Agar-Agar 14,0
Chlamydia
The genus Chlamydia contains cocoid nonmotile from 0,2µm to 1,5µm organism which can
reproduce only in the vacuoles near the host cell membrane.
The reproduction follows a unique cycle. The development includes the passage through small
elementary bodies up to larger reticulate bodies which can divide by fission. At the end the
reticulate bodies reorganize into new elementary bodies. These new bodies can survive out of
the cells infecting other host cells using a special phagocytosis having no fusion of phagosomes
of Chlamydia with the lysosomes.
There is a gradual transition between the elementary and the reticulate form, existing inter-
mediate forms.
The morphology of the genus Chlamydia is very complex:
Table 5.8: Properties of elementary bodies and reticular bodies
Characteristics elementary bodies reticulated bodies

Diameter in µm 0,2 - 0,4 0,5 - 1,5
Density in g/cm 1,21 1,18
Infectivity + -
Intracellular Multiplication - +
Intravenous mortality for nice. + -
Immediate toxicity for cells in culture + -
There are 3 types of Chlamydia :
• Chlamydia psittaci
• Chlamydia trachomatis
• Chlamydia pneumoniae
Chlamydia are Gram negative bacteria. They are nonmotile with reproduction intracellu-
lar. They cannot produce ATP so that they need other cells from eucariots as source of
ATP.Artropodes are not hosts.
The evolution comprehends two types of cells:
• The elementary infectious reticular corpuscules
• The reticular corpuscule with possibility of reproduction.
After the intracellular reproduction in vacuoles in the cytoplasm of the cells of humans, other
mammals or birds the reticular corpuscules which can reproduce itself are liberated and can
be assimilated by new host cells[48][49]. Within 8 to 12 hours the reticular corpuscules divide
10 to 12 times. At the end of this phase the reticular corpuscules are transformed again in
elementary corpuscules.The elementary corpuscules can invade new cells.
Chlamydia are susceptible to a series of antibiotic. In cases of infections from Chlamydia there
are used tetracyclines, sulfonamides, erythroycine and rifampin.
Chlamydia are resistant to aminoglicosides, bacitracin, vancomycin or ristocetin. Important
species of Chlamydia are:
Chlamydia psittaci This bacterium causes the ornithosis also known as psitacosis. Birds
are the normal reservoir of Chlamydia together with other animals like cats, dogs and other
mammals. Transmission from person to person is very rare.
Ornithose looks like a pneumonia varying from not serious to mortal. Transmission is made
through air.
Chlamydia trachomatis Transmission from person to person is direct. The species have
various serovares which can cause different symptoms.
Chlamydia trachomatis serotype A-K Produces conjunctivitis by invading epithelial

cells. it also invades the epithelial cells of the urinary tract, rectal mucous membrane and
feminine genitals.
Chlamydia trachomatis serotype D-K It is being transmitted through sexual contact.

In women it may cause relapsing and chronical diseases resulting in tubal sterility. Infections
during pregnancy may cause premature birth and transmission of the germ to the newborn
during birth.
166
Since 1995 the examination of secretions of pregnant to exclude a contamination with Chlamy-
dia is provided by German regulations.
Chlamydia pneumoniae Taxonomy: Analysis of gene sequence has led to a revision of

the taxonomy of the family Chlamydiaceae.
The species Chlamydia pneumoniae was reclassified to Chlamydophila pneumoniae[744].
Cell culture techniques for Chlamydia pneumoniae:

Cell culture techniques are used for isolation of Chlamydia pneumoniae from clinical samples.
The infection of a monolayer is achieved by centrifugation of the sample onto the monlayer and
incubation at 37o C. Cells used for culture are HEp-2 cells and Chang cells with cycloheximide
as antimetabolite [745]
C. pneumoniae invade the epithelial layer of upper and lower respiratory tract. Many infec-
tions occur subclinical or after an incubation of 3 weeks as similar to flue infect.
It is believed that 10 to 15% of treated pneumonia are caused by Chlamydia pneumoniae.

Since 1989 Chlamydia pneumoniae is considered as pathogenic[52][54].Transmission is made
trough droplets. The possibility that amoebae may act as reservoir of Chlamydia is being dis-
cussed.
According to seroepidemiological studies 80 percent of adults are infected by Chlamydia.

Chlamydia pneumoniae has been detected in various cases of inflammation of the myocardium
and coronary tissue and blood vessels. This started the theory Chlamydia pneumoniae being the
main cause of arteriosclerosis as a result of a respiratory infection during childhood[55][56][57][58].
Invasion of the body by Chlamydia is made through the respiratory tract. In vitro studies have
shown that infections of macrophages result in elevation of the secretion of zitoquines such as
the tumor-necrotic alfa factor (TNF) and interleukines (IL-1 and IL-6)
The inflammatory process is directly linked to the multiplication of the cells of the straight
muscles as well as the stimulus of of coagulation.
A high titer of antibodies in plasma shows that there had been a contact with the germ. Studies
of Finland in 1988 have demonstrated the link between coronary diseases and the titer of the
antibody. This has created the theory that Arteriosclerosis is caused by an old or a chronical
infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae or Herpes simplex. It is still being discussed if they are
the main cause or if they settle secondary on already existing lesions, accelerating the process.
Chlamydia can infect macrophages and survive for long time in its interior. Macrophages play
an important part in the etiology of arteriosclerosis. Macrophages are formed by the blood
having the property to assimilate oxidized LDL particles and to transform itself in foam-cells.
Macrophage may also be produced by the cells of the straight muscles of the blood vessels.
Foam-cells are the basis of atheromes, which later on will turn out to arteriosclerosis.
It is very likely that Chlamydia pneumoniae causes a local infection with lesions of the blood
vessels. These lesions are the points where arteriosclerosis may start. Not always Chlamydia
is found in case of arteriosclerosis causing false negative results.
A lage amount of evidence has now accumulated demonstrating a positive association between
chronic infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae and atheroma development[743].
Even being confirmed Chlamydia to have a leading role in the etiology of atherosclerosis the
participation of nicotine, excess of body weight, hipercholesterinemia and hipertonia will not
be denied. These risk factors will have to be treated or even eliminated at the same time.
Chlamydia and arteriosclerosis There are an increasing number of scientific report about
Chlamydia pneumoniae being responsible for arteriosclerosis.
These reports bring up the discussion about reduction of fat, especially saturated fatty acids
in the prevention of arteriosclerosis.
The annual edition of ”Ernährungs-Umschau ” 1998 has printed an interview with Prof.Dr.
Wolfram, president of the ”Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung[50]. According to Dr. Wol-
fram there is no reason to modify the prevention of arteriosclerosis.Even in case that Chlamydia
pneumoniae is proved to be the main cause of alterations of blood vessels the classic risks will
not loose their validity.
Helicobacter pylori is considered as being an agent of infections of the gastric mucous membrane.
There are evidence that Chlamydia pneumoniae is responsible for the start of arteriosclerosis.
The classic prevention such as reduction of weight, reduction of fat in food and increase of
physical activity is now on doubt[51].
Heart infarcts, clinical reports Studies in Salt Lake ,Utah, USA[59] have demonstrated
the presence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in 79% with coronary arteriosclerosis.Only 4% of the
patients bearing Chlamydia had no coronary alterations.
This study followed the comments of the studies of Finland and Sweden.The Authors be-
lieve that Chlamydia may elevate the level tissue-factors causing thrombosis and adhesion of
plattlets causing coronary diseases. They admit however that the results of their studies only
satisfy the first postulate of Koch being more research necessary to confirm their theory.
168
Diagnostic of human infection caused by Chlamydia [53] Direct diagnostic of Chlamy-

dia is very difficult starting from material of biopsis of blood vessels.The presence of Chlamydia
is confirmed by PCR, immunoestequiometry, immunocitochemistry, electronic microscopy and
culture of the germ. Indirect diagnostic can be made through a high titer of antibodies IgG and
IgA from Chlamydia pneumoniae and specific immunocomplexes in the plasma of the patient.
Treatment of arteriosclerosis Treating infarcts with azitomicin and roxitromicin could re-
duce the level of infection indicators.
There were significant reduction of the number of relapses.
In patients with high levels of antibodies IgG azitomicin and roxitromicin reduced the signs of
infection.
There are however only a small number of cases under surveillance what does not justify an
uncontrolled medication or prophylaxis of arteriosclerosis with these antibiotics.
Even being promising, the use of azitomicin or roxitromicin in the treatment of arterioscle-
rosis may induce resistance to antibiotic in bacteria and loss of effect in the treatment of other
infectious diseases.
Acetylsalicylic acid Studies over 10 years have demonstrated that a group of patients with
high level of C-reactive protein using acetylsalicylic acid had less infarcts as a group with no
protection with AAS.
It is being suggested to continue these studies.
Vitamin C and arteriosclerosis A study of Finland has established a link between a hy-
povitaminosis C and arteriosclerosis.
It is believed that vitamin C protects against infectious diseases, especially of virotic origin and
therefore also against Chlamydia. This theory is yet not confirmed.
Classical advises of arteriosclerosis prevention
• Normalize body weight
• Avoid obesity
• Avoid hipercholesterinemia
• Avoid diabetes
• Avoid high arterial pressure
Clostridium perfringens
Clostridium perfringens:Merck Fluorocult TSC-Supplement
Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic sporulating bacterium which is known in medicine caus-
ing gaseous gangrene, as well in food microbiology associated with dangerous toxins [427].
A rapid technique to detect Clostridium perfringens in food samples is done by using TSC-Agar
(Tryptose-Sulfit-Cycloserin Merck Nr. 1.11972) adding Fluorocult TSC-Supplement (Merck Nr.
1.04032).
The supplement contains D-Cycloserin used to inhibit accompanying bacteria and a fluorogen
substrate (MUP) which acts as indicator of the specific acid phosphatase enzyme.
Composition of Fluorocult TSC-Supplement:

250 mg D-Cycloserin and 50 mg Methylumbelliferylphosphate disodium salt to be used in 500
ml TSC-Agar The supplement is diluted in water and added to the TSC-Agar. The sample
is inoculated in pour plate and incubated under strict anaerobic conditions at 44o C for 18-24
hours. All under UV light fluorescent colonies are Clostridium perfringens. Further biochemical
reactions such as lactose, gelatine, nitrate, motility are unnecessary.
Refrigeration and shelf life Refrigeration of food is used to increase shelf life. Food freezing
made the transportation of perishable food over long distances possible. cooling and freezing
food works against the activity of bacteria such as:
• Speed of biochemical reactions:

Temperature reduces the speed of biochemical reactions, the growing and the reproduction
of bacteria.
• Drying:
At freezing point water is not available to bacteria. There are irreversible enzyme inac-
tivations. This leads to refrigeration death. However a great part of bacteria, survive
refrigeration and can get to new activity when the temperature rises again.
The speed of enzymatic and biochemical reactions are highly temperature bounded. It is there-
fore obvious that low temperatures result in low biochemical activity.
Even under low temperatures there may be enzymatic activity without increase of total num-
ber. Streptococcus lactis may produce lactic acid at 00 C but it does not multiplicate itself. As
it grows older, the cells may die. As there are no new generations the total number of bacteria
170
may decrease. Very often bacteriological counts from one laboratory do not compare with the
counts of another laboratory when the samples are taken on different days.
Proteolytical activity can take place even at -180C . Lipolytical activity of Pseudomonas in
butter is present at -100C .
Diseases transmitted by water

Almost every pathogen agent can be transmitted through water.
Normal safe supply of drinking water for the population of overcrowded areas is very important
In disaster areas the supply of uncontaminated fresh water is crucial to avoid epidemics.
In hospitals and nurseries sterilized water and milk is necessary to feed newborn, old, sick
and weakened persons. Strictest asepsis is necessary to prevent infections among these groups
of patients.
Bacteria found in water Water specific bacteria:
• Pseudomonas
• Flavobacterium : Cytophaga is in Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology included

in the Flavobacterium-Cytophaga complex (side 355 volume 1984).Cytophaga are found
in fresh fish.
Water bacteria with contamination origin from sewage and other sources:
• Enterobacteriaceae[?]
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• Enterococcus
• Clostridium
• Spirillum volutans
• Aeromonas
• Bacillus punctatum
• Arcobacter butzleri
• Campylobacter jejuni
• Escherichia coli enterotoxic ETC
• Vibrio cholerae
• Leptospira
• Borrelia
• Legionella
Legionella pneumophila In 1976 Vietnam-veterans came together in a dilapidated hotel in

Philadelphia. They contracted a lung disease of which 29 died. The disease was called ”Veter-
ans disease” and the isolated germ was labeled as Legionella.
Legionella pneumonia is found in old water pipelines carrying warm water with often stand still.
Moisture and water droplets from shower and air conditioning system with poor maintenance
can bear the germs and make a lung infection possible.
Old people and persons with reduced immunity are endangered.
Symptoms of Legionella infection The symptoms of an infection caused by Legionella

pneumophila are:
High fever,
Dry cough,
Chest pain
Headache and
Diarrhoea.
As these symptoms are unspecific the disease is often not diagnosed.Antibiotic medication is
necessary.
Sterilization of the warm water system can be done flushing the system with water at a tem-
perature of at least 70o C. This temperature kills Legionella bacteria.
Even the Buckingham-Palace in London was contaminated by Legionella pneumophila The
water system of the palace was heated up to 70o C in December 1998 [356].
Test of Legionella pneumophila in water The method to test the presence of Legionella
pneumophila in water was published by the German Health Department:
An inspection concerning the hygienic status of the system and his environment is important.
Transportation to the laboratory should be made as soon as possible.If the sample has to be
stored over night it should not be refrigerated, but left in dark and by room temperature.
172
Method for volumes from 100 ml to 1.000 ml: Membrane filtration with polycarbonate
filter with pores from 0,4 to 0,45 milli micra should be used. Resuspend in 0,5 to 1 ml of
the water of the sample with ultrasound using low power in order not to damage the cells of
Legionella.
Add 0,5 ml of 0,2 ml-KCL/HCL buffer mix and wait for 5 minutes.
Inoculate the whole volume on the surface of several BCYE- Agar-Plate
This culture media contains alfa-ketoglutarat,glycin, L-cysteine-hydrochloride and iron-III-
pyrophosphate as well a antibiotic supplement.
Incubate for seven days at 35 to 37oC in damp atmosphere.
Differentiation
Inoculate about three typical colonies on a cysteine free culture media such as blood agar.
Incubate two to three days at 35 to 37o C. If there is no growth, test identical colonies with
Immunofluorescent test using mono or polyvalent sera of Legionella pneumophyla.
Clear water samples expecting low number of Legionella
Membrane filtration should be made with ”black” celulosenitrate filters.
After filtration of the sample the filter should be covered with 10 ml 0,2-mol-KCl/HCl-buffer.
After 5 minutes the buffer should be filtered off and the filter should be washed with about 10
ml PBS (phosphate buffer, pH 7,6). The filter should now be placed on a plate of blood-agar
incubated and differentiated as described above.
Method for small volumes of water sample The water samples are inoculated directly
using not more than 0,5 ml for each plate.
Incubation and differentiation as described above.
Enterobacteriaceae, culture methods

Culture methods for Enterobacteriaceae used in food bacteriology are:
Official collection of methods according to the 35 of the Food Law in Germany (Amtliche Samm-
lung von Untersuchungsverfahren nach 35 LMBG) indicate under Methode L 05.00.5 the use of
Violet Neutral Red bile Dextrose Agar (VRBD-Agar ) for the culture of Enterobacteriaceae in
fine foods such as Mayonnaise emulsified sauces, could sauces ready to eat, fine salads, prime
materials and quality control of the production.
This medium is being used by commercial laboratories, by official laboratories of food con-
trol laboratories in Germany and with some small modifications by a large number of quality
control laboratories of the industry.
This medium is also described by ISO/DIS 552 (1977), DIN 10164 and DIN 10172. Over-
laying the plates with the same medium assures anaerobic conditions.Not fermenting gram
negative bacteria will so be suppressed and fermentation of dextrose is increased.
Enterobacteriaceae grow as 1-2 mm violet colonies having a precipitation around the colony.Not
Enterobacteriaceae grow as colorless colonies.

The Coli-Aerogenes - Group as possible indicator of feces contamination as great importance
in the control of water but is of smaller significance on food where the search for exact defined
groups of bacteria.
Enterobacteriaceae are considered to be a good indicator of failures by the manufacturing

of foods using low heat. The VRBD-agar plate, Violet Red Bile Dextrose Agar gives positive
colonies after 24 hours of incubation at 30 o C caused by the following bacteria: Enterobacte-
riaceae: Coliform bacteria
Shigella which do not ferment lactose
Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli which can produce Enterotoxin.They are more resistant to heat than the ap-
athogenic E.coli.
Salmonella
Citrobacter
Klebsiella
Other bacteria which grow on VRBD, not included in the group of Enterobac-
teriaceae:
Aeromonas
Yersinia
Pseudomonas, inhibited by overlay technique
Bacterium anitratum
Achromobacter anitratus.
The selectivity of VRBD reduces after 24 hours incubation.Some other not specified as En-
terobacteriaceae bacteria can then grow.
Table 5.9: Typical composition of VRBD-Agar
Ingredient g/l
Yeast extract 3,0
Pepton 7,0
Natrium chlorid 5,0
Bile salt Nr.3 1,5
Glucose 10,0
Neutral red 0,03
Violet red 0,002
Agar 12,0
174
pH 7,4+-0,2
VRBD- Agar is told to have a better recovery rate of Salmonella , Arizona and Shigella as
with the lactose bearing VRB-Agar. Unfortunately it does not differentiate between Coli and
Salmonella/shigella.
Other media for Enterobacteriaceae In food control laboratories using VRBD-agar there
are often positive findings with low number of Enterobacteriaceae. In order to make a decision
about discarding or using the food further media could be used beside VRBD- agar examining
food known to have problems , such as potatoes salad.In production of food with short shelf
life it is impossible to wait for results of traditional bacteriology.
To speed up final results one or more of the following media could additionaly be used:
Detection of Coli-Aerogenes group in water,foods and dairy products with VRB-

Agar; Violet Red Bile Agar This medium is cited by DIN 10160, APHA 1985, FIL-IDF,
Euroglace and the official methode according 35 LMBG L 00.00-21.
It is not exclusive for Enterobacteriaceae, other bacteria such as Aeromonas and Yersinia spp.
can produce similar reactions. Violet red and bile salt inhibit the growth of gram positive
bacteria. The fermentation of lactose produces acid which makes the pH- indicator neutral
red change its color to red and is responsible for the precipitation of bile salts. in the near
surroundings of positive colony.
Lactose positive bacteria grow as 0,5-2 mm (24 hours) purple colonies which may be surrounded
by a purple zone.(Coliform bacteria grow as 1-2 mm colonies.The Coli-Aerogenes group Ente-
rococcus and Klebsiella) grow as 0,5 mm small colonies after 24 hours at 300 C . Escherichia
coli should be incubated at 44+-10C
Lactose negative bacteria grow as pale colonies which can be surrounded by a greenish zone.
Table 5.10: Typical composition of VRB-Agar
Ingredient g/l
Yeast extract 3,0
Pepton 7,0
Natrium chlorid 5,0
Bile salt Nr.3 1,5
Lactose 10,0
Neutral red 0,03
Violet red 0,002

Agar 12,0
pH 7,4+-0,2 VRB-Agar is available under Art.-Nr. CM 107 from Oxoid and Ar.Nr. 1406 from
Merck.
COLI ID, medium for the detection of coliforms and identification of E.coli The
medium COLI ID contains two chromogenic substrates which allows the direct recognition of
coliforms and identification of Escherichia coli, without use of additional reagents.
Table 5.11: Typical colonies of E.coli, coliforms and others Gram- on COLI ID
Colony color rose blue colorless

beta-glucuronidase + - -
beta-galactosidase + + -
Escherichia coli other coliforms other Gram(-)
Coliforms on COLI ID, Citrobacter,Enterobacter or Klebsiella have blue color. Detection,
enumeration and identification of E. coli and coliforms are made after 24-48 hours incubation
at 37o C on pour-plate.E.coli colonies on COLI ID are of rose color with a rose zone around
the colonies.Other Gram negative bacteria a on COLI ID are bight rose , small and have no
surrounding zone. Gram positives and yeasts are inhibited.COLI ID is available under Ref
42017 from bioMérieux
Enrichment broth for total coliforms and Escherichia coli Enrichment of total co-
liforms together with Escherichia coli can be made with Fluorocult LMX-broth according to
Manafi and Ossmer
After 24 - 48 hours the broth will change its color to blue-green.

Fluorocult LMX-broth is available under the number 1.10620.
Positive cultures can be plated on Chromocult coliforms-agar.
Chromocult, coliforms agar Chromocult, coliforms agar is a combination of two chromo-

gene substrates Salmon-GAL and X-GLUC for the recognition of Escherichia coli, coliforms
and other Enterobacteriaceae.
The growth of Coliforms even sublethal damaged cells is granted due to use of peptone, pyru-
vate, sorbitol and a buffer of phosphate. Gram(+) and some Gram (-) bacteria are inhibited
by Tergitol 7. Coliform bacteria are beta-D-galactosidasepositive and ferment the substrate
Salmon GAL turning pink/red.
Escherichia coli is beta-D-glucuronidase positive and ferment the substrate Salmon GAL turn-
ing blue.
176
The used substrate is X-Glucuronid.Escherichia coli ferments both Salmon-GAL and also X-
Glucuronid turning blue-violet being easy to identify E. coli among other coliforms which turn
pink-red.
Tryptophane improves the indol reaction to confirm E. coli adding safety of the detection of
the germ with Salmon-GAL and x glucuronid-reaction. To suppress Pseudomonas spp. and
Aeromonas spp.add 5 mg Cefsulodin(such as Sigma)in 1 ml demineralised. water sterile filtered
to 1liter of medium.
Inculation:As pour plate, as surface culture or as filter culture.
Read the plate as follows:
Escherichia coli:Deep blue-violet (Salmon-GAL reaction and x-glucuronid-reaction)

To confirm E. coli the colonies may covered with one droplet of Kovac’s indol solution. Red
color of the solution after few seconds is positive for E.coli.
Coliforms:Pink-red colonies (Salmon-GAL reaction)(Citrobacter,Enterobacter, Klebsiella and

some E.coli and deep blue-violet (E.coli).
Some enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli ferment X-Gluc (Mug-) and behave like coliforms.
To find these bacteria use Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7-agar .
Other Enterobacteriaceae: Pale colonies, with exception of some bacteria which have beta-
glucuronidase activity. These Bacteria have bright blue turquoise colonies.
Table 5.12: Typical composition of Chromocult-Agar
Ingredient g/l
Pepton 3,0
Natrium chlorid 5,0
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate 2,2
di-sodium hydrogenphosphate 2,7
Sodium pyrovate 1,0
Sorbitol 1,0
Tryptophane 1,0
Agar-agar 10,0
Tergitol 7 0,15
Chromogen mixture 0,2
pH 7,4+-0,2 Chromocult Coliforms Agar is available under Number 1.10426 Merck.
EHEC, Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli 0157:H7, culture Verotoxin producing

E. coli (VETC) and Escherichia coli 0157:H7 (EHEC) produce diarrhea, kidney failures in chil-
dren and old patients and are also important in veterinary medicine.
They can be detected on Fluorocult E coli 0157:H7-agar detected.
e.coli 0157:H7 is sorbitol negative and has no beta-D-glucuronidase.This is used to distinguish

him from not pathogen E.coli.
The medium also distinguishes between Proteus and Shigella.
Fluorescens of MUG is an important differentiation between the different bacteria.
Inhibition of Gram (+) bacteria is made by sodiumdesoxycholate.
Table 5.13: Typical growth of bacteria on Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7-agar
Bacteria colorprecipitationMUG Sorbitol

E.coli 0157:H7 greenish - - -
E.coli yellow +- + +
Proteus mirabilis black-brown - - -
Enterobacter aerogenes yellow +- - +
Streptococcus faecalis no growth
Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7-agar is available under the number 1.04036
Fluorescence methods for detection of Escherichia coli
: E. Meck, Darmstadt, Germany has various culture media to detect by means of fluorescence,
production of indol from tryptophan.
The fluorescence methode is done by adding MUG (4-Methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronid.)

Best results on reading the cultures are at pH 9 to 10 under UV light of 366 nm.
Advantages of MUG (glucuronidase methode )
• Glucuronidase -reaction is more sensitive compared with formation of gas from lactose.
This increases diagnostic safety .
• Reduced work and reduced costs
• Reduced time, results are given in 24 to 48 hours compared with 96 to 144 hours.
• Fluorogene substances are very sensitive. Activity of glucuronidase is a characteristic of

94characteristic 99% of all types of E.coli [427].
178
Glucuronidase methode for the determination

of Escherichia coli
M U G = MethylUmbelliferyl-Glucuronid (colourless)
Beta-D-Glucuronidase
from E.coli
Glucuronic acid + Methylumbelliferon

(colourless) (Fluorescent)
To avoid false results please observe:
• Glassware, other utensils and the material to be examinated should not have strong
fluorescence as this might overdo the reaction of MUG.
• Work always with control positive and control negative
• Alkaline pH brings strong fluorescence.If the medium is acid add some droplets of 1N
NaOH-solution to turn it alkaline
• Indol reaction has to be done after the reading of fluorescence and not later than 24 hours.
Fluorescence optical methods are cited in the following German DIN methods: DIN 10 110 :
Determination on E.coli in meat and meat derivates.
DIN 10 183 , part 3 : Determination of E.coli in milk, milk derivates, icecream, baby food
based on milk.
MUG can be added to almost any standard culture medium, however the usual media hav-
ing MUG already added are available. Some examples are:
Merck Fluorocult Brila-broth (1.12587):

It is used as selective enrichment and enumeration from E. coli and other coliforms in titer test
of water from swimming pools.
Bile and brilliant green inhibit Gram positive bacteria. Reading of the cultures is done under
366 nm light. A pale blue fluorescence of the tube stands for the presence of E.coli.
To confirm the result the culture should be covered with approximately 5 mm with KOVACS-
indol reagent A cherry-red color of the reagent stands for the presence of E.coli and /or coliforms.
Merck Fluorocult DEV-lactose-peptone-broth (1.04037):

It is used as enrichment and titer of coliform bacteria in the examination of water.
The presence of E. coli is demonstrated with fluorescence under UV light, and the a positive
indol reaction.
Merck Fluorocult ECD-Agar (1.04038):

The ECD agar (E.coli Direct Agar) is suitable to examine feces and food samples as well. It is
cited under DIN 10 110 for the examination of meat and related material. The bile salt inhibits
the not obligatory intestinal flora. The presence of E. coli is demonstrated with fluorescence
under UV light, and the a positive indol reaction.
Merck Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7 Agar(1.04036):

It is a selective agar for the isolation and differentiation of enterohaemorrhagic EHEC Es-
cherichia coli 0157:H7 from food samples and from clinic material.
This bacteria is sorbitol negative, glucuronidase negative, no fluorescence.
Sodium desoxicholat inhibits the concomitant Gram positive flora.
Faecis are inoculated directly on plates and incubated for 14 to 24 hours at 37o C. Sorbitol
negative colonies presenting no modification of the color of the medium have to be identified
under UV light.
E.coli o157:H7 grows as greenish and Proteus mirabilis as black/brown colonies.
Fluorocult Lauryl-Sulfate-Broth (1.12588):

This culture medium is determined to be a reference methode for E.coli in the examination of
milk and derivates in DIN 10183, part 3. Lauryl-sulfate is added to inhibit the concomitant
organism.
Merck Fluorocult LMX- Broth (Laurylsulfate-MUG-X-Gal)

This medium is used in the simultaneously detection or coliforms and E.coli.
A rapid growth of coliform bacteria is granted due to the high nourishing properties of the
medium and the presence of a phosphate buffer.
Lauryl-sulfate is added to inhibit the concomitant organism. The chromogen substrate X-Gal
is being hydrolysed causing the change of color to blue-green. The booster substance IPTG
intensifying the enzymatic activity of coliforms increasing the sensibility of the test. E. coli is
confirmed with fluorescence.
180
Merck Fluorocult MacConkey-Agar [1.04029]:

This culture medium is used to isolate Salmonelleae Shigelleae and coliforms, especially Es-
cherichia coli. Bile salts and violet red inhibit the Gram positive Flora.
Lactose fermentation is demonstrated by the pH indicator neutral red.
Escherichia coli colonies are fluorescent under UV light. Lactose negative colonies are col-
orless,lactose positive red often with a turbid zone of precipitated bile.
Merck Fluorocult VRB-Agar(Fluorocult Violet Red Bile Agar 1.04030)

This selective culture medium is used to detect and to enumerate coliform bacteria, especially
Escherichia coli.Violet red and bile salts inhibit the Gram positive Flora.
Lactose positive bacteria turn red among them E.coli is fluorescent under UV light. Lactose
negative Enterobacteriaceae are colorless.
Merck Bactident E.coli, rapid test to identify Escherichia coli isolated on non se-
lective media (1.13303):[427]
The result is available in about 30 minutes. There is no asepsis needed because the initial
amount of bacteria is very high and growth of E. coli more rapid as concomitant bacteria.
A colony on test is suspended in 200 microliter distilled water. A test stick is added and the
tub is incubated by 37o C for 30 to 120 minutes. under ultra violet light of 366 nm fluorescence
is read (glucuronidase with MUG).Indol reaction is done by adding one droplet of KOVACS
reagent. Red color of the suspension after some seconds is a positive reaction and confirms
E.coli.
Thin layer chromatography with immunologic analysis to detect E.coli 0157:H7

Vip EHEC Thin layer chromatography with immunologic analysis to detect E.coli 0157:H7 is
a rapid detection system for E.coli (EHEC) in food from BioControl Systems Inc.USA.
This system is admitted by the AOAC. It makes EHEC specific antigens visible as a blue
reaction line reacting with antibody linked to blue latex particle.
To perform the test VIP EHEC Biotest Nr. 928 110 and further utensils are needed:
- Sterile Pipette with 100 µl volume
- Stopwatch
- 225 modified Casein peptone-Soy peptone-Broth with Novobiocin
Table 5.14: Casein peptone-Soy peptone-Broth with Novobiocin
ingredient quantity
Casein peptone-Soy peptone-broth 30,0 g/l

bile salt Nor.3 1,5 g/l
K2 HPO4 1,5 g/l
Deionizated water 1000 ml
Autoclavated and cool
Novobiocin solution:
Novobiocin (Na salt] 100 mg

Deionized water 1,0 ml
The novobiocine solution is to be sterile filtered an kept in dark a glass. The shelf life of the
solution is several month at 4o C.
Enrichment: 25 g from the sample are incubated at 35-37oC during 18 hours in 225 ml
modified Casein-peptone-Soy peptone-Broth.
0,1 ml of the enrichment culture are place in the start field. The test kit is then incubated for
10 minutes at room temperature. The reading of the test should be made after 10 minutes,
after that false positive reactions can take place.
Positive results should be confirmed inoculating the enrichment culture one a selective medium
such as: Sorbitol-macConkey -Agar (Heipha Nr. 125e) , Bile-Chrysoidin -Sorbitol-Agar with
MUG, (Heipha Nr 1052). After 24 hours of incubation the culture plates are read and suspected
colonies are biochemicaly differentiated and identified with specific serotypes.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) identifying microorganism

Tougher regulatory standards and the increased attention of the news media in relation to food
contamination in restaurants, supermarkets and processing plants trigger higher priority on
safety, shelf life and cleanliness. More stringent and rapid testing along the whole supply chain
are being developed.
PCR became one of the top laboratory methods for microbacterial detection in the food in-
dustry..It can detect small samples of contamination by amplifying the amount of DNA of the
contaminant.
Scientist of Campden and Chorleywood Food Researche have automated ribotyping for charac-
terising microorganisms below the species level. The technique can be used for identification.
To complement the technology the development of an identification system based on the cap-
ture of PCR-amplified DNA sequences onto DNA microarrays is being developed.
Microarray: A microarray is a solid surface as a microscope slide, onto which the ampli-
fied DNA is bond. The microarrays can be used to probe an unknown organism to see which
of the DNA sequences on the array are also present in the organism.
182
Microarray probes were designed for selected groups of bacteria, based on regions of the 16S
ribosomal RNA. Campden and Chorleywood Food Researche (CCFRA) developed and has val-
idated PCR protocols for Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Clostridium species.
Impedance technologies for rapid detection and enumeration of bacteria
The impedance technology is being increasingly used in industrial microbiology.
Principle: Proteins and carbohydrates from the culture medium are electrically neutral or
weakly ionized. Microorganisms transform these molecules into several smaller parts like amino
acids, lactate etc which have greater charge and electrical motility.
These modifications can be measured between paired electrodes in the culture medium. Even
very weak electrical variations of the medium can be measured and the presence of very few
bacteria can be detected long before a colony is visible in culture.
Making a curve of the percentage of electrical variation in relation to time there is an un-
expected inflection in the curve depending on the number and the metabolic activity of the
bacteria being present.
Impedance technology \cite{bacto}
450 \% Electrical
400 Variation
350 Contaminated
(++)
300
250 Contaminated
200 (+)
150
100 Detection line
50 " Sterile" (-)
00
-50
00 20 100 120 140
40 60 80
Detection time [431]: is the point of the inflection of the curve, depending on the num-
ber and the metabolic activity of the bacteria being present.
Impedance: is the total resistance measured in a conductive medium.
Conductance: measures the bulk ionic strength in the growth medium.
Capacitance: is measured as the accumulation of electrical charges by increasing the ionic

concentration around the electrodes.
Measurement of capacitance is particularly adapted to detection of bacteria which release
slightly ionized metabolites (yeasts, moulds and non-fermenting Gram negative organisms).
Sterility testing: a detection time at anytime during the test period signifies a non ster-
ile sample.
184
Screening or enumeration: the detection time enables samples to be accepted or rejected

according to the specification level in a short period of time.
Impedance technology provides results within hours. The more contaminated the sample, the
quicker impedance technology detects it saving time.
Automated impedance technology available as BACTOMETER from bioMieux.This company
also sells dehydrated culture media specially adapted to impedance technology:
Total count BHI: Enumeration of total aerobic flora in food.

Total count MPCA: Enumeration of total aerobic flora in food.
Total count GPM: Sterility control and enumeration of total aerobic flora in milk, food, cos-
metics, and pharmaceutical products.
Total count GPM Plus: Sterility control and enumeration of total aerobic flora in milk, food,
cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. The formula of the medium is enriched vitamins,
amino acids etc to favor the growth of fastidious and/or stressed bacteria during the manufac-
turing process.
Coliforms CM: Enumeration of coliforms in food.
Enterobacteriaceae EM: Enumeration of Enterobacteriaceae in food.
Yeasts/Moulds YMM: Detection of yeasts and moulds in fruit juice, milk, food, cosmetics and
pharmaceutical products.
Lactic acid bacteria LM: Detection and enumeration of lactic acid bacteria in fruit juice,
dairy products and food. The BACTOMETER impedance technology used for total count,sterility
tests, coliforms Enterobacteriaceae, Yeasts and moulds as well as lactic acid bacteria can also
be complemented with two other systems:
VITEK: Automated identification oof Gram negative bacilli, Grampositive cocci, Bacillus,
anaerobes, yeasts.
VIDAS: Automated detection using immunoanalysis of pathogenic bacteria, Listeria, Salmonella,

Staphylococcal enterotoxins, E.coli O157, Campylobacter.
The principle of VIDAS is based on a specific reaction between an antibody and an anti-
gen. An antibody coated device captures the antigens of the organism being detected. After
several washing procedures a second antibody will fix the antigen using the sandwich technique.
This second antibody is then conjugated with an enzyme, which will produce a fluorescent
reaction with the substrate. The intensity of this reaction is measured and interpreted by the
system.
The RABIT ( Rapid Automated Bacterial Impedance Technique) is a system de-

veloped by Don Whitley Scientific Limited,Shipley, West Yorkshire. Using the principles of the
impedance technology RABIT detects and enumerates bacteria. High initial costs of the device
still are a disadvantage of the impedance technique.
MALTHUS from Malthus Instruments: , Bury, UK measures electrical conductivity of

culture media.It detects and enumerates specific bacteria such as Campylobacter, coliforms,
Columbia, Enterobacteriaceae, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonellae, TMA ( total count), Staphy-
lococcus aureus.
BacTrac, impedance analytic: BacTrac is a system using Impedance technology to de-

tect and to enumerate spoilage bacteria in beer, coliform, Salmonellae and Staphylococcus
aureus and total bacterial count in milk powder.
BcTrac system can scan three analytical methods:
The Impedance of the medium (M-value)
The Impedance at the Electrode (E-value)
The indirect Measuring of the Gas Production (G-value)
Measuring the three parameters at the same time a more rapid result is possible.
The Impedance at the Electrode (E-Value) often reacts earlier as other values , permitting
thus a rapid result. The E-value is relatively stable against variations of salt content. The
Impedance of the Medium (M-value) is a confirmation of the E-value and increases the safety
of the result.
The biological activity of bacteria decompose big molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, peptides
etc) of the medium in which they are growing. Smaller chemical compounds result which are
dissociated and and increase conductivity. The electrical resistance is diminished. [429]
There are 5 possible interaction of the bacteria with the substrate: The Impedance of the
medium (E-value)
1. Molecules without charge and polar macromolecules are digested in smaller ions, increas-
ing the conductivity of the medium.
2. Small molecules are digested in very small electrical charged parts which can move more
easily increasing the conductivity.
3. Ions already existing in solution are united in great ions. The conductivity is diminished.
4. Small ions are united in electrical charged macromolecules. The conductivity is dimin-
ished.
5. Autolysis of cells: Due to autolytic activities of the cell often observed in yeasts, ions of
the interior of the cell are liberated an increase the conductivity . This is not caused by
growing number of alien bacteria.
186
To measure cultural media a metallic electrode of high-grade steel, platinum or gold is dipped
into the solution. A layer of ions covers the surface of the electrode. Measuring the electrical
resistance of the electrode the variations of this layer is recorded.
The impedance of the electrode ZE acts as a capacitor with a parallel resistor. Cultural media
or bacterial suspensions have ions and particles without charges which can also adhere to the
electrode. A separate measure of the impedance of the electrode and the impedance of the
medium is very useful to get earlier results:
Impedance of the Medium and Electrode
according to Futschik
\% M \% E
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae in
0 jjoghurt
-5 5
0
0 15 20 25 30 0 15 20 25 30
\% M \% E Growth of
Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii
5 5
0 0
0 15 20 25 30 0 15 20 25 30
The growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae [429]is seen only after 15 hours measuring the impedance
of the medium. Measuring the impedance of the electrode the result is already seen after 4
hours.
When high amount of ions from the medium are already present new ions from the activity of
microorganisms present no significant modification of conductivity, conductance or resistance
which is measured as Impedance of the Medium , M-value. Measuring the impedance of the
Electrode E-value, there is a good result after a couple of hours. This is shown in the example
of Zygosaccharomyces rouxii.
Other toxigenic bacteria can be detected with the BacTrac system using the impedance technol-
ogy. Such bacteria and other applications are: Listeria and Clostridium, total count, sterility
test, shelf life, activity test of preservatives and antibiotic, activity of starter cultures.
The impedance technology has been validated in DIN 10115 of the German standardization.
Corrosion caused by bacteria Bilge water and standing water in ships,cooling water sys-
tems and water tanks may be contaminated by Desulfovibrio desulfuricans. This bacterium
reduces sulfates to corrosive sulfides producing mud which can make holes through iron plates
of ten millimeters in a period of one year.
A group of scientists of Palo Alto makes experiments experiments to change the bacterial
layer (bio film) of water systems to a population of oxygen consuming bacteria which due to
genetic modification can produce antimicrobial substances which act against sulfate reducing
bacteria[377].
In the meantime maintenance of water systems is the best way to avoid damages caused by
Desulfovibrio.
Disinfection of drinking water [?] Supply of drinking water may come from surface water
or ground-water, from a river, a lake or a spring.
As this water may be contaminated by bacteria or parasites it should be disinfected as fol-

lows: Filtration Filtration should be made using Berkefeld filters, Chamberlain-filters and
others.
Continuous detection of bacteria count is necessary to avoid overgrowing of the filter.
Disinfection of water using heat

Small amount of water can be boiled killing all bacteria. The taste of boiled water is not good
enough because of the elimination of carbon acid and alkaline earth carbonates.
Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet radiation is used in small quantities of water. It is to expensive for central commu-
nal distribution.
Mercury low pressure lamps are used. Short waves producing ozone are often filtered out.
Chemical disinfection of drinking water
Chlorine is the most used chemical disinfectant of water. 0,2 to 1,0 g in 1 m3 kills all germs
in water.
Chlorine can combine with components such as lipoproteins and cell plasma of the cell of the
bacteria.Chlorine can react with the unsaturated molecules. It can also act dehydrating.
188
With water chlorine forms underchloric acid

H2 O + Cl2 = HClO + HCl
Underchloric acid decays in chloric acid and oxygen:
2 HCLO = 2 HCl + O2
The oxygen in molecular form is an active part during disinfection killing bacteria. The result-
ing chloric acid is neutralized by earth alkaline carbonate generally present in complex media
(E. Thofern and collaborators, 1958)
According to drinking water regulations (German regulation) disinfection of water can be made
with Chlorine, sodium-, calcium- and magnesium hypochloride, chlorine chalk and chlorine diox-
ide.
Chlorine dioxide in 20% solution is widely used presenting low taste and low smell compared
with chlorine.It has strong disinfectant activity and is used to brake down phenols in drinking
water and waste water streams. [566]
Drinking water should not have more than 0,3 mg/l active chlorine.If necessary, in case of highly
contaminated water 0,6 mg/l are allowed.
The disinfection of chlorinated water takes place in 30 minutes. the taste level of free chlorine
is around 0,5 mg/l.
The smell level of free chlorine is far below taste level.
In case of resistant bacteria strong chlorination may be used.Excess of chlorine can be neu-
tralized with natriumthiosulphate or filtering the water through granulate of calciumsulfide
(Katarsit) or charcoal.
Charcoal filters out compounds of chlorphenol of chlorine reacted with natural phenoles of
river water.
Chlorination of drinking water was widely introduced in USA beginning with 1908.
Ozonization of drinking water Ozone is created discharging two electrodes through a dried
air stream.
W.Siemens had built in 1857 an ozone glass tube where ozone could be produced. The modern
equipment to generate ozone for the disinfection of drinking water have great capacity.
Chlorine dioxide is used primarily for bleaching of wood pulp, flour and disinfection of water.
Its most common use in water treatment is as a pre-oxidant prior to chlorination of drinking
water to reduce trihalomethanes which are a carcinogenic disinfection by-product associated
with chlorination of naturally occurring organics in the raw water. [566]
Chlorine dioxide is also used in conjunction with ozone disinfection of water to reduce the
formation of bromates which are regulated carcinogens. Chlorine dioxide is also superior to
chlorine when operating above neutral pH, when ammonia is present and for the control of
biofilms. [566]
Chlorine dioxide is less corrosive than chlorine and superior for the control of legionella bacteria,
viruses, bacteria and protozoa, including cysts of Giardia and the oocysts of Cryptosporidium.
[566]
It can also be used for air disinfection, and was the principal agent used in the decontami-
nation of buildings in the United States after the 2001 anthrax attacs. After the disaster of
Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Louisiana and the surrounding Gulf Coast, chlorine diox-
ide has been used to eradicate dangerous mold from houses inundated by water from massive
flooding. [566]
Chorine dioxide as disinfectant on produce, fresh fruits and vegetables [?] An U.S.
epidemic caused by spinach, contaminated with pathogenic Escherichia coli in September 2006
boosted the researches at the Purdue University of Indiana, concerning the use of chlorine diox-
ide gas as disinfectant on produce, fresh fruits and vegetables. The use of chlorine dioxide to
sterilize processing equipment speeding up sterilisation and eliminating the heat energy needed
for conventional sterilization is included in this study.
According to Linton, leading author of the project , chlorine dioxide is highly effective at
killing microbial pathogens but too much of it can cause a decrease of quality in the product,
such as browning of leafy greens. To help to prevent future outbreaks like the spinach contam-
ination in September 2006, Linton stresses the need to follow more stringent sanitary policies,
as well as practicing better manure and water management.
Chronic health effects of chlorine dioxide: Careful handling and use of chlorine diox-
ide is imperative because of possible chronic health effects. In the fact sheet about this gas,
the National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) of the Australian Department of Environment states
that the following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at some time after exposure to
chlorine dioxide and can last for months or years: irritate the lungs; repeated exposure may
cause bronchitis to develop with cough, phlegm, and/or shortness of breath. Permanent lung
damage may occur, especially with repeated exposure to the vapours. There is limited evidence
that chlorine dioxide may damage the developing foetus. [568]
190
The ten most dangerous diseases of the world

The WHO has listed the ten most dangerous diseases of the world.
Table 5.15: Ten most dangerous diseases

Disease caused affects Million trans
by death/Y mission
Influenza Haemophilus influenza Respiratory system 3,7
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lung 2,9 Food (e.g. milk)
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Digestive tract 2,5 food (e.g. water)
Aids Aids virus Immune system 2,3
Malaria Plasmodium falciparum Blood 1,5
Measles Measles virus lung and meninges 0,96
Hepatitis-B Hepatitis-B virus Liver 0,605 Food (e.g. water)
Whooping cough Bortadella pertussis Respiratory system 0,41
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Infections 0,275
Dengue fever Flavivirus Fever 0,14
Three among ten of the most dangerous diseases are transmitted by food. This shows that
food born diseases are of great importance. Other, more typical food born diseases like Campy-
lobacter or Salmonella may have a local high incidence, but cause worldwide less casualties.
engineering and food hygiene must be improved to reduce this hazard.
Hygiene and infections in flood catastrophe Flood catastrophes cause enormous de-
structions, endange human life and cause a high risk of infections because of contaminated
drinking water and food resources.
Special care to avoid infections should be taken not only during but also long after the flood
period.
The role of Water during flood catastrophes: During and long after flood catatrophes
water of rivers ,lakes, wells, ground-water and public water suply systems are contaminated by
a high count of pathogen bacteria, virus and egs of parasitic worms due to faecal contamination
and man to man infections. This is often caused by a breakdown of the sewage treatment systen
of the region or even the destruction of the sewerage
Another source of infection are deteriorating corpses of drowened animals.
The contamination of the water due to urine of rat and mouses with Leptospirae should always
be considered. Most frequent intestinal infections are typhoid and paratyphoid fever Coli-
enteritis, Shigella infections and hepatitis A infections.
Vacination of rescue and aid program groups: All members of rescue or aid program
groups should be vaccinated against typhoid fever and hepatitis A. Due to increased possibility
of injuries tetanus vaccination should be included or if necessary old vaccinations should be
freshed up.
Guide and warning standards for Foods It is of great importance for industry, health
service and trade agreements to have standards for limits of number of bacteria in foods.Some
limits are already set by food regulations such as limits for milk or water. With growing im-
portance of the global standards are becoming more important.
The Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Hygiene und Mikrobiologie DGHM has compiled limits which are
oficial regulations. They should be used as a help to define Good Manufacturing Practice. The
Standards can be downloaded under: http://www.unibonn.de/em-mibi
The standards are divided in two parts:
1 - Guide limits: If the bacterial count is under or is equal to the guide limit changes are
not necessary.
If growth of bacteria exceeds guide limits but is under the warning limit weak points in storage,
production transport and retail should be analyzed. Veterinary supervision should advice the
companies which engaged in the production.
2 - Warning limits: If bacterial surpasses the warning limits error at hygiene during production
must be eliminated. Veterinary control system may act against these foods.
Bacillus stearothermophilus [569] Bacillus stearothermophilus Donk, 1920 is presumably

intended to mean fat and heat-loving. The most distinctive diagnostic characters are capacity
to grow at 65o C and a limited tolerance to acid. Bacillus strains capable of growing at tem-
peratures of 65o and above do not belong to a single species, it is however a useful diagnostic
character.
Bacillus stereatothermophilus occurs in soil, hot springs, desert sand, Arctic waters, ocean sed-
iments, food and compost.
The biochemical characteristics of Bacillus stearothermophilus are:
Catalase= negative
Voges-Proskauer test= negative
Acid from D-glucose= positive
hen Acid from L- arabinose= differ
D-xilose= differ
D-mannitol= differ
Gas from glucose= negative
Hydrolysis of casein= differ
Hydrolysis of gelatin= positive
192
Hydrolysis of starch= positive

Utilization of citrate= differ
Degradation of Tyrosine= negative
Desamination of phenylalanine= negative
Nitrate reduced to nitrite= differ
Formation of indole= negative
Dihydroxyacetone= negative
Sodium and potassium chloride required= negative
Alantoin or urate required= negative
Allen ( 1953) has pointed out that fresh isolates tend to diversity of characteristics. When
maintained in culture for some times they are readily classifiable.
This bacterium has a vital importance for canning factories. Bacillus stearothermophilus to-
gether with Bacillus coagulans as well as other bacteria have high heat resistant spores. The
temperature maximum where growth still takes place is 75o C the best growth temperature for
Bacillus stearothermophilus is 55 to 60o C. Bacillus stearothermophilus is the bacterium whose
spores can survive at temperatures higher than other bacteria. In hot springs bacteria may be
found which resist higher temperatures than that.
D-value (Decimal reduction time): The D-value is the time which is necessary at a specific
temperature to reduce an initial population of a bacterium down to 10%. This means that it
kills 90% of the bacterium. It is measured in minutes.The Temperature must be cited.
For Bacillus stearothermophilus a D-value of D121,1 = 4 up to 5 minutes are given.
D-values for other bacteria in order to draw a comparison:

Clostridium botulinum type A and B D121,1 = 0,1 up to 0,2 min.
Clostridium sporogenes D121,1 = 0,1 up to 1,5 min.
Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum D121,1 = 3 up to 4,0 min.
Desulfotomaculum nigrificans D121,1 = 2 up to 3,0 min.
For tropic conserves the sterilization has to be carefully done as Bacillus stearotermophilus
grows at storage temperatures higher than 37o . Below of that there is no growth. To kill its
spores F121,1 15 to 30 minutes must be used in case of canned meat.
Tetrahymena protozoan and Samonella and resistance to sanitizers

[572] [571] Nondestructive ingestion by soilborne protozoa may enhance the environmental re-
siliency of important bacterial pathogens and may model how such bacteria evade destruction
in human macrophages.
Microbiologist Maria T. Brandl from the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in the US have
found that Salmonella enterica serovar Thompson may be ingested by the protozoan Tetrahy-
mena. S. enterica cannot be digested by the protozoan which is expelled encased in miniature
pouches called ”food vacuoles.” Other food pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, however,
are destroyed and digested.
Brandl found that twice as many Salmonella cells stayed alive in water if they were encased in
expelled vacuoles than if they were not encased. Encased Salmonella cells were three times more
likely than unenclosed cells to survive exposure to a 10-minute bath of two parts per million of
calcium hypochlorite, the bleachlike compound often used to sanitise food and food-processing
equipment being resistant to sanitising.
Brandl found that some vacuoles held as many as 50 Salmonella cells. This dense cluster-
ing might safeguard the innermost ones from environmental stresses such as ultraviolet rays or
harmful temperatures.
Brandl concludes that the release of this human pathogen from Tetrahymena cells in high-
density clusters enclosed in a membrane may have important implications for public health.
Brandl now wants to pinpoint genes that Salmonella bacteria turn on while inside the vacuoles.
Those genes may be the ones that it activates when invading humans. [572]
Phage potentiates antibiotic [573]

Steven Hagens found that specific bacteriophages, such as the filamentous phages Pf3 and Pf1
can make antibiotic-resistant Pseudomonas bacteria more susceptible, thus improving the at-
tack on them by antibiotics.
According to the author of the study phage DNA sequences code for membrane proteins that
create channels in the bacterium’s cell wall. Antibiotics are able to enter the cell through
these gateways more quickly than it can dispose of them. Tests were performed in mice. The
combination therapy using the antibiotic Gentamicin and the filamentous phages was effective
against a strain of P. aeruginosa containing a gene for resistance to Gentamicin.
Combination therapy using phages could then make progress when a bacterial strain was sus-
ceptible to a particular filamentous phage.
Professor Martin Loessner of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH) researches
on the use of phages against Listeria monocytogenes in foods like soft cheeses. [574]
Changing genome sequence of yoghurt bacteria [575]

Van de Guchte and colleagues studying the genome sequence of Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp.
194
bulgaricus (L. bulgaricus) found that the sequence shows the signs of ongoing specialization,
with a substantial number of pseudogenes and incomplete metabolic pathways and relatively
few regulatory functions.
The author point out signs of a rapid evolution of the genome:

• Exceptionally high numbers of rRNA and tRNA genes with regard to genome size ,
indicating recent phase of important size reduction.
• A much higher GC content at codon position 3 than expected
• The presence of a rare 47.5-kbp inverted repeat in the replication termination region
The authors conclude that L. bulgaricus is in ongoing adaptation from a plant-associated habi-
tat to the stable protein and lactose-rich milk environment, such as yoghurt,through the loss
of superfluous functions and protocooperation with Streptococcus thermophilus.
Genome sequence analysis of Lactobacillus delbrueckii [576]
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, together with Lactobazillus helveticus and Strep-
tococcus thermophilus are part of starter cultures for fermented dairy products such as yoghurt,
Swiss cheese and italian cheese.
The genome sequence of L.delbrueckii subsp bulgaricus is of interest for the dairy industry
because strains must be resistant to bacteriophage, have stable fermentation properties, and
consistently produce products with acceptable flavour and texture attributes. A complete
genome sequence analysis will provide the knowledge of the enzymes and metabolic pathways
helping to enhance these strains.
Lactobacillus delbrueckii species contains three subspecies, L. delbrueckii subsp. delbrueckii,

L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. L. delbrueckii subsp. Bul-
garicus. The species are acid tolerant, cannot synthesize porphyrins, and possess a strictly
fermentative metabolism with lactic acid as the major metabolic end product, and according
to Axelsson, 1998, are part of the obligately homofermentative (”Group I”) cluster, which pro-
duce D-lactic acid from hexose sugars via the Embden-Meyerhof pathway and are incapable
of fermenting pentoses and, according to Hammes and Vogel, grow on a restricted number of
carbohydrates and require pantothenic acid and niacin. [577]
Hammes and Vogel found that the GC ratio of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus with 49-51%,
is higher than that found among other species of this phylogenetic tree with 34 to 46%. [577]
Its genome size is according to Leong-Morgenthaler 2.3 Mbp. [578]
Safety assessment for microorganisms added to food and feed [579]

EFSA introducted the use of Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS) as a safety assessment
tool for microorganisms added to food and feed.
A wide variety of bacterial and fungal species are used in food and feed production, either
directly or as a source of additives. Some of these have a long history of apparent safe use,
while others are less well understood and may represent a possible risk for consumers. To
capture important risk aspects without committing resources to thorough investigations of
organisms known to be safe, there is a need for a tool for setting priorities within the risk
assessment of microorganisms in the production of food and feed.
In 2002/3 the introduction for selected microorganisms of a Qualified Presumption of Safety

(QPS) was proposed. This concept shared some of the elements and purpose of the USA GRAS
(Generally Recognised As Safe) system. In essence this proposed that a safety assessment of a
defined taxonomic group (e.g. genus or group of related species) would be made independently
of any particular pre-market authorisation process. If the taxonomic group did not raise safety
concerns or, if safety concerns existed, but could be defined and excluded (the qualification)
the grouping would be granted QPS status.
Thereafter a strain of microorganism whose identity could be unambiguously established and

assigned to a QPS group would be freed from the need for further safety assessment other than
meeting any qualifications specified. Microorganisms not considered suitable for QPS status
would remain subject to a full safety assessment.
Strains representing approximately 100 species of microorganisms have been or are expected to
be referred to EFSA for a safety assessment (see Annex 1 for those already notified to EFSA).
Individual species may be the subject of a single notification but more usually are found in
several notifications. This list includes both live organisms deliberately introduced into the
food chain and those used as a source of food/feed additives. A large majority of these 100
species fall within four broad groupings:
1. Gram-positive non-sporulating bacteria (GPNS)
2. Bacillus species
3. Yeasts
4. Filamentous fungi
196
Antimicrobial drug-resistant Escherichia coli from humans and poultry products

[580]
According to Johnson and colleagues 2007 the food supply, including poultry products, may
transmit antimicrobial drug-resistant Escherichia coli to humans. Drug-resistant human isolates
from US population were phylogenetic and virulence gene profile similar to poultry isolates, and
drug-susceptible and drug-resistant poultry isolates were largely indistinguishable.
Human-source drug-resistant fecal E. coli isolates more likely originated in poultry than in
humans, whereas drug-resistant poultry isolates likely derive from drug-susceptible poultry iso-
lates. However, avoidance of poultry consumption may not reliably provide personal protection.
Chapter 6
BSE
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (B S E) was first described in 1986 related to cattle feed
containing meet and bones from carcasses of sheep being feed to bovines.
On the 70th the preparation of animal feed was simplified, and the temperature reduced. The
agent of BSE could now survive and Great Britain became the hotbed of the mad cow disease.
The zoologist Sir Richard Southwood [171] blames us all because we all want to eat cheap food.
Science, agriculture and politics have failed to get the disease under control. In the meanwhile
27 persons died on CJD ”new variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob-Disease”.
It seems to be the start of a horrible epidemic.
Human diseases caused by priones have different forms: Kuru: The tribe of fore in
Papua-Newguinea were cannibals, eating brains of diseased.After ceasing the cannibalic prac-
tice new infections were no more recorded.
The disease was called Kuru and was characterized by loss of coordination of movements de-
veloping until madness.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: Is spread through out the world, being described in 1920 by
Creutzfeldt and Jacob.
The disease begins at the age of 60 with disturbed sleep, hallucination, dementia, unable to
speak and to read, and alterations of movements. It leads to death within several month up to
two years
10 to 15% of all cases of CJD are of hereditary origin.A small number is transmitted by surgical
interventions, such as transplants.
Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Syndrome and Lethal Familiar Insomnia [28]
The signs of the disease are similar to those of the CJ disease.All these diseases are caused by
proteins priones (PrP) (Proteinaceus infectious Particles)[4]. These proteins remain infectious
even after being treated by methods of lesion of nucleic acid, however lose their virulence when
treated with hydrolysing or denaturing substances .
Genetic cause
Priones or PrP - Proteins exist in two forms:
197
198
One form causes the CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease) disease being infectious.
The other form of PrP- Proteins is not pathogenic and is synthesized by the organism himself.
It is not contagious.
The theory that priones also can cause CJD through a genetic mechanism was explained by
Prusiner.
In 1988 it was discovered that patients with Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome had a
change in their genetic code, compared with healthy persons.
The contagious PrP-protein may be inherited. The difference between the genetic code from
these patients compared with healthy persons lies in a change at the Gen-PrP from the DNA,
one of the 750 radicals from the part of the DNA responsible for the synthesis of PrP protein.
These radicals are the alphabet from which the genetic code is composed.
Her sequence in the molecule of DNA decides the composition of the proteins. The code for
the synthesis of each aminoacid is represented by three basic radicals. This part is called CON-
DOM. In the case of the syndrome of GSS the condom 102 suffers a mutation. The PrP protein
has a proline aminoacid in the place where normally the basic radical leucine is located.
This small change in the structure of the PrP is responsible for the start of the disease of GSS.
Today 18 types of genetic modifications which are responsible for the synthesis of PrP-scrapie
are known.
The normal form of PrP protein found in healthy people is called PrP-cellular.
PrP-scrapie has turned out to be the global denomination for all diseases close related to the
human and animal scrapie. The specific activity of PrP scrapie consists in its stereoisomeric
configuration. The PrP scrapie does not necessarily present a genetic mutation related to a
change of leucine by proline. What matters is that molecules of PrP having the same distribu-
tion of aminoacids differ in their stereoisomeric configuration. The priones are able to transfer
her stereoisomeric configuration to other normal molecules of PrP-cellular which now turn out
to be infectious.
The structure with this property is called twisted beta structure. The aminoacids have a
beta-helicoidal twisted screw form and represent the scrapie PrP. The cellular PrP form has a
twisted alfa-helicoidal chain. In some places of the alfa-helicoidal chain there may be a change
of aminoacids which cause an unstable condition in the molecule being therefore vulnerable to
an inversion of her twist, acquiring the same configuration of the scrapie PrP molecule thus
becoming infectious.
The pathological activity of scrapie PrP is still partially unknown. It seems that PrP destroys
the nervous cells producing amylaceous substances which accumulate as amylaceous plaques
which can be seen under microscope.
These plaques are also found in the Alsheimer Disease, Parkinson and amiotrofic lateral scle-
rosis, demonstrating certain link between these groups of anomalies.
Diseases caused by priones Priones are particles of infectious proteins causing degenerative
diseases of the central nervous system in human and in animals. Unlike other substances which
are situated between priones and other superior elements the prions do not have the form of
nucleic acid which could be made responsible for reproduction as below:
• Phytopathogenic viroids are composed of nucleic acid having some times no superficial
protective layer.
• Virus with RNA and DNA, genetic material necessary to imprint the informations in the
invaded cell forcing the cell to produce new proteins
Priones distinguishes itself from virus or viroids by the following qualities:
• They cause infectious diseases.
• They cause diseases of hereditary origin.
• Prions may influence other proteins to become dangerous.
Prions always cause mortal diseases.They are localized in brain and stay without symptoms for
decades. They have their influence spread over the muscular system.
Usual spongiform encephalopathies:

Scrapie in lamb and goats: The animals can no more coordinate the movements and cannot
maintain itself on foot, being frightened and scrape itself until there is no skin left. This gave
origin to the name of the disease = to SCRAPE .
Other encephalopathies:
Encephalopathies of Canadian marten, chronic degenerative disease of elk, feline spongiform
encephalopathy of cat and the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (B S E).
Short story of the measure to control and eradicate BSE in cattle:
• 1963- The agent of the disease proved to get from one species to another as BSE con-
taminated material was fed to minks in a farm of Idaho. All animals died of spongiform
encephalopathy.
The possibility of scrapie agent to overcome the species-barrier was again proved in 1986
by veterinarians in Weybridge finding an antelope with scrapie encephalopathy.
• 70th decade: The preparation of fodder containing carcasses of diseased animals was
simplified.The temperature reduced to lower costs. The agent of BSE could survive.As
this fodder was also exported, BSE reached Switzerland, France and other countries. It
was used to feed not only bovines but also pigs, chicken and fish.
200
pork, chicken and fish do not live long enough to show the signs of the disease even being
infectious, representing therefore a deadly menace.
• December 1984: The veterinarian Dr. David Bee treating cases of BSE sent samples to a
national central veterinary laboratory in Weybridge. The results of these analysis never
reached Dr. Bee. [171]
• Up to 1985 before the disease was known, 54.000 BSE infected cattle entered the human
food chain. It is supposed that later on the number of infected cows which were already
consumed as human food mount up to 750.000.
• April 1986: Dr Collin told that probably there was a new disease coming up. Nobody
took care of that.
• 1986- The first case of BSE was described related to meal from carcasses of diseased
animals.
• June 1987 Dr.Howard Rees, then chief veterinarian of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fish-
eries and Food (MAFF) forwarding informations regarding to BSE to the MAFF Sec-
retary Sir Michael Franklin added his concern about possible public misrepresentation
which could cause serious financial damage.[171]
Meanwhile in Sweden the ban of animal feed with animal meal was imposed.Only two
years later Germany reacted stopping the import of animal meal from Great Britain.
• July 1987: Dr Whitaker, preparing a report on cases of BSE he had worked on, was
advised by the Ministry of Agriculture of Great Britain not to use the word ”scrapie-
like”.
• April 1988 The Government of UK organized a body of experts under the zoologist
Richard Southwood. This committee wrote to be absurd human being in danger because
of BSE.[171]
• 1989 - British government installed a follower group ”Spongiform Encephalopathy Advi-

sory Committee” (SEAC)under medical advice of David Tyrrell
The Group confirmed the statement of Minister Gummer UK beef being safe.Later on
Tyrell gave an explanation about the meaning of the word ”safe”.He said: ”It does not
mean there is no risk, it only means that the risk is very small.” The SEAC - Group failed
to set strong measures against the spreading disease, still allowing the sell of fodder made
of BSE corpses.
• 1990 The Agricultural minister John Gummer and his chief veterinary Meldrum stated
”British beef is safe ”.
• May 1990 - The first British cat died of BSE. Meldrum said: ”There is no reason to be
worried. It was just a cat out of seven millions.[171]
• September 1990 - The ”Veterinary Record” reported a pig being infected by BSE.
• 1998 - Prohibition to use ruminant-derived protein in form of meat and bone meal (mbm)
in ruminant feed, which was the main cause of BSE cases in Switzerland and France. The
incubation of 5 years caused this prohibition not to show immediate effect. The number
of cases of BSE doubled from one year to another until having his peak in 1992.
• 1999.- Germany has closed his frontiers for living cattle but allowed the import of meat
of cattle from Great Britain.
• 1994.-German veterinary officials stated human safety regarding BSE, existing no possi-
bility of human contamination by consuming BSE-positive beef. This cannot be sustained
today and shows how careless BSE meat was officially handled !
• 1994.- One case of BSE on a cow in Diepholz (Germany, near Osnabrück). This cow had
been imported from Great Britain.
• German Health Minister Horst Seehover will determine all 5 000 cattle imported from
England to be slaughtered. The agriculture lobby did succeed to stop the killing.
• 1995- Further measures against BSE and prevention to transmission to humans:

1- Slaughter of suspect cases
2- Destruction of carcasses
3- Ban of specified offal
4- Ban on using bovine vertebral column to produce mechanically recovered meat
5- Ban on using beef from cattle over 8 month old.
6- Ban of use of intestines and thymus from calves under 6 month old.
7- Ban of using the entire head.
Despite the growing menace of spreading BSE in cattle mainly in France, Portugal and Switzer-
land the EU Commission is not willing to forbid animal meal made of bones,carcasses, brains,
spinal cord, blood, gelatine, lard and marrow as animal feed for pigs, poultry and fish. Rumi-
nants are not allowed any more to be fed with animal meal.
Animal feed free of animal meal is now being produced in Germany with main ingredients:
Soy bean from USA, Argentina and Brazil.
Rapeseed cake from Pakistan, India and Germany.
202
Peas, broad been (Vicia faba), sunflower seed cake, maize germ cake and maize gluten feed.
400.000 tons of animal meal can thus be replaced by vegetable ingredients supplying the
aminoacids which are necessary for a healthy growth.
Genetic modified Soybean, rapeseed and maize gluten feed must be replaced by NON-GMO to
avoid another loss of confidence of the consumer.
Milk substitute in organic farming Milk substitute being fed to young animals should
contain only milk fat. other animal fat is to be banned. Milk substitute should therefor be made
out of half unskimmed milk and half vegetable fat. The cheap variant using animal fat from con-
demned animals was certainly a vector of BSE disease which had been fed until December 2000.
It had been discovered that the BSE pathogens are very resistant in fat and can be destroyed
only with temperatures of mor than 150oC. Fat used in powdered milk substitutes had only
been heated up to 100oC. All German farmers with BSE in their herd had fed powdered milk
substitutes of low temperature origin.
All efforts should be undertaken to reduce spreading of BSE regardless to costs and indus-
trial interests.
To inactivate the BSE agents Germany uses 133o C heat and 3 bar pressure during 20 minutes
to decontaminate the meal. This method is not being used in other countries. France is willing
to forbid therefore completely the use of animal meal.
The problem arises how to get rid of 300.000 tons of meal/year which have to be burned, caus-
ing dioxins. The proteins demand of 55 to 66% in animal meal must be covered with soybean
meal ( 44 to 46 % protein). Stock market reacted immediately with rising prices for soybean
meal.
BSE was present in cattle in the Northern Ireland, in Great Britain, Switzerland and in France
in the Departments 22 (Côte du Nord), 29 (Finistere), 35 (Ile de Vilalne), 50 (Manche). In
February 1997 was discovered a case of BSE in Germany. This cow had been imported from
England. Her identification mark had been falsified as being original German. In Switzerland
there has been reported recently a case of BSE The contamination in this case was told to be
interplacental or over the milk. Since January 1977 until march there were 15 cases of BSE in
Switzerland. (Welt am Sonntag 3.3.97).
• February 1996- The SEAC-Committee admits the situation to be ”dramatical”. There

were already 10 patients having Creutzfeldt-Jakob-disease.
• 1998.- At the beginning of 1998 there were two more cases of BSE on Belgian cattle (in
Ruddervoorde) reported.
• 1998, 11. February. The daily newspaper Jeversches Wochenblatt reports. human disease
caused by infectious BSE meat in Great Britain in France and in two cases in Portugal.
• 1998, march.Within two month the beef ban for Northern Ireland will be lowered to
permit the export of beef from certified herds being free of BSE for a period of eight
years. The province of Northern Ireland had ”only” 1.766 cases of BSE and 28 cases last
year,compared with 170.000 cases in the rest of the United Kingdom.
The UK Ministry of Agriculture announces further pressure to liberate export of cattle
born after August 1,1996 when all stocks of potentially contaminated feed at farms and
mills were destroyed.
• From January to October 1998 there were 66 new cases of BSE in Portuguese cattle,
summing up to 380 cases. The European Commission decided to forbid the exportation
of meat of Portuguese cattle.[376]
BSE seems to continue to spread on the continent of Europe.
• 1999, April[423] A new case of BSE was diagnosed on French cattle. Since 1990 there
were 103 cases in France reported. 1998 brought 18 cases. The Minister of Agriculture of
France Jean Glavany says that these cases have resulted from contaminated fodder made
from carcasses of cattle defined of BSE. Starting at the end of 1996 stronger regulations
concerning animal meal were introduced. Glavany says that infected meal which in France
is allowed for chicken, pig and fish were fed to ruminants by mistake. Glavany expects
BSE cases to reduce in 20002. What about the menace of contaminated fodder which is
still fed to pigs, chicken and fish ? Safety of meat is of no concern to European authorities
still permitting production transport and use of animal feed.
From January to July 2000 there were 23 cases of BSE reported in France. This is twice
as much reported for 1999. BSE in French cattle is therefore increasing rapidly.
• Belgian BSE: There were 11 cases of BSE reported in Belgium.
• Netherlands 6 reported cases.
• Germany: 6 reported cases
• Italy: 2 cases of BSE
• Ireland: 471 cases of BSE.
• In the European Union there were 183.639 cases of BSE. 95% of these cases were reported
in the United Kingdom[716]
• 1999.- The European Commission lifts the export prohibition of meat from great Britain.
The agricultural Minister of Germany Karl-Heinz Funke states: Nowhere can the con-
sumer be so safe as by us”
204
• September 2000.- The EU Commission discovers on control of animal feed in Bavaria 75%
of samples to contain animal meal. There is no reaction of the authorities of Bavaria
• November 22.- The German Heath Minister Funke take position against the prohibition
of animal meal as fodder.
• Two German cows were tested positive for BSE on 24 of November 2000. One had been
slaughtered and the meat had been distributed for sell. All parts could be recalled. The
other cow had been sold two years to Portugal were the test was made. Germany turned
out to be considered as not BSE free country.
• December, 6. 2000The Institute for Meat research of Germany sends a warning to the
Government of Germany telling that there is a great danger emanating from meat from
separator meat used in sausages.
• December, 19.- EU Commissioner David Byrne urges the German Government to stop
the sell of sausages with bovine meat as ingredient and to start a recall of these products.
• 30.November 2001: There are 124 BSE cases in Germany of which 39 had no sings of the
disease. The selling of this meat was avoided by the test of BSE. Half of these animals
were born in Bavaria[715]
The birthday of 90% of these positive animals dates on 1995 and 1996.
• BSE is reported from Austria and Japan. In Japan contaminated British animal meal
had been fed.
BSE is therefore not under control.

The European Commission has therefore established a decision in order to strengthen the rules
related to BSE: Starting with 1.10.00 the parts like head, brains, eyes, tonsils, spinal cord and
a part of the intestine of cattle with more than 12 month of age must be separated and incin-
erated. In case of sheep and goats additionally the melt must be removed and incinerated.
This rule is valid in all countries of the EU, This rule is also valid for the production of
animal flour for feedstuff.
Germany in level two of BSE-risk The European Commission in its report from June
2000 has classified Germany as level two of the risk of BSE. Germany is surpassed only by
Great Britain and Portugal in BSE risk.
During the time of uncontrolled spread of infected corpses Germany had imported infected
meat and animal feed from great Britain. The EU Commission expects therefore many cases
of BSE and CJD in Germany.
In February 2001 the total number of 41 BSE positive cases had been reported in Germany.
Concerns over gelatin (used in Food and medicaments capsules
dragees etc) following the BSE crisis in Europe and thus being spread over the whole world
have led researchers to look after alternatives.
Alternatives to gelatin
• E 406 Agar-Agar
• E 412 Guar gum
• E 410 Carob seed
• Inulin:Inulin is made from chicory.It has good technological properties and a stimulating
effect on Bifidus bacteria which are part of the normal intestinal flora building therefore
a protective wall against the Helicobacter pylori which is known as agent of intestinal
ulcers which escalate to cancer.
• Amylopectic potato starch, produced from genetically modified Potatoes with 25%
more amylopectin with no amylose is told to be another substitute to gelatin.
Amylopectic potato starch after processing has no genetically modified material left.
According to the European Novel Food Directive there is no need to declare the GM
origin on food label.
Amylopectic potato starch is gluten-free and has a function as food fiber.
• Sugar beet fiber is used to improve the consistency and taste of meet products such as
meet balls, hamburgers and meat loaf improving its juiciness.
Another ingredient to improve exact portioning and specific shapes, sizes and weights is
a frozen coagulated protein in combination with thrombin, an enzyme that will catalyze
cross-linking between fibrinogen and meat collagen.
All these new ingredients may become important alternatives to gelatin in case of BSE
spreading.
• Agar Agar E 406 is a gelling agent extracted from the cell walls of red algae.
• Guar meal E 412 is a gelling agent from the seeds of the guar plant which grows in
India.
206
• Locust bean gum E 410indexLocust bean gum, alternative to gelatine is a gelling

agent of the seeds of the locust tree.
Lecithin from brains and nervous system material: Lecithin extracted from brains and
nervous systems from BSE cattle was used in the production of chocolate.
What is safe and what is a deadly menace? As BSE still keeps going and meal from
diseased animals is still being fed there is no safety for European beef,
All BSE-tests like Prionics are only safe when the animal already has clinical signs of the dis-
ease. In Germany 60% of cattle is slaughtered being under two years of age when tests fail.
To be sure not to get the deadly CJ disease try to get beef from Argentina,Australia, Chile,
New Zealand and Paraguay. There is canned meat imported from these countries. Corned beef
is safe, but it is very salty.
Very dangerous is meat from Great Britain, Portugal, France,Switzerland,Spain, Germany and
everything which comes from eastern countries like Poland, because contaminated, unsafe meat
is sold there to be imported in the European Community.
In USA there are cases of BSE in wild animals. All care should be made to avoid the spread of
BSE in USA cattle. Wild animals should therefore not be used in the production of meal for
animal feed because transmission of priones is still unknown. Unsafe are stock cubes and dry
soups and sauces as they contain meat extracts .
Prion tests for animals and human use: As The menace of BSE disease and CJD in-
creases the search for a safe test on blood which can demonstrate the presence of the disease
in animal and in human beings turned out to be a run against the time.
There are other diseases which are probably caused by priones like parkinson and Alzheimer,
rheumatic forms and some sort of tumors which may interfere in the immunological reactions
used for the diagnosis. Boehringer Ingelheim ( Germany ) tries to find such a test. Prionics is
now in use to test animals on BSE but it is not safe as there are many false negative results.
Rapid post mortem tests to detect TSE (Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopa-

thy) in small ruminants not safe [674]
The situation of Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE) of small ruminants like goats
and sheep in Europe is analysed by the EU Food Safety in its release ”new information about
TSE in goats”. [?]
Evaluation of the validated TSE tests found that they do not perform equally toward atypical
cases and that difference in performance result in under- or non recognition of various types of
scrapie. Moreover, a new type of TSE (atypical scrapie cases/NOR98) not previously recog-
nized in the EU, was detected in small ruminants. Currently atypical/Nor98 has been detected
in a large number of European countries and approximately constitutes 80% of test positive
cases identified in EU.
New tests have to successfully pass all stages of a new evaluation process.
New tests should detect classical scrapie, atypical scrapie and BSE in sheep and detection of
preclinical cases and comply with criteria on limitations posed by analytical sensitivity in com-
parison with bioassay. The criteria set higher standards than have previously been approved
for validation of small ruminant post mortem TSE tests for classical scrapie and BSE as well
as for atypical scrapie.
Considering data available about abnormal PrP distribution in the three recognized small ru-
minants TSE forms (BSE, classical scrapie and atypical scrapie) the use of brainstem appears
to be the best compromise for detection of all TSE agents in small ruminants. In consequence,
officially confirmed (by CRL and NRL) positive/negative brainstem will be used for the evalu-
ation of tests.
The BIOHAZ panel recommends that tests already approved for the detection of TSE in small
ruminants should be required to participate in the new evaluation in order to confirm their
robustness and their ability to fulfil the additional performance requirements (e.g. atypical
cases and analytical sensitivity).
Milk and related products an the risk of transmission of BSE [675] According to Mar-
tin Krönke, professor of microbiology at the University of Cologne milk and related products
from diseased cows may contain pathogenic agents of BSE. The transmission of the disease to
mankind through milk products is theoretically possible. Krönke is Leibniz-Prize winner 2001
regarding his researches on immunology and cell biology.
Clinical signs of BSE in cows: [673] Cows with BSE disease loss weight, reduce milk. The
disease is marked by:
• Disorder of behavior:Restlessness, nervousness, fearfulness or start to bite.
• Disorder of sensitivity: Lash out when the hind foots are touched with a broom.
Striking with the head and horn and grinding of teeth when touched with a pencil on
head and neck. Wince with sudden noise such as clapping.
• Disorder of motility: Ataxia, plunge down and impossibility to stand up.

208
• Buckle up or wavering during free walking and loose of balance with break
down.
• Animals start suddenly to lash out during milking.
• Excessive licking of the nose.
• Goggle-eye.
• Refusal to cross a small ditch followed by sudden jump over.
• Refusal to cross the door of the stable followed by sudden jump through.
All clinical signs may be intensified by stress such as transport or diminished under calm con-
ditions.
There are no signs that certain breeds or a sex are more susceptible to BSE disease.Incubation
period is two to eight years.
Infected animals disease between 2 to 12 years, most frequently 4 to 6 years of age.
On living cattle with signs of BSE normal liquor stands for BSE disease meanwhile central ner-
vous system diseases change liquor with signs of infection. A final diagnosis is the histological
alterations of the brain.
In advanced stage of the disease these sings may be absent.

The clinical signs can be used to monitor a herd without complicated tests. These signs should
be carefully observed all over the world to avoid an outbreak in other continents. The WHO
warns for possible outbreaks of BSE worldwide. According to WHO it may be that the disease
is already present in Argentina and Brazil only not being noted because no tests are being
made. Brazil is already told to be careless in relation to BSE making no effort to test their
cattle. The clinical signs may become useful as they are not expensive and very useful to detect
outbreaks of BSE in developing countries. Cows with the clinical signs of BSE should be burned
and not be used as human food or animal feed.
Elk Disease in Canada In western Canada 14.000 domestic elks were slaughtered to con-
trol the Elk Disease which is a BSE-like neuropathological disease. 14 elks were found to have
clinical signs such as:
Swallow complaints
Loss of orientation
Rapid loss of weight
Death by starving
Canada has about 54.000 domestic elks for meat production which is an important industry in
the province of Saskatchewan.
Globalization and the destruction of geographical, economic and ecological isolated units are
the main cause of the spread of diseases such as BSE, Elk Disease, Foot and Mouth Disease
and other epidemiological relevant epidemics.
BSE-Risk material BSE-Risk material according to resolutions of the European Commis-

sion 2000/418/EG (29.6.2000) and 2001/2/EG (27.9.2001):
Skull, including brain, eyes, tonsils, spinal cord and intestines from cattle, sheep and goats over
twelve month of age.
Spleen of sheep and goats of all age
There is a strong possibility that prions reach the blood stream, lung and heart during slaughter
by bolt with the slaughter gun as material of the brain squirts all around.
BSE infection danger from contaminated pastures The Ministry of Environment of

Germany was concerned with the possibility of cattle infection with BSE prions due to pas-
tures contaminated with manure from diseased animals (early 2000).
According to professor Georg Pauli from the Robert-Koch Institute in Berlin, there is not
such a danger. Sheep which lamb outdoor can deposit infectios placenta on the ground. This
material is being ingested by other sheep spreading in this way scrapie. Manure contaminated
pastures do not present such danger because the prions are unable to multiplicate or stay in-
fectious over more than several weeks on ground but are not assimilated by plants.
Not free of any doubt is the possibility of a direct intake of prions of fresh manure contamina-
tion of pastures without the way over a plant host.
BSE infection danger for humans BSE infection danger for humans are often underesti-
mated. Infectious prions may come from primary infective material from diseased animals.
Secondary infective material is all material coming from slaughterhouse which processes cattle.
utensils are contaminated by risk material such as spinal cord cutting the animal corps on
halves or the spreading of brain material by the slaughter gun. Cleaning and disinfection in
normal industrial processing are not sufficient to avoid BSE risk.
Temperature inactivation of prions takes place only at 3300C and a pressure of 3 bar during
30 minutes. Normal cooking, heating and freezing do not inactivate the prions. It is believed
small wounds make a direct infection due to contact with BSE material possible. Butchers are
therefore advised to take safety precautions.
Health and nutrition authorities from European countries and EU- Commission
Health and nutrition authorities have failed to protect the population from the hazards of BSE
210
and have made it possible the disease to keep on spreading all over the word.
In France the families of four people which died of the new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
blame the government of having failed to react properly in the years of 1988 to 1996 causing
their death.
According to documents concerning this matter which have been presented by the plaintiffer
the French government had knowledge since 1990 of the risk of human BSE-contamination.
The government banned the import of beef from Great Britain with delay of 6 years.
There is also a charge against the European Union which did not stopped the trade of animal
feed from UK with the Continent in order not to delay the opening of the European Market in
1992. France supported this decision in order to protect her meat industry[712].
On December 6, 2001 the scientific committee which advises the EU-Commission has con-
firmed that prions of unknown origin are responsible for the transmission of the BSE disease
by means of feed and other contaminations and in a small number from the animal mother to
its child.[?] Such meager statement is a sign of disorientation on regard to BSE.
Since 1995 there were 101 n CJD cases reported.
Table 6.1: New variant of Creutzfeld-Jakob-Disease (n CJD ) in UK [714]
Year Reported cases

of nCJD
1995 3
1996 10
Reported total cases of vCJD in humans until 2007 in UK are
1997 10
1998 18
1999 15
2000 28
158.[1011] Reported total cases of vCJD in France until 2007 are 21 [1012]
Chronic Wasting Disease CWD Chronic Wasting Disease in whitetail deer and elk is
found in Colorado,Wyoming, Nebraska, Wisconsin and Illinois, Kansas, South Dakota,Montana,
Oklahoma,New Mexico, Alberta and Saskatchewan.
It causes spongy holes in the brains of the animals. They slobber, stagger, lose weight and die.
There is no cure.
The disease belongs to the family of disorders that includes scrapie in sheep, mad cow disease
in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans.
Research is being done in order to see whether Chronic Wasting Disease can jump from deer
to other species such as cattle and even humans through exposure to infectious agents such as
venison and velvet antler used in food supplements.[1013]
The prions that cause CWD may persist in the environment for years. It is therefore suggested
to avoid plowing under the carcasses of animals that have died of scrapie, mad cow disease
or other prion disease or use these carcasses in fertilizer because animals may consume con-
taminated soil while grazing. There is although the possibility that prions in the soil could be
absorbed by plants and worms which are consumed by the animals.
Greater potential of CWD-infected deer than elk to transmit the disease to other
species [?]
Brent L. Race and colleagues 2007 studied the potential for cross-species transmission of chronic
wasting disease (CWD) of deer and elk. According to he researchers CWD prevalence in wild
elk is much lower than its prevalence in wild deer. The researchers found that the quantifica-
tion of prion protein from tonsil and retropharyngeal lymph nodes showed much higher levels
of PrPres in deer than in elk, suggesting that CWD-infected deer may be more likely than
elk to transmit the disease to other cervids and have a greater potential to transmit CWD to
noncervids.
The high presence of PrPres in deer lymphoid tissues suggest that infectivity might also be
present in other peripheral tissues such as intestine, kidney, or salivary glands, which could
possibly lead to excretion or secretion of infectivity in faeces, urine, or saliva. in confined
settings, where animal-to-animal contact increases.
CWD transmission to humans: Earlier studies have not shown any evidence for trans-
mission of CWD to humans. CWD has been transmitted to cattle by intracerebral but not
by oral inoculation, and no reports have found that co-pasturing of CWD-infected deer or elk
with cattle has resulted in transmission. Raymond and colleagues 2000 [?] found in vitro assays
designed to test the susceptibility of humans or cattle to CWD suggested a very low probability
of transmission to humans. Raymond suggests that there might be a barrier at the molecular
level that should limit the susceptibility of non-cervid species to CWD.
Sheep might cross CWD species barrier: Race and colleagues suggest that among live-
stock, sheep might be a possible target for CWD infection in appropriate situations such as
co-pasturing. Also, a CWD agent from putatively infected sheep could have a host range not
usually associated with CWD and might cross species barriers more readily than CWD from
cervids. Thus, if CWD continues to expand in deer and elk populations, the possibility of
transmission to noncervid species will require continued surveillance
Soil as reservoir of prions [1015]

Farm soil is a potential long-term reservoir for BSE infective agents according to findings that
point out that prions bind tightly to clay.
212
Ban of import of all cervids in Oregon

To avoid further spreading of the CWD Oregon has imposed a permanent ban on the import of
all live grazing deerlike animals called cervids. allowed are only boned wrapped and cut meat.
Not allowed are brainparts, whole heads or spines
Allowed are hides and portions of clean skull plates with antler attached.[1016]
History of CWD
mid-1990s: For years the disease remained confined to Colorado and Wyoming.
1996: The disease was found on an elk farm in Saskatchewan
1997 Signs of the disease in an elk farm of South Dakota.
1998: Elk farms of Nebraska were found to be infected, followed by Oklahoma an in subsequent
years Montana, Kansas and Alberta followed.
2002: New Mexico, Minnesota Wisconsin and Illinois reported cases of CWD.
The National Institutes of Health researchers warn that prion diseases may be more common
than originally thought, raising public health concerns about the practice of giving other farm
animals feed made from the byproducts of other animals.
French BSE goat 2002 [1017] [1018] [1019] Goats can suffer from scrapie, which is a type
of TSE (Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy), a group of diseases that also includes BSE
in cattle. Scrapie has been known for centuries. A goat slaughtered in France in 2002 has a
type of TSE which might be BSE. the mouse bioassay (which takes two years to complete) was
confirmed on the 28.01.2005.
This TSE was detected in a healthy goat as part of the normal surveillance measures which have
been in place in the EU for many years.BSE has never been found under natural circumstances
in ruminants other than cattle. Its presence in goats or other ruminants has been viewed as
theoretically possible but has never been detected.
Arising from this EU testing programme, a healthy goat slaughtered in 2002 in France was
tested at random for TSEs. Now preliminary results indicate that a goat slaughtered in France
in 2002 has a type of TSE which might be BSE. It is believed that the goat was infected by
feed with BSE prion contaminated meat. As this feed was banned for use in all ruminants,
there is no risk of a widespread problem.
Based on these facts, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has advised that goat
milk and derived products are unlikely to present any risk of TSE contamination if the milk
comes from healthy animals.
Currently, as a precautionary measure and following scientific advice, milk and meat from
goats which are affected by TSE cannot be used. These rules were in place before the case
of BSE in a goat was discovered. As for cattle and sheep, specified risk materials (the tissues
most likely to carry infectivity if the disease is present) are also removed from all goats even if
there is no infection detected. While it is not possible to say that there is absolutely no risk,
any potential risk will be mitigated by the safety measures put in place.
In light of the above, the European Commission advises no change in current consumption
of goat milk, cheese and meat.
BSE/TSE Statement 2004 of the EFSA on health risks of the consumption of milk
from goats [1020]
Since the early 1990s, the BSE/TSE risk for milk and milk products has been discussed by
scientific organisations, risk assessment bodies and public health organisations. Research has
focused predominantly on the bovine species, while data on small ruminants, particularly goats,
are limited. Indeed, epidemiological and experimental data on ruminants so far available have
not provided evidence that milk or milk products harbour prion infectivity.
Some research data support the finding that milk, colostrum and tissues of the mammary
gland from bovine can be classified in the category of no detectable infectivity. However, based
on a number of observations from research data, mainly research concerning sheep, there are
indications that infectivity in the milk from small ruminants cannot be totally excluded. In
case of mastitis, one could expect an infiltration of potentially infected blood into the milk as
the blood-milk barrier may not or only partly exist. But even in the case of absence of mastitis
the barrier may not be 100% effective.
From the limited data available today it is concluded that in the light of current scientific
knowledge and irrespective of their geographical origin, milk and milk derivatives (e.g. lacto-
ferrin, lactose) from small ruminants are unlikely to present any risk of TSE contamination
provided that milk is sourced from clinically healthy animals. Exclusion of animals with mas-
titis is considered to reduce the potential risk. Further assurance of healthy milk could include
milk tests for total somatic cell counts indicative of inflammation.
Difficulties with somatic cell count The EFSA in its statement of 2005 enumerates some
of the difficulties concerning somatic cell count accuracy of goat milk: [1021]
• The somatic cell count accuracy is affected by the apocrine nature of milk secretion in
goats. Cytoplasmic particles, which derive from the apical part of secretory cells, are
normal constituents in goat milk. Certain methods used to count somatic cells cannot
distinguish these cytoplasmic particles, similar in size to somatic cells, from real somatic
cells, which may lead to false readings. Moreover, the reference microscopy method,
214
which is based on staining procedures, does not give satisfactory results in the majority
of laboratories, when used on goat milk.
• Somatic cells that are identified in milk from healthy cows or ewes are mainly macrophages.
Less than 30 % are other leukocytes. Higher levels of the latter are considered to be in-
dicative of inflammation. On the other hand, leukocytes can reach up to 60 % of total
cells in normal goat milk. The somatic cell count is therefore difficult to interpret in terms
of udder inflammation.
• Non infectious factors greatly influence the somatic cell count in goats. Physiological
normality is dependent on the stage of lactation, age, time of sampling, the oestrus
period, feed, stress, breed and the region. Most experts in this field therefore consider
that a specific somatic cell count-value derived from one population of goats may describe
a normal animal health status in a second population and indicate mastitis in a third
population.
The panel concluded in 2005 [1021] that due to the high variability of SCC in goat milk, even
in healthy animals, SCC cannot be relied on neither as a specific indicator for TSE risk nor
as an indicator of udder health. It is recommended to continue the increased surveillance in
goats and to initiate additional research that would allow for a Quantitative Risk Assessment
in goats. The above recommendations should be extended to include sheep.
BSE in Sweden
One cow was tested positive for BSE in Sweden in 2006.The Swedish Board of Agriculture
(BOA) believes that the cow had been fed meat and bone meal by mistake. Not all safety
routines were in place during the first years of the infected cow’s life.
The animal was probably infected about ten years ago. An investigation has started in or-
der to find what feedingstuffs the animal may have eaten during its lifetime. This investigation
will also find so-called risk animals on the farm, for instance animals in the same age bracket
that have eaten the same feedingstuffs. [1022]
In the EU, BSE incidents have been falling dramatically since 1992. Extensive testing and
controls programmes are responsible for the decline of incidences of the disease from 37,280
cases in 1992 to recent figures reported by the OIE. The favorable development led the EC to
adopt a roadmap in July of 2005, with the aim of softening restrictions and reducing testing
costs.
The World Organisation for Animal Health published the details of BSE in countries that
reported cases in 2004. According to this report Ireland found 126 cases of BSE in its cattle
in 2004, compared with 137 found in Spain. The UK had the highest incidence of BSE cases
in the world in 2004 with 343 cases confirmed, followed by Spain, Ireland. Portugal was fourth
in the BSE league, reporting 92 cases in 2004, followed by Germany with 59 cases. France
reported 54 cases of BSE in the same year. [1023]
Production process for gelatine [152]

According to the Corrigendum to Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 29April 2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin,
the production process for gelatine must ensure that:
1. For the production of gelatine intended for use in food, the following raw materials may be
used:
(a) bones;
(b) hides and skins of farmed ruminant animals;
(c) pig skins;
(d) poultry skin;
(e) tendons and sinews;
(f) wild game hides and skins;
and
(g) fish skin and bones.
2. The use of hides and skins is prohibited if they have undergone any tanning process, regard-
less of whether this process was completed.
3. Raw materials listed in point1(a) to(e) must derive from animals which have been slaughtered
in a slaughterhouse and whose carcases have been found fit for human consumption following
ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection or, in the case of hides and skins from wild game,
found fit for human consumption.
4. Raw materials must come from establishments registered or approved pursuant to Reg-
ulation (EC) No 852/2004 or in accordance with this Regulation.
5. Collection centres and tanneries may also supply raw material for the production of gelatine
intended for human consumption if the competent authority specifically authorises them for
this purpose and they fulfil the following requirements.
(a) They must have storage rooms with hard floors and smooth walls that are easy to clean
and disinfect and, where appropriate, provided with refrigeration facilities.
(b) The storage rooms must be kept in a satisfactory state of cleanliness and repair, so that
they do not constitute a source of contamination for the raw materials.
216
(c) If raw material not in conformity with this chapter is stored and/or processed in these
premises, it must be segregated from raw material in conformity with this chapter throughout
the period of receipt, storage, processing and dispatch.
Chapter II: Transport and Storage of Raw Materials

1. In place of the identification mark provided for in Annex II, Section I, a document indicat-
ing the establishment of origin and containing the information set out in the Appendix to this
Annex must accompany raw materials during transport, when delivered to a collection centre
or tannery and when delivered to the gelatine-processing establishment.
2. Raw materials must be transported and stored chilled or frozen unless they are processed
within 24 hours after their departure. However, degreased and dried bones or ossein, salted,
dried and limed hides, and hides and skins treated with alkali or acid may be transported and
stored at ambient temperature.
Chapter III: Requirements for the Manufacture of Gelatine

1. The production process for gelatine must ensure that:
(a) all ruminant bone material derived from animals born, reared or slaughtered in countries or
regions classified as having a low incidence of BSE in accordance with Community legislation
is subjected to a process which ensures that all bone material is finely crushed and degreased
with hot water and treated with dilute hydrochloric acid (at minimum concentration of 4% and
pH 12.5) for a period of at least 20 days with a sterilisation step of 138 to 140C 0 during four
seconds or by any approved equivalent process;
and
(b) other raw material is subjected to a treatment with acid or alkali, followed by one or
more rinses. The pH must be adjusted subsequently. Gelatine must be extracted by heating
one or several times in succession, followed by purification by means of filtration and sterilisa-
tion.
2. If a food business operator manufacturing gelatine complies with the requirements applying
to gelatine intended for human consumption in respect of all the gelatine that it produces, it
may produce and store gelatine not intended for human consumption in the same establishment.
Chapter IV: Requirements for Finished Products

Food business operators must ensure that gelatine complies with the residue limits set out in
the following table:
Residue Limit
As 1 ppm
Pb 5 ppm
Cd 0,5 ppm
Hg 0,15 ppm
Cr 10 ppm
Cu 30 ppm
Zn 50 ppm
Fifth Annual CJD Foundation Family Conference 2007 [153]

The fifth annual CJD Foundation Family Conference, July 6-8 in Washington, D.C. and also join
our advocacy visits to the Hill on July 9. Check http://www.cjdfoundation.org/headlines.php?ptime=11
website for the program, and other information about this event.
Some of the problems the foundation looks after are:
Reduction of BSE tests on US cows [154]

Over the last few years, a type of Acquired CJD called variant (vCJD) has been identified in
young people. vCJD has been linked to ingestion of beef tainted with BSE (bovine spongiform
encephalopathy), most cases have occurred in the United Kingdom. Testing cows being slaugh-
tered helped to reduce the risk of vCJD.
However, according to Florence’s Newsletter, the USDA tests so few cows it would be im-
possible for anyone to know how prevalent U.S. BSE really is. Cattle testing was increased
from 40,000 per year to 375,000 for an 18 month period following the discovery - there are 35
million cattle slaughtered for the U.S. food supply each year. The Secretary of Agriculture
Mike Johanns was asked last July by a commission leaded by CDJ Disease Foundation that
the increased number of BSE testing should not be cut back but instead that it be increased.
One week after this petition USDA cut back to the previous 40,000.
In a letter to Florence at the Creutzfeld-Jacobs Disease Foundation dated October 3, 2006

Mr. Johanns stated.... ”With regard to USDA’s activities, it is important to understand
...USDA’s BSE surveillance is being conducted not as a food safety measure but rather as a
monitoring effort designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the United States’ BSE safeguarding
measures with respect to animal health”.
According to Florence it is difficult to understand how human risk from infected meat takes a
back seat to what appears to be a policy benefiting specific special interest groups.
A statement released end May2007 reported that Japan and South Korea will soon be opening
218
their borders to US cattle again based on the U.S. upgraded rating from the OIE (World Or-
ganization for Animal Health) from ”possible risk” to ”controlled risk”.
The USDA’s Chief Veterinary Office Dr. Ron DeHaven serves as the U.S. official delegate
to the OIE. Through the OIE decision the USDA is now able to avoid accountability at all
costs, even those directly related to human lives.
The role of meat and bone meal (MBM) in the epidemiology of BSE [155]
Mathilde Paul and colleagues 2007 studied the role of meat and bone meal (MBM), animal fat
and dicalcium phosphate (DCP) after the feed ban on the risk for BSE epidemics.
In France, meat-and-bone meal (MBM) has been banned from cattle feed since July 30, 1990.
However, through January 1, 2007, 957 cases of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) have
been detected in cattle born after the ban.
Meat bone meal (MBM): According to the authors the source of infection in cattle born
after the MBM ban still involves MBM. The BSE agent may have entered cattle feed by cross-
contamination with feed for monogastric species (pigs and poultry) in which MBM was still
authorized until November 2000. Cross-contamination could have occurred within factories,
during feed delivery to the farm, or on mixed farms that have cattle and pigs or poultry.
The authors raise the question of effectiveness of the ban that was initially restricted to bovines
and belatedly extended to other species to reduce cross-contamination.
The role of MBM as a source of BSE after the ban of MBM for cattle is well documented
through cross-contamination in feed factories. The authors found that the total ban of MBM
for farm animals in November 2000 was essential for controlling the spread of BSE.
Other animal by products
Animal dicalcium phosphate (DCP): According to Paul and colleagues, together with
other studies say that the implication of animal DCP as a source of BSE, if it existed, should
have been marginal.
In contrast, a risk analysis by the European Food Safety Agency [2] considers the potential
role of animal DCP in cattle infection as to be of the same order of magnitude as the residual
risk from cross-contamination with MBM.
Animal fat in milk replacers: This study cannot exclude a minor effect of animal fat in
milk replacers because of the solubility of prions and the possible contamination with protein
impurities by contact with other infectious materials at the slaughterhouse. Animal fat is in-
corporated in cattle feed in milk replacer and in proprietary concentrates.
The authors point to the fact that in current context of the decreasing epidemic, economic
pressure is increasing to release the ban of MBM in feed for monogastric species.
220
Chapter 7
Dioxin
Dioxin, the endless story Dioxin is since long time known as one of the strongest poisons
which man is able to produce. It causes cancer of liver and lung, interferes in the immune
system resulting in a predisposition to infectious diseases and embrional misgrowth.
At the beginning of the 20th century the production of chlorine splitting sodium chloride by
Dow Chemical Midland,USA free chlorine could be used for many new compounds like pesti-
cides, plastics such as PVC,chlorine bleaching of paper and many other sources. Dioxins are
also built as unwanted side reactions during the production of chlorinated products.
When these new compounds are burned as waste, chlorine atoms combine with carbon re-
sulting dioxins. Dioxin is also originated during combustion, mainly by heat under 780oC It is
therefore found in the atmosphere and in the fallout in rain. A main source of dioxin is used
discarded motor oil and in some geological formations like kaolinite. In the press dioxin was
cited in relation to the accident at the chemical plant of Hoffmann-LaRoche in Seveso, Italy.
Due to an explosion a great amount of 2,3,7,8 TCDD dioxin was spread over the city of Seveso
in 1976. Limits for dioxin expressed as tolerable daily intake are given in picogram 1 pg=10−12 g
:
• Germany 1 picogram (10−12 g) per Kg body weight
• Netherland4 pg (4X10−12 g) per Kg body weight
• Canada 10 pg (10X10−12 )g per Kg body weight
• FDA from USA 0,03pg (0,03X10−12 g) per Kg body weight
• Environmental administration EPA from USA 0,006pg (0,006X10−12g) per Kg
body weight
Please note that sometimes dioxin values are expressed in nanograms.
One nanogram=10−9g.
221
222
Today emission of smoke stacks has been reduced from 400g i-TE/year in 1988 down to 2g
i-TE/year.According to German regulations emission of smoke stacks over 5000 m3 /h the emis-
sion should be reduced to 0,1 ng i-TE/ m3
Sludge from industrial wastewater should not exceed 100 ng i-TE/kg of dry matter accord-
ing to German regulation.
Soil of playground for children should not exceed 100 ng i-TE/kg of dry matter.
Soil of residential neighborhood should be kept under 1000 ng i-TE of dry matter according to
the List of Berlin 1996.
Chemical structure of dioxins There are about 210 dioxins and related compounds called
furanes. They are classified in two classes of chemical compounds: The class of the polychlo-
rinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and the class of the dibenzofuranes. The difference between dioxins
and furanes is that some compounds have an oxigen bridge, others don’t. Both classes of com-
pounds are usually called dioxins.
The most poisoning dioxin is 2,3,7,8-TCDD (tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin)(described by Sande-

mann et all. in 1957) therefore equivalents are calculated in relation to this compound as only
17 of the 210 dioxins and furanes have a chlorine atom at the position 2,3,7 and 8 being there-
fore strongly toxic and are expressed as Toxicity Equivalence (TE)
TCDD is classified as carcinogenic class I which is the highest step in the classification of the
IARC (International Agency of Research of Cancer).
1 ng TE means that there is a mixture of PCDD and PCDF present which corresponds to 1
nanogram of 2,3,7,8 TCDD.
Dioxins are stored in liver an fat tissue and it takes about 10 years for the body to reduce
half of the amount of once stored dioxins.
Other dioxins furanes and related compounds presenting toxicity:
PCDDs (Polychlorinated dibenzodioxin)
PCDFs (Polychlorinated dibenzofurans)
PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls)
Dioxins are very difficult to be analysed. PCB Polychlorated biphenil are most all the time
present together with dioxins. PCBs are much more easy and is does not take so much time to
analise as dioxins. Therefore PCB control with GC/MSD or HRGC/HRMS is used as indicator
for dioxins. In milk a contamination of 100 ng/g of PCB in fat is an indicator of high dioxin
values. In egg yolk a maximum of 60 ng/g in fat stands for tolerable values of Dioxins
The Belgian scandal of dioxin In June 1999 Europe was confronted by the news of the
scandal of dioxin in Belgian animal feed. Eggs, meat of hen, pigs and beef were not safe. Bel-
gian animal feed had been enriched with old used engine oil with high level of dioxin.
As Belgic exported the contaminated meat as animal feed all over Europe was to be con-
sidered as bearing PCBs and dioxins.
Later on Swiss animal feed also was found to be contaminated by dioxins. This was caused
by certain charges containing kaolinite from Germany. Kaolinite is part of earth which is used
in the production on porcelain. As 3% in animal feed it is used to improve the flow during
pumping when moving the animal feed from one store to another. German kaolin with high
level of dioxin had also been added to animal feed in Austria and Germany. In June 1999
animal feedings with added kaolinite were found to have 1,5 to 30 pg i-TE/g resulting in a
contamination of German turkeys of 30,6 pg i-TE/g fat. According to German regulation from
9.6.99 a maximum of Dioxin equivalents should be observed in following foods:
Eggs maximum of 4 pg i-TE/g fat
Poultry maximum of 5 pg i-TE/g fat
Milk maximum of 3 pg i-TE/g fat
Beef maximum of 6 pg i-TE/g fat
Pork maximum of 2 pg i-TE/g fat
French animal feed now found to carry dioxins tells that there is still very much wrong. Ev-
erything is being used to feed animals. As chalk is needed to feed cows chalk from washing of
combustion gases had been added to citric pellets from Brazil which were fed to German cows.
Great amount of milk had to be discarded because of high level of dioxin.
Even sewage sludge resulting from industrial waste water treatment is being added to ani-
mal feed, often without separation between the waste water and the normal sewage system.
In 1991 the use of sewage sludge from industrial waste water for animal feed was forbidden by
the EU but this has not always been followed. In 1998/1999 French knackeries and gelatine
factories as well as Dutch companies had sewage sludge from industrial waste water mixed with
animal feed. Pigs and chicken fed with it were also sold in Germany.
Sewage sludge concentrates heavy metals, dioxin, antibiotics and resistant bacteria[451]
Sewage sludge is still being used in France ( November 1999) as ingredient to animal feed dis-
regarding EU regulation of 1991. This confirms the deep distrust of the consumer confidence
on public institutions.
European animal feed directive Forbidden : Industrial waste water sludge is forbidden
as animal feed. All components of sewage remain are not allowed to be added to animal feed
224
even if they were submitted to any technological procedure.
Exception: Allowed is process Water which come out of closed circuits and which does not
contain substances which are not allowed for animal feed. In 1999 faeces were found in French
animal feed with added sewage. Recycled oils and fats are allowed as animal feed by way of
exception under the control of an HACCP system.
Unfortunately many industrial waste water sludges are being declared as process water evading
the European directive.
Unilever Chairman pleas for an EURO- FDA To conter the loss of the consumers
confidence and to restore the ability of the public veterinary and food control to do their job
Antony Burgmanns Chairman of Unilever NV, Rotterdam says ( 14.11.99) that the creation of
an European Control System like the US FDA will be necessary[480].
Dioxin in foods Low levels of dioxin from environment are present in vegetables and all
other kind of foods. The amount of environmental dioxin is not relevant, excluding the region
of Seveso and some parts of Serbian. Eggs, milk, beef and fish all over Europe can have high
amount of dioxin when animal feed with dioxin had been fed.
As dioxin accumulates in fatty tissue it is possible to reduce the intake of dioxin by eating
less greasy fatty food. Therefore veterinary officials claim analytical checks on dioxin and
PCBs when the food bears more than 2% of fat on exports from Belgium.
Despite the criminal procedures on the scandal of dioxin contaminated animal feed from Bel-
gium the WHO reports decreasing levels of dioxins in worldwide human blood plasma. This
is told to be a result of efforts to reduce dioxin in environment. So mother’s milk in Germany
being reported in 1985 as average of 29,6 ng i-TE/kg fat has decreased to an average of 15,9
ng i-TE/kg fat in 1994.
BSE problems in Great Britain, dioxin in Belgian foods caused gigantic financial losses to
the involved industry and commerce. It disregarding laws and good manufacturing practice
does not bring wealth. It soon or later ends in scandals. It should be a lesson to all who want
to earn easy money without regarding safety and public health. Industry,great retailers and
last but not least the consumer should help to keep food safe paying appropriate prices to their
suppliers avoiding price battles which end on outlaw practices.
The WHO Consultation of May 25-29, in Geneva, Switzerland regarding the health risk of
Dioxins[438] shows that the most important amount of dioxins intake resulting from food (90%
of total human exposure to dioxins) has been reduced about half of the former values due to
increased emission reducing activities. Food born dioxins are found mainly in animal fat. That
is why vegetarian food becomes more attractive. But remember: Supplementation of vegetar-
ian diets with B12 vitamin from drugstore is important to avoid undersupply.
According to the consultation of WHO the contamination of food is primarily caused by depo-
sition of emissions from various sources (like waste incineration and production of chemicals) on
farmland and waterbodies followed by bioaccumulation up terrestrial and aquatic food chains.
Other sources may include contaminated feed for cattle, chicken and farmed fish so what has
happened lately with Belgian animal feed, improper application of sewage sludge, flooding of
pastures, waste effluents and certain food technologies.
Tolerable daily intake (TDI) The WHO in December 1990 in the Netherlands established
a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 10 pg/kg by weight for TCDD.
The consultation concerning health risk of dioxins in May 1998, Geneva re-evaluated the TDI
as an upper range of the TDI of 4 pg TEQ/kg by weight should be considered a maximal
tolerable intake on a provisional basis and that the ultimate goal is to reduce human intake
levels below 1 pg TEQ/kg bw/day. In Germany the human exposure to TCDD is supposed to
be only 45% of the limit of 1 pg TEQ/kg bw/day.
The consultation however recommended that every effort should be made to limit environmen-
tal releases of dioxin and related compounds to the extent feasible in order to reduce their
presence in the food chains, thereby resulting in continued reduction in human body burdens.
Efforts to reduce the exposure of more highly exposed sub-populations should be undertaken.
These efforts bear their price and this should be honored by commerce and by the consumer.
Someone has to pay for it. So honest prices for good honest raw materials to reduce risk in
food.
Accidental exposure to dioxin Accidental exposures had taken place in Seveso and fires in
PCB filled electrical equipment, that is why PCBs are being changed in such equipments. Some
foods were also accidently contaminated such as an edible oil Yusho (Japan) and Yu-Cheng (Tai-
wan). Other heavy exposure to dioxins took place in Vietnam resulting from aerial spraying of
forests with agent orange (TCDD) contaminating airforce personal and inhabitants of Vietnam.
Maximum levels for specific contaminants in foodstuffs Three important regulation

apply from 1 March 2007: Regulation (EC) 1881/2006 sets maximum levels for specific con-
taminants in foodstuffs. [439] Regulation 1882/2006 sets out the methods testers must use in
sampling and analysis for the control of nitrate levels in lettuce and spinach. [440] Regulation
1883/2006, deals with sampling and analysis methods for determining the levels of dioxins and
dioxin-like PCBs in specific foodstuffs.[441]
Much attention is given to mycotoxins, such as setting limits on deoxynivalenol and zearalenone,
226
including cereal bran marketed for direct human consumption and for germination.
The limits of lead in cows milk is extended to sheep and goat milk and their productslike
cheese. The maximum level of lead in fish was risen from 200 mg/kg to 400 mg/kg to comply
with the value of the Codex Alimentarius.
The limit on levels of cadmium found in the liver and kidney has been extended to include
horse meat.
Dioxins: Farmed game are excluded from the limits of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs set for
meat and meat products. The limits set for liver, derived products, and fat is now restricted
to bovines, sheep, poultry, pigs.
Swiss thickening agent Guar Gum with dioxin [442]

According to the European Commission of an edible thickening agent called guar gum (E412),
used in a variety of pre-prepared foods, may contain dioxin and pentachlorophenol contamina-
tion. Member States were asked to test all batches of guar gum imported Indian.
High levels of dioxin had been found on the 13.07.2007 in a Swiss-made thickening agent
Unipektin with levels of up to 156 picograms of dioxin per gram of fat in additives have been
found (Maximum allowed= 6 picograms) .
Official issues claim that there is no immediate health risk to consumers, but as these chemicals
have the potential for a range of toxic effects such as high risk of cancer, people shouldn’t be
exposed to them unnecessarily.
Consumer should avoid products which have thickening agent guar gum in their ingredient
list.
Chapter 8
Foot and Mouth Disease and other

animal infections
The foot and mouth disease is widespread. It is an infection of cloven hooved animals and is
highly infectious. The pathogenic agent is a picornavirus known as FMD-virus. It is a RNA-
virus with 7 serotypes ( A, O, C, SAT 1, 2, 3, Asia 1 and about 50 subtypes, 20 - 25 nm and
is very resistant.
The food and mouth disease virus is sensitive to environmental influences such as pH less than
5, sunlight and desiccation. It can survive at freezing temperatures.
Infection with foot and mouth disease The infection with foot and mouth disease occurs
by direct contact with animals having the disease, or by contact with infected utensils, infected
animal feed. The routes of spread of the virus are the contact with infected animals, by people
exposed to the virus who develop no symptoms or just skin lesions, but who harbour and
spread the FMD virus. Other routes are shoes, clothing, vehicles, meat, milk and garbage and
air contaminated with virus
Symptoms of the disease Fever,refusal of fodder, flow of saliva and characteristic bubbles
(aphthous ulcers) in the region of the mouth, teats and claws.
Pigs have bubbles at the claws with paralysis symptoms.
The disease in humans is rare and of mild symptoms.
Specific medication There is no specific medication available. Due to vaccination the num-
ber of new cases can be reduced considerably.
Spread of foot and mouth disease in South America The International Epizootias Of-
fice accepted that most of the Center West of Brazil was foot and mouth disease free, with
vaccination. The State of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina had been free of the disease
227
228
for almost ten years. Vaccination had been therefore stopped. In August 2000 the disease was
found to explode again in Rio Grande do Sul. About 10.000 head of cattle, cheep and pigs had
to be killed. It is seems that illegally imported breed stock from Argentina or Paraguay was
the cause.
Brazilian failing to control the spread of the disease is due to insufficient supervision by veteri-
nary officials and vaccination was not made properly.
Argentina and Uruguay are concerned with the possibility the disease spreading from Rio
Grande do Sul to their countries.
New Outbreak of FMD in Brazilian cattle: Outbreak of FMD in Brazilians state of

Mato Grosso do Sul in November 2005 is due to Brazilian cattle rangers who smuggle unvac-
cinated animals in from neighgboring Paraguay to increase their herds at lower prices. Cattle
is about 30 per cent cheaper in Paraguay than in Brazil.(Animal Health Department of Mato
Grosso do Sul)
Geography of foot and mouth disease: The Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul,
Paraguay and Bolivia are strongly affected by the disease.
Considered as free from foot and mouth disease are North America, Central America (North of
Panama, Australia, New Zeeland and Scandinavia. The new outbreak of FMD menaces Great
Britain Netherlands and all efforts are made to avoid it from spreading all over the European
Country
The last case of the disease was detected in 1929 in California. In Canada the last case was
found in 1952. United States and Japan refuses to import fresh beef from Brazil as long as the
disease is not under control.
In 2004 foot and mouth disease entered Japan with straw imported from China. FMD had not
been seen in Japan since 1980.
An outbreak of MD in South Africa was caused by garbage which had been picked up by
a farmer from a tramp steamer anchored offshore. He fed the garbage to his pigs a deleting
epidemic started. The outbreak in Great Britain is thought to have started is a similar way.
Hamburger use lower quality beef imported from developing countries. Australia is notable
to send more meat in this quality to USA. The price of beef in Brazil is among the lowest of
the world. Everything is done to reduce costs of irrigation, improving pastures, fertiliser and
irrigation. Advisors say that herds should be moved from the south to the center and north of
Brazil. This includes the states of Mato Grosso, a Rondonia and Pará.
Foot and Mouth Disease 2001 in England The disaster which has hit European meat
market beginning with BSE which started in England has been boosted by the FMD.
Spreading all over the island it was menacing to get to the European countries because of
commerce between England and the continent.
Dust carried by wind can spread the picornavirus as far as 100 kilometers infecting pastures
and animals.
One of the reasons of the spread of the disease is concentration of business. In England 1000
local abattoirs were concentrated in past years down to 340 mighty factories making trans-
portation of cattle and living animals necessary over hundred of miles.
Measures to control the epidemic such as disinfectants for the shoes and tires of Queen Mom
are nice for news but they do not hit the primary cause of the disease.
Tourism in England has been reduced as the possibility of carrying the virus particles in cloth
and shoes entering thus the continent is eminent. The traffic of car and transportation of all
kind of goods between the island and the continent cannot be stopped. Air travel is another
way to spread the disease.
Organic food such as being done in the English Highgrove on the Farm of Prince Charles seems
to be the way to fight back modern epidemic animal diseases. It includes however that a local
economy should be sponsored. Global business spreads diseases, destroys environment and
global climate.
Foot-and-mouth disease outbreak in 2007, Surrey, England [1310]

Cattle on a farm outside Wanborough, 30 miles southwest of London, tested positive for Foot-
and mouth disease. The virus affects cloven-hoofed animals including cows, sheep, pigs and
goats. It does not affect humans. All livestock at the farm and nearby were slaughtered on the
4.08.2007.
Biosafety experts scoured a rural laboratory of Merial Animal Health searching for the possible
source of the outbreak of the disease.
Few days before several sheep had been exported from Britain to a German Farm which is now
being isolated by German veterinaries. [1311]
Merial Animal Health is a world-leading animal health company producing pharmaceutical

products and vaccines for livestock, pets and wildlife. [1312]
The virus of the outbreak is unusual in wildlife but is identical with the virus used by Merial
Animal Health. The vaccine manufacturing site of Merial may be the source of the epidemic.
It is situated only four miles from the affected farm.
The last foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in England occurred in 2001.

230
UK’s Foot and Mouth Status [1313]

Foot and Mouth (FMD) has been confirmed in domestic cattle. This means that the United
Kingdom (UK) has lost its official ”country freedom” status for this disease. This criteria is set
by OIE, the International Health Organisation, which is recognised by the world community.
Intra-Community Trade: You cannot export susceptible live animals to EU member states
because there is a prohibition on the movement of susceptible live animals within GB.
Meat and other animal products (including genetic material, dairy products, petfoods, hides/skins
etc) from susceptible species should not be exported to EU member states. The exact details
will be included in new a EU Decision expected on Monday.
Third Country Exports: You cannot export any susceptible animals or their products (in-
cluding genetic material, dairy products, petfoods, hides/skins etc) to third countries because
we have suspended all relevant export health certificates.
Animal Health are recalling export health certificates issued for consignments which have not
yet been exported.
Infection way Pigs are infected by ingesting infected food and waste.
Cattle is infected by inhalation of respiratory aerosols emitted from pigs which excrete large
amounts of virus by this way. Wind is able to carry this aerosol over long distances.
People can be infected through skin, wounds or oral mucosa working in a stable or getting
infected through milk.
Incubation Incubation: 2 to 21 days as average 3 to 8 Days.

Infection morbidity period: 100%
Mortality:5% of adults and 75% sucking pigs and sheep.
Cattle which recovers from the disease may be carrier for 18 to 24 month.
Sheep can be carrier for 1 to 2 month.
Pigs are not carrier.
Clinical signs of foot and mouth disease Animals: Salivation,depression, anorexia and
lameness caused by the presence of painful vesicles ( blisters ) in the skin of the lips, tongue
gums, nostrils, coronary bands, interdigital spaces and teats, Fever and decreased milk produc-
tion.
In pigs the signs are the same but milder, Lameness is predominant.
People:Exanthemas on fingertips and interdigital spaces, fever and miocarditis.
Foot and mouth disease in England Foot and mouth disease is spreading in England
in February 2001. As infection is very easy and many living animals were exported to the
continent it is likely that the disease has crossed the channel and entered the continent. Every
effort should be undertaken to reduce transportation of animals, reduce tourism (the virus can
be carried as dust on clothes and foods used during journeys and air traffic).
Farmers should look for correct disinfection facilities. Visitors should not allowed to get to the
Farm. This includes the mailman as a vector from farm to farm. Mail should be deposited
centralised somewere away from the farm. When casual visitors must get into the stables it
should be done after careful disinfection of shoes and the use of plastic overalls.
Other infectious diseases of domestic cattle
Salmonellosis Produces septicemia and severe diarrhoea. Of importance for human infection
is Salmonellosis in poultry.
Anthrax Is caused by Bacillus anthracis
Leptospirosis Caused by Leptospira bacteria such as Brucella abortus.
Tuberculosis Milk was a frequent vector of tuberculosis. Only after research of Louis Pasteur
introducing the technology of pasteurisation milk turned out to be safe.
Bovine TB: Pre-movement testing for all cattle over 42 days old in UK. [1314]
[1315]
Defra wants to reduce the risk of the spread of bovine tuberculosis by TB pre-movement tests
as well as routine surveillance tests. The tests were extended beginning with the age of 42 days
as it was noted that infection is also being picked up earlier in high-risk herds. With this policy
the Defra hopes to prevent 610 new incidents a year. Pre-movement testing was introduced in
March 2006 in England and May 2006 in Wales.
To avoid human tuberculosis adquired from infectuous milk consume only pasteurized milk(heat
treated milk). [1315]
According to FDA [1316] more than 300 people in the United States got sick from drinking
raw milk or eating cheese made from raw milk in 2001, and nearly 200 became ill from these
products in 2002, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Some of the
diseases that pasteurization can prevent are tuberculosis, diphtheria, polio, salmonellosis, strep
throat, scarlet fever, and typhoid fever.
Feline leukaemia
232
Canine distemper Is caused by paramyxovirus
Parvoviruses
Fungal diseases Histoplasma capsulatum Candida albicans
New strain of Asia 1 FMD of Central Asia and China

[1309] All efforts are being done to avoid the new emerging strain of Asia 1 FMD foot and
mouth disease from Central Asia and China to enter the EU.
Risk of international spread. [1308]

The reservoir of FMDV type Asia-1 is generally considered to be in south Asia, particularly
India and Pakistan, countries with very high bovine and buffalo population densities. This
virus type has often been associated with epidemic spread out of these reservoir animal pop-
ulations into west Asia as far as Turkey, and even in 2000 to Greece, but eastwards spread to
involve dispersed, possibly widespread outbreaks on Chinese mainland appears to be a new and
worrying development.
The development in China appears to be the consequence of a failure of the disease report-
ing system in a number of countries, mostly in central Asia, resulting in country to country
spread, and it would appear, spread from western China to eastern China in 2005.
The currently available information is limited. Each country needs to conduct their own risk
analysis. However the distribution of the reports suggest an increased incidence of infection
and this may contribute to increased risk through the pathway of animal products, live animals
or other routes (such as contamination of fodder).
Risk to Europe:
The last major FMD outbreak in Europe started in the UK in 2001 and spread to several other
member states before it was eradicated.
Assessing the risk to Europe of the reintroduction of FMD in the European Union, the EFSA
came to the conclusion that most of the factors and circumstances which affected the intro-
duction and spread of the disease in Europe from 1991 to 2001 have not changed. There are
no indications that the risks could be expected to decrease. Therefore, many of the historical
observations on in remain relevant for the future.
Imports of live animals originating from the Middle East represent a threat to the EU pri-
marily, but not exclusively, to south-eastern Europe. Illegal importation of infected meat and
meat products and possibly legal importation of other animal products such as casings (derived
from intestines) from South-East Asia & China and South Asia are a threat that is more evenly
spread throughout the EU.
It is by reducing the global weight of infection that the EU and other FMD-free areas of
the world can achieve a sustainable reduction in their own risk.
Past FMD virus introductions into Europe were via imports from South America (meat) and
south eastern Europe (live animals), a strategy for risk reduction has been implemented for
imports from these areas. These have included a strategy for reduction in the prevalence of
FMD in these areas.
However, these areas remain at risk to (re-)infection. A sustainable FMD risk reduction strat-
egy for the protection of Europe will need to address not only the targeted and progressive
control of FMD in the high risk primary endemic epidemiological clusters of South-East Asia
& China (Indo-China) and South Asia, which currently represent the biggest threat to Europe,
but also in eastern Africa and the Sahel.
Global progressive control of FMD is a protracted process which is anticipated to require 20-30
years. Therefore, FMD control in endemic areas supplements rather than replaces the current
EU strategy. In the context of increasing globalisation with increasing imports of animals and
animal products into the EU, not to mention the expansion of the borders of the EU itself, the
risk from both legal and illegal activities is likely to increase.
The only feasible way of reducing the prevalence of, or eradicating, FMD in endemic areas
is through a three-pronged approach comprising the following:
• Regional control programmes with a package of interventions and whereby the regions
are defined on the basis of their epidemiological characteristics.
• A global surveillance partnership for FMD to reduce risk in all regions.
• parallel strategy for promoting the safe trading of livestock commodities through formal
channels and in promotion of policies and international standards which provide alterna-
tives to reduce illegal shipments.
Increasing international travel from endemic areas is increasing the number of illegal imports
of meat and meat products in passenger’s luggage.
Specific recommendations for reduction of the risk of virus import

Enforcement in the exporting third countries of pre-export treatments for animal products
other than meat merits verification. It may be worthwhile to examine whether the EU could
234
share some of the burden of verifying compliance with other importing countries.
Veterinary checks at the borders should be enforced with:

• More use of targeted resources i.e. sniffer dogs and scanners.
• Tighter control of suppliers of food to ships and better recording and co-ordination of
catering waste disposal.
Controls on travelers at the points of entry are still weak in most of countries in Europe.
Significant quantities of meat and meat products are introduced illegally into Europe in the
luggage of travelers. Commercial heat treatment: The presentation of an international veteri-
nary certificate attesting that the manufacturing method for these products included heating
to a minimum internal temperature of 70C for at least 30minutes for importing foods from
countries where MFD is present. [1321]
Other routes of introduction of FMD virus are:

• Aerial introduction
• Bioterrorism
• Import of inadequately inactivated vaccines.

The EU should encourage and support countries that are still vaccinating against FMD
to use vaccines that meet international (EP, OIE, VICH) quality and safety standards.
These countries should only allow FMD vaccine production in plants fully complying with
all international bio-safety rules. The efficacy and safety of the final product should be
controlled independently. [1309]
• Virus escape from laboratories.
The 2004 Edition of the OIE Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial
Animals indicates that FMDV for diagnostic (and vaccine production) purposes should
be handled under P3 biocontainment facilities. According to EFSA the biosecurity stan-
dards for laboratories in countries where FMD is still endemic often meet the lower P2
standard. From the perspective of risk analysis, the objective for FMD vaccine produc-
tion laboratories should be for them to be at P3 containment level. However, it should
be acceptable for diagnostic laboratories to target P2 in endemic countries, as has been
the practice in South America. It is more important to facilitate diagnosis across a wide
area of FMD endemic regions than to impede it through unrealistic and unnecessary high
containment demands. [1309] [1320]
Human infections
Human infections include the handling of animals and inhalation of airborne viral particles,
but probably the most frequent routes of infection has been ingestion of unpasteurized milk,
cheese and other dairy products. The disease in humans are usually of a mild nature.
After an incubation period of 2-4 days, sufferers start experiencing symptoms such as fever,
headaches, shivering and thirst. Later, itchiness, pharyngitis, tonsillitis and, rarely, gastro-
enteritis precede the appearance of crops of painful blisters on the sufferer’s hands and between
their toes. Blisters can also form on the lips and inside the mouth, causing extensive ulceration
and marked discomfort. Skin peeling of the palms and soles of feet is also known to occur.
Recovery is usually complete within 2 weeks.
An EFSA subset of relevant legislative references:

Commission Decision 2004/438/EC of 29 April 2004 laying down animal and public health and
veterinary certifications conditions for introduction in the Community of heat-treated milk,
milkbased products and raw milk intended for human consumption (OJ No. L 154, 30.04.2004,
p. 72)
Commission Decision 94/360/EC of 20 May 1994 on the reduced frequency of physical checks
of consignments of certain products to be implemented from third countries, under Council
Directive 90/675/EEC (OJ L 158, 25.6.1994, p. 41).
Commission Decision 2003/779/EC of 31 October 2003 laying down animal health require-
ments and the veterinary certification for the import of animal casings from third countries
(OJ L 285, 1.11.2003, Commission Decision 2005/432/EC of 3 June 2005 laying down the
animal and public health conditions and model certificates for imports of meat products for
human consumption from third countries and repealing Decisions 97/41/EC, 97/221/EC and
97/222/EC (OJ L 151, 14.6.2005, p. 3).
Commission Regulation 745/2004 of 16 April 2004 laying down measures with regard to im-
ports of products of animal origin for personal consumption (OJ L 122, 26.4.2004, p. 1)
Council Decision 79/542/EEC of 21 December 1976 drawing up a list of third countries or

parts of third countries, and laying down animal and public health and veterinary certification
conditions, for importation into the Community of certain live animals and their fresh meat
(OJ L 146, 14.6.1979 p. 15)
Council Directive 92/118/EEC of 17 December 1992 laying down animal health and public
health requirements governing trade in and imports into the Community of products not sub-
ject to the said requirements laid down in specific Community rules referred to in Annex A
(I) to Directive 89/662/EEC and, as regards pathogens, to Directive 90/425/EEC (OJ L 62,
15.3.93. p.49).
Council Directive 2002/99/EC of 16 December 2002 laying down the animal health rules gov-
236
erning the production, processing, distribution and introduction of products of animal origin
for human consumption (OJ L 18, 23.1.2003, p. 11)
ANNEX I of (EC) No 853/2004 Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Coun-
cil of 29 April 2004 laying down specific hygiene rules for on the hygiene of foodstuffs (OJ L
139, 30.4.2004, p. 55).
Chapter 9
Food-borne diseases
9.1 Introduction:
Search for food has always been a struggle to survive. The discovery of fire by the cave man
was an important step in food handling. Spices triggered the great voyages looking for a new
way to the spices from India.
Nowadays the rarest of dishes are available everywhere and there are no restrictions as to
the seasons. Global trade of food has made it possible.
These modern achievements, however, bear the danger to destruct the economic, ecological
and cultural isolated units destabilising the economy of a region because manpower and prod-
ucts of other regions, with lower production costs, compete with high cost regions. Ecology is
endangered, due to increase of traffic, and last but not least, the culture and beliefs of isolated
regions are washed out.
Growing international business leads to ever growing food batches, spreading them over great
areas. The control of hazards in food production, transportation and handling and even the
menace of terrorist actions are getting high priority in the concern of industry, commerce and
food health departments of every nation and is subject of many international standards.
Food producers (agriculture, breeders, fishery, processing factories) are concerned about these
hazards which may cause tremendous costs, loss of crops, and even lead to bankruptcy.
Catering service establishments and restaurants are liable to recourse in case of harmful food.
The loss of confidence of their customers due to headlines involving a recall of a spoiled brand
is a nightmare for every manager of discount stores or global food trade business.
237
238
Food health departments and government ministry of consumer safety, such as Minister Knast
in Germany in the case of BSE scandal are top headlines.
Bacterial infections
Zoonotic disease in humans within the EU [1322]
Zoonoses are diseases or infections, which are transmissible from animals to humans. The in-
fection can be acquired directly from animals, or through ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs.
The European Food Safety Authority analysed the data from 2005 and published a report
on zoonotic diseases in humans in December 2006.
EFSA found campylobacteriosis as the most frequently reported zoonotic disease in humans
within the EU. Reported Campylobacter cases increased by 7.8% compared to the previous
year. Fresh poultry meat was found to have the highest contamination rate with Campy-
lobacter with 66% of samples positive and was also commonly detected from live poultry, pigs
and cattle. The largest Campylobacter outbreaks were caused by contaminated drinking water.
Salmonellosis remained the second most frequent zoonosis despite the fall of 9.5% compared
to 2004.Salmonella was most often reported from fresh poultry and pig meat where propor-
tions of positive samples up to 18% were detected. In table eggs, findings of positive samples
ranged from 0% to 6%, but over the past 5 years an overall decreasing trend in occurrence
of Salmonella in eggs was observed. In animal populations, Salmonella was most frequently
detected in poultry flocks.
Egg and bakery products were the most common sources of Salmonella outbreaks, whereas
broiler meat was an important source for both Salmonella and Campylobacter outbreaks. Food-
borne virus outbreaks were most often caused by drinking water, fruit and vegetables.
For Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) infections and yersiniosis more informations are
needed concerning the serotypes and other virulence factors related to human pathogenic
serotypes. The authors of the Report call for a harmonisation of the analytical methodol-
ogy.
Table 9.1: Reported incidences of the zoonoses in humans, EFSA 2005 [1322]
Incidence Number of
Disease 100,000 people reported cases
Campylobacteriosis 51.6 197.363
Salmonellosis 38.2 176.395
Yersiniosis 2.6 9.630
Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli VTEC 1.2 3.314
Listeriosis 0.3 1.439
Brucellosis 0.2 1.218
Echinococcosis <0.01 320
Trichinellosis <0.01 175
Tuberculosis due to M. bovis <0.01 119
Rabies <0.01 4
Incidence Number of
Disease 100,000 people reported cases
Survey on the prevalence of Salmonella in EU poultry in 2006 [1323]

European Community legislation foresees setting of Salmonella reduction targets for animal
population including broiler flocks.
The survey was the second of several baseline surveys to be conducted in the Community.
The sampling of the broiler flocks took place between October 2005 and September 2006.
A total of 11.0% of the broiler flocks was estimated to be positive for Salmonella Enteritidis
and/or Salmonella Typhimurium, the two most common serovars found in Salmonella infection
cases in humans. The Member State-specific observed flock prevalence of S. Enteritidis and/or
S. Typhimurium varied also greatly, from 0% to 39.3%. The number of positive samples in a
Salmonella positive flock ranged between one and five but at European Union level 42% of the
positive flocks was found positive for all the five samples taken.
The five most frequently isolated Salmonella serovars from broiler flocks in the European Union
were respectively in decreasing order S. Enteritidis, S. Infantis, S. Mbandaka, S. Typhimurium
and S. Hadar. All these serovars, with the exception of S. Mbandaka, are frequent causes
of Salmonella infections in humans within the European Union. S. Enteritidis was the most
common serovar and it was detected in 37% of the Salmonella positive flocks. S. Infantis ac-
counted also for an important proportion of positive flocks (20%). The serovar distribution
varied amongst the Member States, many of them having a specific distribution pattern of
their own.
While the Community reduction target will most likely be set for a transitional period only
for S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, it is recommended that Member States would address
240
in their national Salmonella control programmes also other serovars when these serovars are of
public health importance in their country.
Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) in foods: The majority of the data derives from
food of bovine origin (bovine meat, raw milk, cheese and dairy products, other or mixed meat).
The report also contains information about Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, Avian In-
fluenza, Cysticerci and Sarcocystis parasites and Q fever in animal populations. [1322]
Germany reported the highest number of tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis in 2005,
followed by The United Kingdom
Bovine tuberculosis and bovine or caprine/ovine brucellosis is still present in 3-4% in bovine/sheep/goat
populations.The highest incidences of human brucellosis have been recorded in Greece, Italy,
Portugal and Spain, mostly Brucella melitensis were responsible for the disease.
Yersinia enterocolitica 0:3 serotype was the dominant type found in the EU. Germany had
the highest number of human infections. Y. enterocolitica is found in meat and milk, especially
pig meat.
Raw milk [1324]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)and the Centers for Disease Control and Pre-
vention (CDC) are reminding consumers of the dangers of drinking milk that has not been
pasteurized, known as raw milk. Raw milk potentially contains a wide variety of harmful bac-
teria including Salmonella, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria, Campylobacter and Brucella that may
cause illness and possibly death.
Since 1987 FDA has required all milk packaged for human consumption be pasteurized be-
fore being delivered for introduction into interstate commerce. This also applies to other milk
products, with the exception of a few aged cheeses.
According to FDA, proponents of drinking raw milk often claim that raw milk is more nutritious
than pasteurized milk and that raw milk is inherently antimicrobial, thus making pasteurization
unnecessary. Research has shown that these claims are myths. There is no meaningful nutri-
tional difference between pasteurized and raw milk, and raw milk does not contain compounds
that will kill harmful bacteria. In fact, raw milk, no matter how carefully produced, may be
unsafe.
Growing resistance to antimicrobials

Relatively high proportions of Campylobacter and Salmonella isolates from animals and food
were resistant to antimicrobials commonly used in treatment of human diseases. This is espe-
cially the case of resistance to fluoroquinolones in Campylobacter isolates from poultry, where
up to 94% of isolates were reported resistant to ciprofloxacin. Foodborne infections caused by

these resistant bacteria pose a particular risk to humans due to possible treatment failure. [1322]
Escherichia coli
Escherichia coli is indicator of fecal pollution of drinking water supplies, swimming beaches,
foods, etc. A few strains of Escherichia coli are pathogenic such as the strain 0157:H7 in raw
hamburgers (Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 ).
Reduction of E. coli O157:H7 in cattle with feed strategy

Changing grain to forage[1325]
Callaway and colleagues found that feeding cattle with large grain rations, some starch escapes
ruminal microbial degradation and passes to the hindgut where it is fermented to sugars. EHEC
can use these sugars for their grow. The authors say that this may be the reason of E. coli
O157:H7 shedding in barley fed cattle.
Changing high grain (corn) diet to a forage diet, generic E. coli populations declined 1000-
fold within 5 d, and the ability of the faecal generic E. coli population to survive an acid shock
similar to the human gastric stomach decreased, but this has not been observed in other stud-
ies. The authors conclude that switching cattle from grain to forage could potentially reduce
EHEC populations in cattle prior to slaughter, but the economic impact should be taken into
consideration.
Lactobacillus acidophilus in feed to counter E.coli O157:H7 [1326]

According to Reillyl the prevention of outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 should begin with a proper
cattle management system together with a supplementation of cattle feed with probiotics such
as Lactobacillus acidophilus as a possible antagonist to several pathogens in the intestine.
Escherichia coli and enterococci in water

Recent epidemiological studies indicate that E.coli and enterococci show a direct correlation
with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness rates, while fecal coliforms do not. As the
concentration of E. coli and/or enterococci increase(s), the illness rates also increase.
These indicators are used as part of the bacterial water quality criteria and standards to en-
hance the protection of human health and the environment.
Enterococci
Enterococci, which include Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium, are enteric bacteria
used to indicate faecal contamination and the possible presence of pathogens, in water. Total
and faecal coliform bacteria currently have been included in many water quality standards as
indicators of bacterial contamination.
242
Salmonella
The enteric group also includes some other intestinal pathogens of human beings such as Shigella
dysenteriae, cause of bacillary dysentery, and Salmonella typhimurium, cause of gastroenteritis.
Typhoid fever is an acute, life-threatening febrile illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella
enterica serovar Typhi.
Old nomenclature:
Bergy‘s Manual: ”The names given to salmonellae do not follow the usual rules of nomenclature
Because of their importance in pathology, the first salmonellae were given names which in-
dicated the disease and/or the animal from which the organism was isolated, and names of
this kind (such as S. typhy, S. paratyphy-A, S. choleraesuis, S. typhymurium, S. abortusovis)
continue to be used in clinical bacteriology.
Scientifically, none of the present methods of nomenclature of salmonellae is satisfactory.

Nomenclature changes will be needed in order to account to new DNA findings.”
New nomenclature according to DNA findings: The new nomenclature comprises only
two species:
Salmonella enterica meaning all human pathogens subdivided into serovars using the old
genus names.
Example: Salmonella typhy = Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, Abbreviation S. Typhi.
Salmonella enteritidis = Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, Abbreviation S.Enteritidis
Salmonella bongori: Associated with cold-blood animals. Most of human infections are
due to contact with reptiles.
Basics of Salmonella prophylaxis: Never eat undercooked ground beef and poultry, raw
eggs, not pasteurised dairy products. and raw shellfish.
Medical inspection of all people handling food is to be periodic repeated and documented.
This includes clinical inspection, bacteriological examination of faeces with regard to Salmonella
bacteria, daily control of the personal to avoid purulent wounds, persons with diarrhoea and
other problems to come in contact with food.
These persons should be transferred to areas were they cannot come in contact with unpacked
food.
Salmonellosis:
Salmonellosis ranges clinically from the common Salmonellae diarrhoea abdominal cramps, and
fever to enteric fevers such as typhoid fever caused by Salmonella Typhi. The most common
form of salmonellosis is a self-limited, uncomplicated gastroenteritis.
Non-typhoid salmonellosis:
It is caused by any serotype of Salmonella other than Salmonella Typhi. It is a worldwide

disease of humans and animals. Animals are the main reservoir, and the disease is usually food
borne, although it can also be spread from person to person.
Typhoid fever: ( Synonym: Enteric fever) is caused by Salmonella Typhi.
Incubation can last up to two months. It is therefore difficult to remember the food which
might have been the source of infection. Hosts are humans, which became carriers after an
infection. Several negative microbiological tests should be made, to let a food worker go back
to his working place after a salmonellosis.
Should this not be a demand of the local medical regulations, auditing should try to get it
listed as additional HACCP item.
Typhoid fever spread mainly from person to person via the fecal-oral route and have no signif-
icant animal reservoirs. Asymptomatic human carriers may spread the disease. Paratyphoid
fever is caused by Salmonella paratyphi and is milder than typhoid fever. Host are humans,
which became carriers after an infection.
Typhoid Mary: Here name was Marry Mallone. She was an Irish immigrant. She was a
healthy carrier of typhoid fever. From 1900 to 1907 she worked as a cook, infecting many people.
Being caught after a long search, she was put in reclusion on North Brother Island and re-
leased in 1910 telling her not to work as cook again. In 1915 she was found working as cook in
an Hospital infecting people there too. She was sent back to confinement where she died in 1938.
Other carrier such as Tony Labellaand Alphonse Cotils both handling foods remained free,
being an inconsequent attitude of the health authorities managing the epidemic in NY. Please
remember this, otherwise you will have typhoid Mary on your suppliers-list.
The major reservoir of Salmonella is poultry and livestock, ground meat and eggs.
Measures to reduce salmonellosis in poultry: All animal feed should be salmonellae

free. Feed was the main cause of large distribution of Salmonella in poultry.
244
Slaughtering practices with reduced cross-contamination of carcasses.
Avoid cross-contamination of processed and raw food.
Training in hygienic practices for all food-handling personnel.
Cooking and refrigerating food adequately.
Radiation of poultry to reduce contamination by pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella and

Campylobacter. Irradiation of food is, however, not much in use.
Shigella
Infection with Shigella is often cause of bloody diarrhoea, and stomach cramps starting a day
or two after exposure to the bacterium, usually resolving in 5 to 7 days. Some persons who are
infected may have no symptoms at all and pass the Shigella bacteria to others.
They are a menace in food production when basic hygiene, hand washing and disinfection
habits are not observed. Contaminated food is the result.
Different kinds of Shigella bacteria:

Shigella sonnei, also known as ”Group D” Shigella
Shigella flexneri,Shigella flexneri or ”group B” Shigella, accounts for almost all of the rest.
Shigella dysenteriae type 1 causes deadly epidemics in the developing world.
Shigella boydii.
Common causes of food contamination with Shigella

Infected food workers who forget to wash their hands with soap and do not use disinfectant
after using bathroom and before preparing food or beverages.
Vegetables which were contaminated with sewage.
Flies living on infected feces can contaminate food.
Drinking or swimming in contaminated water with sewage or sick person swimming in it.
Improvements in hygiene for vegetables and fruit picking, water used to rinse vegetable, appro-
priate packing may prevent shigellosis caused by contaminated products.
Other bacteria related to food born diseases: Listeria monocytogenes:Outbreaks in cheese

and meat.
Yersinia enterocolitica: Causes enterocolitis in children.
Cryptosporidium parvum: Infects many herd animals (cows, goats, sheep among domesticated
animals, and deer and elk among wild animals) and humans.
Cyclospora cayetanensis: Watery diarrhoea.
Campylobacter jejuni: It produces diarrhoea bloody stool, fever, lasting seven to ten days. It
produces a heat-labile toxin that may cause diarrhoea.
Many chicken flocks are silently infected with Campylobacter jejuni, which can be easily spread
through a common water source or contact with infected feces.
On occasion of slaughter it can be transferred from the intestines to the meat and giblets,
especially the liver.
Not pasteurised milk can become contaminated if the cow has an infection in her udder or
the milk is contaminated with manure. Surface water and mountain streams can become con-
taminated from infected feces from cows or wild birds.
It is often isolated from healthy cattle, chickens, birds and even flies. There are pathogenic and
nonpathogenic strains.
Cooking chicken, pasteurising milk, and chlorinating drinking water will avoid the bacteria
to spread.
Not pasteurised milk is therefore a possible source of bacteria such as Campylobacter and
tuberculosis. Pasteurisation time/temperature standards should be 145F for 30 minutes (63C
for 30 minutes).
Bacteria Rapid Detection Using Optical Scattering Technology [1327] Arun K. Bhu-
nia and colleagues developed an identification process using an imaging approach, analysing
bacterial colonies grown on solid surfaces. Using a laser scatterometer, the system classifies
scatter patterns formed by Listeria monocytogenes colonies. Different strains and pathogenic
of Listeria can be recognised with a low error rate. It is based on Zernike moment invariants.
The detection of other pathogenic bacteria may also be included in the system. The authors
point out the feasibility of image-based biodetection systems.
Cholera
Vibrios (which have a curved rod morphology or comma shape) are very common bacteria in
aquatic environments. Pseudomonads favour fresh water and vibrios prefer salt water. The
genus Vibrio contains an important human pathogen.
Vibrio cholerae, the cause of Asiatic cholera. Cholera is an intestinal disease with a pathology
related diarrhoeal diseases caused by the enteric bacteria. The source of the contamination is
usually the feces of an infected person. Incubation is one to two days.
246
The cholera bacteria produces a toxin that inhibits the absorption of liquids by the body.
It kills because it dehydrates the body.
The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking
water, brackish rivers and coastal waters, raw or undercooked shellfish from the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1991 Cholera was present in coastal areas of Peru. The disease spread rapidly through-
out Peru and into other countries in South, Central and North America.
The Minister of Fishery of Peru wanting to restore public confidence on marine food ate in
a TV-show an undercooked fish. The day after he was hospitalised with cholera.
Cholera is a disease associated with poverty, inadequate sanitation and low medical care. The
key to effective control is environmental sanitation. Whenever these conditions are present in
a region from where food and raw materials are imported, auditing should keep this in mind.
Staphylococcus aureus
Staphylococcus aureus causes suppurative infections in animals and man. It can form toxins
which cause food poisoning. The contamination of food with Staphylococcus aureus occurs due
to contact with infected wounds of animals or hands of food workers. That is why gloves are
indispensable.
Contaminated fish caused intoxication with staphylotoxin which is resistant to heat. The fish
had been left for hours without cooling, the bacteria produced the toxin which can be present
in deep frozen fish and its products.
Other bacteria producing toxins: Powerful toxins are also known from Bacillus anthracis
causing Anthrax, a disease of cattle, sheep and humans. Clostridium botulinum causes food
poisoning, mainly in low acidic foods.
Clostridium perfringens also produces an enterotoxin and is an important cause of food poison-
ing and infections such as gas gangrene. (Ernest Hemingway describes a case of gas gangrene
in his book ” The snows of Kilimanjaro ”).
Botulism: Many human deaths have also been attributed to the consumption of food or water
containing the toxin.
Clostridium botulinum is widely dispersed in soils. Ingestion of the organism is not harm-
ful. It becomes dangerous only when conditions are favourable for its growth and subsequent
toxin formation. The organism in an environment containing decaying plant or animal organic
material. Stagnant pools or damp areas with buried decaying matter are danger areas for toxin
development Decaying carcasses are a frequent source of the toxin, as are many insects feeding
in the same tissue.
The insects may contain enough toxin to cause the disease in any bird and chicken that ingests
it. Since the toxin is water soluble, water sources may become contaminated and provide a
reservoir for the disease.Keeping the environment clean is important to avoid botulic poisoning
of birds and water contamination.
There are different types of the toxin; types A and C cause the disease in birds while type
B frequently produces the disease in man.
Moulds
Some strains of moulds produce mycotoxins. Mycotoxins in eggs and meat is mainly influenced
by the concentration of mycotoxins in fodder. Auditing should always look after fodder quality
of breeding stations.
Bad hygienic condition during harvest, drying, transport of figs and weather conditions such as
high humidity and high temperatures are the cause of rising mould spoilage. Consumer should
look inside the figs and discard those which are dark.
Several brands of dried figs with origin from Turkey and Greece have high amount of afla-
toxin B1,B2, G1 and G from Aspergillus flavus. The aflatoxins which are found on these
samples are located in the interior of the fruits.
As spoiled figs are detected under UV light when they are packed, only the fruits with mould
contamination from inside are not removed and are often eaten despite a high level up to 900
microgram/kg of aflatoxin B1. (Only 2 micrograms are allowed).
It is estimated that 25 per cent of all agricultural crops worldwide are contaminated by molds
that produce mycotoxins. The toxins are mostly found in cereals, nuts, cocoa and coffee beans
and other foods like dried fruits and meat, particularly when the water content/activity and
the temperature are poorly controlled. The EC Scientific Committee for Food endorsed in 2004
a provisional maximum TDI (Tolerable Daily Intake) for:
Patulin 0.4 µg/kg bw/day

Ochratoxin A 5 ng/kg bw/day
248
Prevention and reduction of mycotoxin contamination in cereals

The complete elimination of mycotoxin such as Ochratoxin, Zearalenone, Fumonisis and tri-
cothecenes is not achievable at this time, according to Codex CAC/RCP- 2003.
Good agricultural practices (GAP) represent the measures against contamination of cereals
with mycotoxins during handling, storage, processing, and distribution of cereals for human
food and animal feed.
Wheat and maize are hosts to Fusarium. A crop rotation using potato, other vegetables,
clover and alfalfa can reduce the spores of the mold in the field. Old seed heads should be
removed, destroyed or plowing under. Make soil tests to ensure adequate soil pH and optimal
fertilisation. Seed varieties particularly resistant to molds and pests should be used.
Moisture boosts mould infections. Irrigation during flowering and during the ripening of the
normal crops, specifically wheat, barley, and rye, should, therefore, be avoided.
If the crop is harvested with a water activity higher than 0.70, the grain must be dried imme-
diately to less than 14% moisture content in small grain.
Moisture levels of the crop during storage should be less than 15%. Kernels containing
symptomless infections cannot be removed by standard cleaning methods. Seed cleaning pro-
cedures, such as gravity tables, may remove some infected kernels.
A temperature rise of 2-3C may indicate microbial growth and/or insect infestation in stored
grains.
Intermediate storage: Buffer storage resulting from low drying capacity should only be
made when the moisture is less than 16%, the storage time is less than 10 days, and the tem-
perature is less than 20 C.
Organic acids, like propionic acid may be used as preservatives. These acids are effective
in killing various fungi and thus prevent the production of mycotoxins in grains intended only
for animal feed. The salts of the acids are usually more effective for long-term storage. Care
must be taken because these compounds can negatively affect the taste and odour of the grain.
Small, shriveled grain may contain more zearalenone than healthy normal grain. Winnow-
ing grains at harvest or later will remove shriveled grain.
Mature grains should not remain in the field for extended periods of time, particularly in
cold, wet weather. T-2 and HT-2 toxins are not usually found in grains at harvest, but can
result from grains that are water-damaged in the field or grains that become wet at harvest or
during storage.
Candida albicans as example of microorganism which can act as opportunists:

Candida albicans can cause infections of mouth and digestive tract by persons with weak im-
munological system. Yeasts being found in food should be controlled on regard of the presence
of Candida albicans.
Viral infections
The cause of infectious diarrhoea were usually told to be bacterial or parasitic. Only recently,
beginning with the 70 decade of 2000 better diagnostic methods have proved that food-borne
diseases caused by virus are very frequent.
The most important agents of these diseases are:
Mouth and foot disease virus: is present in all kind of tissues of cattle and swine. Hepatitis A
- virus
Hepatitis E - virus
Influenza viruses: They can be divided in three types: A, B and C.
Especially the type A undergoes genetic variation. Thats the reason why often new strains of
influenza arise. These strains are called serotypes because they can be distinguished by sero-
logical agglutination tests. Influenza-A-virus: is found in lung of swine. It is the most common
type of influenza outbreaks in humans.
Avian influenza A and Newcastle disease:

Both affect avian species.Criteria for contengy plans in case of both diseases are found An-
nexe IV of Council Directive 92/40/EEC of 19.5.1992 and Directive 92/66/EEC introducing
Community measures for the control of both diseases, involving poultry producers,operators of
slaughterhouses and rendering plants,veterinarians, and diagnostic laboratories.
The Directive 92/40/EEC lays down Community measures to eradicate and prevent the spread
of avian influenza on poultry farms should an outbreak occur and prohibits removal of the
poultry and poultry products from specified areas such as protection or surveillance zones.
Avian influenza has a high mortality and a rapid spread. Infection occurs through direct contact
between the animals or vectors such as man,birds, utensils,transport devices such as packaging
materials such as egg trays. Avian influenza (Subtype H7N7)which has caused an epidemic
spread in the Netherlands in February 2003 is not infectious to mankind.
There are 15 influenza virus A subtypes that can infect poultry. Vaccination is therefore not
250
possible as there is no cross-immunity. Influenza vaccination is not effective against H5N1 virus.
It is intended to avoid H5N1 to cross with human influenza types and become highly infective
for humans.
The Incubation period is 8 days and quarantine 21 days.
Vaccination against avian influenza of H5 and H7 subtypes in domestic poultry

and captive birds [1328]
Control measures of the HPAI strain of H5N1 are based on eradication of infected flocks, but
increasingly more countries supplement these measures by the use of vaccination which is be-
coming important to control and prevent the propagation of the disease.
The opinion of the European Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare is intended to
support the Commission in the further developments of a vaccination policy and was adopted
on 11 May 2007.
According to this opinion, the current EU authorised AI vaccines for poultry such as chickens
and ducks meet the relevant quality standards and are thus, safe and effective to be used.
However, for other poultry and captive bird species the level of effectiveness of current AI
vaccination is not sufficiently known and therefore additional data on the immunogenicity and
effectiveness of current and future AI vaccines should be generated.
In general, the use of AI vaccines in poultry should be defined in advance dependant on the
epidemiological situation, geographical area and overall risk perception as a preventive, emer-
gency or in endemic situations.
Vaccination may also reduce transmission of AI virus amongst captive and wild birds, hav-
ing also major benefits for animal welfare as vaccination will prevent them from contracting
the disease, death and from being culled during eradication measures.
Silent spread of AI viruses can occur after vaccination, and therefore serological monitoring
with DIVA based strategies will be required to detect AI virus transmission after vaccination
(shedding of the virus without presenting symptoms of the disease).
Vaccination programmes using vaccines authorised by the competent authority may reduce
the potential for human and other mammalian cases of HPAI, where the disease may become
endemic. The use of EU authorised vaccines per se is recommended because is safe and has no
negative effect on poultry products for consumers.
On the evaluation of laboratory testing methods for surveillance of vaccinated flocks (in partic-
ular DIVA strategy), it is concluded that to date only conventional inactivated and recombinant
live-vectored vaccines are available for use and can be coupled with a suitable companion di-
agnostic test.
An intrinsic problem of the DIVA principle is that infections with all AI subtypes (includ-
ing non H5 and H7) may interfere.
The ”DIVA” (Differentiating Infected from Vaccinated Animals) a control strategy for avian
influenza infections in poultry is based on the use of an inactivated oil emulsion vaccine contain-
ing the same haemagglutinin (H) subtype as the challenge virus, but a different neuraminidase
(N). [1329]
The ”ad hoc” serological test based on the detection of specific anti-N1 antibodies. ”DIVA”
control strategy may represent a tool for the control of avian influenza infections in poultry to
differentiate between vaccinated and naturally infected birds. [1329]
Newcastle disease or infectious bronchitis: It is caused by a Virus of the family Paramyx-

oviridae, genus Rubulavirus. The disease does not pose a risk to human health. Poultry and egg
products are safe to consume. Human infection with Newcastle disease virus is extremely rare,
and usually occurs only in people who have close direct contact with infected birds The virus
causes only mild, short-term conjunctivitis or influenza-like symptoms. The use of Newcastle
disease virus as a treatment for cancer has been suggested.
Avian influenza virus infections are widespread in wild birds, especially ducks, migrating wa-
terfowl are a significant source of avian influenza viruses. That is why poultry should not be
kept outdoors to avoid contact with wild birds in epidemic regions.
Disinfection with normal detergents and disinfectants is sufficient. Heating and drying inacti-
vates the virus. Heating of contaminated houses for several days is effective. Organic material
and manure must be disposed properly as it can protect the virus from disinfectants allowing
them to survive for over 100 days.
To date, a large number of human infections with the H5N1 virus have been linked to the
home slaughter and subsequent handling of diseased or dead birds prior to cooking. These
practices represent the highest risk of human infection and are the most important to avoid.
People working or living in close contact with poultry, such as poultry farm workers, or family
with household poultry breeding are at high risk if diseased animals are present. The virus is
found in secretions of the respiratory tract, and most of all in manure.
Human infection occurs mainly by inspiration of dust particles containing viruses, and han-
dling infected animals omitting handwashing.
252
Avian influenza A viruses infecting humans since 1997
Table 9.2: Human infections with avian influenza A

Virus Occurrence) Cases
H5N1 Hong Kong, 1997 Infection occurred in both poultry and humans. It was
the first detected direct avian influenza
transmission from birds to humans.Six persons died.
18 cases were reported. 1.5 million chickens were
killed in order to control the epidemic
H9N2 China and Hong Kong, 1999 Two children were infected. They recovered.Several
human H9N2 infections from mainland China
were reported in 1998-99
H7N2 Virginia,USA, 2002 One person had positive serological reaction
to H7N2 following an outbrake of H7N2 in the
Shenandoah Valley area
H5N1 China and Hong Kong, 2003 Two case occurred among travellers from Hong Kong
to China. One Person died. Another death due to
respiratory illness from the travellers group was not
serologicallyly cleared.
H7N7 Netherlands, 2003 Outbrakes of influenza A (H7N7) in poultry pigs
and humans. 89 were infected by H7N7in association
with the poultry outbrake. One death of a veterinarian
who visited an infected far was reported. Three possible
transmissions from poultry workers to family members
occurreded. Since that time no other infection was reported
H9N2 Hong Kong, 2003 One child was infected by H9N2. It recovered.
H7N2 New York, 2003 One patient was medicated in relation to
an infection with H1N1. In March 2004 further tests
has showned that it had been H7N2
H5N1 Thailand and Vietnam, 2003 Highly pathogenic influenza A
(H5N1) was reported. Human cases are still happening there.
H7N3 Canada, 2004 Human infections among poultry workers
were due to an outbreak of H7N3 in poultry.The
illness consists of eye infections.
H5N1 Asia,Thailand Avian influenza in Turkey,Romania and Russia
The signs of avian influenza: Detectable antibody titre to AI. AI, respiratory, enteric,
reproductive or nervous system disease, decreased food consumption and drops in egg pro-
duction, coughing, sneezing, ruffled feathers, swollen heads, nervous signs like depression, and
diarrhoea.
There are three pathotypes of Newcastle disease viruses (NDV’s)known:lentogenic, mesogenic,
and velogenic.
The Velogenic Newcastle disease is the most severe of Newcastle Diseases.
Clinical signs: Respiratory and/or nervous signs: gasping and coughing,drooping wings,
dragging legs, twisting of the head and neck, circling, depression, inappetence, complete paral-
ysis. Partial or complete cessation of egg production. Greenish watery diarrhoea. Swelling of
the tissues around the eyes and in the neck.
Clinical signs of human infection: Symptom may appear up to two weeks after infection.
They are similar to a serious cold: Fever head- and throat pain, cough, respiratory complaints,
pneumonia, additional stomach and gut complaints, and abnormal liver test results, bloodcells
and platelets count decreases. Some patients kidney failure.
WHO Recommendations Regarding Avian Influenza

WHO recommends that travellers to areas experiencing outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1
in poultry should avoid contact with live animal markets and poultry farms. Large amounts
of the virus are known to be excreted in the droppings from infected birds. Populations in
affected countries are advised to avoid contact with dead migratory birds or wild birds showing
signs of disease.
Direct contact with infected poultry, or surfaces and objects contaminated by their droppings,
is considered the main route of human infection. Exposure risk is considered highest during
slaughter, defeathering, butchering, and preparation of poultry for cooking. There is no evi-
dence that properly cooked poultry or poultry products can be a source of infection.
Countries located along migratory routes need to be vigilant for signs of disease in wild and
domestic birds. Recent events make it likely that some migratory birds are now implicated in
the direct spread of the H5N1 virus in its highly pathogenic form.[1330]
To avoid any contact of poultry with wildlife birds all poultry farms must keep their poultry
indoors.
In animals, avian influenza is most commonly transmitted through direct contact with wild
birds, especially asymptomatic waterfowl, and contacts with infected poultry and poultry prod-
ucts. There are also common indirect routes, e.g. through contaminated clothing, footwear,
vehicles and equipment, as well as contaminated feed, water, manure and litter. Insects, ro-
dents, cats and dogs can also act as vectors and transmit the disease.[1331]
In several countries in Asia, rural families keep small free-range flocks and up to 80% of poultry
are raised at small-household village level. This poses a challenge for controlling outbreaks of
highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry.
Poultry and humans often share the same environment in Asia. Poultry are present in almost
all villages and are generally marketed as live animals. In these conditions, the disease can
spread quickly between the many small flocks.
The practice of home slaughtering means that human exposure to the virus can easily occur in
254
affected areas.
Outbreaks in Hong Kong and the Neatherlands in 2003 could be controlled by culling of infected
flocks, quarantine, bans on the movement of animals, and compensation schemes for affected
farmers because the affected areas were characterised by industrial production conditions.
Avian Influenza and food safety

According to WHO, there is a recent concern over the possibility that the avian influenza in
addition to direct contact with live infected animals could spread through contact with contam-
inated poultry products. To date there is no epidemiological information to suggest that the
disease can be transmitted through contaminated food or that products shipped from affected
areas have been source of infection in humans.
Reports indicate that in addition to chicken, pigs and ducks have also been infected. Infected
chicken flocks rapidly develop symptoms and should be destroyed before having any possibil-
ity to enter the food-chain. Ducks have been reported to be asymptomatic carriers and duck
products such as frozen duck meat could be contaminated with the H5N1 virus.
The further processing would inactivate the virus. In general, good hygiene practices during
handling of raw poultry meat and usual recommended cooking practices for poultry products
would lower any potential risk to insignificant levels.
Eggs from infected poultry could also be contaminated with the virus and therefore care should
be taken in handling shell eggs or raw egg products.
Freezing and refrigeration does not substantially reduce the concentration or virulence of viruses
on contaminated meat. Proper cooking kills such viruses. In general, WHO recommends that
food s should be cooked to reach an internal temperature of 700 C.[1331] Nutraceuticals as
preventatives of H5N1 virus infection [1332][1333]
Professor Edzard Ernst, professor of complimentary medicine at the University of Exeter, said
in February 2006 that olive leaf extract, garlic, oregano oil, bee pollen, cayenne pepper, garlic
colloidal silver, aloe vera, Echinacea, kimchi (Korean sauerkraut), cranberry juice, honeysuckle
and green tea present no scientific evidence to support claims such as to protect against avian
flu.
Dr. Damien Downing, president of the British Society for Ecological Medicine, and medical
director of the Alliance for Natural Health called the statement of Professor Ernst irresponsible
and a danger to public health. He pointed out the importance of zinc and vitamin C when it
comes to fight infections being then essential for the immune system. However, less than ten
per cent of adults in the UK have sufficient levels of zinc in their diet.
The point of view of Dr. Dowing was countered by Dr. Ron Cutler from the School of Bio-
sciences at the University of East London saying that the H5N1 virus is said to stimulate the
immune system, fillilng the lungs with blood causing death. Any supplement boosting the
body’s immune system would be of no help at that time.
New outbreak2007 of H5N1 virus in UK

In UK a new outbreak of H5N1 virus avian flue was noted on the 27.01.07 and confirmed on
the 03.02.07 in the English, province of Suffolk, Upper Holton in a farm for turkeys for meat
production.
Three zones were declared around the Infected Premises to reduce the spread of disease. These
are the Protection Zone (3km), the Surveillance Zone (10km) and a wider Restricted Zone,
encompassing wider areas of Suffolk and Norfolk.
UK loses its status as ”disease free” country (06-02-07) and Ireland, Russia, Hong Kong, South
Africa, South Korea and Japan and India impose ban on UK poultry meat, live birds and hatch-
ing eggs. The chief veterinary officer in charge, Fred Landeg, confirmed that about 159,000
turkeys have been culled.
10.02.07: The H5N1 virus of the farm is identical to the virus of recent outbreaks in Hun-
gary according to a statement on 10.02.2007 of the official veterinary officer in charge. The
company has poultry farms and production sites all over UK Germany and Hungary and trans-
ports fresh meat from one side to another. The veterinary investigators believe that the virus
was on this way imported from Hungary.
Still human death cases caused by H5N1 avian flue virus [1334]
Egypt: One teenage girl tested positive for the H5N1 avian flu died on April 10, 2007 at a
hospital in Cairo despite Tamiflu medication. The total number of H5N1 deaths in Egypt are 14.
Nigeria: In the city of Lagos, Nigeria, 11 contact persons were tested for H5N1 virus, having
symptoms of the disease in early April 2007. One women died on February after slaughtering
a chicken without wearing gloves or a mask and probably spread the virus to their contacts.
Reported deaths due to H5N1 virus

(WHO 11.04.2007) [1335]
256
Azerbaijan 5
Cambodia 7
China 15
Egypt 14
Indonesia 63
Iraq 2
Laos 2
Nigeria 1
Thailand 17
Turkey 4
Viet Nam 42
Total 172
Preparedness plans for a global flu epidemic
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services gives advices and preparedness plans for
a global epidemic.
Please look at http://www.avianflu.gov/plan/individual/index.html
The blue ear disease [1336]

Chinese officials say million pigs are dying in China killed by the epidemic on Porcine Repro-
ductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS), or blue ear disease, which is caused by a virus in
the arterivirus family. This disease is known as post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome
PMWS in Europe, and as the porcine circovirus associated disease PCVAD in USA.
It is a very common pig disease known for many years in Europe and USA in the mid 80s,
from were it spread to other countries, such as to the Cape. China is being seriously hit by the
disease, because pork is a staple food and meat is lacking on the markets and the government
wants to release frozen stocks. [1337]
The mortality is known to be up to 50% caused by the porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2),
but has declined now to 1-2% in the nursery due to hygiene strategy and the porcine circovirus
type 2 vaccine, but it is still up to 9% in finisher.
Human infectivity of blue ear disease [1338] According to Albert Osterhaus, a virology
expert at the Erasmus University Medical Centre in Rotterdam, an international centre for blue
ear disease, there are no indications that spread to humans can happen. Many viral infections
that do occur in certain animal species are restricted to that particular species. A mutation
to a variety which could be infectious to human, so as feared about the H2N5 virus of avian
influenza, however, is highly unlikely.
Symptomatic: The virus causes still-births, fever, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, redness of the
skin and mortality rates of up to 50 percent on some farms.
The ears of affected pigs turn blue. The virus invades and multiplies in the white blood cells
which die later on in the lung tissue of the pigs. Up to 40% of the macrophages are destroyed
reducing the defence mechanism and allows bacteria and other viruses to proliferate. The virus
mutates quickly turning the production of vaccines difficult, but vaccination in Guangdong will
start soon.
Rules for pig slaughterhouses in China: According to China’s Ministry of Commerce the
draft rules for pig slaughterhouses demands for a slaughterhouse to be licensed and approved by
local governments and environmental bureaux, and must be located away from drinking water
supplies, residential districts and public areas, the said on its Web site.
Transmission: Direct pig to pig transfer is not common; the transmitting agent is Hematopi-
nus suis, the swine louse. The diagnosis is the Virus isolation The control of the disease is the
elimination of lice and hygiene measures.
Chinese officials believe that carcasses thrown into rivers may have been responsible for the
spread of the disease to the surrounding areas. Infected pigs were raised by individual rural
farmers applying poor hygiene measures rather than industrialized pig farms.
Endemic areas include Africa (South of the Sahara), Spain, and Portugal. The outbreaks
in the Dominican Republic , Haiti, and Cuba have beenn reported. In China the desease
appeared in the mid-90s, and actually in the Cape Flats.
The blue ear disease virus not to be compared with the avian flue H5N1 and H7N1
virus. [1339]
Despite the economical impact, the blue ear virus does not menace mankind so as the H5N1
virus of the avian influenza does. China reports a new case of human infection with the H5N1
virus which was confirmed on the 30.05.2007. There had been no contact with sick birds prior
to becoming unwell. Close contacts have been placed under medical observation and all remain
well. Of the 25 cases confirmed to date in China, 15 have been fatal. In UK two human
infections with the less deadly variant of H7N1 were reported.
Norovirus
Norovirus should replace the designation ”flu-like”, ”Norwalk-like”,”Norwalk- and Norwalklike
viruses (Caliciviruses) ”, ”bug”.
258
Norwalk- and Norwalklike gastroenteritis virus are leading causes of foodborn dis-
eases:Norwalk virus is part of a family which is not well defined It causes stomach and intestinal
illness. It was first identified in 1972 in the city of Norwalk ( Ohio. The group if these viruses
are recently called Noroviruses. The are from the genus Norovirus, family Caliciviridae. They
are single stranded RNA, nonenveloped. They spread by person-to-person contact from the
stool of infected persons and its symptoms are vomiting and diarrhoea.Special care is needed
to avoid spreading of the disease such as:
Avoid food or water which has been contaminated by stool from infected persons, raw shellfish,
oysters, clams, ice, eggs, salads and other food contaminated by sick food handlers or water
which has been contaminated by sewage of cities or disposals of boats.
Incubation is 1 to 2 days. Illness is not severe, but rehydration may be necessary. Recovery in
2 to 3 days. People with the virus are contagious skin to skin for 3 days after symptoms have
disappeared. The stool remains infectious for 2 to 3 weeks after symptoms are gone. Strict
handwasching and use of disinfectants are very important to avoid spreading of the virus.
People can be reinfected and have the disease several times in life because there are many
strains and a strong mutagenic activity.
Food should be served in restaurants authorised persons only instead of self-serving service.
Hotels should carefully clean bed clothes and pillow cases. Refrigerators and icemachines should
be thawed and cleaned periodically. As disinfectant chlorine water solution should be used.
Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks caused by caliciviruses have been associated with eating con-
taminated shellfish, particularly oysters (Crassostrea virginica), implicating sewage from oyster
harvesting vessels as the probable cause of contaminated oysters.
Special measures: Special care is needed to avoid spreading of the disease.
• Avoid food or water which has been contaminated by stool from infected persons, raw
shellfish, oysters, clams, ice, eggs, salads and other food contaminated by sick food han-
dlers or water which has been contaminated by sewage of cities or disposals of boats.
• Strict hand washing and use of disinfectants are very important to avoid spreading of the
virus.
• Only authorised persons should be allowed to serve food instead of self-serving service in
restaurants.
• Hotels should carefully clean bed clothes and pillow cases.
• Refrigerators and ice machines should be thawed and cleaned periodically.
• Chlorine water solution should be used as disinfectant
• Paper towels should be used instead of textile towels.

• Sterilise hands with sterilisation solution after drying hands.
• Cutting boards and knives must be washed with hot water and soap when changing food.
• Fruits and vegetables must be washed carefully before processing.
• Meat, poultry and fish must be cooked. After maximum of 2 hours after cooking all food
must be refrigerated.
Norovirus in oysters: If shellfish such as fresh oysters infected with norovirus are eaten,
acute gasterointestitis may occur. Vomiting, stomach ache, diarrhoea and fever may result.
Available measures to fight Norovirus in oysters is to provide sterile water and use chlorine-based
germicides. However, sterile cultivation is costly and the Norovirus is resistant to chlorine-based
germicide and sterilising alcohol. The use of high chlorine concentrations will make shellfish
unpalatable.
Researches made by IEMT/AIST with micro-bubbles which are ultra-fine gas water bubbles
(less than 50 micrometers in size) containing low concentration ozone to inactivate norovirus in
live oyster under cultivation as well as unshelled oysters. These micro-bubbels are concentrated
oxygen and 2 per cent ozone.
As the bubbles are suspended in water, the bubble size shrinks spontaneously to the level of
nanometer inactivating the virus.
The oxygen/ozone micro-bubbles also suppress legionella bacteriain a circulating bath system
as well as carp herpes virus.
Reo virus: infects intestines, lung, kidneys, liver and spleen of cattle and swine.
Rotavirus: in the intestines of cattle and swine.

Rotaviruses belong to the group of the reovirus. The particles of rotavirus contain 11 segments
of double-stranded RNA. They are 70 nm in diameter and resemble wheels with a central axis
and radiating spokes.
Rotaviruses are the major agent of non-bacterial diarrhoeal diseases with great risk to infants
and young children. Transmission occurs commonly through water.
Astro virus
Adenovirus: is found in intestines, lung, kidneys of cattle and swine
Canine parvovirus: The members of the group of the parvoviruses are roughly spherical
with a diameter of about 24 nm. Canine parvovirus causes enteritis and miocarditis in dogs.
Coxsackie virus: It is found in the intestines and lung of swine.

260
ECHO viruses
Corona virus: infects the intestines of cattle.
Newcastle virus
Norwalk virus from infected mussels
Herpes virus: It infects lung liver spleen, milk and muscles of cattle and lung and muscles of
swine
Other entero viruses

Infection occurs through fecal contamination of food, water and air. Personal hygiene, commu-
nal hygiene such as sewage treatment and isolation of diseased persons from food processing
are the most important measures to avoid food born diseases.
The contamination can be of primary or secondary nature.

The primary contamination of food occurs when the animal which is going to be killed has
already a virus disease. Meat and organs may then carry the virus. Fish and oysters near the
estuary of sewage carrying rivers may bear hepatitis viruses.
The secondary contamination of food occurs during processing, transportation and storage
through dirt and smear infections. Virus carrier of hepatitis - A virus may contaminate food
handling food in restaurants.
Water which bears viruses is the most common cause of contamination when used in the
production of food or used in cleaning of tools and equipment. Enteroviruses are the most
important group of water-borne viruses.
Food poisoning from mussels, oysters and clams Bivalves are important vehicles for
the transmission of enteric diseases when eaten raw or undercooked.
Vibrio species, are abundant in bivalve tissue. According to Carla Pruzzofrom the University of
Genova, immunity in bivalves is carried out by circulating haemocytes and soluble haemolymph
factors that act in a co-ordinated way to kill microorganisms. Studying the physiology of the
Mediterranean Mytilus galloprovincialis, the scientists identified a rage of factors that are im-
portant in determining the fate of vibrio cholerae within the bivalve host. These are bacterial
surface ligands, soluble hemolymph components and the ability of bacteria to influence distinct
signalling pathways responsible for the haemocyte immune response. [1386]
Hepatitis A - virus The HAV is a heat resistant RNS from the family of the Picornaviridae.
Hepatitis E - virus The HEV is supposed to be a member of the Calici - group. It is a

RNS - virus, its incubation is about 40 days. It causes a high mortality between pregnant by
first infection. It is very frequent in India and Mexico.
Definition of virus Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, they can only multiply inside
living cell. Definition according to S.E. Luria and James Darnell (1967):
”Viruses are entities whose genomes are elements of nucleic acid that replicate inside living
host cells using the cellular synthetic machinery and causing the synthesis of specialised ele-
ments (virus particles) that transfer the virus genome to other cells.”
This definition should be added by 5 characteristics enumerated by A. Lwoff (1957):
Viruses are extremely small microorganism ( 15 - 300 nm which can pass normal bacterial
filters).
1. They contain only DNA or RNS
2. There is no division. Reproduction occurs by only means of nucleic acid.
3. There is no growth in the extracellular latent phase.
4. There are no metabolic enzymes
5. Replication by means of the ribosomes of the host cells
Groups of viruses Viruses are generally divided into animal viruses, plant viruses and bac-
terial viruses.
The division of viruses in to groups is important as they do not cross the boundaries as they
are specialised to the biology of their hosts. Only a few viruses , however can do that. This is
the case of the rhabdovirus group
Animal viruses: are viruses which infect vertebrates, including human viruses of medical
importance and those of veterinary importance.
The name of animal viruses are based on the disease caused on the principal host followed by
the name virus.
invertebrate viruses: especially insect viruses.

262
Plant viruses: such as mosaic virus of tobacco and viruses of flowering plants.
The name of plant viruses are given according to the major host of plant and the main
symptoms of disease caused such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), tomato bushy stunt virus
(TBSV)raspberry ringspot virus (RRV). (On regard of the problems of classification please refer
also to “Phytopathology”
Bacterial viruses: are also known as pages, bacteriophages. Well known are the phages
which infect Escherichia coli.
Bacterial viruses are named by code letters or by a system of letters and numbers
Bacterial infections may be a lytic infection such as caused by phage T2 or T4 infecting Es-
cherichia coli causing it to burst which is called lyse. The phages infection of bacteria may be
lysogenic, infected cells of bacteria show no signs of infection but retain the ability to produce
infective virus particles.
Nipah virus and Hendra virus[1059]

textbfciteHendra
Both viruses are member of the family of Paramyxoviridae both are included in the genus of
Henipavirus. They are known to be able to infect a wide rage of hosts ( pigs, horses,cats,
dogs and guinea pigs). The natural host of the Nipah virus are certain species of fruit bats
(Megachiroptera such as Pteropus vampyrus) which are infected without being ill themselves.
Though Nipah and its closely related zoonotic Hendra virus ( formerly called Equine morbilli
virus EMV) are not known to be transmitted by food there are cases known of transmissions
from pigs and horses to mankind.So breeders and abattoir workers should take special care
to avoid infection leading with sick pigs with Nipah virus infections.Sick horses with severe
respiratory disease were reported to be the source of infection with Hendra virus in Australia.
Once infected the death rate in humans is higher than 50%. There is no medication against
the viruses. Only ribavirin can reduce the severity of the disease.
It is recommended that close contact with body fluids and infected tissues should be avoided
if Nipah infection is suspected. Respiratory secretions of diseased humans and animal contain
the viruses.
In an Malaysian outbreak in Nipah infected pigs were the cause of human disease. The virus
carries therefore this name.
Incubation time is between 4 and 18 days in some cases up to twelve months and is in most
cases sub-clinical with influenza-like symptoms, high fever and muscle pains.Inflammation of
the brain,drowsiness, disorientation, convulsions and coma.
Menangle virus
Menangle virus, a member of the Paramyxovirus family causes a disease in pigs with stillborns
and deformed piglets and influenza-like illness in humans. Its host are fruit bats.
Tioman virus
Tioman virus is a member of the Paramyxovirus family and of the genus Rubulavirus. It is
related to Menangle virus.
Other viruses: they infect protozoa, algae,filamentous fungi and yeasts. They are not so
well known.
Structure of virus particles: The structure of virus particles can be determined with elec-
tron microscopy and X-ray crystallography. In 1939 a tobacco mosaic virus TMV was seen for
the first time using an electron microscope.
Virus particles are transparent in the electron beam, special staining is therefore necessary:
Shadow casting: Metals such as gold are vaporized and sprayed over the virus particle,
forming a thin film over the object. The resulting shadows are used to analyse the three-
dimensional structure of the particle.
Negative staining: Heavy metal salts are used as negative stains such as potassium phos-
photungstate or uranyl acetate. These compound fill the gaps between particles giving rise to
the image of the details of the particle against a dark background.
R-ray crystallography: X-ray Crystallography can be used whenever the virus particles can
be isolated in crystalline form. This method was used with viruses such as: Polio virus and
tobacco mosaic virus.
The external morphology is made by a protein shell called capsid. Capsids are composed of
subunits called capsomeres
The capsomeres may contain several proteins such as the capsomeres of the particles of po-
liovirus.These proteins are called virion proteins VP Polioviruses have virion proteins VP1,
VP2, VP3, VP4.
According to the morphology the viruses may be classified:
Icosahedral symmetry: They are small and infect animals such as poliovirus, plants such as
turnip yellow mosaic virus (TYMV) and bacteria. Their morphology resembles an icosahedron.
• An icosahedron is a regular three-dimensional body with 20 triangular faces, 12 pointed

corners called vertices and 30 edges with a special symmetry called 5:3:2 rotational sym-
metry:
Fivefold axis symmetry: Has the same symmetry when the particle is rotated on-fifth
of a complete rotation.
Threefold axis symmetry: The symmetry repeats every third of a complete rotation.
264
Twofold axis symmetry: The symmetry repeats every half rotation.
Helical symmetry: Viruses which are rod shaped and have helical arrangement of their
subunits are called helical symmetry viruses.
Rod shaped viruses can be rigid as seen by the tobacco mosaic virus or flexible as found with
the potato virus X and mumps virus.
Enveloped virus: Enveloped viruses have a lipid-rich outer coat forming a regular phospho-
lipid bilayer similar to the cell membranes of eucariotic cells. The shape can vary, being called
pleomorphic particles.
Some glycoprotein structures emerge from the lipid coat. These structures are called peplomers
or spikes, such as seen in influenza virus
Some viruses have haemaglutining spikes HA which stick to the surface of red blood cells caus-
ing clumping of blood.
The envelope is essential for the infection process. Treatment with detergents or organic sol-
vents such as chloroform or ether damages the lipoprotein layer and inactivates the virus.
Complex virus particles: There are two types of complex virus particles known:
Poxvirus and Phages
Poxviruses: They have a central nucleoid core of DNA covered by a lipoprotein membrane
with spikes.
Poxvirus particles can be brick shaped such as smallpox or ovoid as in orf which is a poxvirus
of lamb and kid goats
Phages Are virus particles with a head of icosahedral symmetry and a tail of helical symme-
try. Examples of phages are the T2, T4 and T6.
Genetic variations of viruses Genetic variation of viruses modify their reaction to specific
antibodies giving place to new strains of viruses. One distinguishes antigenic drifts and antigenic
shifts.
Antigenic drifts The mutation of the genes may be very small. They are point mutations,
changing simple aminoacids of the HA and the N proteins. These small antigenic drifts explain
the appearance of mild epidemics such as influenza being only of local importance.
Antigenic shifts of viruses The changes of the genetic code is very great and new strains
of viruses appear. They are responsible for world-wise influenza epidemics.
Virus infection due to contaminated water Contaminated surface water can be the cause
of virus epidemic diseases when chemical disinfectants without slow filtration through sand or
flocculation is used.
Concentration of chemical disinfectants may be sufficient to destroy Escherichia coli but not
enough to inactivate viruses. Despite a negative coli test contamination with viruses are still
possible. Some viruses found in water are:
• Enteroviruses causing diseases of the intestines, meninges, repiratory system and heart
muscle and cause poliomyelitis and infectious hepatitis
• Adenoviruses, causing diseases or the respiratory system and conjunctiva.
• Rotaviruses, causing diarrhoea, being serious diseases of infants.
The amount of virus particles in contaminated water can be very low , the water still remaining
infectious for humans. New laboratory method are being applied to control virus contamina-
tion of water. These methods are DNA and RNA sondes and control of specific nucleic acid
sequences with hybrid techniques as well as the polymerase chain reaction
Food may be contaminated by food preparers or handlers who have viral gastroenteritis,
especially if they do not wash their hands regularly after using the bathroom. Shellfish may
be contaminated by sewage, and persons who eat raw or undercooked shellfish harvested from
contaminated waters may get diarrhoea. Drinking water can also be contaminated by sewage
and be a source of these viruses.
Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks can occur in schools, child care facilities, nursing homes, ban-
quet halls, cruise ships, dormitories, and campgrounds
Rotavirus infection can be diagnosed by laboratory testing of a stool specimen. Tests to detect
other viruses that cause gastroenteritis were not in routine. Genetic fingerprinting technology
using PCR methods, can now identify many common foodborne illnesses and find their origin
with great accuracy. Infection of the most of the viruses occurs through faecal contamination
of water food and air.
266
Measures to avoid food born viral diseases: Personal hygiene, communal hygiene such
as sewage treatment, isolation of diseased persons from food processing.
The contamination can be of primary or secondary nature. The primary contamination of

food occurs when the animal which is going to be killed has already a virus disease. Meat and
organs may then carry the virus. Fish and oysters near the estuary of sewage carrying rivers
may bear hepatitis viruses.
The secondary contamination of food occurs during processing, transportation and storage
through dirt and smear infections. Virus carriers of hepatitis-A virus may contaminate food
in restaurants. Water which bears viruses is the most common cause of contamination when
used in the production of food or used in cleaning of tools and equipment or rinsing vegetables.
Enteroviruses are the most important group of water-borne viruses.
The human pathogens in these groups have been poorly studied since for the most part, they
do not grow in culture. They have been grouped on the basis of their appearance. Recently,
nucleotide sequences of members of each group have been determined, allowing genome organ-
isation to be used as a basis for future classification.
In the past, the cause of food poisoning could not be found. Health officials named a par-
ticular food product or brand not until many people became ill because of recourse.
Sometimes they acted to fast removing a product from the market which were not contam-
inated, damaging the reputations of innocent food growers, manufacturers, and vendors. This
happened with Birkel noodle in Germany. The company was blamed to have used spoiled eggs
for here products. The company proved its innocence but almost went into bankruptcy.
Reoviruses
Respiratory Enteric Orphan viruses, i.e. infect the human respiratory and intestinal tracts,
usually without disease symptoms. There are 150 species in the family Reoviridae. They are
a diverse group, infecting invertebrates, vertebrates and plants, but are unified by their most
unique feature, the composition of their genome.
Bluetongue virus [1048]

Bluetongue is an insect transmitted, viral disease of domestic(cattle and sheep) and wild rumi-
nants that is caused by bluetongue virus (BTV).
Human infection are unknown, and there is no risk of the disease being contracted or spread
through meat or milk.
The Bluetongue virus is a member of the genus Orbivirus and Reoviridae family. There are
24 serotypes. It is transmitted by a midge Cullicoides imicola and other culicoid species. In

August 2006 cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium and Germany.
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis
of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance,
though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals. Recovery is very slow.
Report on Epidemiological analysis of the 2006 bluetongue virus serotype 8 epi-

demic in north-western Europe updated in June 2007. [1049]
Bluetongue (BT) is an arthropod-borne viral disease caused by the BTV-serotype 8 (BTV-8) It
affects domestic and wild ruminants, particularly certain breeds of sheep. It is a severe clinical
disease, including mortality which rapidly spread in north-western Europe in 2006 . It affected
cattle and sheep holdings in Belgium, Germany, France, Luxembourg, and The Netherlands.
The main findings reported by the EFSA bluetongue working group: Statistical
modelling showed that the initial infection occurred in the area close to Maastricht. The source
of the introduction of BTV-8 could not be identified and the exact origin and route of the
introduction of BTV-8 thus far remains unknown. However, the absence of legal import of
ruminants from outside the EU into the Area of First Infection and the absence of BTV-8
from southern Europe suggest that the introduction of the BTV-8 infection into north-western
Europe is likely to have occurred via a other than through import of infected ruminants.
Specifically, the potential for Culicoides to be imported along with or independently of the
import of animals, plants or other materials merits further study.
Monitoring: Sheep flocks should be monitored by a system based on clinical signs, as PCR
in affected sheep is often negative.
Cattle monitoring system based on serological surveillance is being recommended.
Culicoides as a vector of BTV: The BTV-8 virus was found to be present in vectors
(Culicoides species) which are endemic to north-western Europe. C. imicola, which is thought
to be responsible for at least 90% of BTV transmission in the Mediterranean Basin, was not
found in the affected region. Indigenous Culicoides found to be PCR-positive were C. dewulfi
(a species breeding exclusively in the dung of cattle and horses) and C. obsoletus / C. scoticus.
In all likelihood this persistent activity of adult Culicoides owes much to the mild temper-
atures that have continued to prevail across northern Europe during the winter of 2006/2007.
268
Local spread was modelled and found to occur at a rate of about 2 km per day or approx-
imately 15 km per week and equals the flight distances covered by Culicoides.
Wind may affect spread over long distances. In particular, the density of the observed wind
events contributed, at least in part, to explaining the spread of BTV.
In conclusion, changes in climatic conditions coupled with increased worldwide traffic might
increase the risk in the appearance and the establishment of diseases in parts of Europe that
were thus far exotic to those regions.
Rotaviruses
Rotaviruses belong to the group of the reoviruses. They resemble wheels with a central axis
and radiating spokes (Rota=Wheel)
Rotaviruses are the most common cause of severe diarrhoea worldwide. In developing countries,
rotavirus infection may cause up to one million deaths each year. Clean water and improved
sanitation are seldom available in developing countries. Rotavirus particles remain active on
human hands for at least 4 hours, on hard dry surfaces for 10 days, and on wet areas for weeks.
Although the rotavirus and the Norwalk family of viruses are the leading causes of viral infects
other viruses can also cause diarrhoea.
Astroviruses
Astroviruses are the cause of most frequent viral gastrointestinal infections and are a significant
cause of diarrhoea in developing countries.
They are clinically similar to caliciviruses. Astroviruses have been isolated from birds, cats,
dogs, pigs, sheep, cows and man. There are at least 7 human astrovirus serotypes. Outbreaks
in UK, in Mexico and food borne astrovirus infection in Japan involving thousands of children
and adults.
Adenoviruses
Adenoviruses most commonly cause respiratory illness; however, depending on the infecting
serotype, they may also cause various other illnesses, such as gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis,
cystitis, and rash illness.
Adenoviruses are unusually stable to chemical or physical agents and adverse pH conditions,
allowing for prolonged survival outside of the body. Transmission occurs by direct contact
foecal-oral transmission, and occasionally by water. Shedding can occur for months or years.
Parvoviruses
Parvoviruses are associated with human gastroenteritis. Shellfish have been implicated in ill-
ness caused by a parvo-like virus.
Although foods are not analysed in routine for these viruses, it may be possible to apply
current immunological procedures to detect viruses in clinical specimens. Gene probes and
PCR detection methods are currently being developed. In near future a better surveillance of
these epidemics will increase food safety.
Quality assurance programs in slaughterhouses should reduce fecal contamination of carcasses

and meat should be chilled rapidly.
Monitoring trends of indicator organisms, e.g. Enterobacteriaceae and Standard Plate Count
should indicate deviations from quality standard A general method for E.coli detection i.e. for
non-pathogenic and potentially pathogenic strains, is also useful as levels of all types of E.coli
should be minimised in food production.
Any increase of normal levels or indicators should trigger an active investigation of the reasons
for the increased levels.
Effective process control of all cooking / pasteurisation stages is essential to ensure that the
correct heating temperatures and times are achieved.
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) type causes an epidemic of a respiratory disease which spreads
in Guangdong and other provinces of Chin, Canada, the United States. The virus may remain
on hands and surfaces for several hours.
Strict hand-hygiene be enforced among food handlers and within the food processing industry.
This should be done very carefully after using the restroom and after sneezing or coughing. In
addition, food workers should not handle ready-to-eat foods, such as sandwiches, vegetables
and cut fruits, with bare hands, but should use gloves or utensils for an extra level of protection.
The SARS global outbreak of 2003 was contained; however, it is possible that the disease could
re-emerge.
Proper hand washing continues to serve as a vital and necessary public health practice to
eliminate the spread of food borne illnesses in retail food stores and food service. Contam-
ination factors common in retail and food service environments inhibit the effectiveness of
alcohol-based hand sanitizers when used in place of hand washing.
270
Corona viruses are named for their corona-like appearance. The corona or halo is due to
an array of surface projections on the viral envelope, one of which is the E2 glycoprotein, the
viral attachment protein. Corona viruses are second only to rhinoviruses as a cause of the
common cold and pneumonia.
Infectious Laryngotracheitis in poultry: Infectious Laryngotracheitis is a viral infection

of the respiratory tract of chickens, pheasants and peafowl. It can spread rapidly among birds
and causes high death losses in poultry that are susceptible. The disease is not a human health
risk. Turkeys, ducks and geese do not get the infection but could spread the virus.
Mycoplasmosis Mycoplasma gallisepticum is associated with chronic respiratory disease (CRD)/air

sac syndrome in chickens and turkeys and infectious sinusitis of turkeys; Mycoplasma melea-
gridis is associated with airsacculitis in turkeys; and Mycoplasma synoviae is the cause of
infectious synovitis in chickens and turkeys. Mycoplasma are bacterial-like organisms.
Mareks Disease: Mareks is a member of the herpesvirus family of viruses. It causes in-
ternal tumours. The most common Mareks in chictumoursre eye, visceral, and nerve versions.
The turkevisceralon is Herpes Virus Turkey. The waterfowl version is known as Duck Virus
Enteritis. All three are from the same family of viruses.
Infectious coryza: Infectious coryza is a specific respiratory disease in chickens The dis-
ease is caused by a bacterium known as Hemophilus gallinarum.
Pullorum Disease:It is caused by Salmonella pullorum and is primarily egg transmitted.

It is also known as ”bacillary white diarrhoea”
Fowl typhoid It is caused by Salmonella gallinarum. The transmission includes eggs. The
poultry infections with Salmonella gallinarum and Salmonella pullorum killed large numbers
of birds and were therefore eradicated in the 1970s. They had not cause harm in humans and
were acting as a natural vaccine against Salmonella enteritidis. The chickens’ immunity was
lost and this opened the door for Salmonella enteritidis.
Fowl Cholera: It is an infectious disease of turkeys caused by Pasteurella multocida with

watery yellowish orgreen diarrhoea.The current bird flu scenario should not cause panic and
fear; instead it calls for rational and immediate action to fight the disease at its origin - that
means in animals.
Avian influenza is first of all an animal disease that requires a veterinarian response.
The virus can be defeated and contained if countries and the international community work
closely together and set up efficient surveillance and disease control programs. Virus outbreaks
in animals need to be detected at a very early stage, infected poultry must be slaughtered and
animals at risk have to be vaccinated. Reducing avian influenza in animals contributes directly
to protecting people’s health.
Affected countries in Southeast Asia are proving that the virus can be successfully contained.
Thailand has obtained an impressive reduction of outbreaks through massive investment in
controlling the disease in poultry, using slaughtering and improved surveillance and active dis-
ease search.
In Viet Nam, improved on-farm hygiene, farming practices, poultry movement controls and
vaccination campaigns will reduce the frequency of bird flu outbreaks. Several countries such
as Malaysia, South Korea and Japan have eliminated the disease rapidly after the occurrence
of new outbreaks.
Regrettably, most of the public discussion focuses on the human-health aspects of bird flu,
while the weak state of veterinary services in many poor countries is being ignored. Affected
countries and the international community urgently need to invest more in support of veteri-
narians and animal health workers, because they represent the first line of defence against the
virus. [1050]
A Swedish study leaded by Anna Thorson says that epidemiological data from a rural Area in
Vietnam suggest that transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza to humans could be
more common than anticipated, though close contact seems required.
Thorson’s group found that simply having sick or dead poultry in the house did not signif-
icantly increase the risk of flu-like illness; those people only showed a 14 percent higher risk of
flu-like illness compared to someone without poultry. However, having direct contact with sick
or dead poultry raised that increased risk to 73 percent, Thorson said. [1051]
Vaccination in China: [1052]
Using a technique called reverse genetics, scientists at the Key Laboratory of Animal Influenza,
affiliated to Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, altered the genome sequence of the virus to
construct a vaccine that is believed to be safe to both poultry and mammals.
The vaccine will be administered to fowls in the country’s key water areas, including rivers
and lakes. Laboratory tests show the vaccine enables ducks and geese to fight H5N1, the highly
lethal strain of bird flu, three weeks after the flocks were vaccinated, the statement claimed.
The new vaccine also provides at least 10 months of protection for chickensfour months longer
than the existing bird flu preventive drugs.
China developed advanced bird flu virus test technology (RT-PCR reagent kit) last April.
This can detect H5, H7 and H9 subgroups of the bird flu simultaneously in several hours.
272
Vaccination is a must for water fowls and poultry farms in Chinese regions at high risk, accord-
ing to a national tele-conference in bird flu prevention on January 28 in Beijing.
Apart from the encouraging laboratory test results, field tests also indicate that upon receiving
two shots of the vaccine, ducks and geese can each produce antibodies effective for 10 months
and three months, respectively.
According to the ministry statement the vaccination thus makes it impossible for ducks and
geese to become the load of H5 subgroup bird flu virus. Therefore, it can cut a key link for the
highly pathogenic avian influenza to spread.
German officials , however say, vaccination is not the solution of the problem. In Italy nobody
can say if poultry is free of H5N1 because some flocks were vaccinated using an attenuated
virus H7N3. Imunity against all H7 (Hafez) Vaccinated poultry cannot be exported. Under
European law, any vaccinated birds would face restrictions on movement which would prevent
export and allow them only to be transported to a slaughterhouse.
Britain continues to oppose the vaccination programme on grounds of both cost and effec-
tiveness, as do Germany, Austria, Denmark and Portugal.
Vaccinated birds could incubate the disease without showing symptoms, allowing low-level
spread among flocks and increasing the likelihood of its mutation into a form transmissible to
people.
Neuraminidase is the protein which gives the number to N. There are only two laboratories
which can type the N number. One is located at the island Riems (Germany) and the other is
the EU reference laboratory located in England.
In Germany researches on a vaccine is being done at the Bundesforschungsinstitutes für Tierge-

sundheit, Im Friedrich-Loeffler-Insitut (FLI) Thomas Mettenleiter says they are working on
recombinant serum which can be sprayed instead of having to be injected on every bird. They
could have a marker effect which could be easily detected. A vaccine which will take two to
three years to be ready to use.
EU measures to limit the spread of avian influenza:

The European Commission measures designed to limit the disease are approve member states’
individual surveillance plans for avian influenza and to provide up to 50 per cent co-funding
for these programmes.
The measures include a three km ”protection zone” around the place where the birds with
H5 infection were found for at least 30 days along with a 10 km ”surveillance zone” for the
next three weeks.
Within the protection zone poultry must be kept indoors. All movement of poultry, excluding
direct transportation to a slaughterhouse is banned. No meat may be transported outside the
protection zone.
In both the protection and surveillance zone farm biosecurity measures must be strengthened
and the hunting of wild birds is banned. All bird markets and exhibitions are banned.
Early warning measures are in place in all member states to ensure quick detection of the
disease, both in domestic and wild birds. Contingency plans call for the rapid control and
eradication of avian influenza should it occur in poultry farms.
Indonesia vaccinated 114 million poultry against avian flu with traditionally made vaccine
in 2004. India last week confirmed the presence of avian flu and has started a mass culling of
poultry.
In February 2006 the French government ordered all domestic birds indoors.
Wild birds with highly pathogenic avian influenza have been detected in France, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Italy, Greece, Austria, Hungary and Germany, in addition to the accession countries
Bulgaria and Romania and Turkey.
Affected EU member states are implementing strict protection and surveillance zones around
the location where H5N1 infected wild birds have been found. In addition, the EU has approved
the vaccination of bird flocks in certain areas of the Netherlands and France.
Vaccination is being permitted in selected southern areas of France that are believed to be
at risk from avian influenza. The free-range ducks and geese in this region are not easy to put
”indoors” and are therefore at risk of contact with wild birds that may be carrying the virus,
according to an European Commission report.
The vaccination programme will begin immediately and will continue until 1 April 2006. Sen-
tinel birds, which are unvaccinated control birds, will be used as part of the monitoring for
avian influenza.
Vaccinated poultry, their hatching eggs and day-old chicks cannot be exported or moved to
any third country, including countries in the EU. There are strict conditions on the movement
of vaccinated birds within France. Fresh meat and meat products from vaccinated poultry will
be able to be sold in the EU, provided the safety conditions have been complied with by the
274
farm.
Indonesia vaccinated 114 million poultry against avian flu with traditionally made vaccine
in 2004. India last week confirmed the presence of avian flu and has started a mass culling of
poultry. The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) has warned that the virus could become
entrenched in the Black Sea, Caucasus and Near East regions through trade and movement of
people and animals and it could be further spread by migratory birds particularly coming from
Africa in the spring.
According to FAO fighting the avian influenza virus in animals is the most effective and cost-
effective way to reduce the likelihood of H5N1 mutating or reassorting to cause a human flu
pandemic. Containing bird flu in domestic animals-mostly chickens and ducks-will significantly
reduce the risk to humans. Avian influenza should not only be considered as a human health
issue, but as a human and animal health issue.
Extraordinary collective effort to address avian flu:According to a study of Anna Thor-

son and colleges the verified human cases of highly pathogenic avian influenza in Vietnam may
represent only a selection of the most severely ill patients.
Epidemiological data are consistent with transmission of mild, highly pathogenic avian in-
fluenza to humans and suggest that transmission could be more common than anticipated,
though close contact seems required. However, the virus is more widespread than thought[1053]
According to Kofi Annan, Secretary-General, United Nations (2005), a threat like a flu pan-
demic cannot be addressed by one organisation, one group of countries, one sector or one
profession. It presents us with an extraordinary collective challenge, and it calls for an extraor-
dinary collective effort.
On 29 November 2005, the Commission adopted a communication calling for the strength-
ening of EU-wide coordination in tracking and responding to avian flu.
Vaccine against H5N1 for humans

[1054] In March 2005, Sanofi Pasteur, the French vaccine manufacturer, released the first vaccine
made for humans directed against the avian influenza A H5N1 virus for testing and evalua-
tion by virology laboratories. Tests showed it was effective, but in a much higher than usual
dose. The Sanofi Pasteur H5N1 avian flu vaccine is unlikely to be of much use against the
virus because the flu virus is always changing. While vaccination is our best hope of avoiding
catastrophe, it is pretty certain that none will be available when the first wave of the pandemic
spreads across the globe.
Low dose vaccine against H5N1: A 10 mg vaccine that contains a modified version of
the whole H5N1 virus plus adjuvant was tested in China in 2006. This vaccine is effective at
low doses allow more people to be immunised. [1057]
Vaccine using fertilized eggs: Vaccine production using fertilized eggs takes 6 to 8 months
under the best of circumstances, it has been more difficult than usual with the H5N1 strain
because it is so lethal that it kills chicken embryo before there is enough time raise a good yield
of vial particles.
This type of vaccine requires two high doses, one month apart. Research is looking for a
vaccine that requires much smaller doses so that manufacturers can rapidly produce more vac-
cine doses. For this new methods of producing vaccines are discussed:
Vaccine with aluminium adjuvant An adjuvant such as aluminium or gold particles at-
tached to the vaccine can boost the immune response. By increasing the immune response,
smaller doses of vaccine may be used, helping the manufacturers to produce more doses. The
administration of the vaccine would be easier using air pistols instead of injection by needls.
Reverse genetics technique: Reverse genetics uses only specific parts of the genetic code of
the viruses. This enables to make a generic vaccine with all of the 15 variations from H1 to
H15.
Disaster plans
Every business, especially those which are engaged in food production should develop a disaster
plan. This plan should be integrated in the biological safety plan to avoid major business
disruptions:
Key points of a disaster plan should be:
• Designate a group (preferably an already existing one) within the department or ministry
of health responsible for coordinating the collection and dissemination of information
related to the pandemic in all its phases and levels.
• Make the WHO/OHMS Checklist: Epidemic Alert and Response: WHO checklist for
influenza pandemic preparedness planning WHO/CDS/CSR/GIP/2005.4 part of your
disaster plan. [?]
• Observe carefuly part 4. Preventing spread of the disease in the community of the
WHO/OHMS Checklist. [?]
• Nominate pandemic spokespersons at the national and regional levels. These persons
would be responsible for all media presentations to the broader community.
276
• Isolate people which are in direct contact with poultry from sensible production points.
Poultry contact embraces professional or private avian contact such as having pets at
home.
• Depending on the type of the production the people with near contact to poultry can be
kept working in sections were there is no contact with unprotected foods. If necessary
these persons should be sent home.
• Mild signs of respiratory illness must report to the leading and must be isolated from
production.
• Stock piling of packed products should be available in case of an outbreak of the dis-
ease in humans which could severely impact employees and their ability to operate. A
shortcoming of manpower in the production area may be avoided with such stock pilings.
• Interruption of supplies due to epidemics in flocks or import bans and political instability
of the producing country may result in a shortage of certain raw ware. Stock piling of
raw ware and alternative addresses of possible.
• News from affected areas (countries regions or continents) should be carefully analysed
and contact by telephone, fax and email with suppliers should be established and situation
should be checked daily.
• Make a risk assessment of of the vulnerability of the business taking into account a high
level of urbanisation, population density and a large number of foreign visitors increase
the possibility of a pandemic.
• Reduced import supply pressures can cause prices rising. Feed grain and soy costs is also
a factor of meat price instability. Long leading contracts of raw ware must be included
in the disaster plan to avoid the effects of epidemics, political instability of the supplying
country.
• Changing consumption habits should be studied to avoid excessive stock piling, such as
happened in 1996 when poultry consumption overtook beef and veal because of BSE
headlines. Pork holds the number one position in the EU gaining from avian influenza
damaging the poutry industry.
• Brazil and the United States are supplying approximately 70 percent of global poultry
trade. The largest poultry producers and exporters are the United States, Brazil and the
EU. Any market fluctuation in these three economic zones produces worldwide economic
changes.
• Backyard producers in many developing countries are losing income and are facing in-
creased livelihood and food security risks. In Nigeria, for example, some producers are
losing their means of livelihood as birds are culled and prices drop and employees on
farms are losing their jobs.
• FAO stressed that poultry products, properly cooked at or above 70o C throughout the
product, are safe to eat [1058]. It also noted the importance of preventing products
from infected flocks to enter the food chain. All products should be heated above this
temperature. This can be cited on the label to strengthen the confidence of the consumer
on your product.
• Get your staff to know the food safety implications of H5N1 avian influenza virus, released
by FAO: [?]
• 1. Conventional cooking (temperatures at or above 70o C in all parts of a food item) will
inactivate the H5N1 virus. Properly cooked poultry meat is therefore safe to consume.
• 2. The H5N1 virus, if present in poultry meat, is not killed by refrigeration or freezing.
• 3. Home slaughtering and preparation of sick or dead poultry for food is hazardous: this
practice must be stopped.
• 4. Eggs can contain H5N1 virus both on the outside (shell) and the inside (whites and
yolk). Eggs from areas with H5N1 outbreaks in poultry should not be consumed raw or
partially cooked (runny yolk); uncooked eggs should not be used in foods that will not
be cooked, baked or heat-treated in other ways.
• 5. There is no epidemiological evidence to indicate that people have been infected with
the H5N1 virus following consumption of properly cooked poultry or eggs.
• 6. The greatest risk of exposure to the virus is through the handling and slaughter of
live infected poultry. Good hygiene practices are essential during slaughter and post-
slaughter handling to prevent exposure via raw poultry meat or cross contamination from
poultry to other foods, food preparation surfaces or equipment.
• Educate workers about the importance of strict adherence to and proper use of hand hy-
giene after contact with infected or exposed poultry, contact with contaminated surfaces,
or after removing gloves.
Hand hygiene should consist of washing with soap and water for 15-20 seconds or the
use of other standard hand-disinfection procedures as specified by state government, in-
dustry, or USDA outbreak-response guidelines. [?]
• The following personal protective equipment should be worn [?]:

278
• Disposable gloves made of lightweight nitrile or vinyl or heavy duty rubber work gloves
that can be disinfected should be worn.
To protect against dermatitis, which can occur from prolonged exposure of the skin to
moisture in gloves caused by perspiration, a thin cotton glove can be worn inside the
external glove.
Gloves should be changed if torn or otherwise damaged. Remove gloves promptly af-
ter use, before touching non-contaminated items and environmental surfaces.
Protective clothing, preferably disposable outer garments or coveralls, an impermeable

apron or surgical gowns with long cuffed sleeves, plus an impermeable apron should be
worn.
Disposable protective shoe covers or rubber or polyurethane boots that can be cleaned
and disinfected should be worn.
Safety goggles should be worn to protect the mucous membranes of eyes.
• Disposable particulate respirators (e.g., N-95, N-99, or N-100) are the minimum level of
respiratory protection that should be worn. This level or higher respiratory protection
may already be in use in poultry operations due to other hazards that exist in the en-
vironment (e.g., other vapors and dusts). Workers must be fit-tested to the respirator
model that they will wear and also know how to check the face-piece to face seal. Work-
ers who cannot wear a disposable particulate respirator because of facial hair or other fit
limitations should wear a loose-fitting (i.e., helmeted or hooded) powered air purifying
respirator equipped with high-efficiency filters.
Disposable PPE should be properly discarded, and non-disposable PPE should be cleaned
and disinfected as specified in state government, industry, or USDA outbreak-response
guidelines.
Hand hygiene measures should be performed after removal of PPE.
• Affix posters with basic flu personal hygiene from the CDC at strategic places:
• Cover your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze-throw the tissue away
after you use it.
• Wash your hands often with soap and water, especially after you cough or sneeze. If you
are not near water, use an alcohol-based hand cleaner.
• Stay away as much as you can from people who are sick.
• If you get the flu, stay home from work. If you are sick, do not go near other people so
that you don’t make them sick too.
• Try not to touch your eyes, nose, or mouth. Germs often spread this way.
• Keep in mind: Birds that are infected with avian influenza viruses can shed virus in saliva,
nasal secretions, and feces. Contact with feces or respiratory secretions is important in
the transmission of infection among poultry.
Between flocks, infection usually spreads due to movement of infected birds and the
actions of humans in moving feedstuff, personnel, equipment, and vehicles into and from
premises that are contaminated with infected feces or respiratory secretions.
The duration that these viruses can survive in the environment depends on tempera-
ture and humidity conditions, but they may survive up to weeks in cool and humid
atmosphere. [?]
• Surveillance and monitoring of workers:
• Instruct workers to be vigilant for the development of fever, respiratory symptoms, and/or
conjunctivitis (i.e., eye infections) for 1 week after last exposure to avian influenza-infected
or exposed birds or to potentially avian influenza-contaminated environmental surfaces.
• Individuals who become ill should seek medical care and, prior to arrival, notify their
health care provider that they may have been exposed to avian influenza. In addition,
employees should notify their health and safety representative.
• With the exception of visiting a health care provider, individuals who become ill should
be advised to stay home until 24 hours after resolution of fever, unless an alternative
diagnosis is established or diagnostic test results indicate the patient is not infected with
influenza A virus.
• While at home, ill persons should practice good respiratory and hand hygiene to lower
the risk of transmission of virus to others.
• The enterprise should plan how to get a population through one to three years of a
pandemic. Transport enterprises will be forced to reduce their services. Global airline
industry will be seriously reducing their service so important raw ware, products and
even personal movement will be difficult. Widespread infection and economic collapse
can destabilize a government.
• The staff of the enterprise should be vaccinated against seasonal influenza and a protection
against pneumococcal pneumonia with a Pneumovax vaccination making it compulsory
280
to all employees. This reduces the severity of an H5N1 infection and let the employee be
back to his work earlier.
• All items of the disaster plan should be discussed with a risk assessment firm and should
be revised by the local veterinary authority. It would be unrealistic for any country,
unless it has a very small population with a centralized infrastructure and bureaucracy,
to consider that it could prepare and implement a detailed and comprehensive pandemic
plan in weeks, or even months. The two main reasons are that there is a need for a
multisectoral approach and that the community should be involved.
A multisectoral approach means the involvement of many levels of government, and

of people with various specialties including policy development, legislative review and
drafting, animal health, public health, patient care, laboratory diagnosis, laboratory test
development, communication expertise and disaster management. Community involve-
ment means making optimal use of local knowledge, expertise, resources and networks.
It is a powerful way to engage people and to build the commitment needed for policy
decisions.
How humans can protect themelves from bird flu

A healthy lifestyle with plenty of exercise to keep immune levels high, making sure to wash
hands regularly is recommended. [?]
Avian flu virus strains are widely distributed within the bodies of diseased chickens and turkeys,
as well as in sub-clinically infected species like ducks.
Chickens, for instance, have the highest viral load at the end of the incubation period, just
before the bird becomes ill. The viruses are expelled from the body in the feces during the
acute stage of the disease and may end up contaminating food and water. Human infections
have generally resulted from direct and intensive contact with infected poultry.
Particularly high risk has been associated with slaughtering, defeathering, butchering or prepar-
ing sick birds for consumption, with exposure to infected droplets as well as feces being possible
sources of infection.
A third of the cases reported in Vietnam had no direct exposure to poultry and the source
of the infection remains unknown. Two confirmed cases have followed consumption of raw
duck blood pudding. Another case may have been linked to swimming in a canal frequented
by infected ducks. EFSA74
According to the French Food Standards Agency keeping birds indoors will not eliminate the
risk of infection, since the virus could be carried in mud containing wild bird feces, or in feathers,
litter or food. The agency calls for strict biosecurity measures on farms. [?]
Avian influenza and industry

The current bird flu scenario should not cause panic and fear; instead it calls for rational and
immediate action to fight the disease at its origin - that means in animals.
Review of pathogens heat-resistance

[95] O’Bryan and colleagues summarize the heat-resistance of several strains of pathogenic
bacteria The authors conclude that heat-resistance of these organism are influenced by :
• Different response to heat between strains of the same organism.
• Age of the culture
• Growth conditions
• pH
• Other factors
Processors may find useful data in this review for the validation of times and temperatures for
thermal processing of meat and poultry.
They stress that under the HACCP regulations, 9 CFR 417, employees of food processing
operations must validate the elements of their HACCP plans through: references to scientific
publications that demonstrate pathogen reduction under laboratory conditions somewhat sim-
ilar to those used in the production plant, the use of HACCP consultants who are processing
authorities or they can validate their plan using experiments using surrogates, non-pathogenic
organisms that can mimic pathogens killed in a process. Using data reported from laboratory
inactivation of pathogens and predictive models is much more rapid and less expensive than
testing surrogate organisms under actual processing operations.
However, almost all of the reported thermal inactivation has been done in a media solution
under ideal single culture laboratory conditions and not in an actual food matrix under condi-
tions approximating commercial thermal processing.
Because of USDA-FSIS Notice 25-05, it was suggested that computer modelling should not
be used solely as validation of RTE products and that independent microbiology laboratories
be used for complete and thorough analysis. Therefore, this thermal inactivation validation is
also useful in combination with computer modelling for aid in HACCP compliance (USDA-FSIS
9 CFR 417).
282
The authors point out the need to know key descriptive factors should be considered such
as the particular pathogen of interest, the log or stationary phase, freshness state , frozen, or
cooked and fat content of the meat, or other ingredients instead of one single element, validat-
ing the lethality of thermal processes.
The authors encourage the development of surrogates able to be used in an actual environment.
Cattle ranch as source of spinach contamination with Escherichia coli 0157:H7

[93]
In September 2006 199 people in 26 US states diseased with Escherichia coli 0157:H7 strain
and three died after eating contaminated spinach.
Heath officials said that the bacteria could have been transmitted by irrigation water, fer-
tilizer, farm equipment or workers, livestock and wild animals, or it could have contaminated
the spinach inside processing plants, during transport or on store shelves.
Later, in October 2006 three samples of cattle fecal matter from one ranch in California’s
Salinas Valley have tested positive for the same strain of E. coli bacteria which had caused the
disease.
The ranch included both a beef cattle operation as well as fields where spinach and other
ready-to-eat produce were grown. The fecal-matter specimens were found half a mile to a
mile from the produce fields themselves. Officials said that wandering livestock, substandard
worker hygiene, irrigation practices or even wild boar could have transported the bacteria to
the spinach fields.
The proximity of fresh produce fields to farm animals has long been a concern to agricultural
and health authorities, and a minimum distance between them must be found out.
Strategies to reduce person-to-person transmission during epidemics [94]

Seto and colleagues 2007 studied the spinach Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157) outbreak
in the United States in 2006 with 173 cases and one death.
During the spread of the disease the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC and
the US Food and Drug Administration advised consumers not to eat spinach as the primary
strategy for protecting against foodborne transmission of E. coli O157. No warnings, however,
were issued regarding the prevention of person-to-person (secondary) transmission.
The authors assume that a combination of possible intervention strategies to interrupt sec-
ondary transmission would have a range of possible levels of effectiveness in epidemics like
this. These strategies would include strongly recommending handwashing, avoiding contact
with persons with diarrhoea, meticulously preparing food, and avoiding work or school when
ill with any gastrointestinal sign or symptom.
The researchers found in this study that an intervention such as a campaign to encourage
handwashing and isolation of persons with diarrhoea can substantially reduce secondary trans-
mission. Even if a campaign were initiated relatively late in the outbreak, the number of cases
would be reduced. Such advice was not a focus of the public health messages disseminated for
the 2006 E. coli O157 outbreak. The interruption of secondary transmission might have had a
useful role as an additional tool in managing this outbreak.
Public Health Implications: Public health strategies for preventing secondary transmis-
sion could include public media campaigns reminding the population of the importance of
handwashing, avoiding contact with faeces, minimizing nonessential contact with persons with
diarrhoea, meticulous care when preparing and consuming food, and staying at home from
work or school when having any diarrhoea during the outbreak period. Messages for all of
these strategies can be delivered inexpensively to large or targeted populations through a vari-
ety of media (television, radio, print, Internet)
The authors conclude that health officials should consider rapidly delivering widespread public
health messages with specific advice on how to interrupt secondary transmission of E. coli O157.
Such an intervention, even if only modestly successful, could meaningfully reduce the number
of cases.
284
Chapter 10
Food, what is it?
Milk and dairy products Milk and dairy products are an important source of proteins ,
calcium and vitamins.They are ideal baby food therefore is this product of great importance.
The production of milk is worldwide concentrating in very few big companies. This increases
quality through modern know how destroying however the small decentralized factories.
The very big international dairy food producers [96]

Table 10.1: The biggest milk producer of the World
Enterprise Seat of Sales Mio
the Head US Dollar
1 Nestlé Ch 13.500
2 Kraft (Philip Morris) USA 8.000
3 Dairy Farmers of America USA 6.900
4 Danone F 5.800
5 Friesland Coberco Dairy Food NL 5.500
6 Besnier F 5.100
7 Snow Brand Milk Products J 5.000
8 Campina Melkunie/MKW NL 4.800
9 Bongrain F 4.600
10 Meji Milk Products J 4.000
Milk Calcium [145] Milk is a natural source of calcium. Unfortunately young people drink
less milk and more carbonated drinks increasing a possible undersupply of calcium. The decline
in use of dairy products along with the increase of osteosporosis has boosted the fortification
of food and beverages with o calcium all over the world [162]. Calcium sources are:
• Calcium carbonater
• Calcium phosphate
285
286
• Calcium lactate
• Calcium gluconate
• Bone ash
• Oyster
• Eggshell calcium
But none of these sources have the same high bio availability as milk and their derivates.That
is why milk should be carefully protected against pollution and diseases such as BSE.
Bio availability of calcium [169] One liter skim or full fat milk contains 1.200 mg cal-
cium.About 30% of it is available to humans.
The availability of calcium depends largely of it being soluble.
In mineral water calcium is present in soluble form being mineral water therefore a good source
of calcium.In dietary supplements the availability of calcium can be differ from case to case.
The bio availability of calcium in vegetables is smaller as from milk.
In milk calcium is linked with other components which avoid reactions as insoluble salts.
• Lactose and citrate of milk help resorption.
• Phytate and oxalate reduce resorption.
• Roughage and fibres do not influence bio availability.
• Even having a low bio availability fruits and vegetables represent an important factor in
daily intake.
• A low calcium status causes the organism to absorb better as it does under normal
conditions.
• Vitamin D and a normal intake of proteins promote a better bio availability.
• Human male reabsorb more calcium as women do.
• During Pregnancy and nursing calcium is reabsorb more easily.
• As one gets older calcium resorption diminishes.
• Diseases such as Morbus Chron and Colitis Ulcerosa slow down the resorption.
• An undersupply of oestrogen causes low levels of calcium.

Daily intake of calcium :

Adults = 800 mg
Infants =1.200 mg
To keep bones strong magnesium as well as calcium and vitamin D are needed.
The ratio of calcium and magnesium is important.Too much calcium and two little magnesium
makes blood more apt to clot, leading to heart attack.
The proper ratio is half as much magnesium as calcium.It is believed that old people get
only one-fourth as much magnesium as calcium, specifically if they take calcium supplements.
An intake of 1.200 milligrams of calcium per day demands 600 mg of magnesium [145].
A separate supplement of 200 to 300 mg per day seems to be good.Dr. Seelig insists that the
daily intake of magnesium should be about 500 milligrams [163].
Table 10.2: Content of calcium

Food milligram calcium
A glass of skim milk 300
A cup of low fat Yogurt 415
Kale very rich in calcium
Tofu high content of calcium
Daily calcium intake: [97] The Institute of Medicine released a report listing the require-
ments for daily calcium intake. How much calcium a person needs to maintain good health
varies by age group. Recommendations from the report are shown in the following table.
Age group Amount of calcium to consume
daily, in milligrams (mg)
0-6 months 400 mg

6-12 months 600 mg
1-5 years 800 mg
6-10 years 1,200 mg
11-24 years 1,2001,500 mg
19-50 years 1,000 mg
51-70+ years 1,500 mg
In addition, pregnant and nursing women need between 1,200 and 1,500 mg of calcium daily.
Pollutants in milk and dairy products Pesticides and aflatoxins in milk have their origin
in imported animal feed.
The fat soluble pesticides like polychlorated hydrocarbons can contaminate easily milk, heavy
metals are very seldom found in milk because they have low solubility.
288
All efforts should be made to avoid contamination because milk is used to feed children, dairy
products such as cheese or yoghurt are consumed in large scale. Contagious diseases like BSE
should therefore be avoided through rigorous epidemiological measures.
Pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides herbicides, hexachlorobenzene ( HCB ) and isomers

of hexachloro cyclohexane ( HCH )are used in agriculture or are found on the fields.
Even with low concentration of pesticides in animal feed the milk may be heavily affected
because liposoluble pesticides usually store in the body of animals and can be detected in the
milk in high level.
Mycotoxines such as aflatoxin B1 may be present in ground peanuts or cotton seeds.The cows
changes the aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin M1.
This is why animal feed should be protected against deterioration. Contaminated or spoiled
food should not be given to animals.
Chlorated hydrocarbon such as Polychlorated biphenyl(PCB) were used in the past in trans-
formers, refrigerators, in hydraulic oil and as all round chemicals. Its level in milk has decreased
after the use of PCB has been reduced.
Other chlorated hydrocarbons such as polychlorated dibenzodioxine ( PCDD ) and polychlo-

rated dibenzofurane ( PCDF ) are also present in the human milk and in the milk of cows, but
not as high as Chlorine hydrocarbons ( HCB, DDT and PCB ).
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury are of small importance because its con-
centration in milk is low.
Radioactive pollution of milk In Europe the nuclear accident of Tschernobyl hat caused
an considerable increase of radioactivity in milk and milk products in 1986.
The amount of radioactive material which was liberated into the atmosphere was several times
the amount liberated by the Hiroschima bomb in 1945. Immediately after the accident due to
west bounded winds there were the following radionuclides found in West Europe:
Iodine-131, cesium-134 and cesium-137. There was a small amount of Strontium-90.Strontium,

which is even today very high in Brazil nuts of the Amazon region originated from nuclear
bomb test in Nevada, USA in the forties. The radioactive pollution was carried through the
Stratosphere and came down as fall-out in the rain forest.
These incidents show how carefully radioactivity should be handled.

In milk the nuclides are concentrated in the whey and remain there. That is why whey powder
was highly contaminated causing headlines. The contamination with Strontium 90 in butter
was low.
In whey powder due to the concentration, radioactivity can increase from 200 Bq/liter to
7.200 Bq/kg. In 1986 500 tons of whey powder were discarded in in Germany having high
radioactivity resulting from the concentration of cesium.In cheese the remaining cesium is very
little.
After some weeks only cesium -134 and cesium -137 was left.
Low levels of radioactivity is told to increases the efficiency of the DNA repair-system an
increases the activity of the immune system[98]. This is not valid for radionuclide in food
because they are deposited in bones and organs and with the time this material is being con-
centrated in the body. Damage of cells are than possible.
Therefore radioactivity in food should be kept as low as possible.
Cheese The different types of cheese are made from sour milk, separation of the whey and
inoculating special bacteria or moulds creating the characteristic flavor of each sort.
The following bacteria and moulds are being used in dairies:
Table 10.3: Bacteria and moulds used in dairies
Microorganism used in
Lactic acid bacteria cottage cheese, fresh cheese
Propionic acid bacteria Emmental cheese, Appenzeller cheese
Some bacteria,
Yellow- and red cultures Münster cheese, Romadur cheese
Pennicillium camemberti (white) Camembert cheese and brie
Pennicillium roqueforti ( blue/green) Roquefort, Gorgonzola
such as some kinds of lactic acid bacteria built toxic products such as biogenic amines in cheese.
[134]
Table 10.4: Biogenic amines in cheese, according Baum et col 1886, Lindner 1990.
Biogenic amines found as mg/Kg Cheese

Tyramine Tyramine 86 Camembert
290
Tryptamine Tyramine 180 Brie

Cadaverine Tyramine 225 Emmentaler
Putrescine Tyramine 72 - 1.416 Cheddar
Phenylethylamine 2.000 - 4.000 Cheddar
Histamine up to 2.300 Roquefort
Whey: Traditionally, whey was a by-product with a negative value from cheese production.
Sport nutrition and functional food market increase the demand of whey protein concentrates
and isolates.
Whey protein concentrates: Food industry uses for baking and other uses whey protein
powders with 30-40 per cent protein, high amounts of lactose and fat.
Whey protein concentrates: Reducing lactose with ultra-filtration processing the content
of protein can be elevated up to 70-80 percent and an increased content of fat.
Whey Protein isolates (WPIs): They contain 90- 96 per cent protein, minimal lactose
and almost no fat, and are obtained using ion exchange columns or micro/nanofiltration ”cross
flow micro filtered process” using high tech ceramic filters. Some vital peptides such as lacto-
ferrin, alpha lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, beta lactoglobin have been removed from whey
protein isolates using ion exchange. Nanofiltration, however, retains valuable peptide fractions.
Biogenic amines Biogenic amines are present in low concentrations in human, animals and
plants. They have regulating functions, acting on the nervous system.
Bacteria can produce biogenic amines decarboxilating amino acids in food. Biogenic amines
can be produced by Bacillus, Clostridium, Hafnia, Klebsiella, Morganella morganii, Proteus,
Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus buchneri and Lactobacillus delbrueckii in cheese, Enter-
obacteriaceae and Enterococcus growing on fish, meat and their products. They are found also
in fermented food, like cheese, camembert, wine, beer, sauerkraut and yeast extract.
The concentration of biogenic amines in spoiled food can be toxic.

Biogenic amines of importance are: Histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, ca-
daverine. Phenylethylamine is also found in chocolate and acts together with coffeine and
theobromine vitalizing. , and spermidine.
Toxicology of histamine
• An intake of maximum of 10 mg of histamine is tolerable
• An intake of 70 to 100 mg histamine causes median poisoning with headache, vomit, low
blood pressure and rash. The incubation time is 30 minutes to one hour.
The poisoning of histamine bearing fish is called scombroid poisoning
• An intake of 1.000 mg and higher causes severe poisoning, but seldom death
Regulations In Germany there is a maximum of 200 mg/kg histamine in fish established.In

10 samples the average should be under 100 mg/Kg.
In Switzerland there are 100 mg histamine/Kg fish permitted and a maximum of 500 mg/Kg
are established. In wine Switzerland has 10 mg/l a tolerable value of histamine in wine.
Tyramine Tyramine rises blood pressure and causes headaches. It is formed in rockeford
cheddar and cheese with white moulds.
Tyrosine-decarboxylase is build by many bacteria such as Streptococcus of the serological group

D ( Enterococcus), many Clostridium, some strains of Escherichia coli and many types of Pro-
teus and some lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus.
Pollutants in milk and dairy products [140] In Bavaria,(south of Germany) the pollu-
tants in milk and dairy products are being controlled over 25 years by the laboratory muva
kempten (Veterinary medical analytical office of Kempten). This laboratory has monitored the
organochlor-pesticides, PCB, halogenated solvents and heavy metals.
The results of these analysis made it possible to find the cause and to reduce the contam-
ination. At the moment most of the former pollutants of organochlor-pesticides have fallen
below detection level in milk from Bavaria. Only lindan is still increased.
This is an example of handling the environment problems making long terms monitoring of
food with the cooperation of the laboratory the agriculture and the industry.
The muva kempten now checks organochlor-pesticides (OCP) polychlorated biphenyles (PCB)
dioxines, halogenated solvents, mycotoxines, heavy metals, radionuclides, phtalates, nitroso
compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon substances, organophosphor- and pyrethroid-
pesticides using multi methods of preparation of the material, GC-PND and GS-MS. These
methods enables the muva kempten to analyse all kind of food.
One important concern of the laboratory is the contamination of food caused by migration
of packing components into the food, such as styrol from polystyrol, dioxines from cardboard,
plasticiser, heavy metals, nitrosamines from rubber, and (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether) Prob-
lems which come from coating of tin cans.
292
Organic migrations are detected by GC-MS and HPLC and AAS and inorganic ions migrations
with AAS.About 70% of canned food were found to be contaminated with BADGE and BFDGE
(Bisphenol-A-diglycidilether) according to the French magazine ”test achat”.Heavy contamina-
tion was found in cans containing fish and foods with high amount of acid like lemon, vinegar
or tomatoes.
The European Commission made has completed in early 1999 a study concerning the safety
of BADGE. According to this Study there is no danger coming from BADGE. Therefore the
Commission rose the maximum allowed amount of BADGE in foods from 20 microgram in one
kilogram up to 1 milligram in one kilogram food.This was intended only for tin cans coated with
plastics. As there are no limits established for for coatings with clear varnish many countries
use this high value also for varnished cans.
The toxicology of BFDGE and the catabolic products of BADGE and BFDGE are still un-
known.
Recommendations to reduce BADGE and BFDGE: ”test achat” recommends to change

from canned food to food in glass packaging. Discarding the immersion brine can further reduce
BADGE and BFDGE. Contamination of cleaning and disinfection agents are also possible as
contaminants of food. This has to be monitored.
The cooperation between official supervision of food, agriculture and industry has brought good
results in research and improvements since repressive rules of supervision had been changed to
open discussion and mutual good will of all parts engaged in the long way from farming to the
consumer.
Contaminants in baby food: [146] In baby food were found for health dangerous phtalate
DBP and DEHP.
These contaminants were found in the milk used for these products.
All efforts should be made to reduce or even to avoid the possibility of contamination of the
milk on its origin.
More safety for food: The French President Jacques Chirac after the latest affairs of food
poisoning has suggested the creation of an international board for food security. The board
should contain scientist of high reputation. Chirac spoke with US president Bill Clinton which
assured the cooperation from US.
New bacterology tools for enhanced food safety New DNA tools developed by the
Agence Fransaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, together with other French food labora-
tories have demonstrated that dominant bacterial population of fresh milk was Lactobacillus
lactis. This bacterium is commonly used as a starter culture in dairy. It is not harmful. After
24 hours of refrigeration at 40 C psychotrofic bacteria such as Listeria spp and Aeromonas hy-
drophila emerge. These psichotrofic bacteria are life threatening in cheese products.
DNA using temporal gel electrophoresis TTGE and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis
(DGGE). Bacterial identification was facilitated by comparision with a bacterial reference
database which had been established with DNA fragments of pure bacterial strains.
The results contribute to the knowledge on the bacterial flora of raw milk samples and also de-
scribe the consequences of a simple process, milk refrigeration, on the quality of dairy products
and its impact on health.[1130]
Novel Food, Nutraceuticals,Functional Foods, Fast Food, Snacks, Finger Food

Novel Foods are foods which can be assigned to special types of foods such as genetic modified
foods,genetic modified organism and their products, new molecular structures or new techno-
logical procedures.Foods which are regulated by the Novel Food Regulation of the European
Community have to pass a complicated license procedure.
Functional foods are foods which have a positive action upon the health of the consumer.
The origin of functional food lies im Japan.
Increasing sales of probiotic yoghurt and dairies have boosted the hope of massive profits with
functional foods health ingredients, isoflavones, Aloe vera, probiotic bacteria and dietary fibre.
It is called ” up trading ” of the product. Up trading is the rise of quality to achieve better
prices.
294
Functional Food, Nutrition, Nutriceuticals All these words are used by marketing to
boost selling. It is true that fibre can be useful to reduce blood cholesterol or calcium can help
to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and vitamins can strengthen the immune system.
The truth is that it does not work.
The consumer is taken to believe that everything is all right when he takes a calcium en-
riched drink , sometimes with 4 or 5 added synthetic vitamins.
These foods cannot substitute natural nutrition rich in vegetables, fruits and fat reduced meals
and whole-meal bread which was the nutrition at the beginning of the 20 th century. The
German Nutrition Society (DGE) says that for an average population there is no need of sup-
plements, functional foods or whatsoever when enough vegetables, fruits, fish and whole-meal
bread are eaten and low fat nutrition is observed.
Publicity around one-sided modified foods give the consumer a wrong feeling of safety. He
things that ” he finally can feel well all round ” drinking some special stuff of functional drinks
which now come on market and does not need to get classic foods which bear all these ingre-
dients together with thousands of other components.
José Lutzenberger a Brazilian Nobel-Price bearer and Franz-Theo Gottwald in their book
Ernährung in der Wissensgesellschaft, CAMPUS EXPO 2000 Hannover in their vision about
world nutrition say that the global distribution of food and growing modification of food by
mighty companies destroy the natural resources of the world.
Many products which are on market and claim to be functional food have only calcium added
claiming for health. The supply of Calcium can easily achieved drinking milk or eating yoghurt.
Hannu Salovaara, professor of grain technology at the University of Helsinki says:” It is not
new knowledge that foods may also have a healthy activity. In the discussion about Functional
Food does one sells only old wine in new tubes?”.
Fruits and vegetables, protective factors There are no evidences that isolated or in com-
bination given antioxidants have a preventive activity against cancer or cardiac infarction
The protective activity which is being found in natural food must therefore be active only in a
natural system or in combinations with other active compounds presenting synergic effects.
One should however not forget the preventive effect of folic acid during pregnancy prevent-
ing neural tube defects of the newborn (spina bifida and hydrocephalus). (400microg folic
acid/day) [685].
Folic acid fortification of cereal products

Folate deficiency in early pregnancy is linked to increased risk of neural tube defects or spina bi-
fida and anencephaly in infants. Since 1998 all US all grain products are fortified with folic acid.
There is an ongoing debate in UK to fortify flour with folic acid. The Ireland’s National Com-
mittee on Folic Acid Fortication recommended that most white, brown and wholemeal breads
sold in the country be fortified with 120 micrograms of folic acid per 100g of bread. Food Stan-
dards Australia New Zealand made a proposal top fortify all bread-making flour with folic acid.
Results of folate study adverse to a fortification of food with folic acid [686] Van
Guelpen and colleagues found that plasma folate concentrations were strongly positively related
to colorectal cancer CRC risk.
They concluded that their findings suggest a decreased CRC risk in subjects with low folate
status. This possibility of a detrimental component to the role of folate in carcinogenesis could
have implications in the ongoing debate in Europe concerning mandatory folate fortification of
foods.
Herbal ingredients Herbal ingredients have been used as food flavoring for hundreds of
years. Many herbs are used in pharmacy and are regarded as natural remedies looking for new
market segments functional foods rediscovered the value of these herbs when used as ingredient
of food.
Consumer are increasingly looking for self-medication using drugs on herbal extract basis avail-
able in supermarkets and practicing disease prevention through diet.
Possible functional ingredients are:
Vitamins
Minerals
Essential fatty acids, such as omega 3 and omega 6 fats and oils
Amino acids
Aloe vera to nourish and hydrate the body
Echinachea to support the body’s immune system
Fibre: A new fibre is Psyllium which grows in India is told to be very effective to lower choles-
terol.
Other polysaccharides with fibre activities are beta-gulcane, pectin, guar gum, inulin, chi-
tosane,cyclodextrine.
Oligosaccharides
Green tea extract has powerful anti-oxidant properties
Tocotrienols
Alpha lipoic acid
Sugar alcohols
Gingko biloba claimed to relieve stress and aid mental alertness
Soy isoflavones supplement: Soy foods are well balanced and are ingredients of a wide
296
rage of products. Daniel Doerge and Daniel Sheehan oppose the decision of the FDA to ap-
prove a health claim that soya reduces the risk of heart disease.
According to Doerges and Sheehan the isoflavones of soya (genistein, daidzein and glycitein)
have similar effects to the female hormone oestrogen. Soy oestrogen can lead to health problems
in animals including altering sexual development of foetuses and causing thyroid disorders. Al-
though soy is thought to protect against breast cancer, some studies show that some substances
may increase the chances of breast cancer which uses oestrogen-type hormones for growth.
The claims of soy isoflavones supplement are to compensate the declining oestrogen levels
and thus relieve menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes, as well as decrease the risk of
heart disease and osteoporosis, without promoting breast cancer. However, exactly what effect
concentrated isoflavones have remains unclear. That is why normal soy food or soy powder is
beneficial but isolated soy oestrogen supplements are being looked upon with scepticism.
No cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones [687]

Garrido and colleagues followed the suggestion that isoflavones protect the cardiovascular sys-
tem, in part by improving lipid profile. They examined the effect of 12-weeks soy isoflavone
supplementation on lipoprotein status and platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density.
Blood pressure, body mass index, subcutaneous fat, insulin, serum lipoprotein, sex hormones
and sex hormone-binding globulin did not differ among experimental group and placebo group.
However, platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density declined significantly in the experimental
group, remaining mostly unchanged in the placebo group. The change in platelet thromboxane
A2 receptors correlated negatively with isoflavones serum concentration.
The authors concluded that there were no cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones. The
beneficial effects of isoflavones in menopausal women could be more related to platelet function
than to improving classical cardiovascular risk factors.
Phosphatidylserine
Garlic
Ginseng extract: A new ginseng extract called Cold-fx was developed by a spin-off company
of the University of Alberta, CV Technologies. I contains 80 per cent poly-furanosyl-pyranosyl-
saccharides and 10 percent protein from the ginseng roots.
The North American ginseng (Panax quiquefolium) is used as raw material. A publication of the
Canadian Medical Association Journal (173, issue 9) claims that the extract is a safe,effective
prophylactic treatment for upper respiratory tract infections.
It may boost production of natural killer cell activity, thought to decrease susceptibility to
frequent colds. Further studies on its efficacy and safety to children and immunocompromised
populations were recommended.
The composition of the Asian or Korean ginseng (Panax Ginseng C.A. Meyer) should also
be analysed to find new ways to boost the human immune system to counter pandemics of
influenza like an avian influenza outbreak.
Ronald Turner from the University of Virginia School of Medicine in the same journal warned
of the many pitfalls faced by clinical studies of natural remedies for viral infections. Since the
proposed mechanism of action of ginseng on colds is unclear, and the active compounds have
not been identified, even though the extract was standardized ” it is possible that there is lot-
to-lot variability for important phytochemical components that are not measured”. Peptides
Lactic acid bacteria
Isoprenoids
Lecithin
St. John’s wort whose claim is emotional balance.
Dietary fibre as they prevent constipation.
Polyunsaturated fats to help to lower cholesterol
Carnitine[749]
Carnitine was discovered in 1905 and is also called vitamin BT . It is trimethylbetaine (beta-
OH-gama-trimethylamino butyric acid). Long chain fatty acids are bind to carnitine which
makes them able to cross the membrane of the mitochondrions and are there exposed to a
beta-oxidation, it has a transmethylation and tyrosine effect. Carnitine has also a role in the
oxidation but not in the transport of medium-chain fatty acids.[750]
Carnitine triggers the appetite and increases and bodyweight, the reason why it is being added
to animal feed.
Biosynthesis of carnitine: The biosynthesis of carnitine which starts from lysine and me-
thionine needs additional L-ascorbic acid and takes place in the liver. In case of an undersupply
of vitamine C there will be very soon a drop of carnitine in the muscles resulting in weariness
and weakness.[748]
Vitamine C is a cofactor of two dioxygenases reaction of the carnitine synthesis which needs
also alpha-chetoglutarate. Guinea pigs with scurvy have low concentrations of carnitine in their
blood. A low level of vitamine C reduces the availability of energy and the lipid metabolism
due to a drop of carnitine.
Food as source of carnitine Parallel to biosynthesis of carnitine in the liver food acts as an
additional source. Vegetarians have a daily intake of 2 mg carnitine and mixed food bring 32
mg daily intake.
298
Table 10.5: Carnitine in Food

Food Canitine
mg in 100g
mutton 210
beef 70
pork 30
tomato 2.9
pear 2.7
pea 1.2
potato 0
carrot 0
Fifteen days of parenteral feeding leads to a drop of carnitine which cannot be compensated by
biosynthesis. A carnitine substitution of 10 mg/day normalizes the concentration of carnitine in
the serum and the beta-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. Hemodialysis drops carnitine about
50%. Feeding carnitine reduces the amount of free fatty acids in the serum as it is forwarded
to the beta-oxidation.
Hepatocirrhosis low carnitine is due to a diminished biosynthesis and reduced intake of food.
Carnitine and sport: Carnitine is being used as supplement in the nutrition of athletes
to increase performance. A positive effect has not been confirmed.[751] It is considered as a
non drug-doping substance but it is not on the “red list”.
Folate
Psyllium to help to reduce cholesterol levels
Magnesium
Functional foods should taste good, be well prepared, and offer real benefits such as gas-
trointestinal function, antioxidant activity, micronutrients, positive activity on fetal and early
life development.
On global market the functional foods will be sold under ” Hard claims ” [379] which are claims
related to activities against diseases. ” Soft claims ” are used to describe preventive health
claims.
Nutraceuticals are foods which can provide protection and/or treatment of diseases.
Fast food, Snacks and Finger Food are foods served in canteens, Bakery shops and snack
bars having a great segment with classic sandwiches as a small meal and the ”mediterranean
range” like baguettes, croissants, pita bread and ciabatta.
Convenience Foods [379]

Searching for new market segments Convenience Foods was increasingly considered to have
great future. Convenient shops should sell small packages, ready to eat snacks.
They should include a coffee serve, have a post counter, a copy machine and very impor-
tant for Germany: a counter for Toto-Lotto bets. All trials to install such a chain of such stores
in Germany have failed mainly because of regulations concerning store opening time.
Convenience Foods however is being sold as frozen food ready to serve, frozen vegetables al-
ready seasoned, different frozen fish dishes.
A growing importance have convenience foods for restaurants and fast food restaurants as well
as food industry which uses processed raw ware.
The trend of Convenience Foods lies not in new stores but to place these products together
with standard packagings where the consumer can choose between different price and quality
of products.
Food supplements Food supplements are defined in a leaflet of the German Institute for
consumer Health and Veterinary Medicine (Bundesinstitut für Gesundheitlichen Verbraucher-
schutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV)
Food supplements are foods having one or more nutritional substances in concentrated form
(mainly vitamins, minerals and trace elements), presenting a for food unusual form (pills or
capsules etc.) Food supplements should be labeled as ”Food supplement” together with the
suggested daily intake.Food supplements are ruled by Food laws, in Germany by the LMBG
( Lebensmittel- und Bedarfsgegenständegesetz. they do not need a special release. Exception
are dietary supplements , they do need a registration and a release.
Definition of Dietary Supplements according FDA http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/list.html.

Dietary supplement is any product taken by mouth, that contains a so called d̈ietary ingredi-
entänd its label states that it is a dietary supplement. Dietary supplements may be presented
in form of pills, tablets, capsules, liquids or powders.
Definition of Dietary Ingredients Dietary ingredients are present in dietary supplements.

They may include vitamins,minerals, herbs, and aminoacids as well as substances such as en-
zymes, organ tissues, metabolites extracts or concentrates. The producer of food supplements
is responsible for health safety of his products. He has to avoid deceiving informations and
disease related statements ( 17 and 18 LMBG).
300
Substances with pharmacological activities are not food supplements. They are ruled under
pharmacy laws.
The BgVV says that well-balanced adequate nutrition is sufficient to feed the daily nutri-
ents.An increase of wellness through food supplements is according to BgVV doubtful. An
exception is iodine and folic acid.For these two elements there is an undersupply in Germany.
It is therefore advisable to use iodine salt in kitchen, community provisioning, production of
bread, backery products and meat derivates.
Folic acid Is important in the prevention of neural tube defects in the early pregnancy and
reduces plasma homocystein which can lead to atherosclerotic damage.
Cancer, the medicine flop, a statement of Dr. Lothar Weissbach,president of the

German Cancer Society Dr. med. Lothar Weissbach is president of the German Can-
cer Society. He is an authority in research and treatment of human cancer. He works in the
”Krankenhaus am Urban” Berlin.
In an interview with Hans Halter published in”Der Spiegel”[555] made the following state-
ment:
”Early identification of cancer is very expensive, but not very effective.The interactive work
between different specialists doctors is unsufficient and reduces the chances of the patients. The
genetherapy will come but it will be necessary that more patients are willing to participate in
clinical studies.Experts await the begin of the genetherapy for 2.003 or 2005.
One hundred years ago there were 43.000 death per year in Germany, on end of 1999 there were
218.000 death of the same cause. This come from a growing age of the population. Cancer
is a disease of high age (this is not correct in related to breast and lung cancer, see WHO
statistics:-comment of OurFood.com-). Pancreas cancer und lung cancer cannot be treated.
Prognosis is bad. It is true that in ten years cancer will be at place number one in the death
causes in Germany. We are not prepared for this.
Main concern are death cases from lung cancer, bowel cancer and breast cancer which has
increased about 20% after introduction of early detection checks.
We have to learn that we can cure only a small part of cancer diseases. The knowledge gets
through that we have to detect cancer earlier and -better as that- we have to avoid cancer.”
Better understanding of food physiology, better care of our environment and self discipline
regarding smoking and alcohol consume can be a precious contribution to reduce risk of cancer.
Breast cancer and high fat diet High fat diet may increase breast cancer risc according to
the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The fat is not causal agent but instead
causes depletion of an undiscovered essential agent that is normaly protective against breast
cancer
Omportant factors engaged in the origine of breast cancer are:
1.- Deficiency, inadequate intake or depletion via a high fat diet.
2 - Age
3.-Estrogen.
Supplemented Foods Isoflavonoids: Isoflavonoids are phitochemicals which have anti free
radical action and can be extracted from soy beans.
Supplementing foods with isoflavonoids can help to reinforce the positive action of nature.
Soy as supplement in infant formulas

Soy as a supplement or replacement for maternal breast milk or cow’s milk in infant formulas is
becoming increasingly important. Antioxidant effects of isoflavones from soy, such as genistein,
daidzein, and glycitein had been seen as some of good merits of soy.
However, according to ongoing discussions phytoestrogens in soy infant formulas may have
an adversely affect human growth, development, or reproduction.
Genistein beside its antioxidant effect is also a phytoestrogen which may be hazardous to
human development or reproduction. Concerns about oestrogen effects of genistein in human
body are being discussed. [653]
A summary of the bibliography related to soy and Genistein in the management of menopause-
related symptoms is given by Nelson HD. [654].
The outcomes of a discussion, leaded by US Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human
Reproduction (CERHR) of the National Institute of Environmental Health Services (NIEHS)
and National Toxicology Program in March 2006, were:
When given orally, there was no threat from the reproductive and developmental effects of
soy, supporting the safety of soy isoflavone dietary supplements. The effects of genistein in
relation to heart disease or cancer risk, were not explored by the panelists.
One member of the pannel, however called for greater caution on this matter.
Soy Isoflavones are known for acting similarly to natural estrogens as well as performing
protective functions within our bodies. When estrogen levels are low, Isoflavones and other
phyto-estrogens bring the body to state of equilibrium. This balanced state reduces the effect
302
of estrogen on our bodies’ cells and therefore reduces the risk of estrogen linked cancers.
Functions of Genistein
Genistein as antioxidant reduces the risk for arteriosclerosis minimizing peroxidation and pre-
vets thus LDL cholesterol being absorbed by aarterial walls.
Genistein blocks the enzime tyrosinereducing the risk of cancer. Breat and prostata cancer
are also being said to be reduced by genistein.
Functions of daidzein
Daidzein has little estrogen activity but is very effective as antioxidant. It was linked to reduc-
tion of risk of mammary tumors and reduction of risk of osteoporosis.
Functions of glycitein
Glycitein has the greatest estrogenic activity levels of all the Isoflavones when measured in vivo.
It is the most easily absorbed Isoflavone.
Special purpose value added soybeans

[655] Scientists are searching the loci controlling the accumulation of specific soybean isoflavones.
Reducing unwanted isoflavones while enhancing beneficial isoflavones could be a key-breeding

target. Manipulation of isoflavone contents and profiles will result in the creation of special
purpose value added soybeans.
Future research needs to focus on the production of a cultivar that consistently produces 5-6
mg/g of total isoflavone, with a white hilum and non-GMO herbicide resistance for the inter-
national soy protein isolate market.
Beneficial health claims for soy [656] Phytoestrogen supplements have become popular
as alternatives for hormone replacement therapy based on their potential as prevention of hor-
monedependent diseases. Isoflavonoids found in legumes, such as soybeans, are converted by
intestinal bacteria to metabolites with increased or decreased estrogenic activity.
Microbial biotransformation plays a central role in regulating the biological activity of isoflavonoid
phytoestrogens. They can convert them to potent estrogens or break them to nonestrogenic
metabolites.
Microbial activities are also involved in prolonging enterohepatic circulation of isoflavonoids

by decongugation of the liver isoflavonoid metabolites.
These activities result in delay in excretion, consequently prolonging the period of exposure
of target tissues, such as reproductive organs. Detection of the specific bacteria from the hu-
man intestinal tract that are involved in the metabolism of phytoestrogens has been the subject
of this study.
Specific bacteria involved in biotransformation of three natural isoflavonoids, biochanin A,

formononetin and glycitein, to their primary more estrogenic metabolites (genistein, daidzein,
and 6,7,4’-trihydroxyisoflavone) by demethylation, which also enhances their absorption, have
been found.
One of the reasons for the lack of beneficial effect of phytoestrogens has been their conversion
by bacteria to nonestrogenic metabolites.
FDA has granted the petition for a claim that the use of soy protein is safe, however, it still
does not have a ruling on isoflavonoids for consumers. In addition to advancing the study of
phytoestrogen metabolism, the data obtained provide background information that FDA can
use when evaluating data on the beneficial or detrimental effects of phytoestrogens for regula-
tory purposes.
Catechin in chocolate Catechin
Pine bark Pine bark of Finland is according to the producer of Vitabak rich on bioflavonids.
The content of bioflavonids of the bark rises as one gets in north direction.
Composition of 1 g bark:
Flavonoids 33,4 mg
Calcium 680 mg
Iron 270 mg
Magnesium 250 mg
Zinc 89 mg
and 61% of fibres.
The University of Kuopio has started a research about LDL-Cholesterol reducing properties
of Vitabark.
14 g of bark powder were given daily in form of bread to a special group. After one week blood
cholesterol lowered about 17%.
Many bioflavonoids have a very bitter taste and are therefore generaly taken as supplements in
time-release tablets or in capsules that will not dissolve radily in mouth.
Bioflavonoids are water-soluble substances associated with materials that often appear in fruits
and vegetables as companions to vitamin C.According to Dr. Z. Zloch of Charles University
304
in Czechoslovakia the antioxidant activity of bioflavonoids seems to result from their unique
chemical structure; they act as reducing agents which are transported to the site where vitamin
C is to be stored in the cell.
There is an increased uptake of vitamin C into the liver, kidney and adrenal gland when
bioflavonoids were administrated with vitamin C. There is also an increased protection of the
vitamin C against oxidation because the bioflavonoids convert the ascorbic acid to a less active
form as dehydroascorbate.
Decrease in blood cholesterol in animals treated with vitamin C together with bioflavonoids
was also noted by Dr. Zloch. The decrease was not so high when vitamin C was used without
bioflavonoids[657].
Small changes in nutritional patters may increase ischemic heart disease risk [658]
Il Suh and colleages found in a study published in 2001 that in China dietary fat intake in-
creased from 15.9% of energy in 1982 to 21.1% in 1990; ischemic heart disease incidence and
mortality also increased.
Mortality from ischemic heart disease among Koreans has increased 5- to 6-fold during the
past decade. the average fat intake of Koreans increased during the same period: from 14% of
energy in 1986 to 19% of energy in 1997. This increased dietary intake may affect the incidence
of ischemic heart disease.
The authors of the study conclude that in a population with a relatively low fat intake, a
moderate increase in total fat intake may be a risk factor for ischemic heart disease.
Enzymes Enzymes are active substances which are produced by living organismn which may
act on chemical reactions in living cells or outside. Enzymes are proteines with low molecular
active group with strong binding called prostetic group or with weak binding and easy to split
off group called coenzyme
Examples of enzymes are lipases (enzymes which split fats), proteases (enzymes which split
proteines)
Enzymes are used in industrial technology and in colorimetrical methodes for the determination
of specific substances in foodstuffs.
Vitamins Vitamins, such as beta-carotene acting as an antioxidant and indirect source of

vitamin A give can supplement foods turning color yellow to red (Lucarotin 10 CWD G/R from
BASF, red provitamin A).
Supplemented antioxidant drinks are also labeled as A-C-E drinks.
Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in children and is a risk of severe infections disease,
heart disease, skin cancer, prostate cancer, and arthritis. Plant foods may contain provitamin
A pigments such as alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin that ore converted to
vitamin A by the body.
Globally, it is estimated that 140-250 million children under five years of age are affected
by vitamin A deficiency. These children suffer a dramatically increased risk of death, blindness
and illness, especially from measles and diarrhoea. The WHO calls for a combination of breast
feeding, dietary improvement, food fortification, and supplementation. [585]
Vitamin A reduction of inflammation [583]

Kurt Long from Harvard School of Public Health aand colleagues studied the effect of vita-
min A (retinol) supplements on levels of the molecule, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
(MCP-1), which is associated with a state of increased inflammation and is also involved in the
pathogen-specific mucosal immune response.
Children who received the vitamin A supplement were found to have reduced fecal concen-
trations of MCP-1 compared with children in the placebo group.
The supplementation also reduced MCP-1 levels in children with infections, like the bacte-
ria Escherichia coli or the human roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides.
The authors conclude that vitamin A has an anti-inflammatory effect in the gastrointesti-
nal tract by reducing MCP-1 concentrations.
Retinol [584] [586] [586] Retinol is the dietary form of vitamin A. It is fat soluble and is
found mainly in fish liver oils, liver, egg yolks, butter, and cream. Retinol is ingested in a
precursor form; animal sources are milk and eggs in form of retinyl esters.
Green leafy and yellow vegetables such as spinach and carrots contain beta-carotene and other
provitamin carotenoids, which are converted to retinal in the mucosal cells of the small in-
testine. Retinal is reduced to retinol, then esterified as retinyl palmitat. Most of the body’s
vitamin A is stored in the liver as retinyl palmitate. It is released into the circulation as retinol
Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol while pro-vitamin A carotenoids can be cleaved to
produce retinal which can be reduced to retinol.
Biologic equivalents [?]

Biologic equivalents, for diets with different proportions of retinol and beta-carotene, are as
follows: 1 USP U equals 1 IU; 1 IU equals 0.3 microg of retinol; 1 microg of beta-carotene
equals 0.167 microg of retinol.
Other provitamin carotenoids are half as active as beta-carotene, because they have only one
306
un-substituted font beta end group.
Beta-cryptoxanthin: Beta-cryptoxanthin can be found in many vegetables and fruits, mainly

in papaya, mango, peaches, oranges, tangerines, bell peppers, corn and watermelon. Beta-
cryptoxanthin is also found in some yellow coloured animal products such as egg yolk and
butter, and is told to be the main source of provitamin A.
Production of beta-cryptoxanthin [586]

According O. Serrato-Joya from the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at
the Technological Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, beta-cryptoxanthin has been ne-
glected because most of the information were focused on b-carotene alone. This was due to the
lack of suitable analytical techniques, and alternative viable processes for production.
O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues describe a process producing beta cryptoxanthin additives,

as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The pro-
cess uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of
beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total
carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar caroti-
noids production techniques.
O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues from the Technology Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico,
describe a process producing beta-cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation,
thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of
Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry
weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers
higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids The eicosapentaen acid and docosahexaen acid
are essential fatty acids.They are available only in form of fatty fish like mackerel, herring ,
salmon . An undersupply of omega-3 PUFA is therefore possible and the search for this essen-
tial fatty acids in plants and microorganism is being started. Microencapsulated omega-3 fatty
acids are used in healthy diets and in prevention of cardiovascular diseases, supplement bakery
products,pasta, breakfast cereals, ready-made meals, soups,dairy products and baby food.
Microencapsulated omega-3 high unsaturated fatty acids have neutral taste, without smell and
are protected from oxidation.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, hypertonia, Dia-
betes mellitus. They also act against inflammation and allergic diseases like psoriasis.
omega-3 PUFA are important for neurophysiological functions and brain and vision develop-
ment of newborn.The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of depressions is being
studied.
Classification of omega-3 fatty acids The classification of omega-3 PUFA regards:

1.- The number of C-atoms of the molecule,
2.- The number of unsaturated links,
3.- The position of the first double link in relation to the methyl end of the fatty acid.
The structure of omega-6 PUFA is given below as they are often seen in relation with omega-3
PUFA:
Omega−6 fatty acids
H H H H H H H O
H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C
H C C C C C C C C OH
H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
O
C
OH
Linoleic acid ( 18:2) and its simplified form (Octadecadien −(9−12) − acid
O
C
OH
Arachidonic acid (20:4) (Eicosatetraenoic acid )

Most important omega-6 PUFA are: linoleic acid, gama- linolenic acid, dihomo-gama-linolenic
acid, arachidonic acid.
Structure of omega-3 PUFA:
Omega−3 fatty acids
O
C
OH
alfa−Linolenic acid (18:3) (octadecatrien−(9, 12, 15)− acid)
O
C
OH
Eicosanpentaen acid (20:5)
O
C
H
Docosahexaen acid (22:6)
308
Most important omega-3 PUFA are: alfa- linolenic acid (C18:3), eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5)
EPA, and docosahexaen acid (C22:6) DHA,
Alfa linolenic acid can be changed to EPA only up to 15% in human physiology and only 4%
can be change to DHA That is why about 50 g daily of rapeseed oil can substitute only 50 to
100 g fat fish in a week.
The transformation rate depends on the type of the nutrition. A high intake of linoleic acid and
saturated fatty acids in relation to alfa-linolenic acid can strongly reduce synthesis of omega-3
fatty acids.
Alfa-Linolenic acid is available in green leaf vegetables,nuts, and some vegetable oils such as
rapeseed oil, soya oil, wheat germ oil and walnut oil.
Linseed is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, being 40 to 60% alfa- linolenic from total
oil. Linseed has therefore found its place in baking industry with 6 - 8% from dry weight in all
types of bread.Linseed can also be used as animal feed to produce alfa- linolenic enriched foods
like Eggs, butter, cheese and meat.
Feeding animals with linseed or linseed oil an increase of alfa- linolenic fatty acid is achieved.Feeding
them with fish oil or seaweeds enriched with omega-3 fatty acids leads to an increase of DHA.
Eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA Phytoplankton is the nutrition of fish of cold water
and is the source of EPA and DHA (DHA = docosahexaen acid). Fish farming of eel, trout
and salmon may produce a fish with reduced omega-3 fatty acids because of different nutrition.
That is why fish from natural sources are of superior quality compared with fish from farms.
Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA are being produced microencapsulated using carbohydrates
or protein basis such as maltodextrin, beta- cyclodextrin, egg white, gelatine or caseinate as
covering film. In this way they can be added to beverages like orange juice.
Researches are being made to find other sources of omega-3.PUFA using single cells such as
Crypthecodinum cohnii ( Dinoflagellata), Mortierella elongata (fungus), Schizochrytium (Mi-
croalgae).
The DART Study[587] and the Lyon Diet Heart-Study [588] have demonstrated that omega-
3 fatty acids have a protective activity against cardiac infarct using 200-400 g fat saltwater
fish/week, or 3 times 0,5g/day fish oil and a diet rich in fruits and vegetables and little amount
of meat and milk products.
Beginning with 1800 with the industrial era the nutrition changed. Total fat, saturated fats
and omega-6 fatty acids increased rapidly and starting at 1930 trans-fatty acids as a result
from hydration increased the unhealthy side, meanwhile healthy omega-3 fatty acids decreased
constantly beginning with 1900.
According to DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) the intake of fat for an adult should
be reduced to 30 to 35%. essential fatty acids should be 3,5% of total energy and should be
distributed between 3% omega-6 and 0,5% omega-3 fatty acids. The quotient between the two
should be 5:1. The amount of omega-3 fatty acids should be approximately 1 g/day.
European estimates indicate that only Portugal and Spain have an intake over 1 g/d. Germany
has an undersupply of omega-3 fatty acids of only 1/3 of the necessary daily intake. Netherlands
despite being known for herring fishery has an intake of only 1/5 of the necessary daily amount.
Target group for food enriched with omega-3 fatty acids should be early or newborn, preg-
nant women, nursing mothers and persons with cardiovascular diseases
Improved absorption of omega-3 fatty acids by pre-emulsification [589]

Plummer and colleagues (2007) studying the absorption of omega-3 fatty acid, found that
pre-emulsifying a blend of a standardized oil increases significantly the postprandial plasma
triacylglycerol (TAG) and the C18:3 (n-6), C18:3(n-3), C20:5(n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) polyun-
saturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels. C16:0 and C18:0 saturated fatty acids, the C18:1 (n-9)
monounsaturated fatty acid and the C18:2 PUFA were not significantly changed, compared
with a non-emulsified oil group.
The authors conclude that the emulsification of an oil mixture prior to ingestion increases
the absorption of longer chain more highly unsaturated fatty acids (especially eicosapentaenoic
acid and docosahexaenoic acid) but does not affect absorption of shorter chain less saturated
fatty acids, and suggest that pre-emulsification of fish oils may be a useful means of boosting
absorption of these beneficial fatty acids.
This study may lead to improved fish oil supplementation.
Riboflavin is used for food coloring. It has yellow color.Riboflavin is vitamin B 12 and is
therefore a safe color.
Nutraceuticals Nutraceuticals are compounds which normally occur in the body and have
beneficial effects on health. As they often do not occur in natural foods they have to be released
by food authorities of each country or handled as drugs.
SAMe ( S-adenosylmethionine ) enhances according to BASF well being.

5-m-THF (5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid )reduces according to BASF the risk of heart dis-
ease.These nutraceuticals were already launched in USA.
310
Kiwi It is widely used as food because of its high content of vitamin C and its taste.
Allergy is often cited in relation with kiwi. It is supposed that instable allergens are of impor-
tance. As possible allergen thio-proteinase actinidin 23,5 kD; pl 3,1 is cited. It is similar to
bromelain in pineapple and papain in Papaya.
Pastorello et al. (1996) has found as major allergen at 30kD the protein 22,24 (Actinidin)
28, 32, 38 and 41 kD.
Any attempt to modify the genetic code of kiwi should try to suppress these fractions as pos-
sible allergens.
Flavonoids and allergy [879].

Satomi Yano and colleagues from Kyushu University found that diet rich in plant flavonoid such
as apigenin (4’, 5, 7,-trihydroxyflavone) from herbs, fruits and vegetables can reduce serum IgE
and inflammatory cytokines such as RANTES (Regulated upon Activation Normal T cell Ex-
pressed and Secreted) and sTNFRI (tumor necrosis factor receptor I) and could protect and/or
reduce the occurrence of asthma and other allergies associated with the immunoglobulin E
(IgE).
The authors found that apigenin-rich foods, such as celery and parsley are often associated
with adverse food reactions. Therefore they used a diet supplemented with apigenin. This
diet reduced immune and inflammatory markers, such as IgE, IgG, IgM, IgA, and cytokine
expression in mice significantly.
Other foods rich in apigenin are apples, beans, broccoli, cherries, grapes, leeks, onions, and
tomatoes, as well as plant-derived beverages like tea and wine.
Apigenin and prostate tumor[880]

Previous research into flavonoids, and particularly apignenin, has focused on the potential anti-
cancer properties of the compounds.
Increased intake of fruits and vegetables may be associated with a reduced risk of prostate
cancer.
Apigenin, has shown remarkable anti-proliferative effects against various malignant cell lines
like prostate cancer , slowing prostate tumour growth in mice.
A study presented by Sanjeev Shukla relates evidence of the in vitro and in vivo growth in-
hibitory effects of apigenin on tumour cells.
Algae [881]
There are up to 30000 types of algae which are being used in the production of drugs, cosmetics,
thickening agent for soft cheese, puddings, ice cream and sauces, as animal feed, and fertilizer.
Algae produce organic compounds and oxygen using carbonic dioxide and solar energy. Micro-
scopic algae are responsible for the major part of the photosynthesis in the sea.
Japan has a great consumption of algae such as:
Ao-nori,Awo-nori algae whose leaves are used as sushis(which are made of rice and other
ingredients wrapped up in seaweed leaves),flakes for salads, roasted as spice. They are rich on
minerals, iron and vitamins.
Porphyre tenera is an alga known as nori.
Kelp or Green Nori is generally used as thickening agent, alga meal, as spice. It is rich
on iron,potassium, magnesium and vitamins.
Green laver,Sea lettuce(Ulva lactuca)is used as flakes and grind for salads, snacks and
cookies.It is rich on iron,proteins,minerals and vitamins.
Alga composition:
Humidity, as plant: 80 to 90%
Humidity,dry : 10 to 20%
Carbohydrates: 50%
Minerals : 7 to 38% from dry weight
Proteins : 8% in the Kombu-weed and 35% in the Nori-leaves
Fat : 1 to 2%
Algae are rich on cellulose being therefore partially not digested when used in human nutrition.[882]
Minerals found in algae:

Iron, iodine, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus and zinc.
Trace elements found in algae:

Aluminum, chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel and titanium.
vitamins found in sea weeds:

Vitamin A, B1, B2, B5, C, folic acid, niacin in fresh algae.
The pro-vitamin A (beta-carotin) is present in very high concentration in the variety Dulce and
50.0000 i.U.in 100g of Nori.
It is important as natural sources of alfa-tocopherols. Industry is making researches to sub-

stitue the synthetic provitamin A with natural pro-vitamin A from algae.
The green seaweed Dunaliella salina is very rich in beta-carotin.
Arame ( Eisenia bicyclis)is rich in potassium, calcium, trace elements in particular iodine
312
and vitamins.
Different types of Laminarias which are brown algae and known as Kombu are very rich in
iodine.
Carrageen is used as thickening agent in numerous foods. It is being obtained from the seaweed
Chondrus crispus
Dulse(Palmaria palmata) is being used in the production of chips and other foods.
It is rich in proteins, minerals, trace elements and vitamins. In human medicine is dulse
used against anemia during pregnancy, against problems with the stomach and intestines and
is known to act against worms
Hijiki (Hizikia) has ten times the amount of calcium of milk. It is used against goitre because
of its iodine.
Table 10.6: Algae
Green algae,Chlorophyceae
Ao-Nori, Awo-Nori Porphyra tenera
Green Nori, Sea Grass Enteromorpha intestinalis
Sea lettuce, green laver Ulva lactuca
Thongweed, Buttonweed, Sea Haricots, Sea Spaghetti Himanthalia elongata
Brown algae, Phaeophyceae

Arame Eisenia bicyclis
Hijiki, Hizikia
Kombu Laminaria japonica
Wakame Undaria pinnatifida
Forest kelp, Cuvie, May-weed, Sea-rods Laminaria hyperborea
Red algae, Rhodophyceae

Agar-Agar Thickening agent
Dulse, Shell Dulse, Sea Grass Palmaria palmata
Irisch Moos,Jelli Moss, Carrageen, Carrageen Moss Chondrus crispus
Nori, Laver Porphyra laciniata
Nori, Laver, Purple Laver, Sloke Porphyra umbilicalis
Mannitol: Is a sugar which is being won from brown algae such as Kombu algae (Laminaria
digitata with up to 16% of manitol). It has a sweetness equivalent of 60% of sugar.
Kelp was used as fertilizer in the 12. century. In the 17. century kelp was used in the
production of sodium hydroxide in manufacturing of glass. The potassium of kelp was used to
make gunpowder in World War I and II.
Table 10.7: Composition of important Algae
Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria

esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata
Protein 15% 9 11 9 18
Fat 1% 0,5 1 0,5 2
Carbohydrates 45% 60 45 60 48
Vitamin C 300ppm 15 15 2.000 200
Calcium 10.000ppm 9.000 13.000 9.000 5.000
Iodine 170ppm 2.000 2.500 2.000 300
Iron 100ppm 30 60 30 200
Magnesium 9.000ppm 6.000 7.000 6.000 3.000
Manganese 1ppm 10 8 8 100
Sodium 4,5% 3 3 3 2
Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria
esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata
Table 10.8: Composition of important Algae
Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha

crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis
Protein 15% 20 20 14
Fat 2% 1 1 1
Carbohydrates 60% 60 44 45
Vitamin C 20ppm 500 150 80
Calcium 10.000ppm 5.000 7.000 8.500
Iodine 200ppm 300 200 50
Iron 200ppm 200 1.000 150
Magnesium 7.000ppm 3.000 28.000 25.000
Manganese 10ppm 40 300 8
Sodium 2% 2 1 8
Potassium 3% 0,7 0,5
Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha
crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis
Sushi [883] Sushi is a traditional food of Japan which is known all over the world.The original
meaning of Sushi was rice which had been turned sauer using winegar. Nowadays it stands for
314
a special combination of Sushi-rice and other ingredients such as raw fish.
Classic Forms of Sushi

Nigiri-Sushi: Raw fish or shrimps are coated with Wasabipaste and placed on top of small
rice dumplings.Nigri-Sushi is always served two at a time.
Maki-Sushi-roll: The filling is placed in the center of the roll and may contain two to five
ingredients coated with rice, wraped in a layer of Nori.
There are different forms of Maki-Sushi such as: Hosomaki are small Sushis.
Futomaki are big ones.

Gunkan-Maki have rice as bottom, Nori as wall and different ingredients on top of the rice.
Ura-Maki-Inside Out is also known as California Roll which are nori leaves coated with rice
and rolled so that the rice layer is outside and can be coated with sesame seeds or caviar.
Temaki-Cornet are leaves of Nori foldet as cornet with rice and plenty of ingredients inside.
Sashimi is Sushi without rice.All ingredients such as raw fish, vegetable, caviar and Nori
leaves are placed on a Sushi board.
Chirashi is a layer of warm Sushi-rice with seafood on top in a bowl served with Soysauce.
Margarine [144] As allergies are getting more frequent all possible allergens are controlled.
In Leipzig (Germany) many families reported to have chosen margarine instead of butter.
Children of these families suffer more frequently from hay fever as children of families us-
ing butter in their nutrition. In those groups which had increased the intake of butter there
were smaller levels of allergy - antibodies found.
These results should be analysed very carefully because they are based merely on a limited
number of statistical cases.
The oversupply of our population with linolic acid from sunflower oil, corn germ oil, Soy and
thistle oil can cause problems.
Linolic acid is an essential fatty acid. In small amounts it is indispensable for life. High
levels of linolic acid act as basis for the synthesis of inflammatory hormones.
Together with the fact that a high level of linolic acid when burned can originate free rad-
icals by unsufficient supply of tocopherol, and the fact that polyunsaturated fats oxidize and
turn rancid very easily her intake should be reduced. Olive oil and rapeseed oil should be
preferred[145]
As olive oil cannot supply the world demand of oil, only canola is left as ideal basis for the
production of margarine.
Excessive amounts of olive oil may cause inhibition of phagocitosis of the reticular endothelian
system (RES)[246]. 12 persons were given 240 ml olive oil to drink in form of an emulsion with
water in a period of 24 hours. Three hours after the last portion of oil 2,5 mg/ Kg albumin
marked with iodine-125 were given intravenous.
The level of marked albumin in blood was compared with the blood of control persons.
The slow decrease of blood albumin of the test persons after intake of the high amount of
olive oil compared with a rapid decrease in the blood of control persons has led to the theory
of inhibition of the RES caused by excessive intake of olive oil. This shows that large amounts
of fat are unhealthy.
High-oleic sunflower seeds New sunflower seeds with more than 80% of oleic acid are dis-
tributed by the BME ( Bundesernährungsministerium ) ministry of nutrition in Germany to
test the possibility to use it as growing raw material.
This plant may become very important by growing need of oleic rich oil for human nutri-
tion bearing in mind that high oleic olive oil is told to responsible for better health of the
population of region of the Mediterranean Sea.[452].
Industry, traders, stores, and consumer should be aware that margarine containing rapeseed oil
being better as made with sunflower and soybean oil. Butter and other saturated animal fats
must also be reduced because of their content of cholesterol and the arteriosclerotic risk.
There are functional foods which are said to lower bad LDL cholesterol.
Margarine with this property contains plant sterol esters. [172].
When eaten regularly this margarine can reduce the level of LDL cholesterol in blood by
as much as 14%. The results of a Mayo Clinic study presented at the 81st Annual American
Dietetic Association Meeting in Kansas City has confirmed this activity of plant sterol esters.
Benecol is a margarine on market in Finland having plant sterol esters (sitostanol ester) as
dietary ingredient.
316
Benecol margarine and Benecol cheese spread was launched on the Netherlands market in
1999 by Johnson & Johnson with cholesterol lowering claim.
Benecol cheese spread is based on the Benecol margarine. The health Ministry of Netherlands
ordered to recall Benecol cheese spread as it is classified as Novel Food and must therefore
undergo the approval procedure before entering the market.
Plant sterols
Plant sterols are naturally present in vegetable oils, in small amount in foods such as corn,
wheat, rye, oats and olive oil and in wood in form of hydrated steroles called Stanoles.
Plant sterol esters are formed by esterifying sitosterol with fatty acids becoming fat-soluble.
Sitosterol is obtained as soybean extract.
The average intake of plant sterols is 300-500 mg/day.Vegetarians have a daily intake of 800
mg. According to Westrate[581] there are 1,5 - 3 g/day necessary to lower blood cholesterol
about 10%. Other studies such as the MRFIT- Study[590] and Meta-Study of law et al.[?]
came to the same result. Plant steroles reduce blood LDL cholesterol. The HDL cholesterol
remains unchanged.
Plant steroles are similar in its chemical configuration to cholesterol. They reduce the choles-
terol blood level preventing it to be absorbed in the intestines and is being excreted with the
excrements.
Less than 5% of phytosteroles are absorbed the prevailing part is eliminated with faecis carrying
precipitated cholesterol.
There is also a competitive action between plant steroles and cholesterol in the affinity to
the micelles as the plant steroles are more hydrophobic than cholesterol having therefore a
higher affinity to the micelles which they fill, leaving any place to cholesterol, blocking thus the
way in the interior of the cells.
Unilever wants to include Sterol derived from soybeans but must wait for the approval as
novel food.
Benecol does not need to wait for an approval because it had been already launched before
Novel Food Regulation came.
Resolution of the European Commission 200/500/EG. Phytosterine rich margarine

The Commission has allowed Unilever to put on market her new margarine containing a maxi-
mum of 8% of phytosterine corresponding 14% phytosterin ester.This fat spread is suitable for
persons who want to lower their blood cholesterol.
Contraindications: Patients which are taking drugs to lower cholesterol should include this
fat spread in their nutrition under supervision of a doctor.
Consuming this fat spread a significant reduction of vitamin A takes place. People with a
deficiency of vitamin A (pregnant women, breast-feeding and children under 5 years) should be
informed that the margarine is not suitable for these groups.
Consuming this margarine more fruits and vegetables should be included in the nutrition in
order to compensate the reduction of vitamin A .
Unilever has to monitor the groups of consumers in order to inform the European Commission
whether the margarine reaches the target group and how much other groups are getting exposed
to a high phytosterin level.
Other companies trying to commercialize plant sterols are:

Forbes Medi-tech and Novartis using phytosterols made from wood and Monsanto extracting
sterols from corn fibre oil and esterifying with ferulic acid as natural antioxidant Esters of
sterols blocks cholesterol absorption inhibiting the transportation from the digestive tract to
the liver.
The amount of total and LDL cholesterol are lowered.
Table 10.9: Total sterols[263]
Oil/fat Total sterols gramm in 100 g oil/fat

Palmkernel oil 0,08
Palm oil 0,04
Olive oil 0,11
Peanut oil 0,24
Rapeseed oil 0,62
Cotton oil 0,43
Corn oil 0,85
Soybean oil 0,34
Sunflower oil 0,35
318
Linseed oil 0,43
Table 10.10: Sterols %[264]
Oil/fat cholesterol brasicasterol campesterol stigmasterol sitosterol

Palmkernel oil 1 - 12 13 74
Palm oil 4 - 21 12 63
Olive oil - - 3 - 97
Peanut oil 1 - 12 12 76
Rapeseed oil - 10 27 - 63 *
Cotton oil - 1 8 - 91
Corn oil - - 20 6 74
Soybean oil - - 19 24 57
Sunflower oil - - 11 8 62*
Linseed oil 2 2 28 10 54*
and other components
The Mayo Clinic Study on Plant Sterol Esters,October 21.1998 [172] A group of
individuals who had borderline and mildly raised blood cholesterol were given three times a
day 8 g of spread containing 1 g of plant sterol ester reducing 14% of LDL cholesterol after a
period of 8 weeks.
The HDL cholesterol levels (the good one) did not decrease.
Classification of the steroles Zoosteroles: Are the steroles which are present in animals.
Most important of them is the cholesterol.It is present in brain (2,5%),heart (2,0%), egg yolk
(1,5%), mayonnaise (0,25%), butter (0,25%),meat (0,07%) and fish (0,05%).
Phytosteroles: Are the steroles which are present in plants such as beta-sitosterol, stig-
masterol and campesterol.
Mykosteroles
STEROLES
OH
OH
Cholesterol Beta−sitosterol
OH OH
Stigmasterol Campesterol
Raffination of oils and steroles Raffination of oils and fats removes components with
bad taste and smell, such as free fatty acids, products of oxidation, ketones, aldehydes and
ketones, waxes,slime and phosphatides. It also removes environmental contaminants, herbi-
cides,pesticides, fungicides, polycyclic hydrocarbon, heavy metals and products of the metabolism
of of microorganism leaving traces which are tolerable.
320
RAFFINATION
Crude oil or fat

Sideproduct Removes
Degumming Lecithine Gums and heavy metals
Neutralisation Free fatty acids

and leftovers of gums
and heavy metals
Bleaching Coloured particles such

chlorophyll, carotinoids,
and soaps.
Deodorisation Taste and smell active

(Steam distillation components free fatty
190−200 degrees) polyciclic hidrocarbons
pesticides and herbicides
Refined oil or fat
Raffination of oils remove part of the steroles. Refined oils have 0,1 to 0,45% of steroles left.
Vegetable oil cannot be a source of a daily intake of approximately 2 g/day.
Acid Value: AOAC pH-Metric Determination in Vegetable Oils without Titration

[445] Free fatty acids are measured as a quality control of vegetable oils during their production,
trade, and use. It is expressed as acid value (AV).
According to AOAC the acid value of edible oils can be determined without titration using
a reagent containing a solution of water, isopropyl alcohol and triethanolaminea. The oil sam-
ple is mixed with the reagent in the pH-metric cell, free fatty acids from the sample are extracted
into the reagent.
The initial pH, called conditional pH1, is measured, a standard acid (HCl) is added, and
the final pH, pH2, is measured. AV is calculated from the difference between pH1 and pH2.
Texture of fats,oils and margarine Fats and oils modify the structure, the stability the
shelf life and the taste of food. It is therefore very important to determine the texture of fats
and their blends.
Dilatation values: The fat Industry used to determine the texture of fats by measuring
the dilatation of the product at different temperatures.
The dilatation of fats goes straight on in solid form.
As soon a part of the fatty acids melts the dilatation graphic suffers a jump what can be
as diagram and as figures expressed as percentage of solids at different temperatures. 10, 20,
30 and 40o usually reported. The method was very intensive in work being therefore changed
by NMR values using Brookfeld equipment.
NMR-values
As explained above, fats give a different response in solid or in melted form. This can be
measured by Nuclear Mass Resonance ( NMR )giving the percentage of solids in fats present
in different temperatures.
NMR- values differ about 4 points to the old not any more used method of dilatation. So
if you find in old literature dilatation values you can compare it with NMR-values subtracting
4%.
NMR values are important to fat industry as it gives informations about melting response
of the product at different stages of their using. Bakery, chocolate an all manufacturing facto-
ries depend on the texture of fat during processing in their equipments at different temperatures.
Texture analysis of fats oils and margarine

To have more informations about taste properties of fats oils and margarine and to express
them in figures a conic shaped metal piece with a long stem was dropped under determined
conditions on the margarine.
The immersion of the cone expressed in centimeters gave an indication concerning the tex-
ture of the fat blend. This method was very imperfect and giving often false response.
To overcome these problems a texture analyzer such as TA.XT2i [446]have been developed.
It consists of a conic sensor with an angle of 45o and a plate with the same angle where the fat
322
is placed.
The force which is necessary to deform the test material is by means of a graphic analysed
giving so informations about the spreading properties of margarine and other fat spreads show-
ing the force which is necessary to deform the product.
Texture of fats, oils and margarines
50
Force in 20°C
millipascale 40
30
20
10
5°C
5
1 2 3 4 6
Time in
seconds
Spreading properties and hardness result from the relation of solids to liquid oil at 10o C (re-
frigerator) and 20o C (room temperature).
Smoothness and stiffness as well as other undesired properties of fat blends depend on the
dimension and form of the fat crystals. A product is smooth when the crystals are small stiff-
ness and other failures result from great crystals. Texture analysis can express such failures in
form from graphics.
Deep frying oil and shortenings
The fast food is mainly based on deep frying using oil or fat.
The oil used is soybean oil rapeseed oil and cotton oil which may be hydrogenated. Pal-
moil and his fractions are also used in large scale.
Soybean oil due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids is not suitable for deep
frying because it deteriorates very soon during frying.
Soybean and cottonseed oil is therefore used in hydrogenated form to reduce the chemical
reactions during long periods of heating.
Partially hydrogenated oil however has high amounts of trans fatty acids 24.28. Partially
hydrogenated oils are used in North and South America because they are produced there.
Palmoil and his fractions are widely used in Europe because soybeans as well as palmoil are
imported.Soybean oil offers therefore no price advantage.
Recent studies have show that the trans fatty acids originated from hardening process is in-
creasing the LDL cholesterol and lowering the HDL cholesterol in plasma. Moreover the trans
fatty acids are suspected to interfere with the metabolism of essential fatty acids.
Danish retail margarine is now produced with trans-free hard fats. Industrial margarine such
as used for backery has today under 5% of trans fatty acids. In near future ”zero” will be the
standard.( Peter Petersen, Aarhus Olie, Margarine- New Trends for a New Millenium Anuga
Food Tec 2000, Cologne 13 April 2000.)
Palmoil
[247] Palm oil is one of the world’s most popular vegetable oils.
Ninety per cent of the world’s palm-oil exports come from the oil-palm plantations of Malaysia
and Indonesia. Most of these plantations are on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. The very
lowland forest that the oil-palm industry favours for conversion is the only remaining habitat
of the orang-utan.
Destructive oil-palm plantations will continue to spread, and the forests of Borneo and Sumatra
will continue to be destroyed, unless the governments of Indonesia and Malaysia recognise the
customary land rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.
324
Solution: This report calls for an immediate end to all forest conversion to oil palm, and
recognition of the customary land rights of local people.
Boycotting palm oil is not the answer. There are also serious social and environmental problems
associated with growing other vegetable oils, such as soy in Brazil.
The UK is the second biggest importer of palm oil in Europe after the Netherlands. UK
imported 914.000 tons in 2004, representing 23% of total palm oil import in the EU. The de-
mand will further increase with the development of bio-fuel plants.
As the promise of profits increases, the big players are beginning to get involved. The two
largest external stakes in Greenergy Biofuels are held by Tesco and Cargill.
Tesco will shift the product on its petrol forecourts, while Cargill - one of two giants that
dominate the world food market - will supply the feedstock. Gone are the days when biofuels
meant bearded hippies running their clapped-out vans on recycled chip fat. [248]
Biofuels Corporation has just finished building a biodiesel plant at Seal Sands, near Mid-
dlesbrough, and supplies fuel throughout the UK, with an annual production capacity of 284
million litres of biodiesel, using as feedstock palm oil from Malaysia and other vegetable oils.
Greenergy Biofuels, with its new plant at Immingham on Humberside, expects palm oil to
be one of the main feedstocks. [248]
Palm oil health related concerns

According to Enas tropical oils, such as coconut and palm oil are very rich in saturated fats.
Their cholesterol-raising potential is similar to or higher than most animal fats. Liberal use of
these oils should be discouraged. [249]
The American Medical Association expressed concern about the atherogenicity of coconut
and/or palm oil in food products. Saturated fatty acids are found primarily in animal products
and in tropical oils”(coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils).
Persons attempting to limit saturated fatty acid intake should be aware of the high content of
saturated fatty acids in tropical oils. [250]
According to a meta-analysis by Clarke and colleagues, the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL
cholesterol is important. The higher the ratio, the greater the risk.
Palmitic acid increases that ratio more than other saturated fatty acids, including lauric acid
and myristic acid, which are abundant in palm kernel oil and coconut oil, the other tropical
oils. Palm oil increases the total:HDL cholesterol ratio more than the average U.S. dietary
fat, though less than stick margarine, typical vegetable shortening (made with partially hydro-
genated vegetable oil).[251]
The World Health Organization has stated that there is convincing evidence that palmitic
acid increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. [252]
A U.S. government regulation requires that, by January 1, 2006, food labels list a product’s
content of trans fat, which comes from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and is a major
cause of heart disease. Many food processors are seeking to eliminate trans fat by switching to
other oils. Palm oil is one such alternative. [253]
The Center for Science in the Public Interest in a letter to the U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services in June 1, 2005 expressed concerne that the use of palm oil may increase
due to the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) impending labeling requirement for trans
fat. The group urged the FDA to encourage companies to reformulate foods without both
partially hydrogenated oil and palm oil. [254]
Toxicology of heated fat

Oil and fat being heated in presence of oxygen form hydroperoxydes [255]
Overheated fat causes irritation of the gastric system, enlarged liver retarding and even death
of animals. This is intensified by an unsufficient supply of vitamin E.
Polymerization under high temperatures can also take place without oxygen. Chemical com-
pound formed during deep frying are:Aldehydes, free fatty acids, alcohol, lactones, esters,
ketone, aromatic compounds and epoxides.
Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are the most toxic of all mentioned compounds.
Enzymes bearing, SH-groups are inhabited by peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are also formed without strong heating. Atmospheric
oxygen can originate peroxides when unsufficient antioxidants like alfa-tocopherol is present.
Vegetable fats and oils have sufficient natural tocopherol to protect them from oxidation.
Wrong food processing such as heating and long time storage reduces the natural antioxidant
system.Strong heating and long storage of oils and fats during reffination should be avoided.
Sometimes processing of food destroys natural tocopherol Peroxides of linolic acid has proved
to be toxic for the miocardium, it has breast tumor activity [255].
326
Vitamin E in edible oils Edible oils are a source of tocopherol. Some of them have many
unsaturated bounds which can form peroxides in human organism. These lipid peroxides which
harm the cell membrane. Signal transduction and permeability of the cell membrane are dis-
turbed.
To avoid the formation of lipid peroxides natural antioxidants such as vitamin E are neces-
sary summing up to 0,3 mg alfa tocopherol for 1 gram of double bound.
The vitamin E which is available as antioxidant after deducting its own need are as follow:
Wheat germ oil: is rich on vitamin E (220mg/100g).After deduction of its own need there
170 mg/100 are available.Unfortunately it is very expensive and is therefore not used commonly
in Kitchen
Sunflower oil:It has about 50 mg/100g tocopherol. After deduction of its own need there
are about 19 mg/100g available. Butter fat:It has about 2 mg Tocopherol in 100 g fat.Its own
need demands more than that, so that a supplement of tocopherol of 0,2 mg/100g is necessary.
Maize oil: It has 30 mg tocopherol/100g and around 60% of polyunsaturated fatty acids
. Its own need of antioxidants to avoid peroxidation exceeds by far its natural content of vita-
min E.
It needs therefore a supplementation of 5 mg/100 g for its own need. Be sure there is vi-
tamin E added to maize oil otherwise it would increase the demand of tocopherol from other
sources.
Lard:: It has about 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids and 0,3% vitamin E/100 g. The de-
mand for its own antioxidant need is 6 mg/100g which has to be supplied from other sources.
Safflower oil: It has 75 to 80% of polyunsaturated fatty acid and 35 mg tocopherol/100.Its

own antioxidant need 13 mg/ 100 from other sources. Be sure there is vitamin E added to
safflor oil to avoid a negative balance of vitamin E.
Table 10.11: Biological activity of tocopherol isomers

Tocopherol isomer Biological activity of alpha tocopherol
beta tocopherol 30%

Gamma tocopherol 15%
delta tocopherol 1%
[565]
Table 10.12: Tocopherol isomers of oils and fats(mg/Kg) according to

Lange,Brown,Täufel,Schmidt
Oil or fat Total tocopherol alpha tocopherol beta gamma delta
Coconut oil 80 36 - 47 -
Maize oil 1020 126 - 894 -
Cottonseed oil 1100 760 - 340 -
Olive oil 200 - - - -
Palmoil 460 150 - 240 70
Soybean oil 1140 80 - 660 400
Sunflower oil 595 560 - 35 -
Wheatgerm oil 3800 - - - -
Tallow 10 - - - -
Lard 27 - - - -
Butter 30 - - - -
Colon carcinogenicity of heated oil

Corn germ oil heated at 210◦C together with bubbles of air oxidize rapidly. This oil after
cooling when fed to rats activated enzymes such as benzpyren hydroxylase in the mucous layer
of their colon. Liver and enzymes of small intestine remained unchanged.
Benzpyren hydroxylase triggered by heated corn germ oil could increase the transformation
of procarcinogenic products in carcinogenic ones .
Deep frying should not exceed the temperature of 180◦ C .Heating time should be short. In-
termittent heating and cooling should be avoided because it leads to form polymerization of
fat.
Recommendations for Frying Oils, Third International Symposium on Deep-fat

Frying March 20-21,2000,Hagen/Wesphalia,Germany (http:www.gdch.de/dgf/recomm.htm)
shortened. On this symposium the following recommendations for frying oils were adopted by
the delegate:
1- Principle quality index for deep-fat frying should be sensory parameters of the food be-
ing fried.
328
2- Analysis of suspect frying fats and oils should utilize two tests to confirm abuse.
Recommended analytic should be:
Total Polar Materials (24%)
Polymeric Materials (12%)
3- The use of rapid tests for monitoring oil quality are recommended. Rapid tests should
exhibit the following characteristics:
Correlate with internationally recognized standard methods
Safe for use in food processing/preparation area
Quantify with oil degradation
4- Previous work: There are no health concerns associated with consumption of frying fats and
oils that have not been abused at normal frying conditions. ( Note of the author of OurFood:
There are health concerns with the consumption of frying fats related to trans-fatty acids, so
fried food should be consumed with reserve. For further information search in “Physiology”.
5- Encourage development
6- Encourage and support basic research
7- Use of filter materials to maintain oil quality.
8- Used, but not abused , frying oils may be topped up or diluted with fresh oil with no adverse
effects on quality.
Table 10.13: Classification of edible oil plants
Group Subgroup Plant Name
Legumen
Soya Glycine max (L.) Merill
Peanut Arachis hypogaea
Oil lupine Lupinus albus
Erucic acid plants

Rape group
Rape Brassica napus L. oleifera
Rape of India Brassica napus L. dichotoma
Sarson, Colza India Brassica napus. glauca
Ravison,Colza Brassica campestris)
Mustard group
White mustard Sinapis alba

Other rape seed crops
Camelina sativa
Rocket Eruca vesicaria sativa
OIl radish Raphanus sativus
Flax plants
Linseed oil Linum usitatissimum
Mallow
Cottonseed oil Gossypium hirsutum
Other oil plants

Oilseeds
Maize Zea mays
Rice Oryza sativa
Wheat Triticum ssp
Sunflower Helianthus annuus
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
Wine Vitis vinifera
Palm tree
Oil palm Elaeis guineensis
Coco palm Cocos nucifera
Olive tree Olea europaea
Babassu palm Orbignia speciosa L.
Table 10.14: Classification of animal oils and fats

Group Oil or fat Animal Name
Land animals
Lard pigs Sus domesticus
tallow bovine Bos taurus
Mutton fat Mutton Ovis aries
Goose fat Goose Anser domesticus
Marine animals
Mamals Whale
330
Seals
Fish Herring Clupea harengus
Sardine Sardinops caerulea
Sardine of Peru Clupeapilchardus
Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus
Soya bean The soya plant was known in china since antiquity. The cultivation of Soya
started in USA in 1910 increasing rapidly in 1936 and by beginning of the II world war. About
90% of the world consumption is covered by USA and china. Brazil covers about 12%.
Soya and peanut are plants of the family of the legumen.They form fruit leaves which fold
forming husks.On the edge of the fruit leaves the seeds are attached In case of peanuts the
husks are underground. That is why peanuts need a special soil with high content of sand
which turns the soil soft this enables the husks to spread around.
Soya beans are rich in oil, proteins and carbohydrates. The beans are processed in the country
of destination. After winning oil and lecithin from the beans The soya cake is left over from the
production of oil.It is used as valuable animal feed because of the high content of proteins and
carbohydrates.Therefore the Soya beans are traded at the stock market, stored and transported
in form of beans.
Other oilseeds like palmoil, palmkernel oil or coco nut oil are processed in the countries of
origin because the leftovers from the winning of oil are not valuable enough to pay the costs of
transportation. Lecithin Lecithin of soya beans is a valuable ingredient of foods and has many
uses in pharmacy. Lecithin is a part of the cell wall of the nervous system.
The spread of genetic modified seeds all over the earth is the reason why all efforts are be-
ing made to find substitutes for soya lecithin. On market are already lecithin from rape oil.
The amount being obtained from rape however cannot cover the needs of the international
market. The purity of nature of soya plant should therefore be protected.
The plants of the family of Leguminosae ( Soya and peanuts) can undergo symbiosis with
certain bacteria which can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. This is the reason why the seeds
of these plants are rich in proteins making the valuable for human and animal nutrition.
Soya proteins are used in in backery,as substitute for meat and as fortifier in sport medicine.
In case of allergy against milk protein soya milk made of soya proteins can be used as substitute.
Calcium fortification of soymilk [560]

The protein of soymilk and other high protein drinks interacts with with calcium lactate and
precipitates out. Not fortified soy milk have not more than 20 mg of calcium/100 ml. Producers
are eager to fortify soymilk and rice drinks with 120 mg of calcium /100 ml to match it with milk.
High protein content of soymilk and rice drinks, acidity of acidified milk products and tan-
nins, and other polyphenols interact with calcium. Fortification with calcium to justify high
calcium claim reduces shelf life of the product.
Inorganic calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate have lower bioavailability than organic
calcium lactate, calcium gluconate, calcium ciitrate.
According to Sojaland, Schwerin-based company owned by Wild, the new capacity is intended
to improve product taste. The soy foods started as health foods and are now located in the
mainstream sector based on improvements to taste which do not have the typical beany taste.
[563]
Health benefits: The health benefits from soy milk and other soy foods are such as for
menopausal women, the products present an alternative to dairy for the lactose intolerant.
Traditional dairies expand their range into soy with a variety of taste.
Soy isoflavones are involved in building bone mass, suppressing bone turnover and enhancement
of calcium absorption.
Tofu Tofu is a cheese-like product of Soymilk which is curdled by a coagulant.It is known as

soybean curd.
Calcium sulfate (gypsum), Nigari ( a mixture of magnesium chloride, sodium chloride won
from sea water), lemon juice or vinegar are used as coagulant.
Calcium sulfate increases tofu content of calcium of . Nigari is told to produce a better tastes
of the resulting tofu.
Rape oil Rape plants are being cultivated in Europe (Germany, France, Netherlands and
Scandinavia, Sweden).Canada is one of the main producer of rape. Argentina and Japan must
also be mentioned.
Rape seed has 30 to 50% of oil, up to 25% of proteins.
In 1960 was noted that erucic acid which was present in the rape oil in about 50% had a
necrotic toxic effect on the heart muscle and deposit of fat in the heart muscle. A selection of
seeds made it possible to reduce erucic acid under 1% turning therefore rapeseed oil a valuable
part of nutrition.
332
Erucic free sorts of Brassica campestris and B. napus are cultivated as summer seed in Canada
and Brassica napus as winter seed in Germany
Rapeseed oil has aquire an importance as renewable energy as it can be used as substitute for
diesel oil. Erucic acid [564]
Erucic acid is a substance naturally found in some oils derived from plants, primarily in some
varieties of mustard seed oil and rapeseed oil. Although there have been no confirmed cases of
erucic acid toxicity in humans, high levels of erucic acid have been linked to the formation of
fatty deposits in heart muscle in animals.
Erucic acid is a 22-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid with a single double bond at the omega
9 position. Erucic acid constitutes about 30-60% of the total fatty acids of rapeseed, mustard
seed and wallflower seed and up to 80% of the total fatty acids of nasturtium seeds. Erucic
acid has also been found in some marine animal oils.
The Erucic Acid in Food Regulations 1977 (S.I. 1977 No. 691 [as amended]) limit the eru-
cic acid content of foods to no more than 5% of the total fatty acid, in products with more
than 5% fat (the latter restriction does not apply for foods aimed at infants or young children).
In response to potential safety concerns associated with high dietary exposure to erucic acid
(myocardial lipidosis and heart lesions in laboratory rats), efforts were made, using selective
breeding, to transfer a low erucic acid trait into agronomically adapted cultivars of Brassica
napus and B. campestris, which are used in the production of rapeseed oils. These varieties of
rape were superseded by the canola varieties in the 1980s.
Canola varieties have improved agronomic characteristics, such as increased yield and improved
disease resistance. By definition, canola refers to B. napus and B. campestris lines containing
less than 2 % of the total fatty acids as erucic acid.
These canola varieties comprise almost the entire rapeseed crop produced in the world to-
day. In 1997, the erucic acid content of 50% of the Australian canola crop was 0.3 % or less of
the total fatty acids. The maximum reported erucic acid level was 1.6 % of the total fatty acids.
The term canola has been registered and adopted in Canada to describe the oil (seeds, plants)
obtained from the cultivars Brassica napus and Brassica campestris.
In 1986, the definition of canola was amended to refer to B. napus and B. campestris (now
Brassica rapa) lines containing <2% erucic acid in the oil and <30 mol/g glucosinolates in the
air-dried, oil-free meal. Throughout this document, the term ”low erucic acid rapeseed” refers
to low erucic acid, low glucosinolate rapeseed, or canola.
”Double zero” rapeseed varieties indexRapeseed, double zero [564]

In Europe, ”double zero” rapeseed varieties are defined as those producing seed with a max-
imum glucosinolate content of 25 moles/g (seed weight) and with a moisture content of 9%
(determined by method EN ISO 9167-1:1995) and, having erucic acid content of not more than
2% of the total fatty acid content (determined by method EN ISO 5508:1995).
Developments in Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed

After ten years of backcrossing and selection to transfer the low erucic acid trait into agronom-
ically adapted cultivars, the first low erucic acid varieties, B. napus and B. campestris were
released in 1968 and 1971, respectively (Eskin et al., 1996).
In Canada, the terms LEAR (low erucic acid rapeseed oil) and Canbra (Canadian Brassica)
were used to identify rapeseed oil containing less than 5% erucic acid. Rapeseed meal is used
exclusively as a high protein feed supplement for livestock and poultry.
Prior to the late 1970s, the use of this oilseed processing by-product as an animal feed was
limited by the presence of glucosinolates in the seed.
Glucosinolates themselves are generally considered to be innocuous, however the hydrolysis

products have negative effects on animal production.
The low palatability and the adverse effects of glucosinolates due to their antithyroid activity
led to the development of varieties of rapeseed which have combined low levels of both glucosi-
nolates and erucic acid (also known as ”double low” varieties).
Low erucic acid rapeseed breeding programs in the 1980s and 1990s have produced cultivars
with higher yields, increased oil and protein contents, earlier maturity, yellow seeds, reduced
green seed and improved disease, insect and herbicide resistance (Eskin et al., 1996).
Sugar free products Sugar free products are increasingly accepted by the consumer. They
have sometimes better quality and taste compared with sugar products.Certain types are teeth
friendly, low in calories and suitable for diabetic.
Isomalt
[447] Isomalt is a sugar replacer produced from sugar beet. His taste is not so sweet as sugar
and it has no cooling effect which is often unwanted.It is low hygroscopic which makes candies
stable without being wrapped one by one.
Isomalt is a mixture of 6-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-D-sorbitol (1,6-GPS) and 1-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-

D-mannitol-dihydrate (1,1-GPM).
334
Increasing the 1,6-GPS part, which is water soluble part, isomalt increases the solubility kinetic
soluble as maltitol and is comparable to xylitol.
Xylitol, Xilit, also called wood sugar or birch sugar, (2,3,4,5)tetrahydroxy-pentanol,

(C5H12O5) (E 967): [448] [449]
Xylitol is a five-carbon sugar alcohol that is used as a sugar substitute. It can be extracted
from birch, rasperries, plums, and corn and is primarily produced in China. It is roughly as
sweet as sucrose, but contains less than 40% food energy.
It is very popular in Finnland which is considered its ”home country”. It can have a mild
laxative effect at high doses. It has no known toxicity. It is a popular sweetener for the dia-
betic diet in some countries.
Xylitol belongs to the polyol family of sugar alcohols. It is as sweet as sucrose, xylitol is
the sweetest of all the polyols, but is said to have no after-taste and is safe for diabetics.
Xylitol is increasingly being used as a sugar substitute because it has one-third fewer calo-
ries, a cool mint flavour, helps fight cavity-causing bacteria and does not involving insulin.
The EU Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) authorised polyols for use in foods are sorbitol,
xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, maltitiol and isomalt.
Production of xylitol
Xylitol is won from birch-wood fibres under acids, high pressure and temperature, chemical
catalysts followed by separation and purification steps.
US Agricultural Research Service (ARS) chemist Badal Saha Timothy D. Leathers and col-
laborators developed a technology experimenting with yeasts like Aureobasidium, Pichia guil-
liermondii, Candida peltata and modified Escherichia coli bacteria, which can convert the hemi-
cellulose sugars xylose and arabinose from corn fiber leftovers of U.S. ethanol production or
other sources into xylitol.
Tomato ketchup, tomato and tomato pulp Tomato ketchup has a growing acceptance all
over the world.It was born in USA and soon became a place in fast food restaurants. Children
like it because of the color and last but not least because of strong taste.
In German 1,4 Kg of tomato Ketchup were eaten each year ( Weber, 1992) Tomato ketchup is
produced from tomato pulp, salt, sugar and other monosaccharides, vinegar and spices.Onions
garlic, thickening agents like carob seed, Guar seed, gum tragacanth and starch may be used.
In Germany the Bundesverband der Deutschen Feinkostindustrie (The association of the Ger-
man fine food industry) has established a guideline for tomato Ketchup.
At least 24,1% of tomato pulp 28-30% dry matter also called double concentrated tomato
pulp are to be used for tomato ketchup. High quality products have up to 37% of tomato pulp
double concentrated.
Tomato pulp is a basic part of tomato ketchup. It is therefore very intensively submitted to
quality analysis.
Taste, odor and color are important tests on receipt of tomato pulp.
Some further quality criteria are given below[161]:
Table 10.15: Analytic of good tomato pulp double concentrated, S.Hanewinkel-Meshkini and
W.Hackmann 1989
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA

0,1 16,9 17,9 1,06 0,8 1,3 0,4 2,5
0,1 17,3 16,2 0,94 0,9 0,6 0,5 2,0
0,1 16,6 16,6 1,00 0,5 0,4 0,6 1,5
0,1 18,5 19,7 1,06 1,1 0,9 0,4 2,4
0,1 19,5 19,7 1,01 0,6 0,7 0,6 1,9
0,1 19,4 20,6 1,06 0,5 0,3 0,3 1,1
0,1 19,6 17,4 0,89 0,3 0,3 0,9 1,6
0,1 16,9 17,2 1,02 0,6 0,3 0,5 1,4
0,1 17,4 16,4 0,94 0,1 0,1 0,5 0,7
Table 10.16: Abbreviations used
EtOH Ethanol
TA Total acids as citric acid
CA Citric acid
L-LA L-lactic acid
D-LA D-lactic acid
AA acetic acid
SA Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid and acetic acid.
All numbers are g/Kg
Table 10.17: Analytic of spoiled and off flavor tomato pulp double concentrated, S.Hanewinkel-
Meshkini and W.Hackmann 1989[161]
336
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA

4,39 15,0 9,3 0,62 5,7 3,6 2,2 11,6
0,87 24,2 18,6 0,77 4,6 3,7 4,2 12,5
2,28 24,4 16,0 0,66 8,1 4,0 3,1 15,2
0,68 18,1 10,4 0,57 3,5 5,4 2,8 11,7
0,1 17,4 8,3 0,48 4,7 3,4 2,7 10,7
4,57 17,6 13,6 0,77 3,8 3,3 1,4 8,5
7,5 17,3 12,2 0,71 3,6 2,1 1,3 7,0
1,76 16,8 7,7 0,46 7,5 3,1 4,6 15,2
1,2 15,4 7,7 0,50 6,8 2,6 4,0 13,4
0,10 19,1 12.4 0,65 4,9 4,3 2,2 11,4
2,42 18,8 13,2 0,70 3,5 2,6 2,2 8,3
2,77 18,0 11,2 0,62 4,5 3,4 3,4 11,3
1,26 18,2 12,6 0,69 3,6 3,3 1,4 8,3
2,40 18,2 10,2 0,56 4,9 3,4 4,0 12,3
10,4 15,8 12,3 0,78 1,0 0,9 1,3 3,2
0,96 17,3 7,8 0,45 3,3 2,7 3,0 9,0
1,26 17,6 7,0 0,40 2,9 6,5 1,6 11,1
Table 10.18: Summery of the analytical criteria, according to Hanewinkel-Meshkini and Hack-
mann: A tomato pulp is spoiled when one or more alterations are found:
Ethanol is present
Relation citric acid/total acid the relation in spoiled pulp is
between 0,4 and 0,9. Good pulp has
a relation over 0,9 as citric
acid is metabolized by spoiling bacteria.
Sum of organic acids The Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid
acetic acid over 3 g/Kg.These acids are
formed during spoilage.
Good tomato pulp has the following analytical data
• Alcohol content less than 0,1 g/kg
• Organic acids (total of L-D-lactic acids and acetic acid) under 3 g/Kg
• Citric/total acid relation of over 0,9

All mentioned analytical data testing tomato pulp should be considered together because dif-
ferent acids are formed by different species of bacteria.
Recently ergosterol is also used in quality control of tomato pulp, being a maximum of 3,0
mg/Kg allowed.
Tomato pulp of the European Union is being produced mainly in Italy, Greece and Spain.
Pulp of Turkey, and Uzbek (Russia ) are imported in small amount.
The quality varies to its origin and producer.

The products of northern Italy such as the region of Parma are of high quality. The main
product of this region is the pulp which is concentrated and packed assepticaly without delay
during harvest in these factories, thus giving yeasts, moulds and bacteria no chance of spoilage.
In southern Italy, such as the region of Neapel and Salermo the main products are peeled and
crushed tomatoes. The rest of this production is used to manufacture tomato pulp.
As the capacity of the production line during harvest in these factories are insufficient, the pulp
is left in open barrels, unprotected, sometimes exposed to sun. Deterioration takes place.
The Ubekistan tomato pulp is triple concentrated. Due to old technology the color and the
taste are of very low quality.
The biogenic acidsaflatoxins and other contaminants are originated under these conditions.
Color and taste are often a useful indicator of bad manufacturing practice such as described by
Hanewinkel-Meshkini [164]
At first the Howard mould count ( HMC ) was used to monitor mould activity in tomato pulp.
Moulds are a hazard in tomato pulp because of possible production of mycotoxines such as ten-
uazonic acid from the mould Alternaria alternata (tenuis), Alternaria tenuissima , Alternaria
kikuchiana, Alternaria longipes (Roth et al 1990).
Jasmonic acid in ozone stressed tomato plants [165]

Ozone activates defence responses in plants according to Zadra and coleagues from the Uni-
versity of Perugia. The researchers fumigated tomato plants with ozone. The highest concen-
tration of jasmonic acid in the leaves of these plants were noted 9 hours after the treatment.
Jasmonic acid concentration in leaves of stressed plants increased 13-fold. The level of endoge-
nous methyl-jasmonate was not altered during the experiment.
Bacteria deteriorating tomatoes
• Penicillium
• Aspergillus
• Alternaria alternata
• Alternaria solani
• Alternaria tenuis
• Alternaria tenuissima
• Alternaria tomato
338
• Colletotrichium coccodes
• Didymella lycopersici
• Fulvia fulva
• Phoma destructiva
• Phytophthora infestans, a brown mould growing on tomatoes causing at first gray-green,

later brown dots.The flesh remains hard.
• Pyrenochaeta lycopersici
• Fusarium oxysporum
• Mucor, causing off-flavor
• Botrytis, grow on tomatoes causing small round dots surrounded by a small bright ring
(Krug1991)
Cooling tomatoes to 6C reduces deterioration significantly.

Tomatoes were at first cultivated in South America. The name was ”tumatl” meaning ”bad
taste” and were brought to Europe by the Spanish conquistadores.
At first used as decoration the plant was told later to have erotical activity and was there-
fore classified by the church as ”plant of Satan”.
Only after World War II tomatoes became largely used as food in Germany,
Tomatoes are now widely known as base for the production of tomato juice, baked, cooked
or peeled tomatoes, as pulp in sauces, in pieces in salads, on pizzas and last but not least as
tomato ketchup.
Tomatoes are eaten more than other vegetables[166]
Table 10.19: Vegetables eaten in Germany, Kg/person/year.(Globus Statistic of 1990/91
Tomatoes 15,3
Onions 6,0
Cucumber 5,7
Carrots 5,5
Mushrooms 2,5
Beans 1,9
Asparagus 1,3
Industry in Germany has intensified analytical supervision of tomato paste used in the produc-
tion of tomato ketchup and related products.
The effort of quality management triggered by certain publications of test magazines, the
HACCP concept and ISO 9.000 resulted in increasing quality and security of tomato pulp used
in the production of tomato ketchup and related products.
Pesticides in tomatoes Pesticides can be present in tomatoes and related products.

Of actual concern are:
• Lindan
• Procymidon
• Endosulfan
• Dicofol
• Vinclosolin
• Tetradifon
• Iprodion
Farmers should use pesticides only in accordance to users instructions.

All efforts should be undertaken to make tomatoes and relate products safe and keep a high
quality standard all over the world.
Developing countries should invest much work to garantee standards of the Codex Alimen-
tarius.
Origine of tomato paste Tomato paste is being produced in large scale in Italy in the
region of Parma, Grece, Turkey,Spain and China in the Xinjang region.
Meat and poultry, growing market and environment The production of meat from
pigs in Germany has increased since 1960 about 60%. At the same time the number of animal
owners has been 85% reduced. This causes a great concentration of animals in some places,
creating an environmental problem with growing amount of liquid manure.
Liquid manure is a good fertilizer when used in small amount.In case of intensive animal
breeding it turns out to be an environmental factor because of growing quantities of ammonia.
Ammonia is harmful to humans, animals and plants. Excessive ammonia can be transformed
to nitrate by bacteria, washed out by rain and pollute the water.
340
To handle this problem the DIL (Deutsches Institut für Lebensmitteltechnik) made experi-
ments to reduce ammonium and TOC Total Organic Carbon by means of cultivating algae,
such as Chlorella and bacteria in presence of small amount of glucose.
In these experiments ammonia had been 80% reduced and TOC up to 90%.
The bacteria involved in these experiments were:
• Alcaligenes faecalis
• Alcaligenes sp
• Ochrobactrum anthropi
• Rhodococcus erythropolis[147]
Because of growing environment pollution the concentration of Farming and industrialization

should be a main concern of governments to allow only an organic growth dictating maximum
limits of growth.
Great projects can be distributed in different sectors in order to harmonize with nature.
Garlic [167] The treatment of hyperlipidemia is a significant value in the prevention of dis-
eases of the blood vascular system. As this treatment can take years it may develop intolerability
to the drugs used. Garlic powder can be used to avoid these inconvenience.
As it has been found by the Association of German Physicians (Fachverband Deutscher Allge-
meinärzte) garlic preparations such as Sapec and Kwai reduces total cholesterol about 9% an
triglycerides about 15% after several month of therapy.
Much has been written about the activity of garlic in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. Holz-
gartner, Schmidt and Kuhn compared garlic preparations with benzafibrate in a study with 98
patients with primary hyperlipoproteinemia with more than 250 mg/dl of cholesterol, and or
triglycerides. The daily doses were 900 mg of garlic powder (standardizes as to 1,3 % alliin)
and 600 mg of benzafibrate. The study was divided in the following parts:
• Pre-phase with placebo during 6 weeks.
• Treatment period during 12 weeks together using garlic powder or benzafibrate together
with a low-fat ”step - I diet to reduce blood fat ”. (Total food fat under 30% of total
calories. Relation between saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids 1:1 . Daily intake
of cholesterol under 300 mg. Reduced calories to reach normal body weight.)
Total cholesterol:The garlic treatment reduced the total cholesterol from 282 mg/dl to 210
mg/dl.
The benzafibrate treatment reduced cholesterol from 287 mg/dl to 208 mg/dl.
HDL-cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol had increased in both groups, in the garlic group from

34,3 mg/dl to 48,6 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 35,5 mg/dl to 51,4 mg/dl.
LDL-cholesterol:LDL-Cholesterol was significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group

from 195,3 mg/dl to 130,2 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 200,8 mg/dl to 130,0
mg/dl.
Triglycerides:Triglycerides were significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group from
306,0 mg/dl to 207,5 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 307,2 mg/dl to 168,6 mg/dl.
Reported garlic smell:The blood lipids decrease with and without resulting garlic body
smell is significant only in regard to triglycerides there is a better action when smell is noted.
Hozgartner, Schmidt and Kuhn suggest therefore to adjust the dose from patient to patient so
that there is no body smell left. The table below gives the results of the study:
Lipid fraction with smell without smell

Total cholesterol decrease of 83 mg/dl decrease of 58 mg/dl
HDL-cholesterol increase of 18 mg/dl increase of 10 mg/dl
LDL-cholesterol decrease of 77 mg/dl decrease of 51 mg/dl
Triglycerides decrease of 163 mg/dl decrease of 34 mg/dl
Garlic is therefore an ingredient of food used as spice which is proved to have blood lipid
reducing action.
Garlic seems to interfere in in the synthesis of cholesterol acting on the HMG-CoA-reductase.

Allicin [167]is the active part being originated from Alliin of garlic.
Garlic is also told to have many antioxidants. According to Jean Carper [145] acting antiaging,
revs up immune functions, reduces high blood cholesterol, acts as anticoagulant thinning blood,
protects aging brains, inhibits cell changes leading to cancer, suppresses free radicals.
Carper advises the intake of half a fresh clove to two or three a day. As supplements 600
to 900 mg of garlic powder per day has heart-protective effects.
About one and a half cloves of garlic block the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in the
stomach.
342
The activity of garlic depends on the size of the glove and the soil in which it is grown. Garlic
grown in selenium rich earth is particularly rich in trace mineral selenium which enhances the
antiaging powers.
Carper recommends not to exceed three raw garlic cloves a day. Raw garlic in high dose
can be toxic. There is little danger in cooked garlic. Eating more than 20 grams a day of garlic
is told to cause gastric bleeding [145].
Selenium [168] Selenium acts together with garlic. An undersupply of selenium reduces sig-
nificantly the benefits of garlic. Germany is under supplied with selenium. Fruits, vegetables,
and grains growing here are poor in selenium.
Source of selenium Amount of selenium, microg/100g

Bread of German grain 1 to 2
Bread of Canadian grain up to 60
Selenium is toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts of it, forming the active center of certain
enzymes, are necessary for the function of all cells in (probably) all living organisms.
In 1996, continuing research showed a positive correlation between selenium supplementation

and cancer prevention in humans. Used widely in vitamins and food supplements, in small
doses (typically 50 to 200 microg per day for adult humans. Some livestock feeds are fortified
as well). [752]
Cancer prevention properties of selenium: Studies on this matter are Shamberger and
Frost (1969) [753], Burguera (1990), [759], Clark (1996) [760], Patterson (1997) [754], Fleet
(1997 [756], Knekt (1998) [755], Young (1999) [757], Schrauzer (2000) [761], Brooks (2001)
[768], and Akbaraly et al (2005) [758].
Protection of the immune system: [762] Melinda A. Beck and colleagues, in a review,
found that host nutritional status can influence not only the host response to the pathogen,
but can also influence the genetic make-up of the viral genome.
The researchers noted that selenium deficient mice infected with a mild strain of influenza
developed severe lung infections. Viral mutations resulted in a more virulent phenotype in
the infected mice. This could be linked to the development of emerging new infection diseases
such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
Bladder cancer prevention properties of selenium [763] This case-control study sug-
gests an inverse association between serum selenium concentration and bladder cancer risk.
Impact of selenium on mood: [766] Margaret Rayman and colleagues in a study, found
no evidence that selenium supplementation benefited mood or quality of life in elderly volun-
teers.
High-selenium wheat [770] Average intake of selenium in the UK has fallen from 60 to 34
micrograms per day changing USA and Canadian wheat import to homegrown and EU wheat
grown on low selenium soils. The European recommended daily intake (RDI) is 65 micrograms.
The vast majority of the world’s population (including that of Australia, with a probable
mean plasma/serum level around 89 microg/l. An intake of 200-300 microg/day selenium is
being suggested to significantly reduce cancer risk, and Moyad (2002), suggests that an intake
of 200 microg/day Se and around 50 mg/day of vitamin E may be beneficial, particularly for
current or previous smoker.
The results of the NPC trial suggest that males may have a higher Se requirement than fe-
males. Further studies may find optimum adult Se intakes in the range 125-280 microg/day,
with means of around 130 (F) and 250 (M). [770]
Se deficiency and sub-optimality are manifested in populations as increased rates of thyroid

dysfunction, cancer, severe viral diseases, cardiovascular disease, and various inflammatory
conditions. The authors call for a supra-nutritional selenium intake to achieve an optimal can-
cer protection suggesting to increase the selenium content of wheat by biofortification of wheat
with selenate.
Before recommending large-scale fortification of the food supply with Se, it will be necessary
to await the results of current SELECT and PRECISE intervention studies. [770]
SELECT: The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial is currently investigating
the effect of selenium and vitamin E supplementation on incidence of prostate cancer. [771]
There are enormous geographical variations in the Se content of soil and food, and hence
in Se intakes and concentrations in human blood and tissues.
Thus, it is essential to use local data for monitoring and interpreting Sestatus. The 2000
US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 55 microg/day. The 1987 Australian RDAs are
70 microg/day for women and 85 microg/day for men. [772]
Combs calls for a regular adult intakes of at least 40 microg/d to support the maximal ex-
pression of the selenium enzymes, and perhaps as much as 300 microg/d to reduce risks of
cancer.
344
He writes that low selenium status is likely to contribute to morbidity and mortality due to
infectious as well as chronic diseases, and increasing selenium intakes in all parts of the world
can be expected to reduce cancer rates. [769]
Research results continue to illustrate the importance of Se in human health, in particular

its anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-viral activities. It is evident, due mainly to its poor
availability in many soils, that at least a billion people may be Se-deficient.
Furthermore, the vast majority of the world’s population would receive well below the level
needed to maximise cancer prevention, which is likely to be within the range of 125-280 mi-
crog/adult/day, depending on gender, pregnancy and exposure to oxidative stress. [769]
Selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) [764]

In a review article Margaret P. Rayman states that selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) is a
common form of Se used to supplement the dietary intake of this important trace mineral.
However, its availability within the European Union is under threat, owing to concerns ex-
pressed by the European Community (EC) Scientific Committee on Food that Se-yeast sup-
plements are poorly characterised and could potentially cause the build up of Se in tissues to
toxic levels.
The author concludes that Se-yeast from reputable manufacturers is adequately characterised,
of reproducible quality, and that there is no evidence of toxicity even at levels far above the
EC tolerable upper intake level of 300 microg/d.
Deficiency of Selenium intake in animals [765]

In most European countries, native Se content in grain and forages is very low. Regular use
of such feeds can result in Se deficiency, associated with severe disorders like myodystrophy
(white muscle disease), exudative diathesis, impaired functions of liver and pancreas and a
concomitant depression of production performance and reproductive ability (more information
in Sharma et al., 2005 and Surai, 2002).
Another situation is characterised by a marginal shortage of Se, which usually does not exert
apparent clinical signs of Se deficiency, but may cause delayed development of immunocompe-
tence and hence raise susceptibility of animals to infectious diseases.
Therefore, the insufficient native Se contents of feedingstuffs and the severe consequences of
deficient Se supply give urge to supplement livestock routinely with extra Se.
Selenosis [765]
It is well established that both accidental and long-term overdose of Se result in intoxication of
farm animals. In general, a single oral intake of Se dose in range of 1-5 mg kg-1 body weight
(bw) may already lead to death.
While high blood Se levels up to 25 mg L-1 are typical to acute selenosis, the chronic Se
overdose usually results in blood Se concentrations of 1 to 4 mg L-1. It is generally accepted
that animal selenosis may appear when dietary Se content exceeds 5 mg kg-1 feed.
The acute Se toxicity is characterised by abnormal posture, unsteady walk, diarrhoea, ab-
dominal pain, increased pulse and respiration rates, hypotension due to vasodilatation, foamy
nasal discharge, prostration and typical garlic smelt of breath due to presence of volatile DMSe
in expirated air (Gasmi et al., 1997).
The primary targets of acute Se toxicity in animals appear to be the cardiovascular, gas-
trointestinal, central nervous and hematopoietic systems (Raisbeck, 2000).
The signs of chronic selenosis in cattle include deformations, cracking and loosing of hooves,
lameness, stiffness of joints, dullness, lack of vitality, emaciation, loss of hair.
Various forms of blind staggers can develop. In sows, the chronic selenosis is accompanied
with reduced performance of reproductive system. Hooves of pigs show breaks similar to those
in cattle. Other signs include loss of hair, reddened skin and neurological symptoms. The
immune system may be also impaired (Raisbeck, 2000).
In poultry, the intake of feeds containing Se above 5 mg kg-1 results in lower hatchability
of eggs due to deformities of embryos. Mature birds seem to tolerate more Se than do pigs or
cattle and do not exhibit signs of poisoning other than poor hatchability of their eggs.
Experimental Se intoxication in growing chickens led to severe diarrhoea, dyspnoea and som-
nolence of birds (Salyi et al., 1993).
Production of selenium enriched yeast [767]

Selenium enriched yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is the product of industrial
fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 in selenium enriched media. The aero-
bic fermentation takes place in a medium containing beet or cane molasses, nutritional salts,
vitamins and a food grade selenium source leads to the final product.
Live yeast cells absorbs selenium and biochemically transforms it into L (+) selenomethio-
nine and other seleno-related compounds.
The inactivated and dried selenium enriched yeast is subsequently blended with non viable
346
dehydrated yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to standardize the final selenium content. The
end product becomes inactivated whole cell yeast containing a minimum of 2000 ppm of total
selenium and a maximum of 2% of residual inorganic selenium. At least 60% of the total organic
selenium is in the form of selenomethionine (SeMet).
Bibliographic data show that organic selenium as selenium enriched yeast is comparable if
not better than inorganic selenium in providing for a higher blood and milk selenium concen-
tration and GSH-px activity.
The beneficial effects obtained with selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC
R397 compared with inorganic selenium as feed additive are the following:
• Higher bioavailability to animals (ruminants, pigs, and poultry) compared to inorganic

sources of selenium (sodium selenite and sodium selenate).
• Increased activity of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in blood.
• Increased milk, tissue and blood Se content.
These trials show that selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 can
be used as an alternative to inorganic selenium (like sodium selenite (Na2 SeO3 ) and sodium
selenate (Na2 SeO4 ) at a maximum content of selenium in the complete feedingstuff of 0.5 ppm
(Directive 70/524/EC)) currently authorised without time-limit.
FDA approved the use of selenium enriched yeast in animal nutrition from September 3, 2003
as a source of selenium for beef and dairy cattle (with previous approval given in 17 July 2002
for use in feed for swine, turkeys, and chickens). The product included a maximum of 2% of
inorganic selenium.
In Canada, selenium enriched yeast (Saccharaomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is registered

and approved for use in animal nutrition from March 2004 by the Canadian Food Inspection
Agency (CFIA ).
Selenium enriched yeast and drip loss of meat [765]

Less drip loss of meat (poultry, pigs): A significant reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex sele-
nium enriched yeast was seen in broiler study 2, whereas selenite was significantly less effective
than Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast.
In broiler study 3 Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not influence drip loss in compari-
son to the unsupplemented control group.
Expressible moisture in muscle was significantly increased by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast
in broiler study 4. In broiler study 5 the drip loss was significantly influenced by Se level and Se
source (Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast and selenite), Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast being
more effective than selenite. But there was no unsupplemented control group. Pig studies 4
and 5 did not show any significant effect of Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast on drip loss.
Conclusion: A reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast could only be shown
in two broiler studies; in both studies selenite was less effective. In a broiler study as in the
two pig experiments Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not exert any influence on drip loss.
The FEEDAP Panelcon cludes that the effects observed are not consistently demonstrated
and, if so, the effect is likely due to Se itself and not to the Se source.
Selenium position statement of Australian Cancer Council [773]

The Cancer Council Australia in a position statement on selenium supports the National Health
and Medical Research Council recommended dietary intake of 65 microg/day for men and 55
microg/day for women with an upper intake limit of 400 microg/day.
Some studies suggest that selenium may be inversely associated with prostate cancer and col-
orectal cancer. The evidence of a protective role of selenium in other types of cancers is weak
and inconsistent.
The Cancer Council Australia does not support the use of health claims on food labels that
suggest selenium protects against the development of cancer.
Seafood
Hake
The term hake refers to fish in either of:
• families Gadidae (subfamily Phycinae)
• families Merlucciidae (both subfamilies Merlucciinae and Steindachneriinae).
An old European source mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to
Cape Cod. [774]
• Meatver hake, whitin (Merluccius bilinearis): North America
• Pacific hake,Pacific whiting, North Pacific whiting, Merluccius productus
• Snook (Merluccius vulgaris)
• Hake, merluce (Merluccius merluccius)

348
• Merluccius merluccius, merluce

• Cape hake, stock fish (Merluccius capensis)
• Chilean hake, Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi)
Tuna
Albacore is harvested by US vessels trolling with artificial lures on or near the surface and with
pole and line. These same vessels use bait to attract albacore wherein they are hooked with a
jigging pole off the stern and landed individually. Barbless hooks are used in this fishery. The
absences of nets ensures the fishery is ”dolphin free”. [775]
Pacific albacore, Long finned albacore (Thunnus alalunga)

Black fin tuna (Thunnus atlanticus)
Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus)
Bluefin tuna, Atlantic tuna, Californian bluefin, horse mackerel (Thunnus thynnus)
Others:
Monkfish, anglerfish (Lophius piscatorius) It is a bone fish.
Common sole, black sole, Dover sole (Solea vulgaris vulgaris)

Sprat(Sprattus sprattus)
Brown shrimp, common shrimp (Crangon crangon)
Black tiger (Panaeus monodon)
Deep-sea prawn (Pandalus borealis)
Dublin Bay prawn, langoustine, Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)
Squid, cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)
Whale, cetacean (Cetacea spec.)
Salmon [776] There are different grades of fat content. The low fat grade is being sold in
Europe. The medium fat grade is used to produce smoked salmon and the grade of high fat
content is sold in Asia. Since 1995 there is also the Omega-3-salmon available.
Greatest producers of salmon are Canada and Norway. There is a great variety on market,
depending on their origin: Atlantic salmon, graved salmon from Sweden, Irish salmon. The
variety of Norwegian salmon is Salmo salar. More than one fourth of the Norwegian salmon is
bred in cages in the fjords. This form of concentrated fish farming represents an environment
problem.
In order to avoid disease, boils, bacteria and moulds pesticides are used. To avoid fish louse
the pesticide ivermictin is used. Virotic infections are under control with vaccination by means
of feed. Ivermectin kill not only the fish louse but also the worms living in the sediments of the
bottom of the Water and which is an important feed source free living fish.
Overfeed and enormous amounts of excrements trigger the development of bacteria of putre-
faction and toxic algae One of the best known fish in the history of fishery was codfish (Gadus
spec.).
Codfish had been an important basic nutrient. It was preserved through drying or salting.
Codfish and the church in the Middle Ages: Dried and salted codfish is today still
being consumed in large scale due to the activity of the Roman Catholic church. In the Middle
Ages the Church imposed their believers days of fasting. Sexual act and meat was forbidden,
however no restriction on ”cold food” was known. Fish and whale living in cold water were
therefore allowed.
Whale was eaten on ”slender days”, on all Friday because this was the day in which Jesus
was cruzified, the forty days of fasting and a couple of holy days leaving almost no days for the
consumption of meat. Basques as leading nation on codfish at that time became wealthy.
Codfish became a religious cult object as a symbol of religious life. That is the reason why in
many Catholic countries dried salty codfish is being traditionally eaten on Good Friday.
Codfish as basic nutrient Codfish had been an important source of proteins for the islands
of the Caribbean Sea. A supply shortfall of salty codfish due to rotten political relationship
between United States and England caused th death of starvation of 15.000 slaves in Jamaica
during 1780 and 1785.
With the industrial revolution a growing market for bottom dwelling fish arose in Great Britain.
Codfish, haddock, plaice and later fish and chips developed as important food for workers in
town and is today still a traditional food consisting of fried fish nuggets and French fries.
In the 18th Century cod liver oil was used in Great Britain to cure rheumatism. In the 19th
Century fish liver oil was used in case of tuberculosis, malnutrition and other diseases related
with poverty.
During the second world war liver oil was given to pregnant women, children under 5 years f
age and persons over 40 as malnutrition was feared by the Ministry of Nutrition.Fish liver oil
is not being used today because of its taste.
History of codfish fishery The Vikings were the first population strongly united to codfish
fishery. Their boats sailed from Norway to Iceland, Greenland and the coast of Canada follow-
350
ing shoals of Atlantic codfish (Gadhus morhua) which they salted preserving it. Due to its very
low concentration of fat and its white flesh is codfish the best raw product for salty and dried
fish.
Between 985 and 1011 the Viking Thorwald[?, ?]and his son Erik the Red[?, ?] sailing from
Norway settled in Island, Greenland and the coast of Canada leaving places to dry the codfish.
Later on Basques specialized on codfish, sailing as far as the banks of North America where
the cold water of Greenland meet the Gulf Stream. In these regions the water was extremely
rich on codfish.
For long time the Basques could hide the secret of their fishing grounds and became wealthy
feeding the whole Mediterranean region with Atlantic salty codfish. Miguel de Cervantes cites
codfish in Don Qixote (1605-1616) being called as pollack[?, ?] in Castila and salt codfish in
Andalusia.
As the Basques disposed of plenty of salt their codfish was very stable. That is why the
Basques could make longer journeys as the Vikings.
John Cabots in 1497 discovered the secret fishing grounds of the Basques on his first voy-
age to America. A second trip was of no return. No one knows what happened.
The resulting competition between nations fighting for the fishing grounds and later on the
introduction of the steam boats with ground nets nearly exterminated the codfish.
The second world war a time to recover for codfish in the North Atlantic because of the inten-
sive war activity. As soon as war was over big trawlers started fishery on large scale.
In 1822 a treaty between France, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark and Great Britain in Den
Haag established for the first time a tree miles of territorial waters valid for the North Sea.
A treaty between England and Denmark in 1901 declared the sea around Island as interna-
tional water with the exclusion of a three mile zone . Island was at that time a colony of
Denmark and was to weak to make any opposition to that treaty.
As reaction to intruders Island started a well organized coast gard to counter German and
British trawlers which entered the three miles zone. A further effort to protect marine species
was a close cooperation with the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (IREM)
which controls the size of the fish population of endangered species.
The British trawlers installed in the beginning of 1928 radio transmitters to warn their col-
league with the message ”Grandmother is not feeling good” whenever a coast gard boat had
left the harbor.
In 1944 Island became independent from Denmark and could now extend the territorial waters
to four miles.
In 1945 The USA under President Harry Truman proclaimed the claims at the mineral raw
materials of the continental shelf in order to protect oil reserves.
In addition these claims were also risen by all other Latin American countries giving support
to the international recognition of territorial waters.
The first codfish war

As the population of haddock and codfish decreased Island extended in 1958 their territorial
waters to 12 miles. This started a real Codfish War between England and Island. Finally in
February 1961 Great Britain recognized the twelve miles waters.
The second codfish war

In 1971 Island announced the extention of their waters up to 50 miles. The second codfish war
began. The Island coast gard used to cut off the nets oh the trawlers.
Fish was the only wealth of Island which remained therefore unchanged in its position. Because
of the intervention of the NATO Great Britain was forced to recognize the 50 miles zone.
The third codfish war The population of codfish still decreased despite the 50 miles. Eigh-
teen years old cod fish got extremely rare. Only fifteen years old specimens were caught. Island
announced therefore beginning with the 15. October 1975 the extention of their territorial
waters to two hundred miles. It came to 53 ship collision.
In February 1976 the European Community proclaimed the 200 miles territorial waters ending
thus the third codfish war. Spain and Portugal were deeply affected by the 200 miles regulation
because their waters do not bear good fishes. Nevertheless the population of codfish decreased
and many regulations were issued.
In 1992 fishing of codfish in North Atlantic was forbidden. A recovery of the population will
take about 15 years.
The European Union is going to reduce the catch quota of codfish in the Kattegat about
58%, haddock in the Irish Sea about 52% and sole in the North Sea about 25%.
According to the commissioner of the EU Franz Fischler at 6.12.01 the situation is alarm-
ing and everything should be undertaken to avoid a complete extermination of some species
due to overfishing. From the number of ground fishes in EU fishing waters in the 70th only
352
10% are left in the late 2001. [711]
Anisakiasis Anisakis is a nematode (hairworm) which attack fish and live in their body.Anisakis
simplex is common in the Seas of the North. The worm is being found in many fishes such as
herring, codfish, mackerel, pollack and sprat.
Anisakis can live only in sea water. The worm is uncoloured almost transparent. It resists
to 1% sulphuric acid for a period of 6 Days. Deep-freezing at -30oC kills immediately th worm.
Frozen food is therefor safe of Anisaki.
Life cyclus of Anisakis The parasite must go through hosts to complete its life cyclus.
The male expelles eggs of 0,02 mm diameters.Larvas of 0,25 mm come out of the eggs after
some days. To survive the larvas have to find a host in the next weeks. The first host: As
first host the Anisakis invades small crabs such as Copepoda and Euphausiacea where the first
sloughing 4 to 6 mm takes place.
Infection of fish: A fish is infected by ingesting the first host in form of small crabs. The
larva of Anisakis remains unchanged in a capsule in the stomach and intestines of the fish.
About 0,7% of the larva get into the muscles of the belly piece.
Liver hard fish roe and other organs are seldom infected by the larva. However as the fish
dies the larva abandons its capsule and migrates to the muscles. The fish should therefore
opened and the innards schould be taken out as soon as possible to avoid migration of the
Anisaki larva to the muscles.
Sometimes when the sea is ruff and the tripulation is seasick work is not done and the fish
is left unprocessed waiting for better weather. In this case Anisakis larvae migrate to the mus-
cles, being an unpleasent finding later on when it is consumed.
Sexual maturity:The Anisakis larva can only achieve sexual maturity in a mammal host
such as whale, delphin or seal.
Functional Food
The evolution of the final target of nutrition The final target of nutrition moved be-
tween survival, through hunger satisfaction, food safety with deep concern of the consumer and
recently a new wave of foods to promote health and healthy living.New concepts like Functional
Food,Nutraceuticals , Fortified Foods, Dietary Supplements are created by the industry trying
to open new market segments[352].
This has created a great confusion among the consumer resulting in runs after melatonin,
abuse of vitamins and sometimes a loss of confidence to retailed foods. Functional Food is not
yet well defined. It is intended to close the gap between food and drugs.
Scientific evidence supports the hypothesis that, by modulating specific target functions in
the body, diet can have beneficial physiological and psychological effects that go beyond the
widely accepted nutritional effects.
Nutritive and nonnutrition components in food have the potential to modulate target func-
tions in the body which are relevant to well-being and health and/or reduction of disease risk
[352].
Regulation of functional food: Functional food is not yet regulated by food legislations.The
idea behind Functional Food is to make food suited to avoid undernourishment with some spe-
cial ingredients or to prevent against diseases such as cancer or heart attack.
The main concern of industry and retailers is to find new ways to increase their turnovers.
This is why functional food is being on number one in sales promotions.
It should always be kept in mind that normal nutrition is the best guarantee for health. Eat
more fruits and vegetables and you get enough fibres and plant sterols.Eat more dairy products
and you have no trouble with undersupply of calcium, eat fish and less beef and you get enough
iodine.
Functional foods addresses always certain groups of persons which have specific problems as
they cover only one or best of all few specific dietary needs. They cannot substitute natural
healthy foods.
Definition of functional food: Functional food is currently defined as food of the normal
daily intake enriched with substances or organism which have health supporting activity.
They do not help in case of acute diseases, they act on long terms against health risks such
coronary diseases or cancer. Sometimes it is unknown at what dose the protective activity takes
place, and sometimes the concentration of the active substance in food is not known[926]
FOSHU: Functional Foods in Japan

In the seventies there were Japanese researches on food which discovered special activities of
some components. These substances were later on used in pharmacology. That is how func-
tional food had its origin. In Japan three functions of food were reported.:
1- Nutritional value: The primary function is to help the body to keep alive.
354
2- Taste: The secondary function of food is to satisfy the feeling of taste and smell
3- Activity on the physiological system: The third function of food is to strengthen and mod-
ulate the physiological system. This activity is to be claimed as functional food.
In Japan functional foods are grouped under FOSHU (Foods for Special Dietary Uses).
The products with functional claims must be authorized by the Japanese food administration.
There are only few products which are FOSHU authorized.
A great variety of foods with functional claims are not authorized as the produce say that
costs to make necessary tests are to expensive, the time it takes to make these test is to long
and therefore unfriendly to innovations, the higher concentration of the functional ingredient
increases the price and alters the taste.
Health claims are scientific and not understandable for an average consumer. Therefore not
authorized functional foods are tolerated by Japanese authorities.
The development of functional foods must be considered critically as it misleads the consumer.
A broad activity of commercials takes the consumer to by a specific food in the hope to be fed
all round with all other components he can only get with a well-balanced nutrition.
Foods with Health Claims Foods for Specified Health Uses in Japan
Foods with Health Claims Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) and Foods with Nutrient
Function Claims have been regulated by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare since 2001,
updated in 2005.
FOSHU foods are the only type of foods that can carry some kind of a health claim in Japan.
They have only a small market because of high costs for their approval which includes human
clinical trials. Therefore functional foods and dietary supplements are marketed without la-
belled health claims.
This situation has created two functional foods categories: One is unregulated functional foods,
that is; conventional food and beverages fortified with health ingredient to promote both gen-
eral and specific health conditions without label health claims. [308]
Table 10.20: Unregulated functional foods in Japan

Ingredient Healt claim status
Alpha lipoic acid (ALA) Health food
CoQ10 Health food

Collage Health food
Ceramide health food
Pracenta Health food
Hyaluronic acid Health food
Isoflavones Health food
Carnitine Health food
Essential fatty acids (EPA, DHA, DPA) Health food
Tocotorienol Health food
Astaxanthin Health food
Creatine Health food
Green tea drink Kirin, seasonal allergy Healt Food
Soymilk Kibu soy peptide, Health food

energy boost
Plant lactic acid drink Kagome lactic acid bacteria, Health food
gastrointestinal health
Pucera cookies Olio linolenic acid, Health food

Ingredient Healt claim status
The other is regulated functional foods, known as FOSHU (Foods for Specific Health Uses).
FOSHU is the government approved foods that carries specific health claims on product labels,
ranging from gastrointestinal health to lowering cholesterol.
Table 10.21: Regulated Foods for Specific Health Uses (FOSHU) in Japan
Healt claim Ingredient status

Gastrointestinal health
Oligosaccharides / Prebiotics FOSHU
Dietary fiber FOSHU
Lactic acid bacteria, probiotics
Lower cholesterol
Soy protein/ soy globulin FOSHU
Soy phospholipds (CSPHP) FOSHU
Low molecule alginic acid FOSHU
Plant sterol/stanol esters FOSHU
356
Lower hipertension
Gama-aminobutiric acid GABA FOSHU
Vinegar acid FOSHU
Lactololi-peptide
Eucommia leaf glycoside FOSHU
Wakame peptide, Undarine pinnatifida FOSHU
Marine peptide, sardine peptide
Lower blood glucose
Wheat albumin FOSHU
Guava Polyphenoles FOSHU
Indigestible dextrin FOSHU
Lower serum triglycerides
Diacylglycerol FOSHU
Plant sterol FOSHU
Medium chain fatty acid FOSHU
Globin protein enzyme disintegrated FOSHU
Green tea catechin FOSHU
EPA and DHA acid FOSHU
Better mineral absorption
Calcium,citric acid, malic acid (CCM) FOSHU
Casein phospho peptide (CPP) FOSHU
Heme-iron FOSHU
Improve dental health
Xylitol,phosphate-hydro calcium, funoran FOSHU
Phospho acid olygosaccharides calcium FOSHU
Recaldent (CPP-ACP) FOSHU
Improve bone health
Soy isoflavones FOSHU
Fructo Oligosccharides FOSHU
Vitamin K2 FOSHU
Milk Basic Protein MBP
Healt claim Ingredient status
Probiotics and allergy in Japan

Kirin Group discovered Lactobacillus KW (Lactobacillus paracasei), a lactic acid bacteria which
can reduce severness of symptoms of allergies such as hay fever added to foods. The Japanese
Society of Allergology researchers found that this strain improved the Th1/Th2 balance.
The results of Wang et al. suggest that the ingestion of LP-33-fortified fermented milk for
30 days can effectively and safely improve the quality of life of patients with allergic rhinitis.
[309]
NLEA: Nutrition Labeling and Education Act 1990. Functional Foods in USA
The NLEA act of the FDA contains the definition of model claims for functional foods:
Table 10.22: Model claims from FDA

Nutrient-relation to disease Model claim
Fat and heart disease Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol
may reduce the risk of heart disease
Calcium and Osteosporosis Regular exercise and a healthy diet with
enough calcium helps teen and young
adult white and Asian women maintain
good bone health and may reduce
their high risk of osteosporosis
Sodium and hypertension Diet low in sodium may reduce
the risk of blood pressure, a disease
associated with many factors.
Dietary fiber and heart disease Low-fat diets rich in
fiber-contain grain products, fruits,
and vegetables may reduce the
risk of some types of cancer,
disease associated with many factors.
Vitamins At the beginning of the research concerning vitamins no one knew their chemical
structure and therefore proper scientific names could not be given. The vitamins were therefore
designated by a letter of the alphabet.
Some of the substances cited below are nowadays not considered as vitamins any more. How-
ever they are listed here as a reference to readers of old books searching historical development
of the knowledge of vitamins.
Important vitamins are:

Vitamin A (retinol)
Vitamin B-complex group:

B1 (thiamine)
B2 (riboflavin)
358
B3 (niacin, niacinamide)
B4 (adenine)
B5 (pantothenic acid)
B6 (pyridoxine)
B10 also called Bx or PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid)
B11 (growth factors, vitamin B11
B12 (cobalamin, Cyanocobalamin)
B13 (orotic acid)
B15 (pangamic acid)
B17 (amygdalin)
Bc (folic acid)
Bt (carnitine) It is a non-essential aminoacid, and is not a vitamin.
Choline
Inositol
C (ascorbic acid)
D (calciferol, viosterol, ergosterol)
E (tocopherol)
F (fatty acids)
Linoleic acid and linolenic acid were classified as vitamin F. Today this classification is not
being used any more. G (riboflavin)
H (biotin)
K (menadione)
L (necessary for lactation)
M (folic acid)
P (bioflavonoids)
Rutin, hesperidin, Citrin and other bioflavonoids were grouped under the name of vitamin P.
They are not vitamins in its deep meaning because it is not possible to produce deficiency
sympotms with bioflavonoid-free nutrition. Pp (niacinamide)
P4 troxerutin
T (growth-promotion substances, termitin, torutinin)
Vitamin T was decribed by Goetsch in 1946. In 1955 it has been prooved that vitamin T
was a mixture of vitmamin B1, B2, B6, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin,
choline, para-aminobenzoic acid and small amounts of vitamin B12.
Vitamin T was told to be responsible for building “giants” of ants and soldiers among the
termites whith great heads. Without vitamin T the termites would retain a small head. The
unspecific growth-promotion could not be observed in human.[645] U (extracted from cabbage
juice)
Vitamin K [652] Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble micronutrient, which is needed for

a unique post-translational chemical modification in a small group of proteins with calcium-
binding properties, collectively known as vitamin K-dependent proteins or Gla proteins. Thus
far, the only unequivocal role of vitamin K in health is in the maintenance of normal coagulation.
Nutritional vitamin K deficiency is a bleeding tendency caused by the relative inactivity of

the procoagulant proteins.
Vitamin K dependent proteins synthesized by other tissues include the bone protein osteo-
calcin and matrix Gla protein, though their functions remain to be clarified.
Chemical structure of vitamin K[646]

Vitamin K denotes a group of 2-methilo-naphthoquinone derivatives. They are human lipophilic
vitamines linked to blood coagulation, bone health and liver cancer.
Vitamin K2 (menaquinone, menatetrenone) is normally produced by bacteria n the intestines

and dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the intestines are heavily damaged.
Vitamin K is a group name for a number of related compounds, which have in common a
methylated naphthoquinone ring structure, and which vary in the aliphatic side chain attached
at the 3-position. Phylloquinone(also known as vitamin K1 invariably contains in its side chain
four isoprenoid residues, one of which is unsaturated.
Menaquinones have side chains composed of a variable number of unsaturated isoprenoid

residues; generally they are designated as MK-n where n specifies the number of isoprenoids.
Naphthoquinone is the functional group. The mechanism of action is therefore similar for all
K-vitamins but intestinal absorption, transport, tissue distribution, and bio-availability may
differ due to different lipophilicity of the various side chains, and by the different food matrices
in which they occur.
The German Association for Nutrition (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung e.V.) recommend
the consumption of vitamin K for Women 65 microg and for man 80 microg /day.
There are two main forms of vitamin K:

Vitamin K1 The vitamin K1 is the most important and is known as phylloquinone or phy-
tonadione . It is present in green leafy vegetables such as lettuce, broccoli and spinach, and
can be synthesised in the gut by microflora.
Vitamin Kn A group of compound called menaquinones (MK-n) is can also be found in

foods, where ” n ”stands for a number of prenyl side chains. MK4 is found in meat. Fermented
360
food like cheese and natto are rich in MK7 , MK8 , and MK9 .
Sarah Cockayne and colleagues in a meta-analysis of human clinical trials using MK-4 sup-
plements for bone health conclude that this systematic review suggests that supplementation
with phytonadione and menaquinone-4 reduces bone loss. In the case of the latter, there is a
strong effect on incident fractures among Japanese patients. [647]
MK4 from natto and other forms of vitamin K were reported to reduce bone loss.
Vitamin K concentrations in elderly people [651]

Naoko Tsugawa and colleagues state in a researche communication that vitamin K deficiency
is associated with low bone mineral density and increased risk of bone fracture. Phylloqui-
none (K1 ) and menaquinone 4 (MK4 ) and 7 (MK7 ) are generally observed in human plasma;
however, data are limited on their circulating concentrations and their associations with bone
metabolism or with gama-carboxylation of the osteocalcin molecule.
They conclude that submaximal gama-carboxylation being related to the prevention of frac-
ture or bone mineral loss, circulating vitamin K concentrations in elderly people should be kept
higher than those in young people.
Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in infants[652]

According to WHO vitamin K deficiency in infants up to around age 6 months, although rare,
represents a significant public health problem throughout the world. It is now being termed
vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB). In adults, primary vitamin K-deficient states that man-
ifest as bleeding are almost unknown.
Danish Osteoporosis Prevention Study (DOPS)[648] The Danish Osteoporosis Preven-

tion Study (DOPS), however, found vitamin K1 to have no effect on the bone mineral density
(BMD)reporting that reports that vitamin K1 intake had no impact on BMD and fracture risk
of peri-menopausal women. This supports the statement of WHO/FAO that the only unequiv-
ocal role of vitamin K in health is in the maintenance of normal coagulation. citeWHObleeding
Dried plums reduces bone loss in rats [649]

Dried plums are a rich source of polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties, improving bone density, microstructure and biomechanics in female animal models
of osteopenia.
Brenda Smith and colleagues determine the amount of dried plums which are necessary to
decrease bone loss, and looked its mechanism of action. Gonadal hormone deficient male rats
were used for the study.
The authors found hat at doses of 15% of the diet or higher, the dried plum supplementa-
tion totally prevented the induced decrease in bone mineral density in the rats. At lower doses,
modest protective results were found.
The beneficial effects of dried plums were attributed in part to a decrease in osteoclastoge-
nesis via down-regulation of RANKL and stimulation of bone formation mediated by IGF-I.
Colas associated with low bone mineral density (BMD) in older women [650]
Katherine L. Tucker, in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study, found that cola intake was asso-
ciated with significantly lower BMD at each hip site, but not the spine, in women but not in
men. Similar results were seen for diet cola and, although weaker, for decaffeinated cola.
No significant relations between noncola carbonated beverage consumption and BMD were
observed. Total phosphorus intake was not significantly higher in daily cola consumers than in
nonconsumers; however, the calcium-to-phosphorus ratios were lower.
The authors concluded that intake of cola, but not of other carbonated soft drinks, is asso-
ciated with low BMD in women.
Minerals The active minerals in our body are :

Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Vanadium
Zinc
362
Phytochemical activity of fruits and vegetables Carotenoids:: There are about 500
coloured components which are classified as carotenoids. Only six of them are found in appre-
ciable amounts the human body.
• Alpha-carotene: is found in carrots, pumpkin, butternut squash.
• Beta-carotene: is found in apricots, broccoli, cantaloupe, carrots, kale, red pepper, sweet
potatoes, pumpkin, spinach, butternut squash, orange.
• Lutein and Zeathanithin : They are found in broccoli, brussels sprout, kale, peas, spinach,
courgette.
Lutein is an antioxidant nutrient belonging to the family of carotenoids. It is a primary
component of the macula pigment, functioning as a filter that prevents harmful UV to
damage tissues in the retina of the eye.
It protects the human eye cells from UV-induced damage and can help prevent cataracts.
Ultraviolet-beta radiation (UVB) is thought to be the primary environmental culprit in
causing skin cancer as well as initiating cataract disease.
According to Dr. Joshua Bomser the lutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in the retina
and in the lens of the eye, but it is unknown how they reach the eye in the first place.
They travel through the blood stream, but the lens doesn’t have a blood supply.
Further data suggest that xanthophylls are more potent than alpha-TC (tocopherol) for
protecting human lens epithelial cells against UVB insult. [1521]
• Zeaxanthin: is found in maize, egg yolk and fruits.
• Cryptoxanthin: is found in red pepper and orange.
• Lycopene: is found in tomato, watermelon, pink grapefruit.
Vitamin E: is found in vegetable oils and cod liver oil.
Vitamin C: is found in citrus fruits, kiwi, strawberry, melon, tomato, green pepper, potato.
Flavonoids: are a class over 4.000 phytochemicals that are responsible for ultra-violet protec-
tion within the plant and which may have a protective action against chronic diseases. Soybeans
and their products are rich in isoflavonoids.
• QuercetinindexQuercetin: are found in apple, onions, tea and red wine.
• Anthocyanins: are found in berries.

Glucosinolates are found in brassica vegetables. When the plant is damaged by cutting or
chewing the glucosinolates break down into substances with biological activity giving the char-
acteristic smell of watercress which is only released when the leaves are crushed or cut.
Examples of Glucosinolates are sulphorophane from broccoli which is active against cancer-
ous bowel cells, and sinigrin from brussels sprout making cancerous cells to die.
It seems unlikely that the most beneficial source of these compounds for the majority of the
population will be from single-substance supplements, but rather from consumption of a wide
variety of fruits and vegetables. Many of these phytochemicals are not destroyed by processing,
but may actually become more readily available for digestion.
Beta-carotene for example is more readily available from processed tomatoes and canned apri-
cots then from fresh fruits. The decay of vitamin C in frozen peas and vegetables is slower as
the decay after days by normal temperatures.
A better understanding of the need to eat a wide variety of fruit and vegetables, both fresh
and processed may turn out to be a more important message than eating a certain number of
portions a day[688].
Definition of functional Food according to European consensus publication The

European consensus publication of ILS an European-coordinated concerted action FUFOSE
[352] consider as context:
A food can be regarded as ”functional” if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to affect benefi-

cially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way
which is relevant to either the state of well-being and health or the reduction of the risk of a
disease.
Beneficial effects can be:

1- Maintenance or promotion of a state of well-being or health.
2- Reduction of the risk of a pathologic process or a disease.
A food can be made ”functional”by: 1- applying any technological or biotechnological means

to increase the concentration of, add, remove or modify a particular component as well as to:
2- improve its bioavailability.
Promising range of functional foods are:

Lycopenein tomatoes, fruits and vegetables containing vitamins and secondary phytocom-
364
pounds like phytoestrogenic substances with cancer protective activity.
Vitamin A, provitamin A, vitamin C and E blocking free radicals.
Soluble and insoluble fibers[375] in fruits and vegetables can be enriched in functional foods
protecting specifically against intestinal cancer.
Insoluble fibers in plant cell walls are associated with phenolic compounds which are natu-
ral antioxidants.
Experiments have demonstrated that potatoes peels replacing wheat flour in oatmeal cook-
ies reduces peroxides values because of the content of phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acids
(Arora and Camire, 1994)[375].
Skins and flesh of grapes as waste of wine and grape juice are available as commercial prod-
uct under the name of Vitis Fibre. Saura-Calixto 1998 compared Selenium this product with
the activity of red wine skins and alpha-tocopherol. Although positive findings were reported
safety of these ingredients on regard to concentration of pesticides and other environment poi-
sons should be carefully studied.
Selenium as trace element in wheat germs, acting against free radicals can be enriched in
corn flakes.
Zinc from vegetables and marine animals is an important part of our immune system. An
undersupply of zinc makes susceptible to cold and cancer.
Green tea and its extracts acting against free radicals can be incorporated in energy drinks
and other beverages.
An example of functional food is probiotic yoghurt with bacteria which can survive acidity
of the digestive tract and settle in the small and large intestine.The special strains of these
Lactobacillae help digestion or strengthen the immune system.
Microencapsulated probiotics: Microencapsulation technology is being used to protect

probiotic bacteria from the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract.
There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in many probiotic health-based products. Some
methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria include spray drying, extrusion, emulsion
and phase separation have not been successful for industrial shelf-stable products. Other meth-
ods were tried using calciul-alginate gel capsules, carrageenan, gellan gum, gelatin and starch
as excipients.
The need to design and develop equipment that will generate presise and uniform micro or
nano capsules in large quantities have been reported by Kallasapathy[1519] Probio’Stick is
based on two probiotic strains Rosell-52 and Rosell-175. It is being evaluated to relieve some
of the chronic stress-related disorders, nausea and abdominal pain, and its benefits for sufferers
of irritable bowel syndrome
Other studies on the benefit of micro-encapsulated probiotics on irritable bowel syndrome used
the bacterium Bifidobacterium infantis 35624 . The study was conducted by Clinical Trials, US
National Institutes of health. [1518]
Another hopeful part of functional food are the Omega-3 LCPs (Long Chain Polyunsaturated
fatty acids)also called omega-3-fatty acids. These fatty acids are told to lower the level of blood
cholesterol reduce incidence of peripheric heart vessel diseases, are essential for the development
of the retina and brain of new born babies.
Omega-3-fatty acids are already present in omega-3 enriched eggs.Further informations un-
der the keyword omega.
Omega-3-fatty acids are refined from marine oils produced by Roche Vitamins Europe and
can be incorporated into a wide range of everyday foods, from bread,milk and margarine to
mayonnaise
Special substances of plants such as phytosterols can be enriched in functional foods and reduce
the risk of heart and vessels diseases. Sterols are already being enriched in some special brands
of margarine. Further informations under keyword sterol.
A functional food may be ”functional” for some specific groups and act as normal nutrition
for the rest of the population. Specific groups which are affected may be school-age children,
pregnant women, elderly, insulin-resistant people or disease-risked people.
Research on health linkages between foods and botanical ingredients find new ways to effective
alternative ways to treat or to avoid diseases such as new researches on zeaxanthin and lutein
to improve vision and prevent cataracts and macula degeneration. This study is being made
by the US Department of Agriculture.[310]
New studies are funded by US’s National Institutes of Health concerning melatonin[?] related
to weight control, aging and contraception.
Cherry juice and sports drinks[1069]

Tart cherries are known to be rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.
366
Such anti-inflammatory agents may be beneficial for the management and prevention of in-
flammatory diseases.
Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues propose that the flavonoids and anthocyanins in the cherries
exert an anti-inflammatory effect and may lessen the damage response to exercise. [1065]
In another study Declan Connolly tested the efficacy of a tart cherry cherry juice blend in
preventing the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. This study was published in
the British Journal of Sports Medicine, demonstrating that the strength loss and pain were
significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo . Relaxed elbow angle and muscle
tenderness were not different between trials.
Connolly came to the conclusion that cherry juice decreased some of the symptoms of exercise-
induced muscle damage. These results have important practical applications for athletes af-
fected by strength loss and pain after damaging exercises.
Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Strawberries in Overweight/obese Individuals: Re-

search Project, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Gov[1070]
Adipose tissue is a major source of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-6, tumor
necrosis factor-’, and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.
Strawberries contain high levels of antioxidants including ellagic acid, catechins, anthocyanins,
and the flavanols quercetin and kaempferol, all of which have displayed anti-inflammatory abil-
ities.
The specific hypothesis is that strawberries contain potent anti-inflammatory antioxidants that
can prevent the oxidization of LDL involved in the generation of atherosclerotic plaques, re-
duce the production of inflammatory cytokines in obese individuals, and suppress the immune
response.

significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo. Relaxed elbow angle and muscle

necrosis factor-’, and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.
ities.
response.
Coffee and pregnancy The effect of consumption of caffeine in coffee and other beverages
(energy drinks like Red Bull) on fertility, spontaneous abortion and premature birth, foetal mal-
formations, foetal growth and birth weight takes Gil Esparza in Alimentaria No. 293, 109-112
to the conclusion to limit the intake of caffeine to 200-300 mg/day. Such an intake was found
to have no adverse effects on the foetus during pregnancy. Avoiding black coffee may help to
avoid cancer of the esophagus. Tannin, found in coffee and tea, is a suspected carcinogen. The
protein in milk, though, neutralizes tannin, rendering it non-absorbable by the body.
Caffeine and gamma rhythm[311]
Dr. Martin Vreugdenhil says that caffeine might enhance memory by blocking the calming
effect of adenosine neurotransmitter. Adenosine increases during the day and rising age. It
binds to the A1 receptor decreasing the activity of nerve cells. Binding to an A2a receptor it
boosts activity. The authors have found that caffeine boosts the gamma rhythms, due to a
selective blocking of the A1 receptor. They conclude that a few cups of coffee could increase
gamma rhythm strength, contributing to the cognitive beneficial effects of caffeine warning,
however, against drinking excessive amounts or very strong coffee considering the sleep prob-
368
lems and effects on the heart and blood system caused by caffeine They call for scientists to
separate the beneficial effects from the side effects.
Antioxidant activity of caffeine [312]

The antioxidant activity of caffeine metabolites and colonic metabolites m-coumaric acid and
dihydroferulic acid in coffee was studied by José Ángel Gómez-Ruiz and colleagues. The caf-
feine metabolite 1-Methyluric acid was able to delay for more than 13 h human low-density
lipoprotein LDL oxidation by copper and 2,2’-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride.
Dr. Francesca Bravi and colleagues found, in a meta-analysis, an inverse relation between
coffee drinking and liver cancer and the risk of other liver diseases, suggesting favourable effect
of coffee on liver function. These findings justify moderate coffee consume [313]
The effect of adenosine A1 receptor modulation on brain rhythms and cognitive

functions[314]
At the University of Birmingham further projects aime to assess mechanisms underlying the
beneficial cognitive effects of caffeine and selective adenosine A1 receptor agonists in electro-
physiological studies in vitro and in vivo, and in behavioural studies.
Caffeine and reduction of Alzheimer’s disease[315]

Research carried out at the Faculty of Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal, and published in the Euro-
pean Journal of Neurology (2002, 9 (4): 377-382) found that consuming 200 mg of caffeine a
day may reduce the risk of developing Alzheimers disease. Experiments on mice had previously
found caffeine to be promising as a treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.
Caffeine improving the time to exhaustion in excersise tests[316]

According to a study by Douglas G. Bell and Tom McLellan caffeine improves the time to
exhaustion in exercise tests, the effects of caffeine were still apparent six hours after ingestion
and heart rates were higher for the non-users throughtout the trials.
Six hours after ingestion of caffeine effects were still apparent. During trials non-users ex-
perienced higher heart rates. The authors concluded that both the duration and magnitude
of the ergogenic effect that followed a 5 mg/kg dose of caffeine were greater in the no-users
compared with the users
Caffeine and diabetes mellitus 2 [317]

SoJung Lee in a study found that caffeine ingestion was associated with a significant reduction
in insulin sensitivity by a similar magnitude in the lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic groups in
comparison with placebo. After exercise training, caffeine ingestion was still associated with a
reduction in insulin sensitivity.
The authors conclude that caffeine consumption is associated with a substantial reduction
in insulin-mediated glucose uptake independent of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and chronic exer-
cise.
Coffee and risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction and genotype F1 [318]

Caffeine is metabolised by the polymorphic cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) enzyme. Individu-
als who are homozygous for the CYP1A2-1A allele (genotype F1A) are rapid caffeine metabolis-
ers, whereas carriers of the variant CYP1A2-1F (genotype F1) are slow caffeine metabolisers.
Marilyn C. and colleagues studied the activity of genotype CYP1A2 in residents of Costa
Rica, in relation to the association between coffee consumption and risk of acute nonfatal my-
ocardial infarction.
The authors concluded that intake of coffee was associated with an increased risk of nonfa-
tal myocardial infarction only among individuals with slow caffeine metabolism (genotype F1),
suggesting that caffeine plays a role in this association.
Coffee triggering myocardial infarction [319]

Dr. Anna Baylin and colleagues believe that coffee in the presence of predisposing factors can
induce a cascade of events that, through sympathetic nervous activation, can induce the onset
of myocardial infarction.The findings of their study indicate that coffee intake may trigger my-
ocardial infarction. The association is particularly strong among people with light/occasional
intake of coffee (one or less cup/day), with sedentary lifestyle, or with 3 or more risk factors
for coronary heart disease.
Commentary on the researche of Baylin and colleagues: David S. Siscovick writes

that there may be major differences between Costa Rica where the research of Baylin and
colleagues were made, and other countries in other factors such as the dietary consumption
of saturated fatty acids from tropical oils. He says that the effect modification could occur
with differences in lifestyle, health status, or medical therapies. Siscovick concludes that the
differences in these potential effect modifiers would need to be explored fully before assuming
that the hazard would be similar in other settings. [320]
Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease [321] Frank B. Hu and Walter
C. Willet (2002) to reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases, suggest diets using nonhydro-
genated unsaturated fats as the predominant form of dietary fat, whole grains as the main form
of carbohydrates, an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and adequate omega-3 fatty acids, to-
gether with regular physical activity, avoidance of smoking, and maintenance of a healthy body
weight.
370
Clear labelling of caffeine content in caffeinated beverages [322] Mc Cusker, Golberg

and Cone analysed caffeine content of some caffeinated beverages. Surprisingly high levels of
caffeine were found in products without labelling it:
• Caffeinated energy drinks ranged up to 141.1 mg/serving.
• Carbonated sodas ranged from none detected to 48.2 mg/serving.
• Other beverages ranged up to 105.7 mg/serving.
• fizzy sodas had caffeine levels well inside the 65mg/serving recommended limit for cola
drinks in the US.
• Most energy drinks had levels in the high 60s and 70s/serving.
• Coca-Cola fountain samples were up to 44.5 mg/serving.
• The European version of Red Bull contains 80mg caffeine/250 ml can.
• Coffee with milk, Xpresso, and other canned coffes contain 135 mg/serving corresponding
two cups of strong brewed coffee.
The authors say that due to health concerns arising from the consumption of caffeine it seems
appropriate that warning labels should accompany all caffeinated beverages. They should dis-
play the caffeine content on their labels to prevent those at risk from consuming too much
caffeine.
The American Dietetic Association advises people not to consume more than 300mg of caf-
feine per day. Greater risk of miscarriage or babies with low birth weight are reported if 300mg
are exceeded during pregnancy. [323]
The European Union on caffeinated drinks [324] As far as caffeine is concerned, the
Scientific Committee for Food, in its opinion of 21 January 1999 on caffeine and other sub-
stances used as ingredients in ”energy drinks”, concluded that, for adults, apart from pregnant
women, the contribution of ”energy drinks” to the total consumption of caffeine did not appear
to be a cause for concern, assuming that ”energy drinks” replace other sources of caffeine.
However, for children, an increase in the daily intake of caffeine to a certain level of consump-
tion per day may bring about temporary changes in behaviour, such as increased excitability,
irritability, nervousness or anxiety. In addition, for pregnant women, the Committee’s view is
that moderation of caffeine intake is advisable.
These findings make it necessary to provide labelling which gives the consumer clear infor-
mation on the presence or otherwise of quinine or caffeine in a foodstuff and, in the case of
caffeine, to provide a warning message and an indication of the amount of caffeine, where this
is in excess of a specific level, in beverages which do not naturally contain caffeine.
Where a beverage which is intended for consumption without modification, or after recon-
stitution of the concentrated or dried product, contains caffeine, from whatever source, in a
proportion in excess of 150 mg/l, the following message must appear on the label in the same
field of vision as the name under which the product is sold: Ḧigh caffeine content.̈
Excluded from this regulation are beverages based on coffee, tea or coffee or tea extract where
the name under which the product is sold includes the term ”coffee” or ”tea”.
Combination of alcohol and energy drinks like Red Bull [328]

Young adults increasingly use energy drinks in the hope to reduce the intensity of the depres-
sant effects of alcohol. Objective motor coordination and visual reaction time is, however,
not improved traffic safety is thus endangered when alcohol is consumed together with energy
drinks like Red Bull and GSK Lucozade Energy.
A Brazilian study leaded by Sionaldo Eduardo Ferreira studied the effect of energy drinks
on symptoms of alcohol intoxication. The study cocludes that the ingestion of alcohol plus
energy drink significantly reduced subjects’ perception of headache, weakness, dry mouth, and
impairment of motor coordination.
However, the ingestion of the energy drink did not significantly reduce the deficits caused
by alcohol on objective motor coordination and visual reaction time. The ingestion of the en-
ergy drink did not alter the breath alcohol concentration in either group.
Energy drinkscannot reduce the harmful effects of alcohol on motor coordination, the per-
son is drunk but does not feel as drunk as he really is. Energy drinks also dangerously increase
the amount and the speed of ingestion -of alcoholic beverages.
Earlier findings demonstrate that even a small volume (250ml) of a specially formulated energy
drink (Solstis, GlaxoSmithKline, Brentford UK, providing 75 mg caffeine and 37.5 g glucose)
can have a consistent effect on sleepiness, lane keeping and speed choice in traffic.
These findings are important, and if supported by further research could have implications
for future highway safety. This study, however, gives no information about a simultaneous
consumption of energy drinks and alcohol intoxication as it highlights the effect on sleepiness
in absence of alcohol.[325]
372
Energy drinks as nutritional healthcare product The GSK company promotes its Lu-
cozade glucose energy and sports drinks under the category of nutritional healthcare product
giving them a touch of health and fittness. [326]
Important coffe groups[327]

There are four important coffee groups: Robusta, Columbian Milds, Other Milds and Brazilian
Naturals.
Coffee from the species Coffea arabica are richer in flavor than their Coffea robusta conterparts.
C. arabica has many different varietals, each with unique characteristics. Some well-known ara-
bica coffees include: Robusta grows at altitudes usually up to 800 meters in Indonesia, West
Africa, Brazil and Vietnam representing around 30% of world production.
Arabica grows at altitudes between 600 and 2000 meters in Latin America and East Africa
representing 70% of world production.
Diterpenes, bad components of coffee [329]

Urgert and colleagues analysed the coffee diterpenes and their effects on the human serum.
Cafestol and the related compound kahweol was present in unfiltered coffee brews and raises
serum concentrations of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and alanine aminotransferase in humans
and and affect liver function.
Filtered coffee is free of diterpenes. They are removed by the paper of the filter. Other
materials used as filter should be tested on their ability to retain the diterpenes.
Caffeine
Caffeine, depending upon the quantity consumed: increased alertness, anxiety, irritability, in-
terference with sleep, and jitteriness and is a mild diuretic. The most notable behavioural
effects of caffeine occur after consumption of low to moderate doses (50-300 mg) and include
increased alertness, energy, and ability to concentrate.
Moderate caffeine consumption rarely leads to health risks. Caffeine was considered in one
study as a potential drug of abuse and more recently was described as a model drug of abuse.
Coffee can be said to be habit-forming [330]
Moderate consumption of coffee reduces risk of Parkinson disease

The association of caffeine, particularly coffee intake and Parkinson disease was evaluated in the
Honolulu Heart Program between 1965 and 1968 concluding that those who consumed caffeine
had a significantly lower incidence of PD than those who did not.
For example, the adjusted incidence of PD decreased from 10.4:10,000 person-years in those
who did not consume coffee to 1.9:10,000 person years for those who consumed at least 28
ounces/day. This effect was dose-related with increased caffeine consumption inversely corre-
lated with the risk of developing PD. The data suggest that the mechanism is related to caffeine
intake and not to other nutrients contained in coffee. [331]
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke found that available studies eval-
uating caffeine and PD prevention are overall positive, however they are limited, in that they
are primarily retrospection/case-control in nature, or they do not assess caffeine intake in a
well controlled manner.
Typically, caffeine or coffee intake is assessed as a categorical variable (1-2 cups/day of cof-
fee), hence there is also no definite dose or dose-range that has been evaluated. [332]
Coffee and reduction of risk for type 2 diabetes

Long-term coffee consumption (7 or more cups of coffee a day) were found by Salazar-Martinez
and colleagues to be associated with a statistically significantly lower risk for type 2 diabetes.
Total caffeine intake from coffee and other sources was associated with a statistically signifi-
cantly lower risk for diabetes in both men and women. [333]
Battram and colleagues found that acute alkaloid caffeine (CAF) ingestion results in an im-
paired glucose tolerance, chronic coffee (RCOF) ingestion decreases the risk of developing
type 2 diabetes. The effect of RCOF compared with decaffeinated coffee DECAF was less
pronounced.[334]
Coffee and rectal cancer

Consumption of caffeinated coffee, tea with caffeine, or caffeine was not associated with in-
cidence of colon or rectal cancer, whereas regular consumption of decaffeinated coffee was
associated with a reduced incidence of rectal cancer. [335]
Coffee and liver cancer

Manami Inoue and colleagues found that drinking coffee on a daily or almost daily basis re-
sulted in a lower hepatocellular carcinoma HCC risk than those who almost never drank coffee;
risk decreased with the amount of coffee consumed.
The risk of liver cancer in almost never drinkers in this population was 547.2 cases per 100
000 people over 10 years, but it was 214.6 cases per 100 000 people with drinking coffee on
a daily basis. In the Japanese population, habitual coffee drinking may be associated with
reduced risk of HCC. [336]
374
The FINE Study [337]

The FINE Study, a prospective European cohort study, investigated whether coffee consump-
tion is associated with 10-year cognitive decline in elderly men in the Finland, Italy and The
Netherlands.
The study found that caffeine use or coffee consumption is associated with better cognitive
functioning. [338] [339] However, Johnson 2002 found cognitive performance induced by coffee
elderly women but not in elderly men. [342]
The Study pointed out that Fredholm and colleagues (1999) suggest that caffeine acts as an
antagonist on the A2a adenosine receptors in the brain, which consequently stimulates cholin-
ergic neurons. According to the researchers, its weak reinforcing properties are due to a unique
and atypical mechanism of action caffeine is a self-limiting drug and subjects do not gradually
increase the dose, because tolerance development to both the reinforcing and aversive effects
is limited. [340]. According to Dall’Igna and colleagues (2002) these neurons protect against
beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity, a precursor of cognitive decline.. [341]
Coffee is a major source of caffeine and one cup of coffee contains about 85 mg of caffeine,
almost twice the caffeine content of tea (45mg) .
Research of Freedholm and colleagues with mice showed caffeine from coffee acts as an an-
tagonist on the A2a adenosine receptors in the brain. [340] Dall’Igna and colleagues found that
this stimulates the secretion of cholinergic neurotransmitters, preventing beta-amyloid-induced
neurotoxicity in cerebellar neurons. [341]
Kopf and colleagues 1999 suggest that the A2a adenosine receptor has an effect on the memory
part of the brain, the hippocampus. [343]
Other important substances of coffee, like magnesium and many phenolic acids, such as chloro-
genic acid increase the antioxidant capacity in plasma, protecting neurons from oxidative dam-
age are highlighted by Nardini and Christensen. [344] [345]
Conclusions of the FINE Study

Coffee reduces cognitive decline in elderly men, with the least cognitive decline for men con-
suming three cups of coffee per day.
Caffeine and newborn infants

There is no blood-brain barrier to caffeine in the adult or the fetal animal [346]. There is no
placental barrier to caffeine [347] [348] and unusually high levels of caffeine have been reported
in premature infants born to women who are heavy caffeine consumers. [349]
Caffeine equivalents [350]

In general, each of the following contains approximately 200 mg of caffeine:
• One 200 mg caffeine pill (in some countries these are 100 mg, in the UK these are 50 mg)
• Two 8-fluid ounce containers of regular coffee (16 fluid ounces (4.73 dl) total)
• Five 1-fluid ounce shots of expresso from robusta beans (5 fluid ounces (1,47 dl) total)
• Five 8-fluid ounce cups of black tea (40 fluid ounces (1.18 l) total)
• Five 12-fluid ounce cans of soda (60 fluid ounces total (1.77 l), although these can vary
widely in content)
• Ten 8-fluid ounce cups of green tea (80 fluid ounces (2.36 l) total)
• One and a half pounds(0,68kg total) of milk chocolate.
• Fifty 8-fluid ounce cups of decaffeinated coffee (400 fluid ounces (11.82 l) total)
1 fluid ounce (US and CA) = 29,56 ml

1 fluid ounce (GB) = 28,41 ml
Caffeinated carbonated beverages contain from 20-70 mg of caffeine. A cup of coffee con-
tains between 65 and 175 mg. A cup or glass of tea typically contains 40-70 mg. A chocolate
bar contains about 30 mg.
Claims for functional foods Claims for functional foods There are two main types of claims
for functional foods[352]:
1. Enhanced function claims: There are given interactions of a food component and specific
functions in the body.There are no direct references to diseases given.
Some examples of enhanced function claims are:
Strengthening the immune functions
Antioxidants, acting against oxidative stress
Restore or stabilize bacterial intestinal colonies such as the stimulation of Bifidus bacteria
(Bifidobacterium longum
Bioavailability of minerals by milk oligopeptides or inulin.
376
2. Diseases risk reduction claim: Not allowed by German Food Regulation.New regula-
tions on European level are therefore needed to make these claims European wide ac-
cepted.Some examples of disease risk reduction claims are:
Cardiovascular diseases
Intestinal infections
Diarrhoea,constipation
Osteoporosis
Non-insulin dependent diabetes or obesity
Definition of Probiotics Since 1960 bacteria used in the therapy of people with patholog-
ical modified intestinal flora and prophylactic purpose were called probiotics. Probiotics are
especially selected microorganisms showing a health-promoting effect on the host organism if
consumed in a certain cell count, influencing the microbiological composition of the gastro-
intestinal tract. The specific activity must surpass the activity of usual food.
Probiotic bacteria and irritable bowel syndrome(IBS): The concept of small bowel
bacterial overgrowth (SBBO) as an explanation for IBS symptoms and the use of a probiotic
to help promote normal digestive function has been proposed.
Certain strain of bacteria like Rosell-52 and Rosell-175 are available as a micro-encapsulated
Probio’Stick in thin tubes to be protected against the acidity of the stomach. They are being
surveyed concerning the reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms, nausea and abdominal pain,
related to stress disorders. Improvements of sufferers of irritable bowel syndrome were reported
by Dr. Laurent Diop
There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract. Several
methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria included spray drying, extrusion, emul-
sion and phase separation had not achieved satisfactory results. The most common reported
method is the calcium-alginate gel capsule formation. Other excipients are kappa-carrageenan,
gellan gum, gelatin and starch. The available equipment for micro-encapsulation must undergo
further development in order to generate precise and uniform micro or nano capsules in large
quantities for industrial application. [1519]
For micro-encapsulation to be applicable in probiotic yoghurt, the beads should not be sensed
by the consumer. Small and uniform beads may allow the retention of a desirable mouth feeling
as well as minimise cell death due to oxygen toxicity.[1520]
Other studies of the efficacy of encapsulated probiotic bacteria in irritable bowel syndrome
(IBS)were performed by ClinicalTrials.gov, U.S. National Institutes of Health, using Bifidobac-
terium Infantis 35624 under the ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00135031. [1518]
Probiotics and prevention of diarrhoea [351] A meta-analysis evaluated the evidence for
the use of probiotics in the prevention of acute diarrhoea.
Results suggest that probiotics significantly reduced antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, reduced

the risk of travellers’ diarrhoea, and that of acute diarrhoea of diverse causes, and reduces the
associated risk of acute diarrhoea among children and adults.
The protective effect did not vary significantly among the probiotic strains Saccharomyces
boulardii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and
other strains used alone or in combinations of two or more strains.
Definition of prebiotics Prebiotics are ingredients which help the intestinal flora to develop.
Inulin is an example of a prebiotic ingredient which helps Bifidus to develop.
Definition of symbiotic Symbiotic is the combination of probiotic ( the positive acting

intestinal flora) and prebiotics (the ingredients which help intestinal flora).
Cholesterol-reducing claim The USA Food and Drug administration has approved at
8.07.99 the claim that a a nutrition rich on fibres and low fat reduces the risk of cardiac
infarct.
Targets for functional foods according Roberfroid: Targets for functional food are[352]:
• Growth, development and differentiation.
• Insulin resistance and other substrate specific problems.
• Defense against oxidative reactions
• Modifications of the cardiovascular system
In functional food there should be included also Mood Food. Depressions and changes of mood
can be influenced by neurotransmitter enriched food.
Unfortunately European Functional Foods market is dominated by digestive products. US

market addresses a wide range of health conditions such as arthritis, cholesterol, blood pressure
lowering,insomnia, immune booster and vision enhancer. They are called ”Health Food”[310].
German regulations forbid to point out prophylactic,relieve or healing activities of food.

378
Mood Food
Giesela Krahl in her book ”Mood Food”[305] explains the relationship between food and mood.
Mood food utilizes the knowledge of physiology and pharmacology to create good mood.
Changes of mood and sudden bad feeling are not always a disease of body or soul and food is
not medicine, but according to Krahl there is a relation between them.
A deep depression will not be solved by a meal of bananas, however bananas are a good choice
because they interfere in the physiology of serotonin and help to lower the grip of depression.
After explaining the fundamentals of this relationship in her book Krahl gives excellent formu-
las and suggestions of fine food to trigger high feeling.
Color, taste, smell and composition of meals can act positively on our feeling.
Some substances which interfere with the mood[305] :
Serotonin Serotoninis a neurotransmitter which regulates our feeling and our mood.
High serotonin levels are responsible for a balanced feeling and contentment.
Low levels of serotonin may produce fear, anxiety, and depression.

Serotonin is made by our body using tryptophan.
Sugar and carbohydrates trigger the production of insulin which helps tryptophane to get to
the brain where serotonin can be built out of this raw material. Sugar acts more quickly on
the mood as carbohydrate rich food such as pasta and rice do. The good mood of candies last
however less time as carbohydrate rich food do.
Carbohydrates
H D(+)− Glucopyranose
H CH OH
2
C O H C OH
O
H H
H C OH C O H
OH H
OH C H HO C H OH OH
H C OH H C OH H OH
H OH
H C OH H C OH
CH 2OH CH 2 OH
H C oOH H C OH OH H
H H O
H OH
D(+)−Glucose D(−)−Fructose D(−)− Fructofuranose

Enzymes or
Saccharose Glucose + Fructose
CH2 OH Dil. acids
O H CH 2OH
H H
H O
OH H O H OH
CH OH
OH 2
H OH Saccharose OH H
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid which cannot be prepared by the body itself. It must
assimilated with food.
The synthesis of serotonin needs tryptophan and carbohydrates in higher concentration as fat
and proteins.
Dr. Astrid Lindhorst is studying neurotransmitters of the Hypothalamus, a part of the limbic
system.[306] The limbic system makes the connection between consciousness, emotions and
motivations at one side and the activity of the internal organs on the other side.
Dr. Lindhorst studies the production of neurotransmitters under stress situations.

The neurotransmitter of importance on this study are serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamin also called
5-HT) and 5 hydroxyindolacetic acid(5HIAA)
Serotonin is used in pharmacy in antidepressants. Foods rich in carbohydrates such as pastas

and rice as well as sugar rises the blood level of serotonin acting as happy food. The neuro-
transmitter are extracted with microdialysis and measured with HPLC.
Catecholamineare responsible for vigilance, attention, activity.
The group of catecholamines also embraces the neurotransmitter adrenalin ,noradrenalin and
dopamine. These substances carry messages keeping ones awake and active. They affect atten-
380
tion, sexual activity, aggressiveness and regulate the appetite.
Formation of catecholamine: Tyrosine can be made by the body.

Phenylalanine must be obtained from food, it is an essential aminoacid.
Phenylalanine triggers the motivation, the memory and learning.
Phenylalanine produces in the brain a neuroregulator which is very near in its structure to the
doping drugs amphetamines which peps up.
To form catecholamine the body needs tyrosine, phenylalanine different minerals and vitamins.
Tyrosine is an aminoacid which the body can buildup by himself.Phenylalanine however must
be present in food.
Phenylalanine Is psychoactive substance which boosts the motivation, makes thinking active
and makes learning better. In brain phenylalanine produces a neuroregulator which is very near
to amphetamines used by drug addicts and acts antidepressive.
Acetylcholine Acetylcholine is a messenger substance which is found in the brain an in the

neurovegetative system and changes informations between nerve cells and muscle cells.It also
has a function on thinking, learning.
It is being formed starting from choline.
Endorphine, enkephalin, neuropeptides and similar substances Endorphin,enkephalin

and neuropeptides are messenger substances of the brain which are similar to opiates regulating
fear, rage, euphoria, sexual drive, and the perception of pain. These substances are made by
the body himself starting from serotonin and acetylcholine during long physical activities such
as marathon, music playing and daydreams.
Sources of neurotransmitters Our body is not capable to produce by himself the whole
amount of hormones and neurotransmitters which are needed. Our brain must be continuously
fed with special substances which are present in food. These compounds are responsible for
good function of the brain.
Our food bears a never ending number of compounds which are necessary to the function of
life.This however does not mean that bananas , soy bean, vegetables or yoghurt should be sold
in health stores and pharmacies as powerful medicine.
We cannot live without food. Industry however should not advertise food as concentrated drugs
which can perform miracles in short time. Food act on long time basis. Food should be varied
to cover all our needs.Eating continuously one brand of yoghurt will not cover all aspects of
our life.
Some foods together with some functions are listed below. This shows that a variety of ingre-
dients are needed of our meal are necessary to cover all our needs.
Table 10.23: Sources of Neurotransmitters in food which may act on mood

Neurotransmitter Source
Serotonin Pasta, rice, potatoes, cereals (wholemeal), bread, nuts,
almonds, dates, figs, bananas, pineapple and chestnuts.
Tyrosine and Phenylalanine milk and milk products, Eggs, potatoes, rice,
soy, noodle, poultry, meat and fish,
in aspartame and chocolate.
Choline and acetylcholine lecithin from soy,beer yeasts, soy, seeds,
nuts,wheat germs, vegetables, cereals (wholemeal),
liver, eggs and cheese.
Endorphin, enkephalin,
neuropeptides everything rich in carbohydrates like cereals, pasta,
honey,bananas, dried fruits, food rich in fat like
nuts, cream, butter, cocoa and cheese.Chocolate and
gum bears are therefore eaten during depressions.
Table 10.24: Active compounds in food
Active compound Source activity

Lecithin Soy beans, egg yolk, liver, milk Concentration
Omega-3-fatty acid Mackerel, herring, tuna, margarine Concentration
Iron Meat, eggs, crustaceans, cereals, carrots Learning
Phenylalanin Milk, eggs, potatoes, rice, soy beans, noodles Learning
Zink Cereals, almonds, oysters, carrots,oranges Memory
Acetycholine Egg yolk, liver, cereals, vegetables Memory
Vitamin B1 Avocados, bananas, nuts Memory
Sulfides Garlic, onions Creativity
Nucleic acids Germinating cereals, vegetables Creativity
folic acid Green leaf vegetables, cheese, meat Creativity
Magnesium Dried fruits, dates, wheat germs Anti-stress
Pectin Apples, quinces Anti-stress
382
Vitamin B Milk, egg yolk, mushroom, poultry Anti-stress
Taurine Taurine is present in mussel, crustaceae such as shrimps and oysters and is produced
in the liver. It stimulate the production of fat-killing hormones. Oestrogen (female hormone)
can inhibit the production of taurine. This is why women easily built a depot of fat as male.
Taurine participates also in the production of bile acids.
Methionine Methionine is an essential amino acid and is part of adrenalin which is respon-
sible of the release of great amounts of energy.
Methionine is present in fish, egg yolk, meat, poultry, liver, soy beans, cheese and lentils.
Choline Choline is part of external layers of nerve cells and brain cells. Choline controls the
exchange of molecules through the membrane of the cells and helps to burn fat. Low levels of
choline result in fat deposit in liver.
Magnesium It is present in green salad, seeds, nuts, vegetables, cereals, and banana.
Magnesium acts on the fat burning system. Many over weight people have an undersupply of
magnesium.
These compounds act all together. In order to have them all at once a well-balanced nutrition
of natural origin are necessary together with sufficient physical activity.
Spices which may act on mood Spices which may act on mood[305]:
Spices Activity Nomenclature
Anise calming, relaxing Pimpinella anisum
Basil reduces fear , nervous sleepless Ocimum basilicum
Savory acts on the intellect and sexual feeling Satureja hortensis
Curry can change mood Several spices
Dill acts calming and relaxing Anethum graveolens
Ginger is a stimulating tonic spice Zingiber officinale
Fennel seed acts calming for the stomach of babies as well Foeniculum vulgare
for the mood of adults
Garlic acts stimulating,lowers blood pressure Allium sativum
Caraway acts stimulating Carum carvi
Majoram wars up body and soul and is known Origanum majorana
as antiaphrodisiac,reducing sexual desire,
therefore good for nuns and monks

Melissa acts calming and relaxing Melissa officinalis
Nutmeg acts stimulating, known as aphrodisiac. Myristica fragans
Clove acts seducing because of its strong Jambosa caryophyllus
and exotic smell.
Paprika warming and stimulating, Capsicum annuum
love desire
Pepper and chilly stimulates sexual desire Piper nigrum
Pepper mince stimulates the mind and concentration, Mentha piperita
activating memory, and clears thinking
Rosemary acts on the brain strength Rosmarinus officinalis
memory and nerves
Sage improves the concentration Salvia pratensis
and learning
Thyme calms and ,relaxing Thymus vulgaris
Vanilla builds up, aphrodisiac, strong activity Vanilla panifolia
on emotions, security, soft love
and memories of the youth
Cinnamon Warm, velvet,security, Cassia vera
in India used to increase love.
Onions increase concentration Allium cepa.
Chocolate, the new EU Directive 2000/36 The new EU Directive replacing the Direc-
tive 73/241/EEC sets the labeling standards for cocoa and chocolate products as follow:
Milk chocolate: At least 25% of total dry cocoa solids, 14% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry non-fat
cocoa solids, 3,5% milk fat.
Chocolate: At least 35% total dry cocoa solids, 18% cocoa butter, 14% dry non-fat cocoa
solids.
Family milk chocolate: At least 20% total dry cocoa solids, 20% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry
non-fat cocoa solids, 5% milk fat, 25% total fat
Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBE): Vegetable fats, other than cocoa butter may be added
to chocolate not exceeding 5% of the finished product.Addition of fats other than cocoa butter
must be cited on the label.
Vegetable fats which are allowed to be added to chocolate are: Illipe,palm oil, sal, shea, kokum
gurgi and mango kernel.
The addition of fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate and their products has risen many
discussions. According to Mr. Kattenberg from ADM Cocoa liquefied chocolate containing
cocoa butter when tempered correctly the resulting product should have a good shelf life. It
384
seems that new technologies of the chocolate industry made the addition of vegetable fats other
than cocoa butter unnecessary to prevent blooming. These Fats seem to benefit filled chocolate,
ice cream and biscuit products.
Cocoa and chocolate directive 2000/36 EC

The addition of certain vegetable fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate products, up to a
maximum of 5 those vegetable fats should be cocoa butter equivalents.
Labelling, presentation and advertising in particular a listing of ingredients of cocoa and choco-
late products must comply with Directive 79/112/EEC in order to provide consumers with
correct information.
The labelling of the cocoa and chocolate products must indicate the total dry cocoa solids
content by including the words: ”cocoa solids:... % minimum”.
The sales names ”chocolate”, ”milk chocolate” and ”couverture chocolate” may be supple-
mented by information or descriptions relating to quality criteria provided that the products
contain:
- in the case of chocolate, not less than 43 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 26
% of cocoa butter,
- in the case ofmilk chocolate, not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids and not less than 18
% dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed
milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, including not less
than 4,5 % milk fat, - in the case of couverture chocolate, not less than 16 % of dry non-fat
cocoa solids.
Sales names and definitions of cocoa, chocolate and their products

1. Cocoa butter: designates the fat obtained from cocoa beans or parts of cocoa beans with
the following characteristics:
- free fatty acid content (expressed as oleic acid): not more than 1,75 %
- unsaponifiable matter (determined using petroleum ether): not more than 0,5 %, except in
the case of press cocoa butter, where it shall not be more than 0,35 %
2.(a) Cocoa powder, cocoa: designate the product obtained by converting into powder
cocoa beans which have been cleaned, shelled and roasted, and which contains not less than 20
% cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter, and not more than 9 %
water;
(b) Fat-reduced cocoa, fat- reduced cocoa powder: designate cocoa powder contain-
ing less than 20 % cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter;
(c) Powdered chocolate, chocolate in powder: designate the product consisting of a

mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 32 % cocoa powder;
(d) Drinkind chocolate, sweetened cocoa, sweetened cocoa powder: designate the
product consisting of a mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 25 %
cocoa powder; these names shall be accompanied by the term ”fat-reduced” in the case where
the product is fat-reduced as defined at (b).
3. Chocolate
(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products and sugars which, subject to (b),
contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter
and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;
(b) however, where this name is supplemented by the words:
- ”Chocolate Vermicelli” / ”flakes”: the product presented in the form of granules or

flakes must contain not less than 32 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 12 %
cocoa butter and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;
- ”couverture”: the product must contain not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, in-
cluding not less than 31 % cocoa butter and not less than 2,5 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;
- ”Gianduja”: (or one of the derivatives of the word ”gianduja”) nut chocolate: the product
must be obtained firstly from chocolate having a minimum total dry cocoa solids content of
32 % including a minimum dry non-fat cocoa solids content of 8 %, and secondly from finely
ground hazelnuts in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 20 g and
not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. The following may be added:
milk and/or dry milk solids obtained by evaporation, in such proportion that the finished prod-
uct does not contain more than 5 % dry milk solids;
almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties, either whole or broken, in such quantities that,
together with the ground hazelnuts, they do not exceed 60 % of the total weight of the product.
4. Milk chocolate:
(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products,
which, subject to (b)contains:
386
- not less than 25 % total dry cocoa solids,

- not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi-
or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 3,5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).
(b) However, where this name is supplemented by the words:
- ”Milk Chocolate Vermicelli” / ”flakes”: the product presented in the form of gran-
ules or flakes must contain not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids, not less than 12 % dry
milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk,
cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, and not less than 12 %
total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat),
- Couverture: the product must have a minimum total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat) content
of 31 %,
- ”Gianduja” (or one of the derivatives of the word ”gianduja”) nut milk chocolate: the
product must be obtained firstly from milk chocolate having a minimum content of 10 % of
dry milk solids, obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed
milk, cream or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat and secondly from
finely ground hazelnuts, in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 15
g and not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. Almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties may also
be added, either whole or broken, in such quantities that, together with the ground hazelnuts,
they do not exceed 6% of the total weight of the product.
(c) Where in this name the word ”milk” is replaced by:

- ”cream”: the product must have a minimum milk fat content of 5,5 %,
- ”skimmed milk” the product must have a milk fat content not greater than 1 %.
(d) The United Kingdom and Ireland may authorise the use in their territory of the name
”milk chocolate” to designate the product referred to in point 5, on condition that the term is
accompanied in both cases by an indication of the amount of dry milk solids laid down for each
of the two products, in the form ”milk solids: ...% minimum.
5. Family milk chocolate

designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products and
which contains:
- not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids,

- not less than 20 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi-
or fullskimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).
6. White chocolate
designates the product obtained from cocoa butter, milk or milk products and sugars which
contains not less than 20 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by
partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or
wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, of which not less than 3,5 % is milk fat.
7. Filled chocolate, chocolate with ... filling, chocolate with ...centre:

designate the filled product, the outer part of which consists of one of the products defined in
3, 4, 5 and 6. The designations do not apply to products, the inside of which consists of bakery
products, pastry, biscuit or edible ice.
The outer chocolate portion of products bearing one of these names shall constitute not less
than 25 % of the total weight of the product.
Chocolate a la taza:
designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat,
rice or maize, which contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than
18 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 8 %
flour or starch.
9. Chocolate familiar a la taza:

designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat,
rice or maize, which contains not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than
18 % cocoa butter and not less than 12 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 18 %
flour or starch.
10. A chocolate or a praline:

designates the product in single-mouthful size, consisting of:
- filled chocolate, or
- a single chocolate or a combination or a mixture of chocolate within the meaning of the def-
initions given in 3, 4, 5 or 6 and other edible substances, provided that chocolate constitutes
not less than 25 % of the total weight of the product.
The directive 200/36/EC prohibits the addition of animal fats and their preparations not de-
riving solely from milk to chocolate and related products.
388
Vegetable fats allowed to be added to chocolate and related products
According to the Directive 2000/36 EEC the vegetable fats which are allowed up to an extend
of 5 %, must comply with the following criteria:
(a) they are non-lauric vegetable fats, which are rich in symmetrical monounsaturated triglyc-
erides of the type Palmitic-Oleic-Palmitic, Palmitic-Oleic-Stearic, and Stearic-Oleic-Stearic;
(b) they are miscible in any proportion with cocoa butter, and are compatible with its physical
properties (melting point and crystallisation temperature, melting rate, need for tempering
phase);
(c) they are obtained only by the processes of refining and/or fractionation, which excludes
enzymatic modification of the triglyceride structure.
The following vegetable fats, obtained from the plants listed below, may be used:
Table 10.25: Vegetable fats allowed in chocolate and related products
Usual name of vegetable fat Scientific name of the plants

1. Illipe, Borneo tallow or Tengkawang
Shorea spp
2. Palm-oil Elaeis guineesis
Elaeis olifera
Codex Standard
3. Sal Shorea robusta
4. Shea Butyrospermum parkii
5. Kokum gurki Garcinia indica
6. Mango kernel Mangifera indica
for chocolate and chocolate products (CODEX STAN 87-1981, Rev. 1 - 2003):
Chocolate as functional food Developments on the confectionery and chocolate sector

leads to sugar-free products such as isomalt with addition of green tea, zinc, calcium antiox-
idants in form of vitamins A, C and E, dietary fibres such as inulin and oligofructose with
claims that the active ingredients help protect cells, reinforce the natural defence of the body
or stimulate intestinal microflora. Interest is also risen on chewy confectionery with acacia gum,
inclusion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in dairy ingredients to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
diseases. Industry is also looking forward to incorporate phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl
serine to increase mind function.
These claims are dangerous to public health as they suggest that confectioneries and chocolate
are healthy, well balanced foods. The high content of saturated fatty acids from cocoa butter,
the high caloric content without sufficient dietary fibres and to much monosaccharides stand
for unbalanced foods which should be consumed reluctantly. Chocofillings, snacks and energy
bars should not replace the 10 oclock breakfast The small amount of active ingredients are a
help for sales and do not improve health of the consumer.
Catechines in chocolate
Chocolate with high content of cacao is rich in catechines which are members of the group of
flavonoids. The content of catechines in chocolate is related to the amount of the percentage
of cacao of the product.
Bitter chocolate contains 53,3 mg catechines / 100 g.
Milk chocolate contain 15,9 mg/100 g [1382]
Food supplements: Food supplement may be useful in case of stress, depressions, signs of
overfatigue, diseases and convalescence.In supermarkets the following articles are sold as food
supplements: Beer yeasts, gelee royale, wheat germs, fish oil capsules, energy drinks, Ginseg,
multi vitamin capsules, Valerian capsules and others.Remember, they do not work wonders
their function is a complement to other main factors.
Organic food: Organic food is being regarded as free from pesticides, chemicals and addi-
tives. It should be better for environment as usual food and helps to preserve nature. It should
be free of GMO.
To reduce the number of bacteria in organic food Antibac is used as a natural keeping and
preserving compound consisting of natural fruit acids. It works by blocking the vital processes
linked with the anabolism of the microbes.The pH value of water is lowered and stabilised, cre-
ating an environment which is unsuitable for a number of pathogen microorganisms. Harmless
lacto bacillus are not affected.
According to the Reiner Group, which produces Antibac, cut surfaces and breaks on vegetables
and other products are sealed and the enzymes are inactivated. Discolouration is reduced and
texture of the product is being maintained.
Gelatine Gelatine is made from bones skin and useless parts from cattle, pigs and nowadays
from fish (for non-mammalian special products), through partial hydrolysis of the collagen
present in these animal parts which are collected in slaughterhouses, meat-cutting facilities and
hide-processing plants.
Gelatine contains important aminoacids:
Glycine..........27%
Proline..........16%
Hydroxyproline...14%
390
Gelatine as dietary supplement According to the report of the experts of food chemistry
in Germany, gelatine and hydrolysed gelatine have no special physiological properties and have
no positive effect on cartilage or joints.
Amino acids resulting from the hydrolysis of gelatine are also available from other foods. The
claim “ joint lubrication” does not correspond to truth.
The hydrolysis is made with acids or with alkaline.
As BSE cases are getting more frequent in Europe, with main incidence in UK and Portugal
gelatine has turned out to be a possible source of infection of CJD disease in all kind of foods
which were prepared with gelatin and also drugs using gelatin as coverings for capsules pills
and so on. Gelatin was used in human nutrition for many centuries. as a good source of seven
out of eight essential aminoacids and was a natural ingredient which was better tolerated as the
new chemical modified starches and thickening agents. In the last two decades profit thinking
of industry and business has made this natural food to become a menace to public health.
Influenza and probiotic bacteria

The Second European Influenza Conference in Malta 11-14 September 2005 presented the find-
ings of researches related to probiotic bacteria and influenza.
Most probiotic bacteria are promoted for improving gut health. The findings presented at
the Conference demonstrate the benefits of probiotic bacteria not only to gut health, but also
improve the immune system.
According to findings presented at the European Influenza Conference, the probiotic bacte-
ria are thought to activate certain defence cells in the immune system, particularly the T cell.
This mechanism is supported by the new trial led by Dr. Michael de Vrese at the Federal
Researche Centre of Nutrition and Food in Kiel. He observed higher levels of cytotoxic plus
T suppressor cells (CD8+) and T helper cells (CD4+) in a subsample of the probiotic group
after just two weeks of supplementation. The bacteria which were included in this study include
Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8, Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, and B. bifidum MF 20/5 [1383]
Vaccinations: Vaccinations are key in managing seasonal influenza. In a pandemic vaccines

matching the new virus strain can only be developed once it has been isolated at the start of
the global outbreak. The WHO estimates that it may take up to six month to develop and
market a vaccine that matches the circulating pandemic strain 5. The stockpiling of antivirals
has therefore been recommended by the WHO as part of its Pandemic Preparedness Plan.
Antivirals: Antivirals are required that are effective against both influenze A and B, however
in a pandemic situuation efficacy against only influenza A will be required. M2 inhibitors,
amantadine and rimantadine, and the neuraminidase inhibitors, oseltamivir and zanamivir are
available drugs against influenza.
Neuranimidase inhibitors present advantages over M2 inhibitors and are the treatment of choice
for seasonal and pandemic influenza.
Chicken soup and therapy of colds Scientists of the University of NebrasKa Medical
Center found that chicken soup contains several ingredients that affect the immune system of
the body.
It helps to stop the movement of neutrophils that eat bacteria and cellular debris which are
released in great numbers by viral infection like colds. Neutrophil activity can stimulate the
release of mucous which may be the cause of the coughs and stuffy nose caused by upper
respiratory infections such as colds. Vitamins and other agents in the ingredients could possibly
have a biological action.
Effect of global transport on local fauna [679] Killer shrimp Dikerogammarus villosus
coming from Romania endanger the ecological system of the Rhine. Their origin is the Black
Sea and are hidden in the system of cooling water of great container ships.
Dikerogammarus feeds itself from flies, worms and other shrimps. It is being feared that
Dikerogammarus will find its way to the great seas in North America menacing there the
biological system.
This is an example of effects of excessive global transportation endangering local micro fauna.
Acrylamide
Acrylamide, a potential carcinogen is likely to be formed in a wide rage of foods, specifically
starchy foods which are fried or baked.such as potato chips roasted asparagus, banana chips,
toasted English muffins, tacco shells, pretzels
The natural occurring amino acid asparagine coupled with a carbonyl source such as reducing
sugar like dextrose is a precursor to acrylamide in foods.
Trace amounts of acrylamide can be formed by boiling, significant formation generally requires
a processing temperature of 1200 C or higher.
Most acrylamide is accumulated during the final stages of baking, grilling or frying processes
as the moisture content of the food falls and the surface temperature rises, with the exception
of coffee where levels fall considerably at later stages of the roasting process.
Acrylamide seems to be stable in the majority of the affected foods in the majority of the
affected foods, with the exception of ground coffee where the acrylamide level declines during
storage over months
392
The limiting precursor in cereals is asparagine while fructose and glucose are more impor-
tant in potatoes. Other important factors are pH and water content.
According to UN scientists meeting in Rome in February 2005 the major contributing foods to
total exposure for most countries were:
Potato chips (60 - 30 per cent )
Potato crisps ( 6 - 46 per cent )
Coffee (13 - 39 per cent )
Pastry and sweet biscuits (10 - 20 per cent )
Bread and toasts (10 - 30 per cent )
Other foods (Less than 10 per cent of exposure)
How to reduce acrylamide in baked and fried foods

• Use low temperatures for frying or backing (under 170◦C.)
• Change your eating habits: Try to like white ships and French fries. Refuse golden brown
ones as they were overheated and bear high amount of acrylamide
• Do not toast your bread as the high temperature and low moisture of bread soars up
acrylamide. If you are really concerned with your health eat your toast without heating
it. Just change your habit and you will enjoy it.
• Avoid any kind of corn flakes, crispbread,cookies chocolate, cocoa, coffee, tortillas as in
some brands high amount of acrylamide were found[886][887]
• Prefer cooked food as the water avoids overheating of potatoes and cereal products.
• Cover all dishes when using microwave.
• Avoid excessive loss of humidity of the surface of the food
• The storage of potatoes influence the acrylamide being formed during processing.
Potatoes should be fresh.
They should be free of green parts and free of sprouts.
They should not had been kept in refrigerator
• Use margarine instead of oil or cooking fat. Margarine cannot be heated as high as oil
avoiding overheat during frying
• Use cooked potatoes to make fried potatoes. If you have to use raw potatoes you can
leave them in water for two hours before frying.The reducing sugars are then diminished
in the surface which is most like to develop acrylamide.
If you use raw fresh potatoes for your french fries leave them after cutting for one hour
in water.
• Pizzas are low in acrylamide but do not let the edge get brown or dried
• Don’t let bread and cake get a brown, hard and dry surface because this is a sign that
acrylamide could have been formed.
Bread rolls and muffins are likely to bear more acrylamide than voluminous breads and
cakes.
The most effective reduction of acrylamide has been achieved by using the enzyme asparaginase
to selectively remove asparagine prior to heating. This process is, however limited to specific
products manufactured from liquidised or slurried materials.
Variety selection and plant breeding, controlling growth and storage factors affecting sugar con-
centration in potatoes, pre-treatment of potato pieces by soaking or blanching and prolonged
yeast fermentation time in breadmaking is being studied as possible acrylamide reduction.
Calcium chloride preventing acrylamide formation [888]

Gokmen and Senyuva found that the formation of acr yamide was reduced by 95% in fried
potatoes when dipped for 60 minutes in calcium chloride at room temperature before frying
at 1700 C. According to the authors the Schiff base of asparagines, intermediate of acrylamide,
was prevented. Colour and texture of French fries and crisps were not affected.
Reports and statements on acrylamide[889]
Acrylamide (CH2=CHCONH2) is neurotoxic and carcinogenic in laboratory animals. JECFA
(FAO/WHO Joint expert Committee on Food Additives)cautioned in April 2005 that there are
uncertainties in its conclusion as the toxicological database is incomplete and recommended
that (FAO/WHO, 2005):
• acrylamide be re-evaluated when results of ongoing carcinogenicity and long-term neuro-
toxicity studies become available.
• work should be continued on using physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) mod-

elling to better link human biomarker data with exposure assessments and toxicological
effects in experimental animals.
• appropriate efforts to reduce acrylamide concentrations in food should continue.

The CIAA Confédération des Industries Agro-Alimentaires issued in 2005 guidelines related
to successful procedures on reducing acrylamide formation during manufacturing processes.
References
EC (European Commission), 2002. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) on new
findings regarding the presence of acrylamide in food. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/s
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2005. Draft Opinion of the Scientific Committee on
394
a harmonised approach for risk assessment of compounds which are both genotoxic and carcino-
genic (in consultation process). Available at http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/sc commitee/sc consultatio
FAO/WHO (Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation), 2005. Summary

and conclusions of the sixty-forth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food
Additives (JECFA), pp. 7-17. Available at http://www.who.int/ipcs/food/jecfa/summaries/en/summa
Citric acid and glycine and reduction of acrylamide formation [890]

Professor Don Mottram from the School of Food Biosciences at the University of Reading leaded
a study focused on how to suppress the formation of acrylamide without detrimentally affecting
flavour formation using citric acid and glycine.
The scientists noted that citric acid limited the generation of volatiles, particularly the alkylpyrazines
which are responsible for flavour. Glycine increased the total volatile yield by promoting the
formation of certain alkylpyrazines, namely, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, trimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-
3,5-dimethylpyrazine, tetramethylpyrazine, and 2,5-diethyl-3-methylpyrazine. However, the
formation of other pyrazines and Strecker aldehydes was suppressed.
To minimise the impact on flavour but still achieve the desired reduction in acrylamide levels,
the reseachers propose that the opposing effects of the treatment with citric acid limiting the
generation of volatile flavour compounds, in particular the alkylpyrazines, and glycine, which
promotes the formation of certain alkylpyrazines but does not suppress the formation of certain
Strecker aldehydes.
The combination of the two compounds in 0.39% w/w for each, does not suppress the for-
mation of certain Strecker aldehydes on total volatile yield and may be used to best advantage
in reducing acrylamide.
Formation of acrylamide from wheat gluten

The scientific team from the Institute of Food Technology at Hohenheim University, Stuttgart,
revealed different acrylamide formation mechanisms describing pyrolytic acrylamide formations
in purified wheat gluten and gluten-supplemented wheat bread rolls.
The gluten was dry heated at temperatures ranging from 160 to 2400C for 8 to 12 min and anal-
ysed for acrylamide and cinnamic amide. Under these conditions acrylamide could be detected
up to 3997 g/kg gluten dry weight. Cinnamic amide was detected and unambiguously identi-
fied in the gluten samples, thus confirming the proposed formation of acrylamide from proteins.
The manner in which acrylamide was formed makes the German team’s study interesting .
After gluten was added to bread roll dough, protein pyrolysis to form acrylamide in the com-
plex food matrix was assessed. In this study the contents of asparagine and reducing sugars
were diminished by adding wheat gluten.
In contrast to the expectation with respect to the well-established common formation mech-
anism of acrylamide, it increased from 53.4 to 63.9 g/kg (+20 per cent), which was in good
correlation with the higher proportion of gluten. Cinnamic amide could be found in crusts of
bread rolls. The scientists claim that their research provides evidence of pyrolytic formation of
acrylamide from wheat gluten. [891]
CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox [892] [893]

The CIAA Acrylamide ”Toolbox” provides descriptions of the intervention steps being eval-
uated by food manufacturers. In some cases the procedures are already being used by food
processors, are undergoing testing or are the result of laboratory studies.
The CIAA stresses that some of the tools and parameters of this guide will also be helpful
within the context of domestic food preparation and in catering establishments, where strin-
gent control of cooking conditions may be more difficult.
Surface browning as indicator of acrylamide formation

The work of Jackson and Al-Taher focuses on the effects of cooking conditions (e.g. time/temperature)
on acrylamide formation in consumer-prepared foods, the use of surface colour (browning) as
an indicator of acrylamide levels in some foods, and methods for reducing acrylamide levels in
home-prepared foods.
They found that acrylamide levels in cooked food depended greatly on the cooking condi-
tions and the degree of ”doneness”, as measured by the level of surface browning. Analysis of
the surface colour by colorimetry indicated that some components of surface colour (”a” and
”L” values) correlated highly with acrylamide levels. This indicates that the degree of surface
browning could be used as an indicator of acrylamide formation during cooking. [894]
Predictive model for acrylamide[895] Enda Cummins, a researcher at University College

Dublin, developed and presented an acrylamide predictive computer model for industrial and
home at the Foodsim 2006 in June 15-17 at the University of Naples, Italy.
This model was developed for the production and consumption of chips and crisps in Ire-
land. For other foods and outside of Ireland the model must be adjusted to take account of the
specific amino acids and sugars of each food.
According to Cummins the use of potato cultivars with low sugar levels, blanching, lower-
ing cooking time and temperature reduces acrylamide significantly. Extended frying times
above six minutes and above 1800 C should be avoided. Soaking and washing were found to be
396
less efficient. The initial selection of cultivars and in the initial levels of glucose and fructose
was found by Cummins to be most effective way to reduce the formation ofd acrylamide in
processed potato foods.
Predictive results
His model predicts a mean acrylamide level of 317 micrograms per kilogram in fried potatoes,
720 micrograms per kilogram in crisps, and 1073 micrograms per kilogram in home made french
fries (industrial washing and blanching processes are not considered in home cooking).
Male consumption patterns of french fries and crisps result in 0.27 micrograms of acrylamide
per kilogram of body weight per day, and females slightly less, being far below of the World
Health Organisation recommended daily intake (RDI) is one microgram per kilogram of body
weight per day.
Researches with green tea and bomboo extract to reduce acrylamide formation in
foods [896] [897]
Yu Zhang and Ying Zhang investigated the antioxidant-rich extracts of bamboo leaves (AOB)
and extract of green tea (EGT). They found that when both were added in levels of 0,1 micro-
grams, the reduction rates of formation of acrylamide of 74,4 per cent for the use of AOB and
74,3 per cent for the use of EGT were achieved.
The researchers tested the addition the extracts at 180 degrees Celsius in an oven under low-
moisture conditions. The active components of the extracts reducing the acrylamide formation
were homoorientin for AOB and epigallocatechin gallate for EGT.
The antioxidants of bamboo leaves (AOB) had been studied before by Zhang. The authors
obtained 74,1% and 76,1% reduction of acrylamide in potato crisps and French fries with AOB
addition of 0,1% and 0,01% (w/w), respectively and an immersion time of 60 s. According to
the authors acrylamide formation in potato-based foods could be reduced significantly with the
Extract of antioxidants of bamboo leaves and original crispness and flavour of potato products
may stay unaltered.
The authors call for more research on natural antioxidants to reduce the formation of acry-
lamide.
Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in grilled, fried or broiled meat and
cheese products [898]
Helen Vlassara and colleagues (2007) found new toxins in grilled meat and cheese. Advanced
glycation end products AGEs are a group of compounds formed from the non-enzymatic reac-
tion of reducing sugars with the free amino groups of proteins in grilled, fried or broiled animal
products and sterilised or pasteurised meat products and are responsible for desirable tastes
and smells of these foods.
These compounds are linked with inflammation, insulin resistance, diabetes, vascular and kid-
ney disease, and Alzheimer’s.
According to the authors the kidney function of older people slows down and it might be
the cause why the capacity to remove AGEs from the body is reduced. People aged 65 and
older were found to have higher AGE levels in their blood as people younger than age 45. AGEs
accumulates in the tissues, take over the body’s own built-in defences, pushing them toward a
state of inflammation leading to disease or early ageing.
N-carboxymethyl-lysine (CML) and methylglyoxal (MG) derivatives are found in blood and
are used to measure the body content of AGEs. They correlate with indicators of inflammation
and oxidative stress According to the authors, indicators of both AGEs and oxidative stress
are directly influenced by the intake of dietary AGEs, independent of age or energy intake.
The researchers call for reduced consumption of these oxidants to prevent age-related diseases,
especially in an ageing population.
The authors advice to avoid excessive intake of fried, broiled, and grilled foods and call for
new methods of cooking to reduce AGE intake, particularly steaming, boiling or making stews,
keeping the heat down and maintaining the water content in food.
AGEs and diabetes [899]

Wautier and Guillausseau in a review in 2001 focuses on the consequences of hyperglycemia
on the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and on the role of AGEs and of
their specific receptors (RAGE) in the functional and anatomical alterations of the vascular wall.
The data of this review emphasize the role of AGEs and of the interaction of AGE modi-
fied proteins with diabetic mesangial cells in glomerulosclerosis development. (scarring of the
kidneys’ tiny blood vessels, the glomeruli, the functional units in the kidney that filter urine
from the blood). The authors come to the conclusion that AGEs and RAGE play a central role
in the development of chronic complications of diabetes.
Flavonoids and reduction of colorectal cancer risk [900] Flavonoids such as isoflavones,
anthocyanidins, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and flavanones were assessed in a case-control
study concerning colon cancer cases. A significant risk reductions were calculated by lead au-
thor Marta Rossi . The highest intake of flavonols was associated with a 46 per cent reduction
in the risk of colorectal cancer, compared to people in the lowest intake group. No significant
benefit of flavan-3-ols, flavanones, and total flavonoids was observed.
According to Marta Rossi and colleagues, flavonoids may have an important role in explaining
398
the protective effects of vegetables, fruit, and, possibly, tea against cancer. The estimates did
not substantially differ for colon and rectal cancers, as well as in strata of sex, age, and body
mass index. The findings of this large study provide support for an inverse association of se-
lected classes of flavonoids with colorectal cancer risk.
Several limitations of this study make further studies necessary. Other studies add further
support of the five-a-day message for a healthy, balanced diet rich in fruit and vegetables.
Blueberries, for instance, are a rich source of anthocyanidins, mainly delphinidin, cyaniding,
petunidin, peonidin and malvidin, could stop the growth of liver cancer cells.[901]
Blueberries [901]
Blueberries and muscadine grapes are a source of polyphenols antioxidants such as phenolic
acids, tannins, flavonols and anthocyanins and pterostilbene which reduces cholesterol. Three
cultivars of blueberries (”Briteblue”, ”Tifblue” and ”Powderblue”) and four cultivars of mus-
cadine grapes (”Carlos”, ”Ison”, ”Noble”, and ”Supreme”) were assessed in a study lead by
Weiguang Yi from the University of Georgia.
The inhibition of the blueberry and muscadine grapes extracts on liver cancer cell growth
were studied using HepG2 cell cultures.
The greatest inhibitory effects were observed from the anthocyanin fractions. The main antho-
cyanidins present were delphinidin, cyaniding, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin.
The flavonol and tannin fractions showed intermediate activities.
The authors concluded that blueberries and muscadine grapes may contribute to reduction
in liver cancer risk, proposing that incorporating blueberries into the diet could potentially
reduce liver cancer risk.
Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology for juices [902]

Alternative methods to heat pasteurisation of juices such as pulsed electric fields (PEF), pulsed
magnetic fields, pulsed light, carbon dioxide, irradiation and high pressure have been proposed
for the cold pasteurization.
PEF is based on the electromechanical instability of the cell membrane. It is not in use due to
high costs of these systems.
High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) requires a pressure of 350 Mpa for 30 min to achieve a 5
log reduction. This technology is not in use because treatment must be done in charges and is
very costly on an industrial scale.
Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology uses a pump to force a liquid under high pressure
and high velocity through a very narrow and adjustable concentric orifice, bringing physical
changes in the treated products due to the creation of a sudden pressure drop, very high exit
flow velocity and evaporation.
Tahiri, Makhlouf, Paquin and Fliss researched the inactivation of bacteria using DHP. They
came to the conclusion that DHP can become an alternative for cold pasteurization of fruit
juices.
Non-Thermal preservation processes

Non-thermal processes are food preservation methods which do not use significant temperature
increases. Ionizing radiation, pulsed-electrical field pasteurization and ultra high-pressure pro-
cessing (UHF) are currently in use.
High intensity pulsed electric field (PEF) processing involves the application of pulses of high
voltage (typically 20 - 80 kV/cm) to foods placed between 2 electrodes. PEF treatment is
conducted at ambient, sub-ambient, or slightly above ambient temperature for less than 1 s,
and energy loss due to heating of foods is minimized.
For food quality attributes, PEF technology is considered superior to traditional heat treatment
of foods because it avoids or greatly reduces the detrimental changes of the sensory and physical
properties of foods (Quass 1997). Although some studies have concluded that PEF preserves
the nutritional components of the food, effects of PEF on the chemical and nutritional aspects
of foods must be better understood before it is used in food processing.
Processing of apple and orange juices, of milk, liquid eggs and soups have been tested.
Technical drawbacks or limitations of the PEF technology are:

• The availability of commercial units.
• The presence of bubbles, which may lead to non-uniform treatment.
• Limited application, which is restricted to food products that can withstand high electric
fields.
• The particle size of the liquid food in both static and flow treatment modes.
• The lack of methods to accurately measure treatment delivery. [906]

Cloudy apple juice healthier than clear one [903]
Apple juice is treated with enzyme to remove the pectin and starch content in order to avoid
400
cloudiness of the product. 75% of the polyphenol content.of clear apple juice was found by
Oszmianski and colleagues to be only 25% of that of cloudy apple juice.
According to the authors of the study the suppression of enzymatic browning conditions and
the lack of clarification prevent the loss of polyphenols in cloudy apple juice.
The authors found 250 milligrams of polyphenols per litre in clear juice from Idared apple
variety and 1044 milligrams per litre in cloudy juice made from the Champion apple variety.
The authors come to the conclusion that health benefits are expected mainly in the case of
cloudy apple juice consumption resulting from the high content of procyanidins.
Industrial processed (clear) apple juice and chronic non-specific diarrhoea (CNSD)
[?]
According to Hoekstra and colleagues clear and cloudy apple juice differ in their fibre and
non-absorbable monosaccharide and oligosaccharide contents. They found that clear apple
juice significantly promoted diarrhoea and suggest that fructose, the increased availability of
non-absorbable monosaccharides and oligosaccharides as a result of the enzymatic processing
of apple pulp is the cause of apple juice induced CNSD in children.Cloudy apple juice did not
influence stool frequency and consistency.
In case of toddler diarrhoea Hoekstra recommends that fruit juices, in particular clear ap-
ple juice, and other squashes should be limited to restore appetite at meal times.[905]
Red grapefruits influencing serum lipid and antioxidant levels and cancer-preventive
effect [907]
Shela Gorinstein and colleagues found that fresh red grapefruit contains higher quantities of
bioactive compounds and has significantly higher antioxidant potential than blond grapefruit.
Diet supplemented with fresh red grapefruit positively influences serum lipid levels of all frac-
tions, especially serum triglycerides and also serum antioxidant activity.
They concluded that the addition of fresh red grapefruit to generally accepted diets could
be beneficial for hyperlipidemic, especially hypertriglyceridemic, patients suffering from coro-
nary atherosclerosis.
Kun Gao and colleagues found that naringenin , a citrus flavonoid, stimulates DNA repair
following oxidative damage in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells.
They conclude that the cancer-preventive effects of citrus fruits demonstrated in epidemiologi-
cal studies may be due in part to stimulation of DNA repair by naringin, which by stimulating
base excision repair processes may prevent mutagenic changes in prostate cancer cells. [908]
Inulin and flavonoids from grapefruit [909]

Zenon Zdunczyk and colleagues found that flavonoid extract from grapefruit used as a single
dietary supplement did not display a beneficial influence on cecal metabolism, increased pH,
hydration of digesta, and lowered bacterial activity and SCFA concentration.
The authors suggest that the simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols could reduce the
detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentation.
The authors conclude that simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols can decrease the
detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentations.
Arteriosclerosis prevention Diet rich in green and yellow vegetables [910]

Michael R. Adams and colleagues from the University of California in Los Angeles determined
the effects of a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables on the development of atherosclerosis.
The results of this study indicate that a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables inhibits
the development of atherosclerosis and may lead to the reduction in the risk of coronary heart
disease through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.
Vegetables contain a variety of micronutrients, such as carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E,

and selenium that are potent antioxidants, and broccoli as a source of sulforaphane , an anti-
inflammation compound.
Reduction of risk of hypertension with vegetable protein and cereal fibre [911]
The World Health Organisation (WHO) advices since 1991 to have five meals rich in fruit
and vegetables to lower incidences of heart disease and some cancers.
According to Alvaro Alonso and colleagues fibre and protein intake can be associated with
lower levels of blood pressure, but results from prospective cohorts are scarce, and none of
them have been conducted outside the US. In a new study the scientists found that risk reduc-
tion was more important among men, obese and older individuals. Total or animal protein,
total fibre as well as fibre from other sources different from cereal were not associated with the
risk of HT.
The authors suggest that the relationship between fibre and insulin resistance could, in turn,
affect blood pressure, or that vegetable protein could result in higher serum concentrations of
certain amino acids such as L-arginine, L-tryptophan, and tyrosine could reduce hypertension.
Vegetable protein intake was inversely related to blood pressure. This finding is consistent
with recommendations that a diet high in vegetable products be part of healthy lifestyle for
prevention of high blood pressure and related diseases [912]
402
Definition of high blood pressure[913]

Hypertension = blood pressure higher than 140/90 mm Hg,
Prehypertension = blood pressure 120/80 mmHg to 139/89 mmHg.
Frozen Food Standards

The growth of frozen food is largely due to the performance of frozen potatoes (chips and potato
products) which is the largest sector in volume terms, growing 6.9% year-after-year.
Purchasing diagnostics reveal that frozen potatoes’ growth is driven by households buying
more of the category in 2003.
Other sectors in growth are ready meals and snacks. Ready meals are growing in volume
5.5% year-after-year, driven by retailer own brands and Heinz. Growth comes from price re-
duction and an increase in the amount bought per occasion. Healthy meals is a fast growing
sector within this category although it remains a small player within ready meals.
Frozen snacks has seen strong growth (18.8% year-after-year volume) led by Tesco and Asda
own label ranges. McCain’s Micro range has also attained good growth in this category.
The traditional sectors such as frozen fish, green vegetables, red meat and pizza, are all in
volume decline as consumers buy less.
Canned food
The process of canning was pioneered in the 1790s when a French confectioner, Nicolas Appert,
discovered that the application of heat to food in sealed glass bottles preserved the food from
deterioration. In about 1806 Appert’s principles were successfully trialed by the French Navy
on a wide range of foods including meat, vegetables, fruit and even milk.
Based on Appert’s methods of food preservation the packaging of food in sealed airtight tin-
plated wrought-iron cans was first patented by an Englishman, Peter Durand, in 1810.
Canned foods were greatly favoured by early explorers. Beginning in 1814 canned foods were
sent to distant British colonies.
The very earliest cans were ‘tinned iron canisters’, which were very heavy and needed a ham-
mer and chisel to open them! They were also made one at a time, by hand. Today very light
materials are employed with Ring-Pulloff system which need no tools to open them.
Dieting fads
Dieting and health trends with low-calorie and nutrient enriched products enjoying greater
popularity. Meal replacement drinks, healthy snack bars and bakery products enriched with vi-
tamins and calcium are considered as healthy. On the other hand, food deemed to be unhealthy,
such as ice cream, savoury snacks, and cakes and pastries, has seen declining consumption.
It also revealed the growing awareness of prebiotics, a market still in development stage. But
while today the European prebiotic market is restricted to a handful of companies (three com-
panies hold 70 per cent of the market share), new entrants are expected as awareness grows
and consumers become increasingly interested in gut health.
Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth
and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been iden-
tified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the
sweetener tagatose.
Probiotics in animal breed

Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will be used in animal feed for
pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis cause a
better digestion and help to control pathogenic bacteria. With these probiotics improved body
weight of 9% and a better food conversion of 5% were found.
Probiotics in crops
10 to 60% of nitrogen accumulated in maize, rice, sugar cane and grass are of atmospheric
provenience. In the many plants the assimilation is done by symbitic activities of nitrogen
bacteria such as Azospirillum spp. and Gluconacetobacter.
Using Azospirillumm spp an increase of 30 percent of yield and a reduction of 40 percent

of nitrogen fertilizer could be achieved in sugar cane, maize and oath.
Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth
and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been iden-
tified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the
sweetener tagatose.
Probiotics in farming
404
Probiotics in animal breed: Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will
be used in animal feed for pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and
Bacillus subtilis cause a better digestion and help to control pathogenic bacteria. With these
probiotics improved body weight of 9% and a better food conversion of 5% were found.
Bromate in bottled water

Bottled water was found in 2006 in US to exceed by far the maximum permissible amount of
0.01 g/L of bromate. Kurokawa and colleagues reported in 1986 that bromate ion is capable
of causing kidney carcinomas in rats. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies
bromate ion as an increased risk of cancer. Its MCL is 0,01 g/l (10 ppb) for bottled drinking
water. [915] [916] [917]
Bromate ion in drinking water is a disinfection byproduct. It is formed by the oxidation

of bromide ion when ozone is used for disinfection.
Bromide ion is present in the majority of raw waters and changes to bromate during disin-
fection by ozone The speed of reaction increases in presence of calcium chloride. Reduction of
bromate formation in drinking water when using ozonation as disinfection can be achieved by:
1. Keeping pH 6.5 or below during ozonation.
2. Adding ammonia before ozonation.
3. Keeping dissolved ozone as low as possible.

Indulgent food
Ice cream, candies and biscuits are often seen as an indulge of healthy way of life rewarding for
good results or conpensating for a loss.
Food industry grouped recently Chilled dairy desserts, cheese, ice cream, chocolate, cakes and
biscuits as indulgent food category. Consumer trends indicate that, despite health concerns,
full-fat ice cream and cookies, and other indulgence foods are not loosing their popularity.
Starch
All starches have amylose-to-amylopectin ratios. As the amylopectin level increases, the thick-
ening potential increases.
Waxy corn starch containing 100% amylopectin generally forms weaker gel systems, but is
an excellent starch base for speciality starches. Starches that contain 50% to 80% amylose
molecules form very rigid gel systems.
The size of the starch granules is another important characteristic which is responsible for the
physical properties of starch.
Table 10.26: Amylose/Amylopectine Relation of Starches [925][926]
Starch Source % Amylose % Amylopectine Granule size Average size

Range (microm) ((microm)
Waxi rice 0 100 2 - 13 5.5

High amylose corn 70 30 4 - 22 9.8
Corn,native 28 72 5 - 25 14.3
Corn,waxi 5 95
Cassava 20 70 3 - 28 14
Waxi sorghum 0 100 3 - 27 16
Wheat 26 74 3 - 34 6.5, 19.5
Sweet potato 18 82 4 - 40 18.5
Arrow root 21 79 9 - 40 23
Sago 26 74 15 - 50 33
Potato 20 80 10 - 70 36
Labelling of modified starches: Modified starches must be labelled as such, using either
the number or the name given in the table below.
In order to keep the label clean, special starches are being developed with native starch la-
belling. They have the same texture, viscosity and mouthfeeling of chemically modified ones.
Starch, physical modification: Physical modifications influence pre-cooking or pre-gelatinization
and cold water-swelling (which create good dispersibility). There are also modifications that
produce resistant starch.
Cross-linking: Cross-linking increases starch’s stability during processing conditions such

as heat, acids and mechanical shear. Cross-linking avoid viscosity loss and such conditions. It
reinforces hydrogen bonding of starch chain-to-starch chain with a covalent chemical bond.
Chemical modification of starch:The chemical modification of starch is regulated and lim-

ited by food regulations. Acetic anydride or hydroxypropyl groups substitute the hydrogen
atom of the hydroxyl groups of carbon 2, 3 and 6 resulting a steric configuration which avoids
the starch chains to hydrate with water. Hydrogen bonding with another starch chain cannot
take place. Such modified starches have a lower cook temperature, increased clarity and water
406
holding capacity.
Retrogradation is decreased resulting in increased cold storage stability and longer shelf-life.
Frozen foods: Production of frozen foods which are suitable to be thawen and heated in
microwave devices use waxy starches which is cross-linked and substituted.
Conventional breeding techniques: Conventional breeding techniques have created genetic

mutants with the result of waxy and high-amylose starches. By cross-breeding and through
cultivation the ability to form a phosphate ester is enhanced. Waxy-based corn starch is pop-
ular in the U.S.
Micro encapsulation
Microencapsulation is a technique which provides a protective film on flavours, vitamins, and
other components which are susceptible to evaporation, oxidation or heat damaging. Etheric
oils, flavourings vitamins and other highly damageable ingredients are spray-dried together
with starch providing a protective outer shell. Evaporation and oxidation is thus diminished
improving handling and storage.
Esterified starches are generally used for encapsulation. These starches have a lipophylic group
in their molecule giving them emulsifying properties.
Emulsifying starches are also used in beverages which avoid dairy components because of reli-
gious or health concerns. These starches can replace sodium caseinate and emulsify lipophilic
vitamins in these preparations.
Resistant starches: The nutritional value of resistant starch are used in low-carb products
to lowers the glycemic index.
Resistant starches are produced from high-amylose starches, partially depolymerizing it and
then allowing the smaller amylose chains of starch to reassociate and retrograde into a strong
crystalline structure that melts at a high temperature. They have white colour, bland taste
and low moisture binding ability.
The crystalline structure makes resistant starch resist human digestion.
Waxy maize starch containing 100% of amylopectin is highly branched and its derivative will be
a good substitute for gum Arabic which is also high branched being similar in its functionality.
Sometimes a combination of starches and gums such as xanthan gum can reduce slimy mouth-
feel which is a characteristic of some gums and some starches.
Table 10.27:
E-Numer INS-Number CAS Nr Mainterm
1400 009004-53-9 Dextrins, white and yellow
1401 065996-63-6 Acid treated starch
1402 Alkaline modified starch
1403 977075-42-5 Bleached starch
E1404 1404 065996-62-5 Oxidized starch
1405 Enzyme treated starch
E1410 1410 Monostarch phosphate
1411 058944-89-1 Distarch glycerol
E1412 1412 977088-75-7 Distarch phosphate
E1413 141 977043-58-5 3Phosphated distarch phosphate
E1414 1414 068130-14-3 Acetylated distarch phosphate
E1420 1420 Acetylated starch, mono starch acetate
1421 Acetylated starch, mono starch acetate
E1422 1422 Acetylated distarch adipate
1423 053123-84-5 Acetylated distarch glycerol
E1440 1440 009049-76-7 Hydroxypropyl starch
E1442 1442 053124-00-8 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate
1443 059419-60-2 Hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol
E1450 1450 066829-29-6 Starch sodium octenyl succinate
E1451 Acetylated oxidised starch
Normal native starches consist of a mixture of 15-30% amylose and 70-85% Amylopectin.
Amylose: Amylose is composed of 250 to 2000 units and is responsible for the gelling property
of starch. It is an unbranched helix chain. is a linear polymer of glucose linked with mainly
(14) bonds. It can be made of several thousands glucose units. [927]
The alfa(1-4) bonds promote the formation of a helix structure. The number of repeated
glucose subunits (n) can be many thousands. Amylose starch is less readily digested than amy-
lopectine. However it takes up less space so is preferred for storage in plants; it is how about
80% of the starch in plants is stored. The digestive enzyme amylase works on the ends of the
starch molecule, breaking it down into sugars. [927]
Amylopectine: Amylopectin . It is a branching molecule anhydroglucose with many branch

points. The molecular weight may reach as high as 80 000 000 and does not form a helical
coil. Glucose units are linked in a linear way with (14) bonds. Branching takes place with (16)
408
bonds occurring every 24 to 30 glucose units.
Its counterpart in animals is the glycogen (the principal storage form of glucose in animal
cells) which has the same composition and structure, but with more extensive branching that
occurs every 8 to 12 glucose units. [927]
Starch derivatives: Starch can be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates by acids, enzymes
or a combination of the two.
• Maltodextrin:It is a bland-tasting filler and thickener.
• Corn syrup: It is used as sweetener and thickener.
• Dextrose: It is glucose obtained by complete hydrolysis of starch.
• High fructose corn syrupIt is the most used sweetener in beverages. It is mainly fructose
resulting from dextrose solution under hydrolysis with the enzyme glucose isomerase
Reformulating Fruit Yoghurt: There are many yoghurt with fruit products on market.
Their content of added carbohydrates range from 11 to 13% of a mixture of sugar and glucose-
fructose syrup. This mixture is an outcome of the corn syrup industry and sweetens the yoghurt.
It manages shelf life of the Fruit Mix, its capability to be pumped over long distances and the
way to handle it reduces costs.
The growing concern about obesity needs to have a look on it. The idea of having a serv-
ing of fruits with the yoghurt suggests a healthy product. On account of adding up to 13% of
the mix of sugar, glucose-fructose, highly triggering the insulin mechanism, the diary business
starts researches for an urgent reformulation of the Fruit-Yoghurt.
Actual ingredients of fruit yoghurt is a mixture of 50% fruit and 50% Sugar-Glucose-fructose
from hydrolysed corn or sometimes wheat.
An alternative to the high fructose corn syrup content of fruit yoghurt a paste of banana paste,
cantaloup melon and other sweet tropical fruits could replace the syrup. These pastes give
the necessary rheologic stability to the fruit mixture and a natural sweetness. The modern
equipment and sanitising programs allow it to handle the product without spoilage.
Meanwhile some efforts are being done by some supermarket chains such as Lidl Stores selling
fruit yoghurt with sugar but without added glucose-fructose syrup. A small step, but a one in
the right direction.
Other like PLUS and ALDI Stores, also strong in the European Market, have much work
to phase out glucose-fructose syrup in fruit yoghurt.
Meanwhile the consumer should watch the ingredient list and avoid those products labelling
added glucose-fructose syrup which may lead to obesity and diabetes.
New fruit sweetener with low glycemic index [928]

A natural fruit concentrate produced in Spain by Wild Deprovesa from various fruits contains
a wide range of sugars with a balanced ratio of the carbohydrates fructose, glucose and sucrose
in the fruit concentrate as it occurs naturally in fruit concentrate blends has a glycemic index
of 34. That is the lowest index compared to other natural fruit sweeteners.
According to the producer some of the energy is available immediately, while the body also
receives energy on a more sustained basis, being perfect for sport drinks and suitable for use in
near water beverages, herbal or tea drinks with all-natural ingredients or beverages with a low
glycemic index, in dairy products, bakery and confectionery as well as ice cream products.
This new sweetener may help dairy industry to reformulate the fruit yoghurt, soft drinks and
other products using corn or wheat syrup leading to a clean label.
Glycemic index
The glycemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydrates on a scale from 0 to 100 according to
the extent to which they raise blood sugar levels after eating. Foods with a high GI are those
which are rapidly digested and absorbed and result in marked fluctuations in blood sugar levels.
Low-GI foods, by virtue of their slow digestion and absorption, produce gradual rises in blood
sugar and insulin levels. [929]
Low GI carbohydrates, producing small fluctuations in our blood glucose and insulin levels,
reduces the risk of heart disease and diabetes and helps to control weight.
According to the Glycemic Index low GI foods are breakfast cereals based on oats, barleyand
bran, breads with wholegrains, stone-ground flour, sour dough all other types of fruit and veg-
etables except potatoes, Basmati or Doongara rice, pasta, noodles, quinoa, salad vegetables
with a vinaigrette dressing Foods containing little or no carbohydrate (such as meat, fish, eggs,
avocado, wine, beer, spirits, most vegetables) cannot have a GI value. If the food has no
carbohydrates, it has no GI. [929]
Labelling of Glycemic Index Some foods on the Australian market already show their GI
rating on the nutrition information panel. Terms such as complex carbohydrates and sugars,
which commonly appear on food labels, are now recognised as having little nutritional or phys-
410
iological significance. The WHO/FAO recommend that these terms be removed and replaced
with the total carbohydrate content of the food and its GI value. [929]
Glycemic Index Databank The Human Nutrition Unit at the University of Sydney hosts
the GI Databank and tests foods on its Glycemic index. The Databank can be accessed at the
Glycemic Index.com homepage. [929]
International Table of Glycemic Index Jennie Brand Miller is the senior author of In-
ternational The International Tables of Glycemic Index published by the American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition in 1995 and 2002.
The GI has proven to be a more useful nutritional concept than is the chemical classification
of carbohydrate (as simple or complex, as sugars or starches, or as available or unavailable),
permitting new insights into the relation between the physiologic effects of carbohydrate-rich
foods and health. Two similar foods may have different ingredients or may have been processed
with a different method, resulting in significant differences in the rate of carbohydrate digestion
and hence the GI value. [934]
Glycemic load The glycemic load of a food is determined by multiplying its glycemic index
by its available carbohydrate content per serving. [935]
Glycemic index reducing risk of cardiovascular diseases and obesity [930]

A randomized, controlled trial conducted by Prof Jennie Brand-Miller, Joanna McMillan-Price
and colleagues from the University of Sydney compared the effects on weight loss and cardio-
vascular risk of lowglycemic index (GI) and high-protein diets. Four diets of varying GL on
weight loss and reducing cardiovascular disease risk in young overweight or obese adults.
Brand Miller and colleagues concluded that both high-protein and low-GI regimens increase
body fat loss, but cardiovascular risk reduction is optimized by a high-carbohydrate, low-GI
diet. The researchers conclude further that dietary glycemic load and not just overall energy
intake, influences weight loss and postprandial glycemia. Diets based on low GI wholegrain
products maximise cardiovascular risk reduction, particular if protein intake is high.
Peter Clifton, however disagrees with the conclusions of the study of Brand-Miller and col-
leagues. [931]
Reduction of Glycemic Load Reducing glycemic load may be especially important to

achieve weight loss among individuals with high insulin secretion. Regardless of insulin secre-
tion, a lowglycemic load diet has beneficial effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and
triglyceride concentrations but not on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration. [932]
Glycemic index and pregnancy Robert G Moses and colleagues compared the effects of
low-GI and conventional dietary strategies on pregnancy outcomes in healthy women. Glycemic
index may be of particular relevance during pregnacy because maternal glucose is the main
energy substrate for intrauterine growth. The authors found that birth weight and ponderal
index may predict chronic disease in later life. A low-GI diet may , therefore, favourably
influence long-term outcomes. [933]
High Glycemic Index may lead to high oxidative stress According to Hu and colleagues
2006 acute hyperglycemia may increase in vivo free radical production increasing the risk of
many diseases. Chronic consumption of high-GI foods may lead to chronically high oxidative
stress. A low-GI diet, not a low-carbohydrate diet, appears to be beneficial in reducing oxidative
stress. [936]
Encapsulation of flavours
Beta-cyclodextrin has become a viable flavour carrier and protectant for food applications.
Embuscado and Gottneid studied encapsulation of flavour. In their researches orange oil was
encapsulated as a model flavour via spray-drying using beta-cyclodextrin, gum arabic and a
starch n-octenylsuccinate with a starch hydrolyzate. They compared it with orange oil which
had been adsorbed respectively to lactose and a starch hydrolyzate.at room temperature and
at 45 C for up to 12 months. While the absorbed oil oxidized rapidly, while , the rate of
degradation was reduced to different extents by encapsulation with the starch octenylsuccinate
and gum arabic. Beta-cyclodextrin provided outstanding protection to the orange oil. [937]
Food additive additive List FDA http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ dms/opa-appa.html

The Food Additives Status List organizes additives found in many parts of 21 CFR into one
alphabetized list. Additives included are those specified in the regulations promulgated under
the FD&C Act, under Sections 401 (Food Standards), and 409 (Food Additives). The list also
includes selected pesticide chemicals from 40 CFR 180 for which EPA has set tolerances in
food.
The Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: The Electronic Code of Federal Regula-
tions Title 21 for Food and Drugs under paragraph 172.892 regulates modified food starches.
This is an informational database of more than 3000 total substances comprise an inventory
maintained by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Food Safety and
Applied Nutrition (CFSAN). [918]
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ dms/eafus.html
Complete List of modified food starch in US: In Food and Drug Administration Title 21-Food
and Drugs-Chapter 1 Food for Human Consumption all modified starches are cited. Special
informations concerning limitations are given. [919]
412
Interactions of Milk Proteins and Volatile Flavour Compounds [920]

Low-fat/low-sugar food market poses flavouring challenges. Protein or carbohydrates take the
place of fat but, according to Janina Kühn many proteins are able to bind several flavour com-
pounds tightly and influence the perceived aroma profile significantly.
Instead of focusing on model systems using one protein and one aroma compound in a so-
lution, Kühn calls for research on complex systems of several food matrix components and
flavour mixtures and their physicochemical interaction.
Kühn suggests the use of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) as fast, solvent-free, and very sensitive techniques to study binding mechanisms and
binding topology.
The review is focused on the binding of volatile flavour compounds by milk proteins in aqueous
solutions.
Sugar beet pectine as wall material for microencapsulation of oil [921]

Sugar beet pectin and glucose syrup is being proposed by Dr. Stephan Drusch as an alterna-
tive to milk proteins and gum Arabic for the spray-drying technique of microencapsulation of
lipophilic functional food ingredients, like omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Emulsions up to 50 per cent oil and 2.2 per cent sugar beet pectin with median oil droplet
sizes less than two micrometres, however, there may be a maximum limit on the amount of oil
that can be encapsulated.
Microencapsulation efficiency is being controlled by physicochemical parameters like particle

morphology, particle size and extractable fat, and tests on the oxidative stability of the micro-
capsules over time as well as flavour retention for aroma compounds are going on.
Peanut butter [922]

Peanut butter contains a minimum of 90% peanuts, with no artificial sweeteners, colors or
preservatives. Some brands add about 7% natural sweeteners and 1% salt for taste, plus a
stabilizer to keep the peanut butter fresh and the oil from separating. ”Old-fashioned” or ”nat-
ural” peanut butter does not have the stabilizer so the oil will separate and should be stirred
back in before using. Regular peanut butter contain less than 1% partially hydrogenated oil,
avoiding oil from separating out of the peanut butter and increases the shelf life of the peanut
butter. The amount of trans fat in regular peanut butter is less than 1%.
Under the proposed FDA labeling guidelines for trans fats, the peanut butter labels will list
0 trans fats. However, natural peanut butters do not contain partially hydrogenated oils. Oil
separates, simply stir it back in before using. For that, natural peanut butter mixer were de-
veloped. [924]
”Peanut butter spreads”, contain only 60% peanuts, but are nutritionally equivalent to peanut
butter (although they may contain more sugar or salt). But today there also are real peanut
butters on the market which are 25% reduced-fat and still contain at least 90% peanuts. [922]
Peanut butter and diabetes 2 [923]

Examining the relationship between nut consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes Jiang and
colleagues found in a Prospective cohort study of 83818 women that nut consumption was in-
versely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes.
The authors suggest potential benefits of higher nut and peanut butter consumption in lowering
risk of type 2 diabetes in women. To avoid increasing caloric intake, regular nut consumption
can be recommended as a replacement for consumption of refined grain products or red or
processed meats.
Increase intake of variety of plant components to fight prostate cancer [1552]

John Erdman and colleagues found in a study on implanted Dunning R3327-H prostate tumours
in rats that the combination of tomato and broccoli was more effective at slowing tumour growth
that either tomato or broccoli alone.
The authors believe that different bioactive compounds, such as lycopene in tomatoes and glu-
cosinolates in broccoli in each food work on different anti-cancer pathways the public health.
This supports the older recommendations to increase the intake of a variety of plant compo-
nents. The authors call for future human prevention trials based on dietary interventions and
highlight that it is very doable for a man to eat a cup and a half of broccoli per day or put
broccoli on a pizza with half a cup of tomato paste.
Based on this study, Erdman concludes that tomatoes are better than lycopene supplement,
and that chopping and heating makes the cancer-fighting constituents of tomatoes and broccoli
more bioavailable. Cooked tomatoes had been found healthier than fresh ones.
Effect of broccoli and tomatoes Effect in humans remain still unclear Dr Julie
Sharp of Cancer Research UK commenting the study of Professor John Erdman said that
both broccoli and tomatoes may contain chemicals with anticancer properties, their effects in
humans, however, are still unclear in face of conflicting results from other studies with people
using these vegetables.
414
The role of tomato products and lycopene in the prevention of prostate cancer
[1553]
Etminan and colleagues 2004 determined whether intake of tomato products reduces the risk
of prostate cancer using a meta-analysis. The researchers concluded that tomato products may
play a role in the prevention of prostate cancer. However, this effect is modest and restricted
to high amounts of tomato intake.
Further research is needed to determine the type and quantity of tomato products with re-
spect to their role in preventing prostate cancer.
Chapter 11
Baby Food and Infant Formulas
Infant nutrition [1554]

Infant nutrition consists of two phases:
1. Diet solely of breast milk or breast milk substitutes (first 4-6 months)
2. Diet with breast milk or breast milk substitutes supplemented with weaning food (at the
earliest from 5 months, at the latest from 7 months.
If a mother is unable to or does not breastfeed, breast milk substitutes can be given to healthy,
full-term infants:
a - Infant formula can replace breast milk from birth onwards and like breast milk is suitable as
the sole source of food for the first four to six months. After that infant formula plus weaning
food can be given throughout the first year of life. In Germany and in the European Union
there are four types of infant formula:
- based on cow’s milk protein with lactose as the sole carbohydrate.
- based on cow’s milk protein with other carbohydrates besides lactose
- based on soy bean protein isolate (N.B.: this food is only lactose-free in Germany)
- based on partially hydrolysed (cleaved) protein (name HA). This initial food is intended for
non-breast fed infants from families with a history of allergies.
b - Follow-on formula can replace breast milk at the earliest from the fifth month onwards.
It is not suitable from birth onwards as it is not adapted to the needs of the very young infant.
There is no compelling reason to switch from infant formula to follow-on formula.
c - Weaning food is the name for all dietary foods intended specifically for infants (and small
children) which should supplement the diet with breast milk or breast substitute products at the
earliest from the 5th month and at the latest from the 7th month onwards. It is recommended
that weaning food be selected which corresponds to the Ernhrungsplan des Forschungsinstituts
fr Kinderernhrung in Dortmund (Nutrition Plan of the Research Institute for Children’s Nu-
trition in Dortmund) and to use them in the stipulated sequence.
415
416
Both for infant bottle formula and weaning food products there are especially stiff statu-
tory provisions concerning the composition, the use of additives (colouring agents, flavourings,
preservatives are banned), the bacteriological requirements and the limit values for residues
and contaminants which are uniform throughout the European Union
Infant Formula Regulations

For US laws, Regulations, and Guidance please refer to the US FDA/CFSAN Infant Formula
Homepage under Program Area: Infant Formula http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/
Codex Alimentarius: Draft Revised Standard for Infant Formula and Formulas for
Special Medical Purposes Intended for Infants [1555] [1556] [1557]
The Codex in its ALINORM 05/28/26(2004) - 06/29/26(2005) and 07/30/26 Rev(2006) lays
down the standard for the composition of infant formulas. Highlights of this standard are:
Definition of infant formula
Infant formula means a breast-milk substitute specially manufactured to satisfy, by itself, the
nutritional requirements of infants during the first months of life up to the introduction of
appropriate complementary feeding. Infant formula is so processed by physical means only and
so packaged as to prevent spoilage and contamination under all normal conditions of handling,
storage and distribution in the country where the product is sold. The term infant means a
person not more than 12 months of age.
Essential Composition
Infant formula is a product based on milk of cows or other animals and/or other ingredients
which have been proven to be suitable for infant feeding. The nutritional safety and adequacy
of infant formula shall be scientifically demonstrated to support growth and development of
infants.
All ingredients and food additives used shall be gluten-free.
Essential and semi-essential amino acids in breast milk

For an equal energy value the formula must contain an available quantity of each essential and
semi-essential amino acid at least equal to that contained in the reference protein (breast-milk
as defined in Annex 1.
Infant formula prepared ready for consumption in accordance with instructions of the man-
ufacturer shall contain per 100 ml not less than 60 kcal (250 kJ) and not more than 70 kcal
(295 kJ) of energy.
Isolated amino acids may be added to Infant Formula only to improve its nutritional value
for infants. Essential and semi-essential amino acids may be added to improve protein quality,
only in amounts necessary for that purpose. Only L-forms of amino acids shall be used.
Nutrients of infant formula

Nutrients in 100 g/ml are given in table 3.1.3 of the Standard.
Optional Ingredients
In addition to the compositional requirements listed under 3.1, other ingredients may be added
in order to provide substances ordinarily found in human milk and to ensure that the formula-
tion is suitable as the sole source of nutrition for the infant. Only L(+) producing lactic acid
cultures may be used.
Vitamin Compounds and Mineral Salts

Vitamins and minerals added should be selected from the Advisory Lists of Mineral Salts and
Vitamin Compounds for Use in Foods for Infants and Children (CAC/GL 10-1979). [1558]
Specific Prohibition
The product and its components shall not contain commercially hydrogenated oils and fats and
shall not have been treated by ionizing radiation.
Food Additives
In this standard part 4. the permitted food additives are grouped as thickening agents, emul-
sifiers, pH adjusting Agents, Antioxidants and packaging gas (propellants).
Contaminants
The standard sets a maximum level of lead of 0.02 mg/kg (in the ready-to-use product)
Hygiene
The product should comply with the appropriate sections of the following codes:
• Recommended International Code of Practice - General Principles of Food Hygiene (CAC/RCP

1 1969, Rev. 3 - 1997), [1559]
• Recommended International Code of Hygienic Practice for Foods for Infants and Children
(CAC/RCP 21-1979). [1560]
• Principles for the Establishment and Application of Microbiological Criteria for Foods
(CAC/GL 21-1997) [1561]
Fill of Container
In the case of products in ready-to-eat form, the fill of container shall be:
• Not less than 80% v/v for products weighing less than 150 g (5 oz.)
418
• Not less than 85% v/v for products in the weight range 150-250 g (5-8 oz.)
• Not less than 90% v/v for products weighing more than 250 g (8 oz.)
Labelling: Labelling should comply with Guideline:
• Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Prepacked Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985
(Rev. 1-1991), [1562]
• Codex Guidelines on Nutrition Labelling (CAC/GL 2-1985 (Rev.1-1993) [1563]
• Guidelines for Use of Nutrition and Health Claims [1564]
Labelling should contain:
The Name of the Food The name of the product shall be either ”Infant Formula” or any
appropriate designation indicating the true nature of the product, in accordance with national
usage.
The sources of protein in the product shall be clearly shown on the label.
If cow’s milk is the only source of protein, the product may be labelled ”Infant Formula Based
on Cow’s Milk”.
A product which contains neither milk or any milk derivative shall be labelled ”contains no
milk or milk products” or an equivalent phrase.
Products containing not less than 0.5 mg Iron (Fe)/ 100 kilocalories shall be labelled ”In-
fant Formula with added Iron”.
Or Products containing less than 0.5 mg Iron (Fe)/ 100 kcal shall be labelled with a state-
ment to the effect that when the product is given to infants over the age of four months, their
total iron requirements must be met from other additional sources.
List of Ingredients A complete list of ingredients shall be declared on the label in descending
order of proportion.
Declaration of Nutritive Value It should contain:
• The amount of energy, expressed in kilocalories (kcal) and/or kilojoules (kJ), and the
number of grammes of protein, carbohydrate and fat per 100 grammes or per 100 millilitres
of the food as sold as well as per 100 millilitres of the food ready for use, when prepared
according to the instructions on the label.
• The total quantity of each vitamin, mineral, choline as listed in paragraph 3.1.2 and any
other ingredient as listed in paragraph 3.2 of this Standard per 100 grammes or per 100
millilitres of the food as sold as well as per 100 millilitres of the food ready for use, when
prepared according to the instructions on the label.
• In addition, the declaration of nutrients in a) and b) per 100 kilocalories (or per 100
kilojoules) is permitted.
Other labelling requirements:
• The date of minimum durability (preceded by the words ”best before”) and storage in-
structions.
• Information for use.
• Labels should not discourage breastfeeding.
• Label should contain the statement ”Breastmilk is the best food for your baby” or a
similar statement as to the superiority of breastfeeding or breastmilk.
• Label should contain a statement that the product should only be used on advice of a
independent health worker as to the need for its use and the proper method of use.
• The label shall have no pictures of infants and women nor any other picture or text which
idealizes the use of infant formula. The terms ”humanized”, ”maternalized” or other
similar terms shall not be used.
• Information shall appear on the label to the effect that infants should receive supplemental
foods in addition to the formula, from an age that is appropriate for their specific growth
and development needs, as advised by an independent health worker, and in any case
from the age over six months.
• The products shall be labelled in such a way as to avoid any risk of confusion between
infant formula, follow-up formula, and formula for special medical purposes.
• No nutrition and health claims shall be made regarding the dietary properties of the
product.
Basic informations of the Codex guidelines for infant formulas

The Codex guidelines for infant formulas was based on the recommendations on the composi-
tional requirements for a global infant formula standard from Koletzko et al (2005) from the
European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN) which
had formed an International Expert Group (IEG) collecting data for the guidelines. [1565]
420
One important conclusion of the IEG was that infant formulae should only contain components
in such amounts that serve a nutritional purpose or provide another benefit. The inclusion
of unnecessary components, or unnecessary amounts of components, may put a burden on
metabolic and other physiologic functions of the infant. [1565]
Carlo Agostoni and Magnus Domellöf in an editoral in 2005 presented a list of recommended
concentrations of nutrients in infant formulae 19772005 which helped to fill a data gap. [1566]
Reduction of severity of diarrhoea with fermented infant formulae [1567]

Carlo Agostini and colleagues in an analysis found only limited published data on the effects of
fermented infant and follow-up formulae. In these products the lactic acid producing bacteria
are heat inactivated after the fermentation. Only 2 studies mentioned that some fermented
infant formulae may reduce the occurrence or severity of infectious diarrhoea in infants.
The authors recommend further studies on the effects of fermented infant formulae on in-
fectious diarrhoea and other relevant outcomes Available data do not allow general conclusion
on this matter.
11.1 Studies related infant formulas

The Euro-Growth Study on infant food [1568]
The Euro-Growth Study of milk feeding (Freeman, van’t Hof, Haschke 2000) found that at the
age of I month, 52% of the infants were exclusively breast fed and 26% were exclusively formula
fed.
At the age of 9 months, 18% of infants were fed only cow’s milk.
At the ages of 3, 4, and 5 months, 50%, 67%, and 95% of infants were fed solid foods, respec-
tively.
The study found high rates of breast-feeding initiation are found in Umea, Sweden, and in
Athens, Greece; and low rates in Dublin, Ireland, in Toulouse, France, and in Glasgow, United
Kingdom. The authors concluded that the use of cow’s milk as the main milk drink before the
age of 12 months is still common in certain European centres.
Leptin in infant formulas to prevent late obesity [1569]

Claire C. Stocker and colleagues (2007) report that supplementing infant rats’ diets with the
hormone leptin resulted in adult animals that did not fat or develop diabetes, even when fed a
high-fat diet. The researchers concluded that leptin levels during pregnancy and lactation can
affect the development of energy balance regulatory systems in their offspring.
Stocker points out that the absence of leptin is known to disrupt the development of energy
balance regulatory mechanisms. Adding leptin to infant formulas could turn baby foods more
similar to the composition of mother milk similar which contains leptin.
Breastfeeding may often not be possible because of health situation of the mother or for comod-
ity reasons. Thus well balanced infant formulas replicating the healthy profile of breast milk as
far as possible are essential for the fist months of life. This article started a discussion on leptin.
Leptin in new UK baby food [1575]

In UK new infant formula with leptin will be lauched in late 2007 with the intention to protect
from obesity and diabetes into adulthood. Leptin is present in milk but not in infant formulas.
Adding leptin could restore natural composition of baby food.
Leptin [1576]
Leptin is a hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure,
including the regulation (decrease)of appetite and metabolism.Leptin is produced by adipose
tissue and interacts with six types of receptor (LepRaLepRf). LepRb is the only receptor iso-
form that contains active intracellular signaling domains.
This receptor is present in a number of hypothalamic nuclei, where it exerts its effects. Impor-
tantly, leptin binds to the Ventral Medial nucleus of the hypothalamjus, known as the satiety
center. Binding of leptin to this nucleus signals to the brain that the body has had enough to
eat - a sensation of satiety.
Ways to tackle overweight [1577]

Absorption of fat molecules
Xenical (orlistat), Roche’s (Basel, Switzerland) drug that blocks the breakdown and absorption
of about 30% of dietary fats.
Studies on a fatty acid transporter (FATP4) which blocks the uptake of fatty acids which result
from the digestion of fat may replace Xenical.
Thermogenesis
Thyreoid hormones stimulating thermogenesis to burn off excessive caused loss of bone calcium.
Increasing the expression of uncoupling proteins (UCPs) to create heat and thus reduce risk of
obesity and agonists of the beta3-adrenergic receptor which also targets the energy output, are
being studied.
Feeling of satiety
Peptides produced by the gastrointestinal system and pancreas such as cholecystokinin (CCK),
and others include neuromedin B, gastrin-releasing peptide, and enterostatin naturally regulate
peripheral feelings of satiety and the amount of food consumed.
422
Centrally acting appetite suppressants in weight-reducing drugs such as Redux (dexfenflu-

ramine) and fenfluramine in combination with phentermine (acts as a noradrenaline reuptake
inhibitor) in the fen-phen diet drug were approved by FDA in 1996 and withdrawn in the same
year because of link to heart valve damage. [1578]
Dexfenfluramine boosted serotonin levels by stimulating its release and inhibited its reuptake.
The American Home Products (AHP) company is being sued for withholding and concealing
informations on the safety of the drug. The company still researches on serotonergic control
systems, however, it concentrates on mice studies targeting the 5-HT2c subtype of receptor
5-HT.
Leptin, a fat-regulating hormone

Jeffrey Friedman and his team (2002) discovered the ”ob” gene, which underlies the gross obe-
sity in the ob/ob strain of mice. Injecting leptin back into the ob/ob mice appetites were
reduced and the excess weight was lost. [1570]
Jeff Flier, an obesity researcher at Harvard’s Beth Israel Deaconess stressed the fact that high
levels of endogenous leptin in obese people had been found, suggesting that sensitivity to leptin
is lost and cannot be restored by further elevation of the compound. The company Amgen
is still working on new formulations on the product. It has been used successfully to treat a
handful of severely obese children who have an inherited deficiency in the hormone.
Researchers now suspect that obese people appear to be resistant to leptin because the hormone
is not transported into the brain.
Leptin is produced by fat cells, circulating in the blood to the hypothalamus where it works
through a number of nuclei and pathways to reset the body’s weight controller. As fat levels
increase, leptin levels rise, triggering a reduction of food intake and increasing metabolism.
Leptin inhibits the release of neuropeptide Y (NPY), a small protein that increases appetite.
Leptin effects
Leptin is related to the alfa-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alfa-MSH), which is actually a
fragment of the precursor protein POMC.alfa-MSH acts through the MCR-4 receptor to reduce
appetite.
Leptin increases the production of the SOCS-3 (suppressor of cytokine signaling-3) protein,
which terminates its activity at the leptin receptor. The SOCS-3 a regulator of the leptin
signaling pathways in healthy individuals, it is overactive in obese patients.
Researchers of Johns Hopkins University discovered that malonyl coenzyme A inhibits NPY
independently of leptin, decreasing appetite in mice and might lead to eight loss in humans.
Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF)

George Yancopoulos of Regeneron tested Axokine (ciliary neurotrophic factor, CNTF) as a
treatment of a disease noted that the drug used the same signaling pathway as leptin with
the effect of weight reduction. There are hope that the drug has better effects compared with
leptin, but it must be injected, because it is not stable by oral intake.
Fatty acid synthase inhibitors (cerulenin and compound C75) [1571]

Francis P. Kuhajda and colleagues (2000) identified a link between anabolic energy metabolism
and appetite control. According to the authors treating mice with fatty acid synthase (FAS)
inhibitors (cerulenin and a synthetic compound C75) inhibited feeding and caused a dramatic
weight loss. C75 inhibited expression of the prophagic signal neuropeptide Y in the hypotha-
lamus and acted in a leptin-independent manner that appears to be mediated by malonyl-
coenzyme A. They conclude that FAS may become important in feeding regulation.
Fatty acid synthase (FAS) and carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 [1572]

Gabriele V. Ronnett and colleaugues (2006) say that fatty acid synthase (FAS) catalyzes the
synthesis of long-chain fatty acids, whereas the breakdown of fatty acids by beta-oxidation is
regulated by carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, the rate-limiting enzyme for the entry of fatty
acids into the mitochondria for oxidation.
Studies indicate that inhibition of FAS or stimulation of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 using

cerulenin or synthetic FAS inhibitors reduces food intake with resulting weight loss. compounds
also increase energy consumption. The authors say that at least part of C75’s effects is me-
diated by modulation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, a member of an
energy-sensing kinase family, and conclude that these effects could be useful in obesity therapy.
Leptin and melanocortin activity on the hypothalamus [1574]

Shimizu and colleagues (2007) note that the brain hypothalamus coordinates extra-hypothalamic
regions to maintain energy homeostasis through the regulation of food intake and energy
expenditure. According to these authors leptin and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived
alfa-melanocyte-stimulating hormone are key anorectic molecules, and the leptin receptor and
POMC gene are both expressed in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus. Data support the concept
of a leptin-independent melanocortin signaling system in the regulation of energy homeostasis.
The position of the charity Weight Concern [1573]

According to Dr. Ian Campbell, medical director of the charity Weight Concern leptin has
proved to be a great disappointment, and most of us have plenty and true deficiencies are rare.
Obese people tend to have higher than normal levels.
424
Chapter 12
Food Advertising
It is unclear how child’s behaviour is affected by the comprehension by the intends of food
advertising. Research conducted by the broadcast advertising regulator, Ofcom, in 2004 raises
this important question.
Food industry forcing marketing to exploiting human weaknesses

The food physicist professor Malcolm Povey studying the application of ultrasound to the de-
termination of the properties of foods has shown that ultrasound is generated when biting into
crunchy food. These sounds are analysed by the ears and mouth. Recordable ultrasound pulses
could be used by food manufacturers to determine the crispy/crunchy texture of their products.
Povey says that the sound and feel of food in the mouth is as important as taste, look and
smell in deciding whether we like something or not. The results of his researches show a very
high correlation with the results by professional tasters.
He concludes that the machine-measured test is a quick and simple way to check consistency of
products once the desired texture for a product has been decided. This can turn out to become
an important test in quality checks in the laboratory of food industry.
Promotional material in television programming

Advertising remains the main source of finance for EU TV broadcasters. The EU report from
the Commission examined the development or evolution in current practices, such as product
placement or spot advertising, the handling of different techniques, such as interactive adver-
tising, split screen techniques and virtual advertising to see whether they are used and whether
specific regulation exists.
The preliminary results of the study show that these new techniques are in their infancy, and
have not, as yet, a real financial impact on media advertising revenues. Indeed as the figures
425
426
show, between 96-99% of all advertising revenue across the different media is still on traditional
advertising. [1143]
For scheduled broadcasting, the Commission proposes to remove red tape, make existing rules
more flexible for new forms of advertising, and encourage self- and co-regulation. Instead of de-
tailed prescriptions on how often and under which conditions programmes may be interrupted
by advertising, the modernised Directive would simplify the existing EU rules.
In the future, broadcasters would be able to choose the best moment to insert advertising
in programmes, rather than being obliged, as they are now, to allow at least 20 minutes be-
tween advertising breaks.
However, the quantity of advertising would not be allowed to increase as the Commission
proposes to maintain the existing 12 minutes per hour ceiling.
The new Directive would also support new forms of advertising, such as split-screen, virtual
and interactive advertising. Product placement would, for the first time, be explicitly defined
and provided with a clear legal framework. [1144]
Except in news, current affairs and children’s programmes, clearly identified product place-
ment would be permitted in Europe, both in linear and non-linear audiovisual services. To
prevent surreptitious advertising, consumers would be informed at the start of a programme
that product placement is in use.
These new rules should remove legal uncertainty, provide additional funding for European
productions and thus enhance the competitiveness of Europe’s audiovisual sector. [1145]
The ”Television Without Frontiers” Directive (TVWF Directive) rests on two basic princi-
ples: the free movement of European television programmes within the internal market and
the requirement that television channels, where practicable, reserve over half their broadcasting
time for European works (”broadcasting quotas”).
The proposed revision of the Television Without Frontiers directive 89/552/EEC partially lifts
regulations on advertising and product placement. Junk food marketing may thus be legal
during minor broadcasting times and contribute to elevated obesity.
Product placement is the paid-for placement of goods in movies, shows and even news pro-
grammes. The could be this source of income. Product placement is currently illegal in most
EU states.
The watchdog Which? analysing marketing devices Soft drink and junk food product used
to persuade children to demand high-fat high-sugar junk foods has found a number of products
carrying misleading labels or inadequate information about nutritional content and actively
promoting themselves as perfect for lunch boxes or can be classed as potential lunch box ma-
terial such as:
Capri Sun Blackcurrant drink having lots of blackcurrants shown on the front of the pack
when in actual fact it contains only 5.1 per cent of blackcurrants. There is a similar amount of
apple content (4.9 per cent) but this is only mentioned on the back of the pack. [1146]
During a discussion about children’s diets and the promotion of food launched by the UK
FSA one study was presented which found that the more a child watched food adverts on tele-
vision, the more snacks and calories they ate. It was stressed that the diet being advertised is
far from a healthy nutritious one: fun, fantasy, or taste are the lures. [1147]
Under the newly proposed Television Without Frontiers Directive, companies will not be allowed
to use product placement in children’s programmes, although prime-time family television will
be exempt from this rule.
Junk-food advertisers use to pay sports and pop celebrities to endorse foods, many of them
being not properly balanced diets. [1147]
The Union of European Beverages Associations (Unesda) said some of its members would
stop advertising soft drinks to children under the age of 12.
According to UNESDA the development of obesity is related to a number of different con-

tributing factors. The genetic make-up of an individual plays a key role in the development of
obesity countries c
Physical activity levels have fallen so dramatically so that even despite consuming lower energy
intakes, we are still, on average, eating too much for our needs despite falling total calorie
consumption. [1148]
The International Association for the Study of Obesity (IASO) [1149]

The International Association for the Study of Obesity is an umbrella organisation for na-
tional obesity associations. In 2002, the International Association for the Study of Obesity and
the International Obesity TaskForce (IOTF) merged. The IOTF as part of IASO is working
with partners in the Global Prevention Alliance to support new strategies to improve diet and
activity and prevent obesity and related chronic diseases with a special focus on preventing
childhood obesity. [1150]
According to International Obesity Task Force head Professor Philip James, the governments
should use the health clauses allowed under WTO rules to protect people’s health. He regrets
428
failure of the Doha Development Agenda in 2006 which aimed to free global trade by cut-
ting industrial and agricultural tariffs and by reducing farm subsidies, with a special focus on
achieving concrete benefits for developing countries.
James argues that unchanged farm policies could continue to damage people’s health due to
overproduction of oil, fat and sugar , largely due to government subsidies to protect farm in-
dustry revenues.
Call for ban of junk food advertising at the International Congress on Obesity
in Sydney 2006 [1151]
IASO president Professor Claude Bouchard calls for a ban of advertising junk foods and non-
nutritious foods aimed at children. He sees junk food as the core of the problem of obesity.
Australians federal Health Minister Tony Abbott, however, ruled out banning junk food com-
mercials, saying it is parents’ responsibility to monitor what their children eat.
Professor Arne Astrup, a Danish expert on obesity, supported banning junk food commercials
referring to the good results of banning trans fatty acids in in Danish food.
Marketing and brand exposures on young children influences taste preferences.

[1152]
According to Robinson and colleagues 2007 children preferred the tastes of foods and drinks
if they thought they were from McDonald’s. Greater effects of branding among children with
more television sets in their homes and children who ate food from McDonald’s more often
were found.
The authors conclude that branding of foods and beverages influences young children’s taste
perceptions, urging to regulate marketing to young children. The researchers suggest branding
as a useful strategy for improving young children’s eating behaviours.
The White Paper on nutrition, overweight and obesity. [1153]

The white paper on A Strategy for Europe on Nutrition, Overweight and Obesity related health
issues was adopted by the European Commission on 30.05.2007. It is based on the EU Platform
for Action on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, initiated in 2005, and green paper on pro-
moting healthy diets and physical activity 2005. The paper contains principles for action and
partnership approach. It focuses better-informed consumer, allowing them to make informed,
evidence-based decisions about what foods to buy to tackle obesity. [1153]
The Commission’s preference, at this stage, is to keep the existing voluntary approach at EU
level due to the fact that it can potentially act quickly and effectively to tackle rising overweight
and obesity rates. [1153]
Voluntary efforts to ensure adverts aimed at children should be combined with rules at the
level of individual member states, such as those recently implemented by the Office of Com-
munication in the UK. Industry has already taken important steps but these have not always
been uniform across products and Member States. Some Member States are encouraging re-
formulation of foods, for example in terms of their levels of fat, saturated and trans fats, salt
and sugar. [1153]
All these reformulations (and there are only few of them) took place under heavy pressure
of consumer associations or retailers fearing bad publicity.
The CIAA has fought against being seen as a scapegoat for obesity and welcomes the White
Paper, enforcing physical exercise to reduce obesity, and refers to its own Brochure [1154] [1155]
Eurocommerce, speaking for its members, welcomes the White Paper stressing the importance
of education programme in schools, since nutrition and healthy lifestyle education should start
at an early age. [1156]
The European Consumers Organisation BEUC, however, says the White Paper is disappointing
because it relies on revision of nutritional labelling. Advertising of food for children is men-
tioned vaguely about partnerships and voluntary measures, with a review in 2010.
BEUC says what consumers urgently need is simple and understandable on-pack labelling to
help them make the most appropriate nutritional choices, since they cannot rely on advertising.
Promotion of foods high in fat, sugar and salt for children exerts pressure on parents, but the
solution, relies on the source of pressure on advertising. [1157]
The 100-calorie packs [1158]

Introducing 100-calorie packs was a good idea. The portion control may help consumers control
their cravings. Its the good feeling when the empty container is discarded.
However, according to CSPI Executive Director Michael F. Jacobson. 100-calorie packs cost,
on average, about two-and-a-half times as much per ounce as similar products in larger packages.
Shoppers may not notice the price differences since most varieties of 100-calorie packs are
priced similarly to a box of cookies or crackers, at about 3 USD per box. But consumers who
want to control their weight, could save money by divvying up their regular box themselves if
they are worried about downing the whole container. Or better yet, they could skip the junk
foods altogether and reach for a piece of fruit.
430
Eating regularly in some fast-food chain outlets is unsafe in many parts of the
world according to a study presented at the 15th European Congress on Obesity
Budapest. [1159] [1160]
Food quality and portion sizes need to be improved dramatically, according to the Copenhagen
University research group, led by Prof Steen Stender, who found major variations in the quality
of products offered by the same chains across 35 countries.
Fast foods examined in the global survey were found to have not just a high fat content,
but also up to 17 times the level of trans-fatty acids legally permitted in Denmark, which in-
troduced a ban in 2004. Business directors deliberately breaching the Danish restriction could
face stiff fines and up to two years in jail.
Countries with unsafe foods: Eastern Europe fared particularly badly in the survey with
Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland and the Czech Republic topping the table with levels of unhealthy
trans-fats accounting for 29-34% of the fat content.
Countries meeting the Danish standard: Fast food in India, Russia, Spain and in Scot-
land met the Danish standard requiring less than 2% of the total fat content in a product to
be trans-fats.
Wide discrepancies with McDonald’s food: Checks on McDonald’s also revealed wide
discrepancies, with the highest percentage of trans-fats found in Oman at 20%. In the United
Kingdom, samples in London, Glasgow and Aberdeen reached 15-16%, with levels of 14-15%
in Hong Kong, Poland and South Africa, compared to 14-16% found in US outlets.
After analysing 74 samples of French fries and fried chicken (nuggets/hot wings) bought in
McDonalds and KFC outlets in 35 countries in 2005 and 2006, they concluded that the idea
that a typical fast-food meal was the same worldwide was ”a myth”.
According to Prof Arne Astrup the companies selling foods with high levels of trans-fat disre-
gard customers’ health. They will only really respond when there are regulations as tough as
they are in Denmark.
Recommendations to Fast Food chains: The authors suggest fast food chains should
provide reliable nutritional information, which requires better standardisation of the foods
used and recommend suppliers take action to reduce portions to ”normal” sizes and eliminate
industrially produced trans fat, as well as offering burgers made of lean meat, whole grain
bread/buns, fat-reduced mayonnaise, add more vegetable, lower-fat fried potatoes and reduced-
sugar soft drinks.
International code needed to protect children from Internet and TV marketing

Excesses
IOTF media release, noon Tuesday September 5 2006
Youngsters should be protected from exploitative marketing techniques used on the internet
as well as from television advertising as part of an all out bid to halt the rise in childhood
obesity, according to a new report from the public health think tank, the International Obesity
TaskForce released today. [1161]
With the global epidemic of obesity already triggering the development of type 2 diabetes in
increasing numbers of children, the IOTF, part of the International Association for the Study
of Obesity (IASO), said an internationally enforceable code was needed to give clear principles
for governments, industry and others to follow.
IASO agreed during its International Congress on Obesity taking place in Sydney, Australia,
this week, to demand a ban of all advertising of junk foods and non-nutritious foods aimed at
children.
The call to action is also being considered by members of the Global Prevention Alliance,
a consortium of concerned NGOs. The Alliance includes the World Heart Federation, the In-
ternational Diabetes Federation, the International Pediatric Association and the International
Union of Nutritional Sciences, led by IASO. It works to combat childhood obesity and obesity-
related chronic disease through high level policy initiatives, with a global network of national
Alliance groups.
The proposal calls on WHO member states to ask WHO to take the lead, with other UN
agencies, governments, international partners and other stakeholders, to develop international
standards to protect children.
Alongside the think tank report, an IOTF group today launched its draft recommendations
- the Sydney Principles - proposing a range of actions that governments, the private sector and
international bodies like WHO should take. These include proposals that government should:
• Support the rights of the child to adequate safe and nutritious food
• Provide substantial protection to children against commercial exploitation
• Implement statutory measures rather than rely on self regulation

432
• Take a wide definition of promotion to include all marketing techniques, including the
internet
• Commit to commercial-free schools and other settings
• Include cross border media to regulate satellite, internet and terrestrial broadcasting
• Monitor and enforce compliance with a new international code
Professor Boyd Swinburn, President of the Australasian Society for the Study of Obesity, who
convened the IOTF group which developed the proposals, said: ”At the moment, the need
to protect children from commercial exploitation was being largely overlooked by the food
and advertising industries. We need to recognize that everyone in society has a responsibility
to ensure we provide healthy environments for children, and also to seek the highest standards.”
They would be inviting feedback from the congress delegates in Sydney, and was consulting
more widely with interested parties, before publishing a final paper on its findings.
The IOTF report highlighted the failures of self-regulation favoured by industry, because self
regulation lacked the means to control the ”cumulative effect” of intense marketing targeting
children. Dr Tim Lobstein, coordinator of the IOTF’s childhood obesity working group, and
author of the new report, said that powerful evidence was emerging of the way in which adver-
tising games on the internet were being used to bypass even the present minimal standards of
conduct adopted by food and beverage advertisers.
Research undertaken by the Kaiser Family Foundation in the USA found that 85of businesses
advertising to children on television also had interactive websites for children promoting branded
products, which incorporated not only games but promotions, using viral marketing techniques,
membership opportunities, as well as movies and television tie-ins. [1162]
Over 12.2 million children had visited commercial websites promoting food and beverage prod-
ucts over a three month monitoring period last year. In the UK the Food Commission found
that most major food brands had sites designed to attract children as young as six years old.
A separate new analysis of the use of the internet to target children has revealed that even
existing weak voluntary advertising codes are being breached routinely on websites targeting
children. ”While the regulators, or even the industry itself in various countries, through self-
regulation, has regulated advertising to children and pledged responsible marketing to this seg-
ment, the same advertisers appear to forget the promises as soon as they are advertising online.
As such, they are in breach of the spirit of the current self-regulatory provisions that apply to
other forms of marketing communications”, a team of marketing experts from the Middlesex
University Business School concluded in their report, Analysing Advergames: Active Diversions
or Actually Deception. [1163]
The Middlesex report highlighted the use of pressure to purchase, with some websites requir-
ing purchases before children could play online games, and one popular children’s sweet brand
requiring children to find the magic code. ”This practice would appear very dubious, as this
practice appears to clearly entice young consumers to purchase the products - a point that is
clearly ruled out in the code of conduct,” the authors observed. Viral marketing downloads
and links from advergames to corporate websites were ”against the spirit of the self regulation
system’s provisions,” they added.
The authors concluded: ”While it is relatively easy to control the content of television and
print advertising, controlling the content of online advertising, and advergames with different
levels in particular is a lot more complex and demanding on a regulator. At the same time
the global reach of the internet throws open the question who should ultimately regulate such
websites, and which code of conduct should they follow?”
The need for WHO to deal with the issue of marketing to children was recognized in the
WHO Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health approved unanimously by minis-
ters at the World Health Assembly in 2004. WHO is preparing to publish a report on marketing
to children after it convened a conference and expert consultation held in Oslo in May 2006;
WHO is also inviting European Health Ministers to adopt a Charter on Obesity in November,
which will include reference to the marketing issue.
”The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that children should be protected
from economic exploitation and also defines how the advertising world should not take advan-
tage of the gullibility of children.”
”We need to take a much firmer position in tackling this. If we are to succeed in the halt-
ing the global epidemic of childhood obesity, we must challenge all governments, the whole of
the business world, and society at large to join with us in tackling this together,” said Neville
Rigby, director of policy and public affairs of the IASO. The IOTF briefing on marketing to
children is available for download from the IOTF website: www.iotf.org
IOTF paediatric cutoffs questioned by L D Voss [1167]

Paediatric cutoffs from the age of 2 years for overweight and obesity, based on adult thresholds
published by the International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) were questioned by L D Voss and
colleagues, saying that until we understand more about which children acquire such risk factors,
any such thresholds for overweight and obesity should be used with caution in the very young,
as they may unnecessarily stigmatise the heavier child.
Other IOTF associated activities against obesity

434
EU Platform for Action on Diet, Physical Activity and Health [1164]

Under the leadership of the Commission was launched in 2005, bringing together industry asso-
ciations, consumer groups, health NGOs and political leaders to take voluntary action to halt
and hopefully reverse the rise in obesity, particularly among children. Poor diet and lack of
exercise are among the leading causes of avoidable death in Europe.
World Heart Federation [1165]

The World Heart Federation is committed to helping the global population achieve a longer
and better life through prevention and control of heart disease and stroke, with a focus on low
and middle-income countries. It is comprised of 189 medical societies and heart charities from
more than 100 countries.
The World Heart Federation members and partners run the World Heart Day 2006, taking
place on Sunday 24th September.
The International Diabetes Federation[1166]

The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) is the only global advocate for people with di-
abetes and their healthcare providers. We work together with our member associations to
enhance the lives of people with diabetes worldwide. Our mission is to promote diabetes care,
prevention and a cure worldwide.
IDF has evolved into an umbrella organization of over 190 diabetes associations in more than
150 countries. IDF is a non-governmental organization in official relations with the World
Health Organization.
International Pediatric Association [1168]
IOTF - SCOPE programme [1169]

The IOTF - SCOPE programme is a major initiative to tackle the growing epidemic of obesity
with a campaign for improved medical education and a new register of obesity expertise in
Europe The IOTF - SCOPE programme (SCOPE stands for Specialist Certification of Obesity
Professional in Europe) will recognize and encourage high standards for top rank obesity clin-
icians.
How the brain can be fooled by anticipating messages [1170]

Dr Jack Nitscke from the University of Wisconsin-Madison found that subjects were led to
believe that a highly aversive bitter taste would be less distasteful than it actually was.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging were used to demonstrate that expectancy modulates
neural responses in humans. the primary taste cortex was less strongly activated.
This study published in the journal Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity demonstrates how an-
ticipation of sensory input can influence the human brain to react in a prescribed way.
The power of anticipation can help in the treatment of certain psychological conditions, but
also helps the food marketing to turn the expectation of the product higher as the product in
reality has to offer.
Pavlovian conditioning and food advertising

[938] John P. O’Doherty and colleagues found that food preferences are acquired through ex-
perience and can exert strong influence on choice behavior. In order to choose which food to
consume, it is necessary to maintain a predictive representation of the subjective value such as
a name brand of the associated food stimulus.
In a study published in 2006, the scientists found a Pavlovian conditioning association in

subjects using blackcurrant, melon, grapefruit, and carrot juices and a tasteless, odourless con-
trol solution. Pavlov conditioning was first studied in dogs associating a stimulus such as a
bell with food. The authors say that associating brand items with other rewarding or appetite
stimuli accounts for efficacy and power of advertising.
This study demonstrates the dangers of food advertising in the hands of global players condi-
tioning buyers to certain brands such as baby food, liquor, snacks and sweets.
Debate over advertising children s products

[939] [940] Many cereal companies, among them Kellogg s, are promoting ready to eat breakfast
as a healthier option compared with kids who skip breakfast eating nothing.
In a study leaded by Kellogg s schoolboys eating Kellogg s Cornflakes were more energised
and alert than those who hat eaten nothing. The TV spot claimed:
”Research shows that when they eat a cereal like ours, kids are on average 9 per cent more
alert.”
”Alertness measured by parents, comparing 63 children eating Kellog’s Corn Flakes to 34 chil-
dren skipping breakfast.”
The UK Advertising Standards Agency (ASA) suggested to compare children who ate Kel-
logg’s Cornflakes with those eating their normal breakfast.
The ASA found that the research behind it was not ’robust enough’ and claims it contained
were ’misleading’. ASA asked Kellogg’s not to show the television advert.
436
Other ads were found to be backed on researches which were not rigorous enough to justify the
claims:
St.Ivel’s ”advance milk”, suggesting the product could make children cleverer.
Flora pro.activ claiming the product keeps blood vessels healthy as well as lowering cholesterol.
All ads were asked to be pulled.
The industry has proposed a so called fourth solution which proposes a ban on food and drink
advertising on terrestrial channels at times when children are likely to be watching television
and a restriction on the amount of food and drink advertising on children’s satellite/digital and
cable channels.
The industry tries to avoid an all-out ban which would be damaging to the food and ad-
vertising industries and the broadcasters.
Food labelling
Statutes governing food labelling are codified in the United States Code (U.S.C.). Adminis-
trative agency regulations implementing the statutory requirements are codified in the Code of
Federal Regulations (C.F.R.).
History of US Food Labelling Regulation: [941]
1906: Federal regulation of food labelling began in 1906. The Pure Food and Drugs Act
of 1906, which covered all foods except for meat and meat products, included limited provi-
sions related to food labelling. Primarily, false or misleading label information was prohibited,
and a net contents statement was required for foods in packaged form. In implementing this
law, however, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (and its predecessor agencies) had no
authority to adopt substantive labelling requirements.
1927: The Caustic Poison Act, lobbied through Congress in 1927 by Dr. Chevalier Jackson and
the American Medical Association, required labels to warn parents and protect children from
accidental injury and death caused by lye and 10 other caustic chemicals. In 1960 thousands of
other chemical products for home use came under FDA control when the Hazardous Substances
Labeling Act was passed. To administer this law and subsequent amendments which expanded
it, FDA developed an effective consumer safety program. With the passage of the Consumer
Product Safety Act, in 1972, the FDA Bureau of Product Safety became the operating organi-
zation of a new independent Consumer Product Safety Commission.
1938: The 1906 Act was replaced in its entirety by the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(FDC Act) of 1938, thereby beginning the modern era of federal regulation of food labelling.
In addition to prohibiting false or misleading information, the FDC Act included requirements
that the label of a food product bear a statement of product identity, net contents declaration,
ingredients declaration, and identification of the manufacturer, packer, or distributor.
1962:A drug tragedy in Europe, the births of thousands of deformed infants whose moth-
ers had taken the new sedative thalidomide triggered the release of the Drug Amendments of
1962. Drug firms were required to send adverse reaction reports to FDA, and drug advertising
in medical journals was required to provide complete information to the doctor – the risks as
well as the benefits.
1990:The Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 (NLEA) amended the FDC Act
and added several important elements of the food label. For the first time, nutrition labeling
(”Nutrition Facts”) was required for essentially all packaged foods. Federal requirements for
nutrient content claims
References:
FDA: The FDA Food Labeling web pages address the labeling requirements for foods under the
Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act and its amendments. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/label.html
Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements: The Office of Nutritional

Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements (ONPLDS) is responsible for developing policy
and regulations for dietary supplements, nutrition labeling and food standards, infant formula
and medical foods as well as for scientific evaluation to support such regulations and related
policy development. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ dms/onplds.html
Industry information Guidance and Regulations: All relevant regulations regarding

food labelling in US is available at the site of the FDA. Regulations related to nutrient content
claims, comparative claims, health claims, nutriton labelling, small business food labelling ex-
cemption, import and export regulation. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ dms/lab-ind.html
Center for FoodSafety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) : Overview and history of FDA
and the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/list.html
Common nutrition labelling scheme

The EU Directive Council Directive 90/496/EEC of 24 September 1990 on nutrition labelling
for foodstuffs to be delivered as such to the ultimate consumer There have been initiatives to
settle a common nutrition labelling scheme to guide the consumer to a better understanding of
the nutritional facts demanded by this directive. [942]
438
European Food Information Council (EUFIC) [943]

According to an EUFIC consumer research conducted in 2004 many consumers do not under-
stand the language and the principles of nutritional measurement and the nutrition labels do
not play a real role in their assessment of the nutritional qualities of foods or the management
of their diets.
However, calories are widely understood. Energy intake was identified as the nutritional infor-
mation concept that is the most widely understood across different European markets.
EUFIC tested young adults, families and the elderly in France, Germany, the Netherlands
and the United Kingdom to determine if communicating energy-based concepts on the front
and back of products increases consumer engagement and understanding of nutrition informa-
tion.
Different energy-based information concepts, like front of pack ’calories per 100g’to a ’full
option’ that included energy information in relation to daily energy needs for men and women,
calories per portion and the amount of exercise needed to burn off the calories contained within
the product.
EUFIC concluded that the consumer sees the front-of-pack flags as a true innovation and liked
them immediately. Most consumers would like to see them on all packs. The front-of-pack flags
were clearly seen as a complement and certainly not a replacement for the current back-of-pack
nutrition labels.
CIAA The Nutrition Labelling Scheme [944]

In July 2006, the The Confederation of the Food and Drink Industries of the EU (CIAA)
launched an initiative recommending front-of-pack and back-of-pack nutrition labelling, based
on a uniform list of nutrients, nutrition information per serving and the introduction of Guide-
line Daily Amounts (GDAs). The CIAA scheme, recommended as a voluntary system, has been
developed in line with the requirements of current EU legislation (Directive 90/496/EC):
Front-of-pack: Clear statement of the Calories per serving, along with the percent GDA
these Calories represent.
Back-of-pack Inclusion of three elements:
1. List of nutrients (energy, protein, carbohydrate, sugars, fat, saturated fat, fibre and
sodium/salt)
2. Nutrition information per serving, in addition to the required 100g / 100ml
3. GDAs for the public-health sensitive nutrients - energy, fat, saturated fat, sugars, sodium/salt.
Mislabelling or Misdescription of foods

Mislabelling does not normally give rise to safety issues; nevertheless, when done deliberately
it constitutes the crime of fraud. [945]
The name of foods such as chocolate, milk, margarine,must comply with certain compositional
regulations. Food compositional legislation lays down compositional rules for: [946]
• Bread and flour
• Cocoa and chocolate
• Soluble coffee
• Evaporated and dried milk
• Fruit juice
• Honey
• Infant formula
• Jams
• Meat products - sausages, burgers and pies
• Natural mineral waters
• Spreadable fats
• Sugars
In other cases like fish fingers (coated cod fillets ready for frying) there may be no such stan-
dards but the food still needs to be described accurately and should not be misleading.
The consumer has a right to be confident that the product matches his expectations concern-
ing diet and health, personal taste and preferences, or cost. Misdescribed foods may deceive
the consumer. On the other side misdescribed can create unfair competition with the honest
manufacturer and have a great financial impact.
Food authenticity is all about whether a food matches its description refering to its name,
its ingredients, its origin or processes undergone.
Common misdescriptions are:

440
• Not having the necessary composition for a legal name - in order to be called ”chocolate”
for example the food must have a certain amount of cocoa solids. Similarly in order to
be called a ”sausage”, it must have certain amount of meat in it.
• Substitution with cheaper Ingredients - adding low cost ingredients to a more expensive
product e.g. diluting olive oil with vegetables oils.
• Extending a food - perhaps with water or other fillers e.g. adding water to orange juice,
or offal to meat products and not declaring it.
• Incorrect origin - incorrectly labelling the true origin of the food or ingredients in terms
of : animal species- misdescribing the meat species in a product or not declaring other
meat present plant variety - adding cheaper varieties to a premium rice such as Basmati
geographical origin or country - giving the incorrect country or floral origin of a honey or
region for a wine.
• Incorrect or failure to describe a process or treatment - not declaring if food has been
irradiated or previously frozen, or the use of mechanically recovered meat (MRM).
• Incorrect quantitative declaration- giving the wrong amount of an ingredient e.g. declaring
the wrong amount of meat in burger.
Food marketing terms

Marketing terms are widely used to mislead the consumer about the real qualities of the prod-
uct. Many terms are tolerated by authorities because they are insignificant and cannot be
stopped by lawsuit. However, they undermine the confidence of the consumer. Some of these
terms are: ’Style’ and ’selected’ Scepticism was an overriding response to many common mar-
keting terms. Does not contain preservatives or additives. No preservatives added , Home
made, Handmade, Farmhouse, Real, Fresh, Pure, Natural, Traditional, Original, Authentic,
Premium, Finest, Best, Quality, Selected, Export quality.
Guidance on the use of marketing terms on food labels

[1008] The Food Standards Agency of UK issued the Guidance on the use of eight marketing
terms on food labels in 2002 entitled ”Criteria for the use of the terms fresh, pure, natural etc.
in food labelling”.
Its aim was to produce an advice on use of terms to help:
• manufacturers, producers, retailers and caterers to decide when these descriptions could
be used and when they should not
• enforcement authorities to challenge inappropriate uses
• consumers, by encouraging the adoption of consistent, transparent labelling practices.

This advice should not be taken as an authoritative statement or interpretation of the law, as
only the courts have this power. Ultimately, only the courts can decide whether, in particular
circumstances, an offence has been committed.
FSA assessed the impact of this guidance in 2005 .

The FSA found that consumers considered quality, finest, handmade and original the four eas-
iest phrases to understand in the context of food labelling.
The terms ”quality”, ”finest” and ”home made”, were more likely to influence purchase de-
cisions where two similar products were being compared.
However, 31 per cent of people look after the brand when making a purchase decision and
25 per cent felt the ingredients were the the most important piece of information. Only 6 per
cent of people claimed that the product descriptor, such as natural, fresh or pure, was the
most important piece of information. Only 14 per cent claimed to ever look at this on food
packaging. [947]
UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA)

The Advertising Standards Authority is the independent body set up by the advertising indus-
try to police the rules laid down in the advertising codes. The strength of the self-regulatory
system lies in both the independence of the ASA and the support and commitment of the
advertising industry, through the Committee of Advertising Practice (CAP), to the standards
of the codes, protecting consumers and creating a level playing field for advertisers. [948]
The ASA’s mission is to apply the advertising codes and uphold standards in all media by
being a customer focussed, best practice regulator, where expertise is valued and shared.
ASA and the consumers: The ASA helps the consumer in situations which needs to stop
misleading or offensive advertising, to ensure sales promotions are run fairly to reduce unwanted
commercial mail and resolve problems with mail order purchases.
The ASA judges advertisements, direct marketing and sales promotions against a set of Codes.
ASA and the marketing industry: The UK marketing industry’s system of self-regulation
helps to ensure that consumers continue to accept advertising and that advertising remains
effective: honest advertising helps to keep customers coming back.
442
In the UK, the rules for advertising are the responsibility of the advertising industry through
two Committees of Advertising Practice: CAP (Broadcast)and CAP (Non-broadcast). CAP
(Broadcast) is responsible for the TV and radio advertising codes and CAP(Non-broadcast)
is responsible for the rulebook for non-broadcast advertisements, sales promotions and direct
marketing.
ASA and the new media: New media includes mobile phones, handheld computers (also
known as Personal Digital Assistants or PDAs), electronic kiosks, electronic posters and com-
puter games and the World Wide Net. The ASA ensures that non-broadcast advertisements,
sales promotions and direct marketing in new media meet the British Code of Advertising,.
Claims companies make on their own websites, for example, do not fall within the scope of
the Code. This is because the ASA does not rule on the editorial content of publications,
except where space has been paid for to promote a product, service or cause. The ASA also
recognises a distinction between media that consumers have chosen to access and material that
they have not purposefully sought out to view.
Advertising in UK: The Code

Non-broadcast advertising [949]
In the UK non-broadcast advertising is regulated by the British Code of Advertising, Sales
Promotion and Direct Marketing (the Code) is the rule book for non-broadcast advertisements,
sales promotions and direct marketing communications (marketing communications).
The Code applies to:

• advertisements in newspapers, magazines, brochures, leaflets, circulars, mailings, e-mails,
text transmissions, fax transmissions, catalogues, follow-up literature and other electronic
and printed material
• posters and other promotional media in public places, including moving images
• cinema and video commercials
• advertisements in non-broadcast electronic media, including online advertisements in
paid-for space (eg banner and pop-up advertisements)
• viewdata services
• marketing databases containing consumers’ personal information
• sales promotions
• advertisement promotions
Broadcast advertising
Broadcast advertising is split into two main sections - Television and Radio.
Radio Advertising Standards Code [950]

The Radio Advertising Standards Code sets out the rules that govern advertisements on any
radio station licensed by Ofcom. The rules are framed to ensure that advertisements are ’legal,
decent, honest and truthful’ and do not mislead or cause harm or serious or widespread offence.
TV Advertising Standards Code [951]

Television Advertising Standards Code sets out the rules that govern advertisements on any
television channel licensed by Ofcom. The rules are framed to ensure that advertisements are
’legal, decent, honest and truthful’ and do not mislead or cause harm or serious or widespread
offence.
TV Advertising of food and soft drink products to children[952]

A draft of the guideline is already available. [952]
New rules part of the BCAP Television Advertising Standards Code and the new
rules on scheduling restrictions on TV advertising of food and drinks[1524] [1525]
Ofcom issued extended restrictions on the television advertising of food and drink products
high in fat, salt and sugar (HFSS) including programmes and channels aimed at children aged
under 16.
Rules in Annex 4 of this Statement apply to all food and drink advertising to children irrespec-
tive of when it is scheduled prohibiting the use of licensed characters, celebrities, promotional
offers and health claims in advertisements for HFSS products targeted at pre-school or primary
school children. [1526]
According to Which? a 9 pm schedule should be observed for these restrictions.
The Food and Drink Federation FDF argues that the regulations were based on scientifically
flawed nutrient profiling model.
The restrictions will come into effect in April 2007 regarding HFSS advertisement for chil-
dren aged four to nine. In January 2008 this restriction will be extended to HFSS advertising
to children under 16.
According to Leech of Ofcom, the TV advertising has a modest, direct effect on children’s
food choices and is only one among many influences. He addresses the food and drink industry
which, together with government, have to add their part to solve the obesity issue.
444
Responsible for the implementation of the content rules and their compliance are the Broadcast
Committee on Advertising Practice (BCAP) and the Advertising Standards Authority.
OFCOM UK advertising regulations far better than US self regulation.

There are three industry-funded US organizations engaged in developing technical guidelines.
According to their homepage they are devoted to the following goals:
• Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU) [953]: It emphasizes that it is working for
freedom to direct their messages to young children. CARU developed the guidelines.
• National Advertising Review Council (NARC) [954]. Its goal is minimize governmental
involvement in the advertising business.
• The Council of Better Business Bureaus (CBBB) [955]: Its function is to oversee both
organizations. It promotes the initiative that merely requires food companies to pledge
that 50 percent of their ads contain a message encouraging healthy diets or physical
activity.
Finally, the Federal Trade Commission, which is in charge of advertising affairs in US, has
indicated it won’t restrict food advertising on children’s television.
The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) says that the CARU’s technical guidelines
do not consider the nutritional quality of foods. The CSPI has therefore threatened litigation
to protect kids from junk-foods ads. In 2006. Actions against the marketing practices of Kel-
logs and Viacom (a kid-friendly network) are running [956]. CSPI legal affairs director Bruce
Silverglade says that British regulations issued by OFCOM, are far superior than the situation
in the US, where the Federal Trade Commission continues to support a failed self-regulatory
system. [957].
The lawsuit on Mercury and acrylamide [958]

Attorney General Bill Lockyer on August 26, 2005, filed suit against nine manufacturers of
potato chips and french fries, seeking a court order that will require the firms to warn con-
sumers that some of their food products contain acrylamide, a chemical known by the state to
cause cancer.
Lockyer’s complaint alleges the companies have violated Proposition 65, a landmark ballot
initiative enacted by voters in 1986. The law requires businesses to provide ”clear and reason-
able” warnings before exposing people to known carcinogens or reproductive toxins.
U. S. Food labelling
[959] Food labelling foods under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act and its amendments
is required for most prepared foods, such as breads, cereals, canned and frozen foods, snacks,
desserts, drinks, etc.
Ingredients: The Nutrition Labelling and Education Act (NLEA) of 1990 demands:
• All ingredients must be listed on the label.
• Labels must include easily read Nutrition Facts panel.
• Flavourings, food colours, and spices must be listed separately by their common names
Allergenic foods: The Labelling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004 added a requirement,
effective Jan. 1, 2006, demands:
• Foods containing protein derived from the eight major allergenic foods must clearly state
this on the label.
Nutrition labelling for raw produce (fruits and vegetables) and fish: Raw produce
(fruits and vegetables) and fish are referred to as ”conventional foods”. Their nutrition labelling
is voluntary.
The Grocery Manufacturers Association (GMA) argued that because acrylamide is present
in food as a natural byproduct of the cooking process, it has been present in the food supply
and safely consumed for years.
Bill Lockyer also suited fish food processors saying that there were no warning concerning
the presence of mercury in these foods.
The judgement on acrylamide and mercury suit Judge Robert L. Dondero, Califor-
nia Superior Court Judge, decided that trace levels of mercury in tuna do not require warning
labels under the state’s Proposition 65 law, because virtually all the methylmercury in tuna is
naturally occurring, and that tuna companies would be in violation of federal law if they were
required to issue Proposition 65 warnings to consumers, and that the amount of mercury in
canned tuna is already lower than the arbitrary limits established by Proposition 65.
Misleading claims
Advertising and labelling often associates fruit juices with sugar sweetened drinks even bearing
little or no juice at all.
Welsh and colleagues (2002) examined the association between sweet drink consumption and
446
overweight among preschool children. The authors concluded that reducing sweet drink con-
sumption might be one strategy to manage the weight of preschool children. [960]
Marcella L. Warner and colleagues in a study in 2006 call for interventions to reduce con-
sumption of soda in young Mexican-American children because the prevalence of overweight in
a group of Salinas 2 years was significantly associated with current soda consumption. [961]
Vasanti S. Malik and colleagues found in 2006 that a greater consumption of sugar-sweetened
beverages is associated with weight gain and obesity and call for public health strategies to
discourage consumption of sugary drinks as part of a healthy lifestyle. [962]
Jean Welsh and William Dietz found in a study published 2005 that the consumption of sugar-
sweetened beverages is associated with increased weight gain and increased risk for development
of type 2 diabetes in women and suggested that the association may be the result of excessive
calorie intake from sugar-sweetened beverages and increased availability of large amounts of
rapidly absorbable sugars.[963]
The American Heart Association recommends to reduce added sugars, including sugar-sweetened
drinks and juices. [966]
Code of Federal Regulations 21CFR101.22 Foods; labeling of spices, flavorings,

colorings and chemical preservatives. [967]
• Wherever the name of the characterizing flavor appears on the label so conspicuously as to
be easily seen under customary conditions of purchase, the words ”artificially flavoured”
shall immediately and conspicuously precede or follow such name, without any intervening
written, printed, or graphic matter, except:
• Where the characterizing flavour and a trademark or brand are presented together, other
written, printed, or graphic matter that is a part of or is associated with the trademark
or brand may intervene if the required words are in such relationship with the trademark
or brand as to be clearly related to the characterizing flavour.
It seems that some food manufacturers do not follow these regulations.
Advertising and labelling should have ethics in mind and use self-regulating instances to avoid
misleading informations.
Some organizations which are watching misleading claims on foods for children
• Prevention Institute: It is a non-profit national centre dedicated to improving com-

munity health and well-being by building momentum for effective primary prevention.
Prevention Institute views poor physical activity and eating habits not primarily a result
of individual choices and behaviours, but rather the result of living in an environment
that does not support making healthier choices. The efforts of the Prevention Institute
focuses on identifying ways to improve community environments (e.g., community design,
access to parks and safe public facilities), increase accountability among government and
industries involved in food systems (e.g., use of public funds, sustainability, and market-
ing practices), and encourage media responsibility to support healthy behaviours through
changes in policy and organizational practices.
The Prevention Institute in a study on products for children found that 51% contained
any fruit, and 16 percent contained ”minimal” amounts of fruit despite prominent fruit
promotions of the packaging. Many of the foods in this study had brightly colored pack-
ages containing images of fruits and/or words related to fruits regardless of the actual
content of fruit ingredients. [964]
According to the Prevention Institute food manufacturers should remove misleading im-
ages and statements from packaging such as allusions to fruit in products that contain
little or no fruit, and reformulate existing food and beverages to both significantly de-
crease added sweeteners and increase fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Current FDA
regulations on health claims and product definitions such as those for fruit drinks are
not sufficiently protecting parents and children; these regulations need to be updated to
ensure the packaging clearly states fruit content on the cover. [964]
Finaly the Prevention Institute calls on the food, beverage and restaurant industries to
make meaningful changes to support people in making nutritious food choices in its ”Rec-
ommendations for Food and Beverage Industry Action” http://www.preventioninstitute.org/sa/fru
[965]
• EASA (European Advertising Standards Alliance):
• The Alliance brings together national advertising self-regulatory organisations and organi-
sations representing the advertising industry in Europe. It is the single authoritative voice
on advertising self-regulation issues and promotesm high ethical standards in commercial
communications by means of effective selfregulation. [968]
• The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) [969]: The ICC, promotes high
standards of business ethics through the development and dissemination of rules, includ-
ing codes and guidelines on how business should direct its efforts to assure that marketing
communication to consumers are responsible. This work includes the ICC framework for
responsible food and beverage marketing communication.
448
The ICC stresses that the application of self-regulation in food marketing communi-
cation requires that it be legal, decent, honest and truthful. Claims should be conveyed
consistent with the nature and scope of the evidence, providing the consumer with sup-
portable information. Nutrition information and claims should also be judged by the
likely perception of the reasonable consumer, especially where children and young peo-
ple are concerned. Food and beverage marketing communication should not encourage
or condone excess consumption and portion sizes should be appropriate to the setting
portrayed. Marketing communication should not undermine the importance of healthy
lifestyles.
• German Advertising Board: The Deutscher Werberat looks for issues of decency and
good taste and the Zentrale zur Bekämpfung Unlauteren Wettbewerbs (Central office
for fight against unfair kompetition) looks for issues of misleading advertising and unfair
competition.
• Codex General Guidelines on Claims CAC/GL 1-1979 At international level

Codex Alimentarius has adopted General Guidelines on Claims in 1991 and Guidelines
for the Use of Nutrition Claims in 1997, with amendment concerning the inclusion of
Health Claims in the 1997 Guidelines. [970]
Marketing of food to children

The British Hospitality Association (BHA), British Retail Consortium (BRC), Food Advertis-
ing Unit (FAU), Food and Drink Federation (FDF), National Farmers’ Union (NFU) and the
Incorporated Society of British Advertisers (ISBA) said they would act together to try and
tackle the problem of childhood obesity.
The FDF, for example, however, is keen to ensure that parents, rather than the government,
have the final word on what is good or bad for their children.
Examples of misleading packaging design

A heavy commercial campaign promoted fruit nectar on television showing oranges and tropical
fruits and children quenching their thirst with healthy drink suggesting 100% fruit juice. The
list of ingredients of fruit nectar, however, reveal a high caloric content and low fruit juice: Tap
water would be better to rehydrate the body in the summer avoiding lean calories. A typical
list of ingredients for fruit nectar is:
Ingredients: Water, fruit juice (25%), sugar, glucose-fructose syrup.
Bravo Red Orange: The front and back side of the packaging is loaded with orange pic-
tures suggesting that this product was made of pure orange juice. In fact, only 30% of juice
was used and 70% are water and sugar.
bravo red orange rich in vitamin C
Hidden declaration on one side in small letters:

Red Orange Juice drink with vitamin C.
Juice content minimum: 30% from red orange concentrate.
Ingredients: Water, red orange juice, sugar, acidifier: citric acid, vitamin C, aroma, colour:
carmoisine.
Energy: 194,8 kJ 45,8 kcal
Carbohydrates: 10,86 g Vitamin C : 30 mg/50% RDA
Conclusion:The nectar contains about 7g added sugar/100g. Added sugar accounts for 61%
of total calories. Adding vitamin C does not counterbalance the danger of overweight.
Confusing layouts: They all look as if they were pure fruit juice.
Frucht-Oase = 100% juice
labamba EXOTIC = 50% Juice
Punica Tropical = 35% Juice
450
Universal Ethical Code for Scientists [971]

The UK Government Chief Scientific Advisor, Sir David King, gave a presentation on the Uni-
versal Ethical Code for Scientists- Rigour, Respect and Responsibility.
The code has three key aims:

• Foster ethical research
• Encourage active reflection among scientists on the implication and impacts of their work.
• Support communication between scientists and the public on complex and challenging
issues.
It covers the natural sciences and also the wider disciplines of social, medical and veterinary
sciences and mathematics.
Some comments include not committing plagiarism or condoning acts of plagiarism by oth-
ers; ensuring that work is peer reviewed before it is disseminated; reviewing the work of others
fairly; ensuring that primary data that may be needed to allow others to audit, repeat or build
on work, are secured and stored.
To access the code, go to:

http://www.dti.gov.uk/science/science-and-society/public engagement/code/page28029.html
Little scientific evidence supporting corn oil health claim.
[972]
The petition:
The FDA received a health claim petition dated April 28, 2006, submitted to the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA or the agency) by ACH Food Companies, Inc. pursuant to sec-
tion 403(r)of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 343(r)(4)). The petition
requested that the agency authorize a qualified health claim characterizing the relationship
between the consumption of corn oil and corn oil-containing products and a reduced risk of
heart disease.
This petition proposed as model qualified health claims:

”Substituting corn oil for solid fats may reduce your risk of heart disease.”
”Substituting corn oil for fats high in saturated fat may reduce your risk of heart disease.”
”Scientific evidence establishes that including corn oil-containing foods in your diet may reduce
your risk of heart disease. To achieve such benefits, include slightly less than 1 tablespoon (12
grams) of corn oil per day in your diet while not increasing calories, saturated fat or cholesterol.
One serving of this product contains x grams of corn oil. Although there is scientific evidence
supporting the claim, the evidence is not conclusive.”
FDA decision:
FDA concludes that there is sufficient evidence for a qualified health claim, provided that the
claim is appropriately worded so as to not mislead consumers. Thus, FDA intends to consider
exercising enforcement discretion for the following qualified health claim:
”Very limited and preliminary scientific evidence suggests that eating about 1 tablespoon (16
grams) of corn oil daily may reduce the risk of heart disease due to the unsaturated fat content
in corn oil. FDA concludes that there is little scientific evidence supporting this claim. To
achieve this possible benefit, corn oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not
increase the total number of calories you eat in a day. One serving of this product contains (x)
grams of corn oil.”
The appropriate disclosure statement ”See nutrition information for total fat content.” must
be included on the label and comply with 21 CFR 101.13(h).
UK Traffic Light and food
Front-of-pack nutrition labelling: Food Traffic Light for a better food choice in UK. [?]
452
The red, amber and green colour coding used in the traffic light system provides easy-to-
understand advice on foods that have high, medium and low amounts of saturated fats, sugars
and salt.
Another system currently being used by some manufacturers and retailers is based on per-
centages of Guideline Daily Amounts (GDA) of fat, sugar and salt (for example a portion
contains 35% of your GDA of salt).According to FSA chair Deirdre Hutton the FSA traffic
light system and the GDA system may be compliment each other. Here are some examples [?]:
IGD published guidelines for voluntary nutrition labelling including the use of GDAs (Guide-
line Daily Amounts) for men and women, for calories, fat and saturated fats in 1998. They
were developed following collaboration between government, consumer organisations and the
food industry. However following industry and consumer research in 2003 IGD established a
GDA Technical Working Group to revise the current values and to extend the guidelines to
include GDAs for carbohydrates, total sugars, protein, fibre, salt and sodium for men, women
and children. [?]
The GDA system tells consumers the percentage of the adult male Guideline Daily Amount of
the four key nutrients that each product contains.
GDAs publications are free to download [?]:
• GDAs - Best Practice Guidance (2006)
• GDAs - Technical Working Group Report (2005)
• GDAs - Consumer Research Report (2005/6)
• Voluntary Nutrition Labelling Guidelines (1998)
Salt, sugar and labelling
Salt reduction reduces sugar in formulations in cereals [973] According to the man-
aging director of Kellogg’s Europe, Tony Palmer, it is not easy to take 25% of the salt out of
cornflakes because salt interacts with sugar. Reducing salt, sugar starts to taste sweeter and
has to be reduced too. Sugar helps keep the flakes crispy and is part of the bulk. Reducing the
salt the risk is that the cardboard carton tastes better than the crisps.
Reducing salt and sugar can, however, improves the product not only from the nutritional
side, but may also become a gain in acceptance due to the improved taste of the corn. This
could be targeted in commercials changing nutritional habits towards a healthier breakfast.
Dr. Tom Sanders says that breakfast cereals served with semi-skimmed milk, are low energy
meals that provide about one fifth of the micronutrient requirements of children and should
be encouraged. Portion size as it is being eaten but not dry weight nutritional facts should be
considered. Dr. Sanders is professor of nutrition at King’s College London, leading scientist
of the OPTILIP trial and acting as a consultant to the cereal manufacturers, says that traffic
light labels misclassifies unfairly breakfast cereals. [974]
Sugar and salt and labelling loopholes [975] Which? still finds high sugar and salt levels
with 75% of products receiving FSA red labels, and nearly 90% of products targeted at children
were high in sugar, 13% high in salt, and 10% high in saturated fat.
Checking for sugar on food labels can be confusing, however. It comes in many different
forms: corn sugar, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, glucose, glucose syrup, high-fructose glucose
syrup, honey, invert sugar, invert sugar syrup, isoglucose, levulose, maltose, molasses, sucrose
and sucrose syrup, among others. These can be listed separately but add up. Labelling of
total sugar is voluntary, unless on a product claiming to be ”low sugar”. So, everyone who has
high sugar, high salt or high saturated fatty acids do not label Guideline Daily Amount (GDA)
information in front of packaging.
If you want to go for sure, buy only products with front of packaging GDA’s.
However, Melanie Leech, director general of the Food and Drink Federation (FDF) argues
that labelling regulations require companies to include a precise description of the sugars used
in a product, such as fructose or glucose. According to Leech, 15 000 products are already using
Guideline Daily Amount information on the front packs, clearly indicating the total amount of
sugar in the product - whether added or naturally present. [976]
Salt highlight [977]

High is more than 1.5g salt per 100g (or 0.6g sodium)
Medium is less than 1.5 g. salt and more that 0.3g salt per 100 g
Low is 0.3g salt or less per 100g (or 0.1g sodium)
Sugar highlights [978]

High is 10g sugars or more per 100g
Medium is less that 10g sugar and more than 2g sugar per 100g
Low 2g sugars or less per 100g.
Sometimes the figure you see in the nutrition panel is a total figure for ”Carbohydrates”,
and not for ”Carbohydrates (of which sugars)”. This means the figure will also include starchy
454
carbohydrates.
So, to get a feel for whether the product is high in added sugars you might also need to look
at the ingredients list. Added sugars must be included in the ingredients list, which always
starts with the biggest ingredient first. Watch out for other words that are used to describe
added sugar, such as sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose, hydrolysed starch and invert sugar,
corn syrup and honey. If you see one of these near the top of the list, you know that the product
is likely to be high in added sugars.
Some foods that you might not expect to have sugar added to them can contain lots, for
example some breakfast cereals and cereal bars. Other foods can be higher in added sugar than
you might expect, such as tins of spaghetti or baked beans.
Varying nutritional content is no excuse for misleading claims and inappropriate

advertising, the Ribena story [979]
GlaxoSmithKline has pleaded guilty to 15 representative charges of breaching the Fair Trading
Act by making misleading claims about the Vitamin C content of Ribena, a black currant drink.
GlaxoSmithKline was fined $227,500, and ordered to undertake a nationwide campaign of cor-
rective advertising in newspapers to explain that some forms of Ribena contain no detectable
level of vitamin C.
GlaxoSmithKline’s Consumer Healthcare division sells health care products, including a range
described as ”nutritional drinks,” of which Ribena is the most significant.
Claims that ready-to-drink Ribena contain 7mg of vitamin C per 100ml were found to be untrue
because testing found no vitamin C in the ready-to-drink product and claims in TV adverts
that ”the blackcurrants in Ribena have four times the vitamin C of oranges.”was misleading
consumers.
In 2004 two students, working for a science project, found no detectable vitamin C in Ribena.
They notified GlaxoSmithKline from their findings but not action was taken by the company.
According to New Zealnd Commerce Commission Chair Paula Rebstock health claims are big
business in today’s market. It is very disappointing to see a major pharmaceutical and health
products company like GlaxoSmithKline mislead the public in this way. Ms Rebstock calls
this to be a massive breach of trust with the New Zealand public as the company specifically
promoted the vitamin C-related health benefits of Ribena for children, teenagers, and pregnant
women.
Monitoring of raw ware and natural products must cover all charges to insure correctness
of claims on the packaging and in TV commercials and printed advertising.
Brand Community
[980] Albert M. Muniz, Jr. and Thomas C. O’Guinn introduced the idea of brand commu-
nity. According to the authors a brand community is a specialized, non-geographically bound
community, based on a structured set of social relations among admirers of a brand. Brand
community may also be used to describe a connected group of admirers of a brand. Muniz and
colleague explore the characteristics, processes, and particularities of brand communities , such
as centred on Ford Bronco, Macintosh, and Saab.
The authors found that these brand communities exhibit three traditional markers of com-
munity:
• Shared consciousness
• Rituals and traditions
• A sense of moral responsibility.
The commercial and mass-mediated ethos in which these communities are situated affects their
character and structure and gives rise to their particularities. This article highlights implica-
tions for branding, sociological theories of community, and consumer behaviour.
As branded goods replaced unmarked commodities, where mass advertising replaced personal
selling, and where the individual consumer replaced the communal citizen, the brand should
have a central and prominent place in the discourse of modernity, community, and society.
Consumption communities
Consumption communities are groups of community members placing special emphasis on some
type of consumption (e.g., food, drink, gifts) as part of a celebration, ritual, or tradition is the
subject of considerable scholarship, as well as common lived experience.
Brand Communities
According to the authors brand communities do not typically reject aspects of the surrounding
culture’s ideology. They embrace them. The authors argue that brand communities are in fact
legitimate forms of community, but communities of a particular stripe, and of their time. These
communities may form around any brand, but are probably most likely to form around brands
with a strong image, a rich and lengthy history, and threatening competition.
The communities that form around brands need not be marginal, or stand in opposition to
mainstream culture.
Community became a common understanding of a shared identity, and the consumer demands
456
to be taken seriously are driving the creation of brands and influencing how the brand is mar-
keted.
Brand communities have changed the basic marketing paradigm in that it has forced mar-
keters to realize the enormous importance of consumer-to-consumer communication in a wired
world, where groups of consumers may speak not with the voice of one, but with the power of
thousands. Wired groups of consumers behave similarly to traditional communities and present
significant challenges and opportunities for marketers.
The authors conclude that they believe brand communities to be real, significant, and generally
a good thing, a democratic thing, and evidence of the persistence of community in consumer
culture.
More effort necessary to promulgate the consumption of whole grain , but not
refined grain, to significantly decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease. [981]
Whole grain food sources have been associated with lowered risk of cardiovascular disease Stud-
ies In a study by Mellen and colleagues (2007) the available observational evidence on whole
grain intake and clinical cardiovascular events were quantitated.
They found that greater whole grain intake of an average of 2.5 servings/d versus 0.2 serv-
ings/d was associated with a 21% lower risk of heart disease, stroke, fatal CVD events. Con-
versely, refined grain intake was not associated with incident CVD events, because refininging
procedures removes many biologically active agents from the grain, including fibre, vitamins,
minerals, lignans, phytosterols and other plant compounds. Which influence cardiovascular risk
through effects on glucose homeostasis, lipids and lipoproteins, endothelial function, and other
mechanisms.
The authors conclude that there is a consistent, inverse association between dietary whole
grains and incident cardiovascular. They call for more effrts to promulgate the beneficial ef-
fects of whole grains into public health
12.0.1 The aspartame controversy

Splenda an example of self-destroying marketing
[982]
Sucrose known as sugar has been replaced in American European industrial food production
by other sweeteners such as fructose syrups or combinations of functional ingredients and high
intensity sweeteners. This is due to the subsidization of corn in the United States, which has
led to a vast surplus and driven the price of corn syrup far below that of sugar. [982]
Sucralose, E955 is sold under the Splenda brand since 1991. The EU approved it in 2004.
It is up to 1000 times as sweet as sugar and is stable when heated, and therefore can be used
in backing.
It is manufactured by the selective chlorination of sucrose, in which three of the hydroxyl

groups are replaced with chlorine to produce trichlorosucrose or C12 H19 Cl3 O8 . Sucralose is
mixed with the corn bulking agents maltodextrin and dextrose. Sucralose is used as a re-
placement or in combination with other artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, acesulfame
potassium or high-fructose corn syrup. [982]
Approval: Sucralose has been accepted by several national and international food safety reg-
ulatory bodies, including the FDA, Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health
Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives, The European Union’s Scientific Commit-
tee on Food, Health Protection Branch of Health and Welfare Canada and Food Standards
Australia-New Zealand (FSANZ).
The acceptable daily intake for sucralose is 9 mg/kg of body weight per day. [986] Accept-
able daily intake (mg/kg body weight/day) Aspartame 40 Acesulfame K 15 Cyclamate 11
Saccharin 15 Sucralose 15 Canada has a more conservative ADI of 9 mg/kg body weight/day
Ref.: 1996 FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee Food [986]
Sucrose (table sugar, saccharose): It consists of two monosaccharides, alfa-glucose and

fructose, joined by a glycosidic bond between carbon atom 1 of the glucose unit and carbon
atom 2 of the fructose unit. What is notable about sucrose is that unlike most polysaccharides,
the glycosidic bond is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not
between the reducing end of one and the nonreducing end of the other. Sucrose is covalently
bonded due to the non ionic attraction of the carbon and oxygen atoms. The effect of this
inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no free anomeric carbon
atom, it is classified as a nonreducing sugar. Sucrose does not contain chlorine. [1002]
Tough marketing from Splenda and its outcome

The acceptance of sucralose by almost all food safety regulatory bodies is a high scientific
support on safety of sucralose. This advantage is being put at risk by McNeil, a subsidiary
of Johnson and Johnson which produces and markets Blenda. It is inconceivable that McNeil
opens the door to a public discussion concerning misleading advertising of their product which
highlights the organochloride chemical constitution and its deep chemical modification of sugar.
With a vague slogan McNeil fought at no man’s land.
Following the premisses of commercial marketing the last inches of the boundaries of legal-
ity were used by Splenda:
458
Splenda was marketed as ”No calorie sweetener,”

”Has no calories (Less than 5) and no carbohydrates (less than 1 gram) per serving.” [983]
”Contains 96 calories per cup-sugar contains 770 calories per cup!” [983]
Splenda actually contains two calories per teaspoon. Such labelling is legal in the U.S. FDA’
regulations permit a product to be labelled as ”zero calories” if the ”food contains less than 5
calories per reference amount customarily consumed and per labeled serving.” [984]
Splenda contains a relatively small amount of sucralose because it is extremely sweet and little
of that is metabolized anyway since sucralose is an organochloride. Virtually all of Splenda’s
caloric content derives from the highly fluffed dextrose and/or maltodextrin bulking agent, that
gives Splenda its volume. Like other carbohydrates, dextrose and maltodextrin have approxi-
mately 4.5 calories per gram. [982]
Court decision against Splenda

Merisant, the makers of Equal, sued Splenda in France and in the United States over Splenda’s
slogan, ”made from sugar so it tastes like sugar,” The Sugar Association, trying to pep up the
image of sugar say is misleading. [985]
In May 2007 a French court decided the marketing adds to be illegal misleading and ordered
Merisat to withdraw their adds. In United States Merisat reached an undisclosed settlement
with Equal to avoid a defeat at US court.
The disaster of aggressive marketing

The outcome of this marketing strategy is feeding new discussions that chronic consumption
may lead to thymus shrinkage or other side-effects [1003]. Sucralose is an Organochloride also
known as chlorocarbon. Although many chlorocarbons are toxic, sucralose is not known to be
toxic in small quantities and is extremely insoluble in fat, so it can not accumulate in fat like
most chlorinated hydrocarbons, but the bad image of this chemical group persists. [1004]
The consumer advocacy group Citizens for Health has filed a petition with the FDA asking the
approval of Splenda to be withdrawn until additional investigation of claimed side effects such
as stomach pain and other digestion problems are cleared. [1005]
Food and Diet maintains a webside with a list of symptoms of troubles from using Splenda
[987]
The U.S. Sugar Association has also started a web site where they put forward their criti-
cism of sucralose. [985]
The world’s largest retailer of natural and organic foods Whole Food Markets, included su-
cralose in its list of unacceptable food ingredients. [1006]
According to Food and Diet’s website, numerous claims have been filed about possible side
effect complaints by users of sucralose-containing products including drug-like feelings of dis-
orientation and confusion, headaches, depression, anxiety, diarrhea, extreme fatigue, and more.
[987]
The 2005 Ramazzini publication: Aspartame linked to increased risk of leukaemia,

lymphomas and breast cancer [988]
In 2005 Morango Soffritti and colleagues at the Ramazzini Foundation found aspartame to
increase lymphomas and leukaemias in females.
The authors write in their publication of 2005: ”The results of this mega-experiment indi-
cate that Aspartame is a multipotential carcinogenic agent, even at a daily dose of 20 mg/kg
body weight, much less than the current acceptable daily intake. On the basis of these results,
a reevaluation of the present guidelines on the use and consumption of APM is urgent and
cannot be delayed.”
The 2007 Ramazzini publication: Foetal life and children at increased cancer risc
due to Aspartame [989]
In their second long-term carcinogenicity bioassay on APM the authors conclude that when
lifespan exposure to Aspartame begins during foetal life, its carcinogenic effects are increased.
On the basis of the present findings, the authors believe that a review of the current regu-
lations governing the use of aspartame cannot be delayed. This review is particularly urgent
with regard to aspartame-containing beverages, heavily consumed by children. The authors
stress that other studies were made on aged people and did not consider pregnancy and in-
fants.
What consumer can do: Avoid Diet Pepsi, Diet Cola, yoghurt light soft drinks
light, diet yoghurt [990]
This has led some consumer groups, particularly in the US, to call for a review of the safety
data on aspartame and for consumers to avoid products that contain the ingredient. Aspartame
is used in carbonated and powdered soft drinks, hot chocolate, chewing gum, candy, desserts,
yogurt, tabletop sweeteners, and vitamins.
As a result of the new study, for the first time CSPI downgraded aspartame on its online
Chemical Cuisine directory from a ”use caution” rating to ”everyone should avoid.” CSPI also
urges everyone to avoid the artificial sweeteners acesulfame potassium and saccharin. It rates
sucralose, also known by the brand name Splenda, as safe.
460
On The Early Show 24.April 2007, medical contributor Dr. Mallika Marshall said: ”... I
think we should probably be a little less cavalier about giving our children tons of foods with
artificial sweeteners and probably should go back to the basics of milk and water and fruits
and vegetables instead of diet soda and reduced calorie foods.” OurFood strongly supports this
statement. [991]
Official food regulators: USA FDA and European EFSA find no reason to recon-
sider the approval of Aspartame [992]
FDA: The Acceptable Daily Intake of aspartame in the United States is 50 mg per kg of body
weight. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) says that it finds no reason to alter its
previous conclusion that aspartame is safe as a general purpose sweetener in food.
The FDA alleges that the conclusions of the two Ramazzini studies are not consistent with
other studies evaluated by FDA.
According to FDA Aspartame was first approved in the United States in 1981 and is one of the
most widely used artificial sweeteners. When metabolised by the body, aspartame is broken
down into two common amino acids, aspartic acid and phenylalanine, and a third substance,
methanol. These three substances are available in similar or greater amounts from eating com-
mon foods.
European Union EFSA: the first Ramazzini study in May 2006 the EFSA responded to
the 2005 Ramazzini report stating that there was no need for a further safety review of aspar-
tame nor a revision of the acceptable daily intake of 40 mg/kg body weight. [993]
CSPI calls for urgent review of the study. [990]

In the US, consumer group the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) called on the
FDA to urgently review the study, regarding the fact that aspartame-containing beverages are
heavily consumed by children.
No risk of cancer linked to saccharin, aspartame and other sweeteners: The Milan
case-control study 2007 [994]
The epidemiological study in Milan, Italy concluded that there was no indication of an associ-
ation between sweetener consumption and cancer risk . A Gallu and colleagues 2006 found no
association between saccharin, aspartame and other sweeteners and the risk of several common
neoplasms.
The NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study on aspartame [995] [996]

Unhee Lim and colleagues 2006 of the National Cancer Institute in a study on people found
no increased cancer risk in a group aged 50 to 71, consuming 2 cans of soda per day ( 400 mg
aspartame/day). [995]
Aspartame consumption: [996] In the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study, aspartame con-
sumption ranged from 0 to 3400 mg per day about 19 cans of soda at the high end. There are
180 mg of aspartame in a 12 ounce can of diet soda.
FDA’s Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of aspartame is 50 mg per kilogram of body weight
or about 3,750 mg (21 cans of diet soda) for an adult weighing 75 kilograms (165 lb).
The average aspartame consumption among diet beverage consumers in the NIH-AARP Diet
and Health Study was 200 mg per day, or about 7 percent of the ADI.
An animal study that fed aspartame to rats saw lymphoma/leukemia increase in female rats,
starting from 20 mg per kilogram of body weight (a person weighing 75 kilograms or 165 lbs,
consuming 1500 mg aspartame, or about 8 cans of diet soda.
Labelling of ”carbon footprints” in UK [997]

UK food sector is the world leader in food health and environment movement, an example to
be looked upon by other governments of the EU and the rest of the world.
The UK government launched the OFCOM media advertising ban for unhealthy foods targeted
to children. Another great job was the introduction of the ”traffic light” labelling marking with
green, amber and red colours the important constituents of foods.
Another path-breaking action of the UK government is to launch the ”carbon footprint”label.

This will be a real step forward reducing carbon emission.
The voluntary labelling scheme will help companies to measure the greenhouse gases associated
with their their products and reduce them. Labelling will give the consumer the possibility to
choose between environment friendly and those who do not carry such label because they have
a high land, sea and air transport or not effective processing system, as well as waste from
packaging and discarded products.” [1001]
Carbon footprint is a measure of the amount of carbon dioxide or CO2 emitted through the
combustion of fossil fuels; in the case of an organization, business or enterprise, as part of their
everyday operations; in the case of an individual or household, as part of their daily lives; or a
product or commodity in reaching market. In materials, is essentially a measure of embodied
energy, the result of life cycle analysis. [1000]
462
According to the UK environment minister Ian Pearson products will display labels show-
ing the greenhouse gas emissions created by their production, transport and eventual disposal,
similar to the calorie or salt content figures on food packaging. [1001]
The pilot scheme from the Carbon Trust is being tested by several retailers. It calculates
the carbon footprint for one item that can be purchased by the consumer, including both the
product and the packaging and transport.
The Carbon Trust and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) are
linked with the BSI British Standards in the development of the standard. According to Defra
the benchmark method will be the start of an internationally agreed standard for measuring
embodied greenhouse gas emissions. [997]
Just call to your attention the transport of yoghurt from the south of Europe to the north
labelled as organic produce, or bottled water being transported throughout Europe. A fair
labelling of the carbon footprint will help you to choose foods which are good to you and the
environment.
This is a great job of the UK government and a great award for the retailers which enforce
these activities on their suppliers toward healthy foods and friendly to the environment
Omega-3 Eggs claims deceive consumer [998]

The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) urged the FDA to stop seven egg produc-
ers from implying that their eggs can reduce the risk of heart disease. In fact, says CSPI, egg
producers should not be making heart-healthy claims, because the FDA specifically prohibits
such claims on eggs and other foods high in cholesterol or saturated fat.
Egg producers take advantage of consumers’ limited knowledge of the different types of omega-
3s. While the FDA permits claims for a possible reduced risk of heart disease linked to two
kinds of omega-3s, DHA and EPA, the agency does not allow such claims for other omega-3s.
CSPI commissioned a lab test that found that less than half of the advertised 350 mg of omega-
3s in a Land O Lakes egg came from EPA and DHA.
”The most beneficial omega-3 fatty acids come from fish, fish oil, and algae,” said CSPI senior
staff attorney Ilene Heller. ”Even if eggs had the right kind of omega-3s, they still contain
significant levels of saturated fat and cholesterol, which increase the risk of heart disease.”
Products named in the CSPI complaint include:
- Land O Lakes claims that ”omega-3 All-Natural Eggs” are a ”good source of heart-healthy
nutrition” despite the fact that FDA has not defined the term ”good source” for omega–3s
and that the eggs contain too much saturated fat and cholesterol to meet FDA’s definition of
healthy.
- Eggland’s Best uses unapproved nutrient content claims for omega-3s on its carton and
on its Web site. In addition, the company claims that its eggs have 25 percent less saturated
fat than regular eggs. But that difference is less than half a graman amount that the FDA
considers trivial for purposes of nutrition labeling.
- Safeway Specialty 3 Eggs misleadingly boasts ”100 mg of omega-3s” even though the FDA
has not set standards for such omega-3 claims. In addition, the principal source of omega-3s in
the hens’ diets is likely not a source that may be associated with heart benefits.
- Gold Circle Farms claims that its eggs contain ”450 mg of omega-3s.” The claims are based
on two eggs even though the official FDA serving size for eggs is one egg.
- The Country Hen illegally claims ”the difference is an egg that is simply healthy” even
though the product does not meet regulatory requirements for ”healthy,” and also makes its
claims based on two eggs.
- Full Spectrum Farms boasts that its product has ”30 mg” of unspecified omega-3s even
though one ordinary egg, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, contains 37 mg of
omega-3s, 20 mg of which are DHA and EPA.
- Giving Nature asserts that the company feeds its hens flax seed which ”has been known to
hold high levels of DHA omega-3.” But, according to the Flax Council of Canada and others,
the omega-3s that FDA considers healthful (DHA and EPA) are not found in plants such as
flax seed.
Mandatory nutrition labelling for fast food chains [999]

Food regulators should should establish legislation requiring fast-food and other chain restau-
rants to list calories, saturated plus trans fat, carbohydrates, and sodium on printed menus,
and just calories on menu boards, where space is limited.
Without clear, easy-to-use nutrition information, it’s difficult to make informed choices at
chain restaurants. Otherwise how can you know that a tuna fish salad sandwich has 50% more
calories than a roast beef sandwich? Or that a small chocolate milkshake at McDonald’s has
more calories than a Big Mac?
Although people eat out more than ever before, few restaurants provide nutrition informa-
tion. As a result, we often are getting more calories, fat, and salt than we realize. This can be
particularly problematic for people who watch what they eat to manage health conditions such
as diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure.
Restaurant labelling regulations would give the citizens an important new tool to help us
eat well and maintain a healthy weight. It would provide information that would allow people
to take responsibility for their own health and make more informed decisions for a significant
and growing part of our diet. And limiting the requirement to chain restaurants would not
464
burden independent restaurants. Nutrition labelling would be a clever move for McDonnald’s
and other fast food chains to improve its bad image as unhealthy food.
Chapter 13
Genetic modification of food
GMO, Genetic Modified Organism, definition Genetic Modified Organisms according

to the Gentechnikgesetz (GenTG)from 20.06.90 (Genetic Technique Law) in Germany are or-
ganisms whose genetic material were modified in a way which is not found in nature under
natural conditions of crossbreed or natural recombination. The genetic Modified Organism
must be a biological unit which is able to multiply itself or to transmit genetic material.
Examples of modifications covered by this law are DNS recombination techniques in which
vector systems are used; techniques by which genetic material prepared outside of the cell is
introduced directly in the organism. These techniques include microinjection, macroinjection
and micro encapsulation, cell fusion as well as hybridization procedures by which living cells
are formed with a new combination of genetic material using methods which are not found
under natural conditions.
Technology of genetic modification There are two methods used to introduces a new
DNA (gene) in the cell of a plant which is going to be modified:
The ”shot-gun” technique:
This technique is also called biolistic transformation which was developed by Sanford in 1987.
Cereals are not suitable to be modified by transfection with Agrobacterium tumefaciens and the
regeneration of plants whose cells walls were enzymatic digested is very difficult. A device was
built to shoot small particles of gold or tungsten against cells. These particles can be coated
with DNA material and are so small that they can penetrate cells without lasting damage.
The machine used gun powder and later compressed helium. The particles are accelerated four
times sound velocity.
This method is less labor intensive as the Agrobacterium method. The ADN which is being
introduced in the host cell is not so complicated as with Agrobacterium and there is also pos-
sible to introduce more then 10 different genes at a time. Biolistic transformation can be used
to transform all kind of plants, bacteria, moulds, algae and animals.
The transfection with Agrobacterium tumefaciens:[676] This bacterium infects the plant
465
466
and transfers its DNA to the plant. Agrobacter tumefaciens is a bacterium found in soil. Some
strains attack plants transferring a small part or its genetic material to the plant causing tu-
mors.
In the tissue of the tumors Agrobacterium tumefaciens can live and produces there new nutri-
ents (opines).
Opines are products of the condensation of an amino acid and a ketonic acid or an amino
acid and a sugars.Examples of opalines are: nopalin(arginine + a-ketoglutaraldehyde ) and
octopinOctopin(arginine + sugar piruvate)
Some strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens have aside of its own ADN genome other plasmides
of the size between 200 and 800 kBp (kilobasepairs). These plasmids are responsible for the
tumor activity and are therefore called “Tumor inducing Plasmids” (Ti-plasmids).
Ti-plasmides They carry genes for:
• Metabolism of opines
• Recognition of wounded cells
• Mobilization and transfer of T-DNA
The T-DNA is the part of the Ti-plasmids which is transferred to the plant ( Transfer-DNA
) and is limited by the 25Bp repetition as Left Border (LB) 0n the left side and the 25Bp
repetition as Right Border (RB) on the right side which are the recognition sequence for the
T-DNA.
The transfer of the T-DNA takes place only to wounded plant cells. Certain compounds such
as Acetosyringon which are released by wounded cells of the plant act as a recognition for the
Agrobacterium tumefaciens in order to link to wounded cells. These compounds are found
mainly in dicotyledoneans and only few monocotyledoneans such as asparagus. That is why
Agrobacterium can be used only in few cases of genetic modification of monocotyledoneans.
With addition off syringon even moulds and important monocotyledoneans can be modified by
Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Special techniques made possible to modify the Ti-plasmids and the T-DNA to avoid the
production of phytohormones responsible for the tumor activity, the opine synthesis gene were
cut out and gene of the resistance to antibiotic Neomycin and Kanamycin was introduced. The
binary vector system uses a big plasmid with the vir-region and a small plasmid with the LB
and RB.of an Escherichia coli plasmid.
Protoplasts transformation:
Protoplasts are called cells without cell walls.
This method uses pectinase and cellulase enzymes to digest the cell walls of plant tissue.
The vectors used are similar to the method of the shot-gun. The transfer of the DNA to
the host is done with the aid of polyethylene glycol or short electrical shocks. This is called
electroporation. Selection of the transformed protoplasts an regeneration of the cells is very
difficult with this method.
To avoid possible resistance of bacteria to these antibiotics it has been tried to substitute
the resistance gene with a gene responsible to the production of isopentenyl transferase which
induces a new side shoot of the plant indicating the transformation.
Selection systems Selection of the transformed cells is being done with antibiotics Kanamycin
or gentamycin and neomycin . These antibiotics act toxic on cells without transformation.
The DNA material which is being introduced in a plant must contain four parts:
• The gene coding for the new property: For instance be a resistance to dry or excessive
wet weather or a resistance to a new chemical agent such as a synthetic herbicide.
• A promoter signal: It is a start signal for the cell to start the activity of the gene such
as the production of a specific protein. Most of the promoters which are being used were
derived from the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus ( CaMv) called 35S promoter.
• A terminator signal: It is a signal for the cell to stop at this point the information concern-
ing the alien gene. Most of the terminator signals used are derived from Agrobacterium
tumefaciens a soil bacterium. It is the nopaline synthase gene (NOS) of Agrobacterium,
called terminator NOS or NOS 3.
• A marker gene: Often is a resistance to antibiotics gene used in order to select transformed
cells.
A US definition of GMO: ”The term ”Genetically Modified Organisms” refers to plants and
animals containing genes transferred from other species to produce certain characteristics, such
as resistance to certain pests and herbicides.” In the European community Genetic Modified
Organism and its release to the environment are covered by following rules:
1.- Rule 90/220/EWG from 23.04.1990 concerning the release of Genetic Modified Organism in
the environment.
2.- Rule 90/219/EWG from 23.04.1990, modified by the Rule 94/51/EWG concerning the use
of GMO in closed systems. 3.- Novel Food Decree concerning foods and ingredients which have
not yet been used for human nutrition in a worth mentioning extent before. This includes
foods covered by the Rule 90/220/EWG; foods initial prepared by means of Genetic Modified
Organism but not containing the initial GMO any more such as sugar obtained from genetic
modified sugar beet, foods with modified primer molecular structure, foods which had been
prepared with or from microorganism, mushrooms or seaweed, foods which had been prepared
with unusual techniques which modify significantly the structure of the food.
The content of the German GenTG is similar to the content of the European Rule 90/220 EWG
and Rule 90/219/EWG.
468
The genetic modification of food has the prime score to produce food with:
longer shelf life,

better properties,
using less insecticides in agriculture.
This is true in case of soybeans but Roundup Ready soybean can be efficiently cultivated
only with the insecticide of Monsanto. The worldwide insecticides used for soybean will be
monopolized therefore by Monsanto
Efforts are being made to breed cereals with better proteins, rape seed with fatty acids
better suitable in case of certain diets, other plants missing proteins causing allergies and lactic
acid bacteria resistant to virus in the production of milk and meat products thus turning the
process of production and the product itself safer.
Please note that the tomatoes on market in Germany are not the same in taste and struc-
ture as they had been for years ago, but they have a longer shelf life as before. This however
is not due to genetic modification. It is a result of natural crossing of different types of tomatoes.
One should however consider the loss of quality of fresh tomatoes sacrificed on the effort to
commercialize the tomatoes and to insure a long transport and a long shelf life.
Unlike to the experiments of Gregor Johann Mendel( 1822/1884 The monk of the Augustiner
Abbey who discovered the Mendelschen rules of heredity) modern genetic modification of food
introduces alien genes from one species to another completely different one, such as one or
more gens of bacteria to the chromosomes of plants. The modern genetic technology interferes
deeply with the natural structure of nature.
Crossing plants do not introduce special parts of DNA like terminator gens, marker genes as
done by extreme genetic modification techniques.
GMO tomatoes approved by EU Commission One sort of genetic modified tomato has
been approved by the Food Commission of the EU. AstraZenca plc, London has applied for this
sort of tomato which has better properties for processing. It is harmless after cooking which
denature its proteins and gens. It is therefore not suitable to be sold to consumers which eat
the tomato without cooking.
Labeling of genetic modified food in Europe
The labeling of genetic modified food will be made according to European law EG paper
90/220/EWG. It will be made only in food having the following modifications(EG Paper Nr.
1139/98 and 79/112 EWG)
1.-Food containing alien gens, proteins or DNA .
2.-Food on which the new gens were removed by processing technologies or refining but are
changed in some parts so that they cannot be compared with food of nature. An example is
GMO rape seed oil with modified fatty acid composition.

Suggested labeling:”Produced with genetic modified corn.” In the list, of the ingredients it can
be cited ”genetic modified” when Soya or rape seed oil is being used.
Food having no alien genes left are not labeled as GMO food ( Genetic Modified Food ).
Soybean oil is not labeled as GMO food because refinement removes all modified genes.
Ingredients Ingredients are also declaration free no matter how manychanges they have un-
dergone (for instance: soybean lecithin is being used as emulsifier in margarine, chocolate and
other products )
GMO chymosin, an enzyme used in the production of cheese needs no declaration.
Enzymes are produced by bacteria whose genetic code had been modified,
These enzymes have great utility in the production of monosaccharides such as glucose syrup
starting from corn.
No declaration is necessary because no genes or modifications of the resulting product can be
demonstrated.One reason to lower the declaration is that meanwhile 90 % of our food would
be involved because they had in some way contact with genetic modification.
In October 1999 The Ministers of the EG States agreed with a papers establishing that up to
1% content of Genetic Modified Food are free of declaration.
Refining soybean oil and processing maize and maize starch in Cornflakes for instance high
temperatures are needed modifying or destroying the DNA. The GMO-origin cannot be demon-
strated with usual methods. These products, even 100% GMO is free of declaration.That is why
great retailers gave a ban on Soybean oil because there is no way to be sure to be GMO-free.
GMO corn is being introduced in Europe. The resulting corn oil, corn starch, animal feed for
cattle in great amount used as silage is free of declaration.
Unilever has announced to label gen modification on food containing GMO soy and corn.
This would include however only food with genetic modified proteins, products with soybean
oil are not included.
Compensation in case of GM contamination of organic crops: Denmark is to pay
compensation in cases where conventional or organic production has suffered economic losses
following genetically modified (GM) material contamination.
The EC ruled that GM contamination could cause economic losses to conventional foods if
they have to then be labelled as containing GM material, thus attracting a lower price. Such
a scenario could be especially damaging to the fast-growing organic food sector.
EC says that under the current Danish proposals, compensation will be granted only if the
presence of GM material exceeds 0.9 per cent and is limited to the price difference between the
market price of a crop that has to be labelled as containing GM material and a crop for which
no such labelling is required. The Danish authorities will in all cases take action to recover the
compensation paid from the farmer from whose fields the GM material has spread.
470
Switzerland Switzerland has published a food regulation concerning GMO dated on 1.3.1995
which is mainly identical to the European regulation also here no declaration of Genetic Mod-
ified Food is necessary when tho GMO used in the production of the food and the modified
genetic material has been discarded.
Meanwhile Unilever UK, Nestlé UK and Nestlé Italy announces that they are going to produce
GMO free.
ADM ( Archer Daniels Midland Co), one of the greatest buyer of Soybeans and corn announces
to be able to supply Europe with GMO free raw materials. ADM maintains contact with the
America n company DuPontwhich makes contracts with farmers concerning GMO crops. It is
obvious that the increased efforts to provide GMO free raw materials do have their influence
on the price.
The competition between centers of business such as the Far East competing with dumping
prices with the European market and even the competition between European countries itself
could only be controlled by suppressing the transport facilities increasing worldwide the price
of fuel making global marketing so expressive that local ecological isolated markets would be
able to survive.
A short way between producer and consumer needs a normal shelf life making unnecessary
special efforts to increase it. The great supermarkets however need special packing and other
special effects.
As it is impossible to turn back these commercial organizations there is no way out of this
dilemma.
Be informed what is going on. This is the only way to protect yourself.Look what is happening
in the BSE story, the modification of food, the growing importance of contaminants, such as a
possible comeback of DDT the powerful insecticide which deposits in food. Remember however
that you are guilty of all this mishaps.
It is the constant desire of consumption that speeds up the possibilities of marketing.
You alone can turn back time by living a life concentrated on true values. Try to find pleasure
on the simple things of life.Do not be a slave of savor.
Genetic technique Are the techniques to promote the transmission of hereditary material
between living organism.
Organisms bearing alien genes are called transgene organism (transgene animals,transgene
plants or transgene microorganism].There are food and their additives which bear alien genes,
other even being genetic modified have lost their alien genes during the manufacturing or re-
fining. The later once are similar to natural products and are therefore free of declaration.
Genetic technique is a very young science:
In 1973 genes where transferred for the first time from one bacterium to another and later on,
in 1977 the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens was used to transfer alien genes into
the cell of plants, or the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has introduced proteins in Novartis Bt 176
maize (bt-Maize) The antisense technique indexAntisense technique was developed in 1990. It
suppresses some genes, This was used modifying tomato Flavr and Savr The gene producing
ripening enzymes is suppressed and the tomato has a long shelve live
Farming in great scale in USA starts in 1996 with soy, maize, rape seed and cotton.
The European Union allows farming of BT- maize from Ciba Geigy/Novartis/Sygenta.on 1997.
Table 13.1: On the market existing GMO- Products
Product producer modification or function Germany
Novamyl Novo Nordisk ( DK) makes flovera better
Europe Rapeseed PGS ( B ) sterility/herbicide resistant
Tobacco Selta/Gauloise (F) herbicide resistant
Salad Monsanto (USA) herbicide resistant
Corn Monsanto (USA) herbicide resistant
Great Britain
Tomato Calgene (USA) retarded ripening
Chymosin Gist Brocades (NL) enzyme for cheese production
Tomato pulp Zeneka (USA) retarded ripening
soybean oil Monsanto (USA) herbicide resistant
Backery yeast Gistbrocades (NL) increased speed of fermentation
Netherlands
Xylanase Primalcol (SF) better cereal products
Xylanase Quest(Unilever,NL) better cereal products
Novamyl Novo Nordisk (DK) better cereal products
Amylopectin starch..Ayebe (F) additive
Rapeseed oil PGS (B) herbicide resistant
Lipase Unilever (NL) production of certain fatty acids
USA
Tomato Calgene (USA) retarded ripening
Tomato Monsanto (USA) retarded ripening
Tomato Zeneka (USA) retarded ripening
Tomato NDAPP (USA) retarded ripening
Cotton Monsanto (USA) resistance to insects
Soybean Monsanto (USA) herbicide resistant
Potatoes Monsanto (USA) resistance to insects
Lecithin Lecithin is a natural emulsifier which is present in Egg yolk and in soy beans.
The world production of lecithin from soy beans is around 180.000 mt.For the production of
chocolate 25% were used.The rest was used for margarine, all kind of food and last but not
least for drugs and tonics.
USA produces about half of the world supply of lecithin.
Table 13.2: Origin of lecithin
Producer Percent of world supply GMO

472
USA 50 Percent GMO positive

Europe
from soy beans of USA 17 Percent GMO positive
from soy beans of South America 8 Percent unknown origin
South America
Argentina 2 Percent GMO positive
Brazil 8 Percent only small parts are GMO free
Asia 5 Percent For home consumption, No export
The slow death of Soy bean In Germany soy oil is not used any more in the production of
human food.Only lecithin is still present in margarine as there is no substitute for it in frying
margarine.
Great efforts are being made in research to develop mono- and diglycerides compounds with
equal frying anti spatter properties. The efforts to get free of soy results from retailer specifi-
cations demanding GMO - free , organic food in order to respond to the desire of the customer
which is greatly concerned with the natural origin of food.
The latest great fears of BSE, Dioxins in Food and Genetic modified food created a loss of
confidence on the public food control departments.
BSE or dioxins did not modify the genetic code of cattle or hens. The harm caused to the
involved species by these problems are turned back as soon as the cause or the epidemie is
overcome.
Unfortunately this is not the same in case of Genetic Modified Organisms such as Soy beans.
The change of the genetic code of the plant spreads out through the species.
In few years there will be no natural seed any more present a turn back will be impossible.
All benefits of Soy bean such as oil, lecithin,vegetable proteins. soy milk, tofu and a variety
of ingredients and foods made from soy bean get lost once for ever in their originality. The
aversion to GMO soy bean is strongly present in Germany, UK, France, Australia and many
other countries , sometimes hidden by other concerns. Slowly the use of soy bean is dying.
Monsanto is responsible for a loss of confidence in one of the most important agricultural export
article of US. It is of main concern of public life to demand that 1.- Soybean planting, trans-
portation, storage, shipping and processing is handled separately from GMO-free Soy bean to
restore confidence on the origin of food.
2.- Make a collection of samples of seeds of Soy bean GMO - free in order to guarantee access of
future generation to the original seeds. These measures are of urgent importance as the spread
of the GMO seed is being forced all over the world by just one profit minded organization
damaging the image and the security of an important part of US resources.
These measures should also be extended to corn as seeds from Ciba (Bt-corn, bT= bacillus
thuringensis)[479], later overtaken by Novartis are deeply modified in their genetic codes.
Soybean as protein supply for animal feed [677] Soybean meal which is left from the
production of oil is by far the most important ingredient for animal feed. In 1999 the European
Union used as animal feed:Million
Soybean meal 26,5 million tons
Sunflower meal 9,1 million tons
Rapeseed meal 5,6 million tons
Pea meal 5,4 million tons
Animal meal 2,4 million tons
Fish meal 0,9 million tons
Animal meal can therefore be substituted by soybean or sunflower. Safety could be in-
creased. The costs of the ban of animal meal as animal feed is insignificant comparing with tho
costs to win the battle against BSE.
Soybean meal is not possible to be substituted by other plants. It is therefore important to
protect soy plant from genetic modification which might later on turn out to toxic for the plant.
Identity preserved (IP) non-GM soy bean lecithin and maize The desire across Eu-
rope to avoid genetically modified Foods has lead to an increase of demand for organic and
GM-free foods.Austria is the most developed market in Europe. 8.6% of its total farmland is
dedicated to organic farming.
Germany and France is expected to develop the greatest market for organic and non-GM foods.
The growing demand of non-GM ingredients for industry creates the need for a certified supply
of raw materials. Some bodies which certify organic food chains are Skal Skalin the Nether-
lands, Naturland in Germany Ecocert in France.
Non-Gm soy bean lecithin is now available with Identity Preserved (IP) non-GM certification
coming from the state of Parana,south of Brazil. Non-GM colours such as beta carotene, cur-
cumin, lutein, beetroot and caramelised sugar are available.
Efforts are being made to create xanthan gum derived from GM-free crops of sugar to replace
maize derivates because of doubts about the non-Gm status.
Sources of Non-GM, organic, Halal and Kosher status of food ingredients are listed in the Ingrid
Database from Fi Data Services, Milton Keynes, UK.
Some of the improvements of food for the future:
Gluten free cereals: Gen engineering may produce wheat free of gluten. This aminoacid
is not tolerated by sprue patients ( a kind of severe allergy ).
Rice with high level of vitamin A:In Asia there are regions with undersupply of vita-
min A. New seed of GMO rice is rich on provitamin A helping to overcome the deficit.
Transgenetic oil of rape seed: The GMO oil of rape seed has a modified composition
474
of fatty acids being more valuable then normal oil.
Chymosin: Is an enzyme obtained from the stomach of calf. It is used in the production
of cheese.Because of the prevention of cruelty to animals and because of hygienic aspects many
people prefer cheese made with chymosin produced by transgenetic bacteria.
Production of chymosin [37]

The active ingredient of rennet is the enzyme, chymosin (also known as rennin). Rennet from
calves are produced from the content newly born calfs abomasum, which is the fourth and final
stomach in ruminants which secretes rennet. Calves should be younger than 4 month.
To overcome a shortage of rennet from calves six major alternatives of protease enzymes are
on market:
Non-GMO non-calf rennets
1. Rennet from veal calves
2. Rennet from adult cows
3. rennet from pigs
4. Protease from Mucor miehei
5. Protease from Endothia parasitica
6. Protease from Rhizomucor pusillus
7. Protease from Endothia parasitica
8. Protease from Mucor pusillus
GMO non-calf chymosins
1. Chymosins from GMO Escherichia coli
2. Chymosins from GMO Kluyveromyces lactis
3. Chymosins from GMO Aspergillus niger)
4. Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Other proteases had been proposed as chymosin alternative but not in use,are won from plants:
Cynara candulus, Galium verum, Wrigthia, calycina, Irpex lacteus, Fusarium moniliforme, Sun-
flower kernel, Calotropis procera.
Advantage of GMO chymosin

Chymosin is now being produced mainly by genetic engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This
technology provides chymosine which is identical to the natural chymosin from calf rennet and
is being used with few exceptions in the production of all hard cheeses. It is of superior quality,
because it has less impurities found in natural non-calf chymosins.
Vegetarians and some religious groups agree to this solution because it avoids killing of calves.
[38]
The cheese produced with chymosin from GMO Saccharomyces cerevisiae is considered as
GMO-free because the genetic engineered cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are not present af-
ter the purification of chymosin and the enzyme breakes down during maturation of the cheese.
It is therefore not being labelled.
Genetic engineering of yeasts for the production of Chymosin[38]
The DNA encoding the protein chymosin is isolated from calf cells. A copy of this DNA is
inserted into plasmids which are then introduced into yeast cells. The genetic modified yeast
cells , cultivated in a fermenter vessel, produce chymosin a purer for as found in calw rennet.
Microorganisms which are used in this technology are the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis, the
fungus Aspergillus niger var awamori, and a strain of the bacteria Escherichia coli.
Yield in clotting and sensorial changes in ripe cheese using different coagulats[39]
Some reports stressed that there is a higher proteolysis level for microbial coagulants, and with
pH decrease, which may lead to a lower yield in clotting and to sensorial changes in ripe cheeses,
compared with calf and genetic rennet.
Vasconcelos and colleagues, following these reports, evaluated the influence of pH on yield
of milk coagulation with three kinds of coagulants (calf rennet, genetic and microbial coagu-
lant). The analyzed parameters for curd and whey did not differ for the the three coagulants,
regardless of milk pH.
Phytase: Is an enzyme used in vegetable food for poultry and pig diets. It liberates the
phosphor which is bounded as indigestible phytate. Using phytase the amount of mineral phos-
phor being added to the food may be reduced and consequently the amount of phosphor which
is deposited on the fields.
This turns out to be positive for environment reducing overfertilizing with phosphor. Phytase
is produced by GMO bacteria and represents the good side o genetic modification of food.
Other compounds which are produced using genetic modified technologies are: Erythropoietin
used in the drug Recormon to treat anemias.
rPA ( recombining plasminogenic activator) used in the drug Rapilysin to treatsever cardiac-
476
infarct.
Monocloned antibodies are also transgenetic biochemical compounds with great chances in fu-
ture
Other positive genetical products may come soon:
Genetic modified organism like Bacillus subtilis producing enzymes which hydrolyses starch in
the production of glucose which is the basis of the production of citric acid and other products.
GMO microorganism will soon produce vitamins such as B1 and B2 as well as aromas and
aminoacids such as flavor enhancer and aspartame.
Allergies: It is to believe that the number of allergies is not increasing with the genetic tech-
nologies.
The real cause of an increasing risk of allergies is due to a contact to local unknown proteins
resulting from globalization of the food marketing by exotic food being imported from every-
where. A recent example is the kiwi allergy and other causes such as environment.
GMO soybean: On the fields of America and Brazil the main producer of soy oil is the seed of
” Roundup Ready soybean”being developed by Monsanto.
This seed is tolerant to the herbicide ” Roundup ”, also manufactured by Monsanto.
The GMO soybean is authorized to be sold in Europe to be used as food for animals and
the oil for human food.
In Germany, due to the activity of Green Peace soybean oil is not being used for food.
Low-linolenic soyseeds
Dr Kristin Bilyeu of the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) has identified the genes
in soybeans responsible for the low-linolenic acid trait. Linolenic acid reduces the shelf life and
stability of products made from soyoil making it necessary to partially hydrogenate it which
leads to the formation of trans-fatty acids. Reducing the amount of linolenic acid in soybeans
is a desired breeding objective so that oxidation stable soybean oil can be produced without
the production of trans fatty acids. The objective of this work was to determine the molecular
genetic basis for soybeans containing 1% linolenic acid in the seed oil fraction and to develop
molecular markers specific for identified alleles. Novel combinations of mutant alleles at the
three GmFAD3 loci allowed the development of new germplasm containing 1% linolenic acid in
the seed oil along with SNP-based molecular markers that can be used in a backcross breeding
strategy. Kristin Bilyeu characterized the genes responsible for the linolenic acid formation in
the plant, submitting her markers- or identification method- to GenBank, a database of the
National Center for Biotechnology Information.
Other low-linolenic soyseeds, the Vistive beans, have been developed by Monsanto.
GMO corn: The GMO corn (called B.t.corn) developed by Ciba-Geigy was authorized to
be sold in Europe on the 4.2.1997. The modified corn bears the following gens :
1.- A gene for the production of a B.t.-toxin which protects the plant against a specific insect.
2.- A gene called pat’-gene for the tolerance to the herbicide ”Basta ” containing Phophos-
phinotricin. This gene was introduced only to select th plant with the B.t-toxin gene.
3.- A gen called amp’-gene which was introduced in the plant together with the B.t.-toxin gene.
It is the ampicillin resistance gene.
The amp’ gene produces TEM-1 beta-lactamase which is the most common beta-lactamase
found and is responsible for the resistance to ampicillin from 50% of all Escherichia isolated
today, from, which 90% are being caused by the RTEM1 type.
The gene is plasmid coded and is denominated as amp’ or bla(Tem-1) and exist on a series of
cloning vectors such as pBR 322-derivate and pUC- series.
TEM-1 has a low activity against new cephalosporin and may be inhibited by beta-lactamase
blocker such as clavulane acid or tazobactame. However under certain conditions there may
be created a resistance to amoxicillin / tazobactame as well other combinations of beta-
lactame/beta lactamase - inhibitors.
Recently an increase of mutation of TEM-1 and SHV-1 beta-lactamase is noted producing in
some cases resistance to new cephalosporin and monobactame.
These derivates are labeled as ”extended-spectrum-beta-lactamases” (ESBL), These enzymes
were found in Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens and other Enter-
obacteriaceae.
Mutation of TEM1 beta-lactamase such as TEM-30 to TEM-41 may be the reason why the
inhibition through clavulane acid is very low.
Bush 1995 has introduced therefore a subclass labeled as ”2 br” for these variants.
The ”inhibitor resistant TEM-beta-lactamases” ( IRT) was found only in Escherichia coli and
in certain Proteus mirabilis and Klebsiella pneumoniae.It might happen that IRT also spreads
to Haemophilus influenza and Neisseria gonorrhoeae having frequently TEM-1-beta lactamase.
The use of ampicillin to treat Enterococcus and Haemophilus influenzae infections should be
made nowaday preceded by a sensibility test and using suitable beta-lactamase blocker by ne-
cessity.
The possibility of a transfer of gens from B.t. corn from Ciba to bacteria cannot be completely
excluded.
To transfer the amp’gene to a bacterium it is necessary that the plant releases the amp’ gene
together with the ”origin of replication” (ori) from pUC without damage. The plant cell usually
degrades DNA during release with his own nucleases.
DNA enzymes in the paunch and the digestive tract from mammals and in the soil where bac-
teria may grow also destroy the gens.
The ability of bacteria to take over alien gens is seldom. Only very few bacteria have this
ability, together nucleases found everywhere the probability of a transfer of the amp’gene from
corn to a bacterium is very low.
The formation of a replicon in the cell, as for example the binding of the extremities of a DNA
478
- fragment could only happen through an illegitimate cross over.

The host place of the origin of a replication exists only in a very limited number of Enterobac-
teriaceae.
All the above mentioned restrictions make the possibility of a transfer of amp’ gene from plant
to a bacterium seem to be unlikely.
It is supposed that all human beings have an amp’ gene bearing Escherichia coli in their in-
testinal tract without having been exposed to beta lactame antibiotics. Approximately 50% of
all clinically isolated Escherichia coli are already resistant to ampicillin of which 90% have a
TEM-1 beta-lactamase.
The amp’ gene already being so frequent there is no further danger to increase significantly the
number of resistance by a transfer of the gene from Ciba corn to a bacterium.
However the alien gene has no function in the new corn. In future developments it is important
to avoid marker gens with resistance to antibiotic or herbicides.
Detection of GMO in food There are many genetic modified foods on market. To su-
pervise the declaration new methods of analysis were needed which are based on molecular
biological principles.
Detection can be made looking for the new specific protein or detecting the new genetic mate-
rial.
The detection of GMO is very difficult because there are so many other compounds which
may interfere in the detection, such as polysaccharides which can inhibit the polymerase chain
reaction leading to false negative results.
The food processing causes a denaturation of the proteins on the DNA which is being on test
being responsible for failing to be recognized by primers and antibodies. The tests should
therefore be suited for the specific processing methodes used. The genetic modified material
is often present in very small amounts. Sometimes the transgenetic protein is located in other
parts of the plant and the part which is being used as food has no or very little transgenetic
material such as the Bt toxin which is present in leafs but not in maize kernels of Novartis
BT 176 maize. Usual methodes of GC-MS, HPLC and capillary electrophoresis are unable to
detect them. Immunological detection of the transgenetic proteins such as Western Blot or
ELISA are now used.
The most effective method to determine transgenetic material is to amplify the alien sequence
of the promoter and the gene.
The analytical methods contain the following steps[40]:
1.- Extraction of DNA:It is necessary to extract the genetic material free from other impurities
which might interfere in further steps of the analysis.
2.-PCR reaction ( Polymerase Chain Reaction)
The PCR reactions are suited to multiply and amplify specific fragments of DNA that are alien
genes to the food being analysed. The primer starter molecules used in the beginning of the
reaction decides which sequence of DNA will be multiplied. To avoid false negative results due
to inhibit action of impurities during extraction of the DNA it is important to include a positive
reaction.
3.-Making the PCR product visible
Through gelelectrophoresis (agarosegelelectrophoresis). The products of the PCR reaction can
be made visible together with the determination of the length of the base pair, the alien gen.
4.-Confirmation of the results
The confirmation of the results are being made by controlling the sequence of the base in the
PCR product using specific sequence restriction, hybridization with specific sonde
Nested PCR and
Sequencing
The basic PCR gives only qualitative indications. To obtain quantitative results the Competi-
tive PCR or the RT-PCR should be used.
Competitive PCR Is not so expensive as RT-PCR but there are dilutions to be made which
take much time. If two sequences are present with the same complementary DNA sequence
for the primers to annel they compete for binding of the primers. A DNA sequence ( internal
standard) which is much shorter as the target DNA The amplification products can be separated
on a agarose gel. The fluorescence of these products is proportional to the amount of amplified
DNA. There are two bands on the agarose gel. Dilutions must be done until the brightness of
both bands are equal.
RT-PCR Real-time PCR The amount of molecules produced during each stage is mea-
sured rather then at the end as happens with competitive PCR.
To demonstrate the Presence of modified DNA the PCR-Method is today favored. Other Meth-
ods are the gelelectrophoresis sequencer and ELISA .
These methods are used as well in food chemistry as well in clinical researches because they
are based on the same principles.
Western Blot The method of Western Blot the extraction of the transgenetic protein from
the food is done by means of a nitro-cellulose membrane which binds the proteins. The mem-
brane is immersed in a solution of a specific antibody together with an enzyme resulting in a
colour reaction. This method is very labour intensive and therefore not being used in routine.
ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay It is based on the same principles

used for Western Blot. The membrane is substituted by a plastic plate with 100 and more wells
being therefore suitable for many tests at the same time.
480
Round Up Ready Soybean,Monsanto Co The Round Up Ready Soybean is a glyphosatere-

sistant soybean (Glycine max). Glyphosate inhibits the enzyme of the metabolism of aromatic
aminoacids in plants, the so called EPSPS 5-EnolPyruvylShikrimi-3-Phosphate-Synthesis.
The gene of glyphosate tolerance comes from Agrobacterium tumefaciens, strain CP4.
The transferpeptid as carrier of the EPSPS in the chloroplast comes from Petunia hybrid
(transit-signal-sequence)
The detection of GMO Soybean Round Up Ready is made using the specific primer pair B1/B2
which couples with the promoter sequence CaMV 35S and with the transit - signal- sequence,
This primer pair gives a PCR-product of 172 Bp which hybridize with the DNA- sonde H-35s-
ar1 after the transfer to the membrane [36].The range of options of PCR analysis of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) is expanding from day to day. As there is a great variety of
commercialized GM plants grown in USA and in Europe, being exported all over the world ,
laboratory work is getting always harder to detect all possible GMOs as reference materials are
not always attainable.
Risks of genetic engineering : According to a statement of Prof Wolfgang van Daelen,

WZB, Berlin 1997 today there are no empirical or plausible theoretical arguments that genetic
modified food represent a greater risk to the consumer as it is with normal food.
Risks can never be completely eliminated, however there are no real risks known until present
date. Future research to avoid risks of genetic engineering will be handled in two ways:
Proactive risk research: This way asks what can happen ?
Monitoring: The supervision by experts of the fields and the processing of food.
The greatest security in genetic engineering is hoped to be attained with use of both ways.
Allergy and soybean [35] Why such a trouble about genetic modified soybean ?
Soybean was the first genetically modified plant to be introduced in widespread agriculture.The
approval of the new plant by the Food and Drug Administration in USA (FDA) is made by
determining the allergenic potentials of the plant.
For this purpose the FDA has established in 1992 a guideline to determine the allergenic po-
tential of a plant.
In 1995 followed the guideline of OECD and WHO to determine allergic components in plants.This
guideline contains the principal ideas of the guideline of 1992.These guidelines have three main
points:
• The origin of the new gene.

Some origins are already known as allergenic such as Brazil nuts, peanuts, milk, kiwi, rice,
corn, spices, eggs, meat, fish, crustaceans and many pollen. Being no allergic components
of the origin known the identity with other known allergens has to be verified.The stabil-
ity to digestion, the stability during processing the final amount in food and the identity
to other non allergenic proteins must be determined.
Being there no allergens found in these tests the new plant can be approved.
Being allergens of the origin known the following test have to be made: In vitro RAST/ELISA
being negative Skin Prick Test in vivo are made.
When these tests are negative the object can be tested as food and in case of showing no
negative actions it can be approved.
In case of a positive reaction in the RAST or ELISA test as well in the Skin Prick Test
but no allergenity detected in the resulting food can be approved with a warning about
the possible allergic reaction must be given on the label.
In case of the Round Up Ready-Soy bean allergenic tests of the origin cannot be per-
formed because the alien gene has his origin in soil bacteria and there are no antibodies
of the blood of allergic persons available.
During development of the modified soybean there were genes of the Brazil nut used.Antibodies
from persons allergic to Brazil nut indicated allergenity of the new plant.
A warning on the label turned out to be necessary. The further research on this plant
was therefore abandoned.
This was an example of allergenity of the origin gene being taken over by the new host.
• Host of the new gene.

Some hosts are already known as allergenic such as soybeans. Allergic reactions to normal
soybean are known. GMO Round Up Ready Soybean had therefore be tested on regard
of possible allergenity taking over from his primary host.
The immunoblotting method shows the forming pattern of the serological antibodies re-
sulting from the new soy proteins.
The Round Up Soybean reacted identical to the normal unmodified soybean.In relation
to allergenity the GMO soybean is therefore identical with the normal plant.
• The allergenic activity of the new protein There exist no antibodies for the new proteins.
Direct test is not possible.
The evaluation of the toxicity is made with the following considerations which are common
to all allergic proteins:
The proteins must be stable against the stomach acid an to enzymes like trypsin and
pepsin in order to trigger an immunological reaction.
The alien gene from GMO Soybean produces the enzyme CP4 EPSP-Synthase.This enzyme
was compared with existing allergens.
Size of the molecule Only the size of the molecule was identical to known allergens.This
is however not relevant because the molecule is inactivated by heat.Processed Soybean meal is
therefore not allergenic because of this heat barrier.
482
Digestion The CP4EPSP-Synthase molecule is not resistant to digestion, being destroyed in

the stomach within 15 seconds.
Bounding to long chained sugars Typical allergens are bound to long chained sugars ,
the new enzyme does not have sugar in his molecule.
Degree of strangeness The degree of strangeness is an important element of comparison

with other allergens.The new enzyme CP4EPSP-Synthase is similar to EPSP - Proteins from
baker yeast and indexBacillus subtilis Bacillus subtilis.Both of them are considered as GRAS
(Generally Regarded as Safe)
Amount of Allergen in the final food The amount of CP4 EPSP-Synthase in the final
food is so small that only 0,001% in total and 0,08% in the proteins of the food are found.
Allergenic substances are usually the major part of the food.
GMO soybean oil and allergenity There are no allergic reactions known from refined oil
of GMO soybean.The modified allergenic residues which are left after refining are below 1 ppm.
CP4EPSP protein and Round Up Ready Soybean is therefore considered as not allergenic.
French position to GMO [139] Some environmental organization like Agir pour l’environnement,
Greenpeace, France nature environment combatte the GMO.
Some organizations like the FNPL (Federation Nationalle des Producteurs de Legumes) and
the CP (Confederation Paysanne) are against transgene food.
These Organizations are united to fight health- and environment- risks. According to them ev-
erything being resistant to antibiotic should be forbidden. Other Organizations like the FNSEA
and the CNJA support GMO when:
1. Possible health- and environment risks are eliminated,
2. An acceptable solution concerning labeling of GMO food is found,
3. The national agriculture and the distribution system of food is protected against distortion
of trade.
Recall of GMO maize seeds in France In the end of April 1999 there was a recall of
maize seeds in France (Elsace) after being proved that the seeds were genetically modified.The
recall was confirmed by Pioneer Seeds company.In Germany there were also US GMO maize
seed found. DER BUND (German environment organization) says that it should be avoided
that frontiers between genetic modified food and natural grown food are erased. The consumer
should keep the right to choose between both foods.[424]
Only Germany and Spain have authorized the use of genetic modified maize. All other member
s of the EU do not accept it.
PTI: More unmodified Soya proteins Protein Technologies International (PTI) most
important producer of soya proteins, guarantee that it can supply the demands of genetic
unmodified proteins from soybeans in Germany. According to PTI it is a fairytale that US
soybeans are not separated in GMO and unmodified. To make sure no modified GMO is being
used PTI has developed an Identity Preservation Program which is similar to the ”Cert ID”
scheme for unmodified foods recently introduced by the trade companies (April 1999)[?].
US exporters want to supply demands of GMO-free Soybeans and cereals The

exporter and cereal specialist Northland Seed and Grains in Minnesota guarantee its products
to be 100% GMO-free (April 1999)[426].
Two great cereal buyers accept only grains which can also be sold in Europe.
Unilever UK :Renunciation to genetic modified ingredients Van den Berg Foods UK

and Birds Eye Wall’s (part of Unilever UK) will stop the use of GMO ingredients changing the
with alternative unmodified ingredients, what also includes GMO-free Soy products (April1999).
The efforts to produce GMO-free products show that there is a growing market for these
products.
Meanwhile Monsanto introduces for autumn 1999 the GMO Roundup Ready Soybean in Brazil
The industry likes the”Brave New World” from Aldous Huxley.Rhone-Poulenc,a chemical giant
and Limagrains producer of seeds united to create the Rhobio Company being responsible for
biotechnology activities.
It has even been tried to change ”Geneticaly modified ” to ” Geneticaly improved ”.
The Nestlé Group refers to rising prices on GMO-free products.
The food dealers like Carrefour, Casino, and Systeme U make sure to get guarantee as GMO-free
from the producer.It has shown that it is almost impossible to guarantee GMO-free products
because basic components of food are already modified.Carrefour sells products with GMO-free
guarantee. The Danone company , Paris announces not to use GMO - raw materials in their
production in Europe.
The dealers are afraid that customers guided by dubious publications can make their own
buying decisions to get out of control.
The dealers support therefore the labeling of GMO. Other supermarket chains in Great Britain
which took out of their shelves products with genetic modified ingredients including meat from
animals which had been feed with GMO animal feed around July 1999: Sainsbury, Safeway,
Marks and Spencer, Northern Foods, Unilever and Nestlé GB as well as Nestlé Italy. Sainsbury
searches for GMO-free cereals for animal feed to produce GMO-free meat and poultry [443].
Terminator-Gen In the EU there are rules demanding farmers to pay licenses to seed breed-
ers when seeds from the last crop are held back to be reused once again. The seed breeders say
that they are loosing much licenses in Austria where these rules are still not introduced.
USA breeders are therefore working to introduce a new gene in their seeds, the so called ”Ter-
484
minator Gene” which lets seeds germinate only one time.There is no use to keep seeds for the
next time. Farmers have to by their seeds from the breeder. If the terminator gene spreads out
in free nature all plants will stop to germinate. The use of genetic techniques should not be
allowed to collect fees or other financial purposes.[453]
Monsanto has made its golden rice available free of charge to developing countries. This rice
had been modified with genetic engineering being enriched with vitamin A. The rice could
prevent millions of cases of blindness caused by vitamin A deficiency. Monsanto hopes to sell
the specific agro chemicals for this plant.
Terminator biotech technology The Terminator technology or Genetic Use Restriction

Technologies (GURTS), sterilises seeds in order to force farmers and gardeners to buy new seed
each season. [455]
The Food Commission of UK argues that Terminator seed will prevent farmers around the
world saving their own seed, endangering seed security, the environment and consumer choice.
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) launched a moratorium on the
field testing and commercialisation of terminator technology, agreed in 2000.
Australian, New Zealand, US and Canadian governments tried to undermine the existing mora-
torium at the CBD meeting in Granada, Spain, arguing that the technology would increase
productivity. It was also recommended that CBDs precautionary approach should be replaced
by case-by-case risk assessment.
Greenpeace today called upon the 188 states at the 8th meeting of the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) in 22. March 2006 in Curitiba, Brazil, to maintain the moratorium
on the field trials and commercial releases of Terminator seed technology which was agreed six
years ago. [454]
Governments at the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have unani-
mously upheld the international de facto moratorium on Terminator technology at the 8th
meeting of the CBD in Curitiba, Brazil. According to Maria Jose Guazzelli of Centro Ecológico,
a Brazil-based agro-ecological organization the Convention rejected the efforts of Canada, Aus-
tralia and New Zealand - supported by the US government and the biotechnology industry - to
undermine the moratorium on suicide seeds. [456]
Luxembourg, Greece and Austria consistently vote against standard GMO approvals. New
patents for Terminator technology have already been granted in Europe and Canada, and ap-
plications have been submitted in China, Japan and Brazil.
Hybrid rice
The FAO maintains the International Rice Commission IRC which coordinates international
activities to increase rice yields:
Hybrid rice for Egypt [457]

The International Rice Commission of FAO indexInternational Rice Commission selected rice
from more than 200 hybrid varieties to help Egypt to produce more rice with less water and
less land, achieving the worlds highest national average rice yield in 2005. C4 rice [457]
Converting rice from a C3 plant to a C4 plant, where the ”C” refers to the carbon captured
by photosynthesis for growth as land and water resources available for rice production keep
diminishing as a result of urbanization and industrialization.
However, according to the International Rice Commission Secretary Nguu Nguyenit,[?, ?] in

25 August 2006, Rome, it will take several more years before the C4 rice varieties may become
available. And, then it has to be made sure that they are safe for human and animal consump-
tion as well as for the environment.
Concerns related to biosafety, conservation of rice genetic diversity, intellectual property rights
and access are risen. The International Rice Commission believes that international capacity
building is urgently required to ensure that new innovations benefit local people and do not
incur long-term costs to the environment.
In the medium term, increasing rice production in some countries could require a different
approach, one based on introduction of better crop management practices. The results from
pilot tests in developing countries since 2000 have demonstrated that very high yield with ex-
isting varieties can be obtained with improved crop management (ICM).
Improved Crop Management ICM and increasing rice yelds [457]

In the Philippines FAO’s Improved Crop Management ICM has given excellent results increas-
ing rice yields in test regions setting planting dates to expose crops to higher solar radiation,
optimising seeding density, balanced plant nutrition, careful water management and the intro-
duction of newly-developed hybrid varieties such as SK 2034 and SK 2046.
GM rice in Japan [458]
C4 rice:C3 plants which are less photosynthesis efficient include sugar beet, rice and potatoes.
C4 plants highly efficient in the use of light for their biosynthesis are maize and sugar cane.
486
Genetically modified rice in Japan [458]
Professor Joe Cummins in his review, points out some overlooked dangers of genetic engineering
of rice in Japan.
The C4 rice
Bioengineering tried to modify rice introducing a transgene for that enzyme from maize which
expresses the enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) fixing carbon dioxide in C4
plants. C3 plants lack this gene and fix carbon dioxide exclusively through an enzyme called
Rubisco in the chloroplasts. A hygromycin resistance marker was added to the PEPC gene in
the C4 rice, but photosynthesis did not improve.
New trials are ongoing with the gene for the enzyme phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PCK)
from Urochloa panicoides (liver weed).
Dwarf rice:Dwarf rice resists to lodging in wind and rain. A gene was introduced in rice
to degrade the hormone gibberellin controlling height of the plant. This gene did suppress
seeding, reducing yields.
The rice was then transformed with the hormone-degrading gene and put under control by
tissue specific promoter for gibberellin synthesis, and terminated with tnos, together with a
hygromycin resistance marker. There are no final results published.
Rice for alkaline soil [458]

To avoid iron deficiency in rice, when planted on alkaline soil, a gene which expresses the en-
zyme nicotianamine aminotransferase (NAAT) in barley was transferred to rice. This enzyme
from the root of the plant, in alkaline soil, releases molecules called phytosiderophores turning
iron uptake possible. Enhanced iron uptake under these conditions, improved yiels of GM rice.
The NAAT gene transfer was achieved with a CaMV promoter and terminated by tnos, and
accompanied by hygromycin-resistance and neomycin-resistance marker genes
bacterial blight control [458]

To control rice bacterial blight the gene for the expression of cecropinB peptide, as strong
antimicrobial of the larvae of the silk moth, Bombyx mori, was introduced into rice. A very
complicated construct was designed using a version of the CaMV 35S promoter with enhancer
5p, the omega sequence from tobacco mosaic virus followed its promoter and the first intron
of a phaseolin gene, a rice chitinase signal peptide, the cecropin sequence, terminated by tnos
and a kanamycin-resistance marker.
Insect resistant rice [458]

Stem borer insect resistance: To enhance resistance against stem borer insects a trypsin-
inhibitor, interfering with the digestion of the stem borer was introduced into rice, following
a very complicated system: A synthetic trypsin-inhibitor gene derived from the winged bean
with a reduced GC (guanine-cytosine) content to improve messenger RNA production, added
to an enhanced CaMV promoter , together with a tobacco mosaic virus omega sequence and the
first intron of a phaseolin gene, and terminated with tnos. In addition, a hygromycin resistance
marker was also inserted.
Army worm larvae: The army worm larvae became susceptible to the common soil bac-
ulovirus when ingesting the pox virus gene product of GM rice. A synthetic insect pox gene
with an altered DNA sequence was introduced in the rice using a CaMV promoter, a non-
coding region of the rice stripe virus RNA and terminated by tnos, together with a hygromycin
resistance marker. The natural resistance of the army worm larvae against the baculovirus is
destroyed when it comes to a contact with the transgene DNA of the rice.
Biosecurity concerns relating GM rice in Japan [458]

Pofessor Joe Cummins concludes that the human cytochrome p450 genes should not be used in
rice because they activate carcinogens. Cummins refers to the possibility the human genomes
to be invaded by trangene DNA, through illegitimate and homologous recombination, follow-
ing an extensive use4 of the aggressive CaMV-based superpromoters, and the incorporation of
human genes. Dangerous consequences include the creation/activation of new viruses or cancer.
Unauthorised US GMO rice Bayer ll Rice 601not allowed to enter the EU [459]
The European Commission in August 2006 has adopted a decision requiring imports of long
grain rice from the USA to be certified as free from the unauthorised GMO LL Rice 601. This
unauthorised GMO had been found in samples of commercial rice on the US market. The
emergency measures adopted by the Commission today mean that, with immediate effect, only
consignments of US long grain rice that have been tested by an accredited laboratory using
a validated testing method and accompanied by a certificate assuring the absence of LL Rice
601, can enter the EU.
Member States authorities are responsible for controlling the imports at their borders and
for preventing any contaminated consignments from being placed on the market. In addition,
they should carry out controls on products already on the market, to ensure that they are free
from LL Rice 601.
Business operators importing rice from the USA also have responsibility for ensuring that
LL Rice 601 does not enter the EU food chain and that imports are certified as free from this
unauthorised GMO, in accordance with the EU food law principle that operators are responsi-
ble for the safety of the food or feed that they place on the market.
488
Lawsuits against Bayer [460]

The EC imposes no penalties and costs against Bayer.
Bayer is being lawsuited by rice farmers from Arkansas alleging that the corporation failed
to prevent Liberty Link (LL) rice 601 GM rice from entering the food chain. As a result of the
contamination of rice crops the price of US longcorn rice felt considerably
Commercial rice in the United States was found contaminated with genetically engineered
(GE) Liberty Link (LL) rice 601, produced by Bayer. Liberty Link (LL) rice 601 was devel-
oped to tolerate the herbicide, glufosinate ammonium. Imports were, as a result, immediately
banned in Japan.
Greenpeace International calls on the EC to stop reacting to contamination ’accidents’ and

start preventing them instead. The EC should identify countries and products that are at high
risk of contaminating our food supply with illegal or dangerous GE organisms and implement
screening, preventative testing and, where there is no demonstrated capacity to prevent con-
tamination, total bans.
Greenpeace International calls on other major importing regions such as the Americas, Africa
and the Middle East to take similar steps immediately until the US can guarantee that their
rice supply - and other foods - are no longer contaminated.
There is currently no evidence that LLRICE601 has been imported into Canada.
In advance of the announcement, the CFIA and Health Canada, in consultation with the USDA
and Bayer CropScience, conducted preliminary assessments of the risks that this incident posed
to Canadian food and feed and the environment. The assessments determined that it is unlikely
that low levels of LLRICE601 pose a risk to human health, livestock or the environment.
Canadian assessment determined that there is no risk coming from low levels of
LLRICE601[361]
LLRICE601 is genetically very similar to another type of genetically engineered rice ( LL-
RICE62) which has been thoroughly assessed and approved for feed and food use in both
Canada and the US However, this line of rice is not used commercially in Canada and the
US While there is currently no evidence that LLRICE601 has been imported into Canada, the
Government of Canada continues to work with the USDA to actively gather information about
the distribution of this product.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Statement on Report of Bioengineered Rice

in the Food Supply [362]
The bioengineered variety of rice, called LLRICE601, expresses the phosphinothricin - N -
acetyltransferase (PAT) protein which provides tolerance to glufosinate-ammonium herbicide.

This rice variety, not intended for commercialization, was not submitted to FDA for evaluation
under the Agency’s voluntary biotechnology consultation process. However, crops containing
the PAT protein have previously been evaluated for safety by FDA on a number of occasions
through the Agency’s voluntary biotechnology consultation process.Bayer has informed the
Agency that LLRICE601 is present in some samples of commercial rice seed at low levels.
In addition, Bayer has provided information about the safety of the PAT protein, molecu-
lar characterization, and nutritional composition of grain from LLRICE601. Based on the
available data and information, FDA has concluded that the presence of this bioengineered rice
variety in the food and feed supply poses no food or feed safety concerns.
Liberty herbicide and NAG (N-acetyl-L-glufosinate)

Smith glufosinate Jeffrey M. Smith says that Liberty herbicide (also marketed as Basta, Ignite,
Rely, Finale and Challenge) can kill a wide variety of plants, bacteria, fungi and insects, and
has toxic effects on humans and animals. The herbicide is derived from a natural antibiotic,
which is produced by two strains of a soil bacterium. In order that the bacteria are not killed by
the antibiotic that they themselves create, the strains also produce specialized enzymes which
transform the antibiotic to a non-toxic form called NAG (N-acetyl-L-glufosinate). The two
genes which produce these enzymes are inserted into the DNA of GM crops.When the plant is
sprayed, Liberty’s glufosinate ammonium is absorbed by the plant where the enzymes convert
it primarily into NAG protecting itself against the weed killing poison.
NAG, accumulates in these GM crops. NAG may be re-transformed back into the toxic herbi-
cide inside our digestive system by gut bacteria, primarily found in the colon or rectum.
The conversion of NAG back to glufosinate was found to be up to 10% and one-third in goats.
Jeffrey M. Smith says it is believed that although these parts of the gut do not absorb as
many nutrients as other sections, rats fed NAG did show toxic effects. A goat study also con-
firmed that some of the herbicide regenerated from NAG ended up in the kidneys, liver, muscle,
fat and milk.
Low chances of consuming significant amount of NAG [363]

Christopher Preston of the University of Adelaide, Australia counters the affirmations of Jeffrey
M Smith in AgBioWorld in 30.08.2006:
”Transgenic glufosinate resistant plants do convert glufosinate into NAG; however, very little
if any NAG ends up in the grain and none in processed foods.” ”The chances of consuming any
significant amount of NAG are very low.”
Preston concludes: ”It is true that transgenic glufosinate resistant plants metabolise glufos-
490
inate to NAG. It is also true that a small amount of NAG can be converted into glufosinate
on passage through mammalian intestinal tracts. However, the rest of the steps required for
Smith’s ”unique risk” do not occur. NAG appears only at low concentrations, if at all, in
grain from glufosinate-treated crops and not at all in processed foods. Therefore, it would be
exceptionally difficult to ingest sufficient NAG to even reach the ADI. The vast majority of
the NAG and any glufosinate produced from it are excreted rapidly in faeces. Therefore, the
chances of consuming sufficient NAG to convert to sufficient glufosinate in the gut to produce
any measurable effect must be exceptionally remote.”
Petition for approval of LLRICE601 for human consumption [364]

The USDA announced in August 2006 that a scientific review of available data revealed no
human health, food safety or environmental concerns were associated with GMO LL Rice 601
(LibertyLink)
In August 2006 Bayer petitioned for the deregulation (approval) for human consumption of
LL Rice 601. The USDA has said that the petition is in accordance with its Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service (APHIS) regulations concerning the introduction of GE organisms
and products.
Bayer CropScience document: Application for an Extension of the Determination

of Nonregulated Status for Glufosinate-Tolerant Rice (98-329-01p): Transforma-
tion Event LLRICE601 OECD Unique Identifier BCS-OS003-7 [364]
The undersigned submits this petition under 7 CFR 340.6 to request that the Director, Scien-
tific Services, makes a determination that the article should not be regulated under 7 CFR 340.
Bayer CropScience requests a determination from APHIS that rice with glufosinate herbicide
tolerance event LLRICE601 and any progeny derived from crosses of this event with traditional
rice varieties, and any progeny derived from crosses of this event with transgenic rice varieties
that have also received a determination of nonregulated status, no longer be considered regu-
lated articles under 7 CFR Part 340, and that APHIS consider this document as an extension
to petition 98-329-01p.
Glufosinate-tolerant rice based upon the transformation event LLRICE601 was produced by the
introduction of a chimeric 35S/bar gene construct using Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer.
The rice events described in petition 98-329-01p were transformed by direct gene transfer of
a chimeric 35S/bar gene construct. All events produce the same protein, the enzyme phos-
phinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT), which confers resistance to the herbicide glufosinate.
Agronomic evaluation has demonstrated that there were no morphological, beneficial organism,
disease susceptibility or pest susceptibility differences observed when comparing the events to
cultivated rice. (Bayer document, citation end
Fact sheet Maize [365]

Glufosinate herbicide- resistant GMOs use the GOX genes. The trait Glyphosate Oxireduc-
tase (GMEsyn) confers tolerance to glyphosate (Roundup) The donor-organism was originally
Ochronobactrum anthropi, but now a synthetic construct is being used.
After treatment with N-acetyl glufosinate (NAG) accumulates in genetically modified plants.
Glufosinate was generally a minor component of the residue whereas the main component in
the forage, silage and fodder was NAG and the main component in the grain, cobs and husks
was MPP (FAO, 1998; Stumpf, 1996).
Information on the metabolism of glufosinate-ammonium and NAG (N-acetyl-L-glufosinate)

in laboratory rats, lactating goats and laying hens was reported. In summary, most of the
administered dose of both compounds is rapidly excreted. NAG may be partially metabolized
back to glufosinate.
In rat studies up to 10% deacetylation occurred at a low dose of 3 mg/kg bw as shown by

the occurrence of glufosinate in the faeces. The authors concluded however that most of the
conversion was caused by bacteria in the colon and rectum although toxicity findings indicate
partial bioavailability (FAO, 1998).
Toxicity studies show a LD50 (orally en subcutaneous) of NAG of more than 2.8 g/kg body
weight, indicating that NAG is not toxic (Trinks, 1995).
In samples of Bt-11 maize no glufosinate-derived residues are found in any maize processed frac-
tion which are relevant food or feed items. These include flour, starch, grits and oil. Residues
are not detectable in crude and refined oil. In ruminant and poultry feeding studies no de-
tectable residues were found in meat, milk or eggs at the dose calculated to represent the
highest residues in livestock feed under Good Agricultural Practice and taking into account the
potential use of glufosinate herbicide in several tolerant crops (Scientific Committee on Plants,
1998).
Based on the current knowledge it can be concluded that large-scale applications of trans-
genic herbicide-resistant crops and glyphosate or glufosinate does not have adverse effects on
the safety of food and the safety for users (Hin, 2001).
Sequencing rice: The genetic code of rice is very similar to all the other cereals to a certain
extent. Many of the shared genes are in similar positions on the respective chromosomes. A
given function of a gene in rice is very likely to be located in the corresponding gene in another
492
cereal.”
According to Robin Buell of The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR). These data can be
used to develop new varieties of rice that deliver increased yields and grow in harsher conditions.
Rice is genetically similar to maize, wheat, barley, rye, sorghum and sugarcane. Understanding
rice opens the door to the genomics of these plants.
Transporter IRTI for assimilation of iron [367] [368]

Professor Mary Lou Guerinot of Dartmouth University and colleagues identified the transporter
IRTI for assimilation of iron by plants. The identification of genes involved in iron homeostasis
were done at the model plant Arabidopsis. The scientists studied the transport and regulation
of gene expression by metals. Iron and zinc, for instance, influence plant growth and affect
yield volumes.
The use of phosphate fertilizers, which has led to high levels of cadmium contamination in
many locations around the world Cadmium, together with other metals such as manganese,
zinc, and cobalt are also transported by the IRTI transporter.
Guerinot used DNA shuffling and heterologous expression in yeast to isolate alleles of IRT1,
which allow the iron to be transported but not the poisonous cadmium. The new transgenic
seedlings presented the same cadmium level as wild type plants which had lost their IRT1
function. The transgenic plants had twice as much iron as the wild type plants, when grown
in the presence of cadmium.
This genetic technique applied in rice could overcome iron deficiency in many poor countries
which use rice as staple food.
The research continues looking after which transporters affect the distribution of micronu-
trients within plants hoping to lead to agronomic benefits such as increased seedling vigour,
higher crop yields and resistance to disease.
In her commentary on this research on Golden Rice in Science, Dartmouth biologist Mary
Lou Guerinot says that engineering plants to improve their nutritional value would be of great
benefit to developing countries. [369]
Genetic modified potatoes [370] Dr. Arpad Pusztai from the Rowett Institute in Scot-
land responsible scientist liberated the news that rats being fed with GMO potatoesinjured in
growth and in its immune system.
The results were declared as misunderstanding and Dr. Pusztai was sent into retirement.
A snowdrop-gene had been introduced in the genetical material of the potato. This alien
gene should keep worms and insects away. Further research carried out by Dr. Pusztai made
clear that there was a potential menace to animals and mankind. Damage of internal or-
gans,malfunction of the immune system and alteration of growth and were demonstrated by
rats being fed with the genetic modified potato.
At the moment it is not clear from where the toxicity comes. Some scientists find the promoter-
gene to be responsible for it.
The same promoter-gene is being used in the Roundup Ready Soybean.
If this proves to be true all food having soybean derivates from genetic modified soybeans should
be considered as harmful to health.
French retailer against genetic modified food [370] The French retailer Carrefour, Paris
announces to withdraw all genetic modified foods.About one third of their own trade-marked
articles are affected.
Carrefour is not an enemy of genetic technology, but it seems impossible to predict the results
of genetic modification on foods for long terms.Therefore the retailer wants to go the safe way
avoiding genetic modified products.
According to Carrefour[370] GMO labeling EU directive proves to be insufficient to provide
protection or information for the consumer as to many exceptions are allowed.
Seven important European retailer enterprises have founded a consortium against genetic mod-
ified foods. This consortium embraces Migros (Swiss), Carrefour (France), Sainsbury(Great
Britain, Marks and Spencer, Delhaize Le Lion (Belgium), Esselunga (Italy) and Superquina
(Ireland).
The aim of this alliance is to clean own trade marks from genetic modified ingredients. (vwd/1.4.99/12/m
GMO-labeling in USA US-citizens claim for GMO-labeling in a petition which has been
given to the Congress as there are no rules from FDA.
European GM regulation criticized citeMAS marker)

At an IFT conference on global acceptance and sustainability of genetically modified food
26.06.2006, Francis Smith from the Competitive Enterprise Institute in Washington DC criti-
cized the EU GM food regulations.
She said that consumers in the EU are concerned a lot about food, especially over topics
that attract a lot of media coverage, Austrians being the most affected by worries. Fourty
percent of European women are deeply concerned about food safety meanwhile only 29 percent
of European men feel so.
Smith believes that Europeans fear new technology. Americans do not share this feeling, they
look at the benefits and have less fear and less distrust.
494
Because of the European distrust, triggered by food scandals like mad cow and safety of the
food supply chain in the 1990s, decision-makers take into account these fears and adopt pre-
vention strategies.
Smith argued that regulations addressing perceptions and fears rather than scientific evidence,
increases the perceptions of risk when there is little basis for this, and could lead to mass hys-
teria.
Marker-assisted selection (MAS) accelerating traditional breeding[371] Jeremy Rifkin

from the Foundation on Economic Trends reports that new technologies are making gene splic-
ing and transgenic crops (GM foods) obsolete. He urges to look at Marker-assisted selection
(MAS) as a method to accelerate traditional breeding. Rifkin says that genes associated with
desirable traits such as yield or pest resistance can now be identified, and located in other
varieties of the food crop or its wild relatives, which are then cross bred to improve the crop.
This technology will eventually replace GM food which uses molecular splicing techniques to
transfer a gene from an unrelated species.
Most of the transgenic crops introduced into the fields express only two traits - resistance to
pests and compatibility with herbicides - and rely on the expression of a single gene. Marker-
assisted selection (MAS) technology could overcome this limitation.
Jeremy Rifkin notes that farmers are gradually forced to used seeds and agrochemical pro-
ducing crops which are not their own any more, but belong to multinational corporations of
agro business and food industry. [372]
According to Nicolas Schauer marker-assisted selection (MAS) in conjunction with transcript

profiling is a powerful method to identify genes of interest for the rapid identification of agro-
nomically desirable lines. The combination of MAS and metabolite profiling might prove much
more effective in the long run for the identification of metabolic traits in crops. [373]
Herbicides at the base of imidazolinon [370] Genetic modified rapeseed resistant to the
herbicide imidazolinon is already on market.
The pharmaceutical enterprise Cyanamid Canada and the University of Saskatchewan of Canada
develops imidazolinon tolerant wheat. The used gene had been detected in winter wheat.
Celiac disease [374] Celiac disease is caused by allergy to gliadin, an aminoacid from gluten
of wheat, rye and barley. Gluten is present in flour of theses grains and is therefore present in
all farinaceous foods as well as traces in starch of these plants. Starch is an ingredient of a long
chain of industrial products.The German Ministry of Research ( BMF Bundesforschungsmin-
isterium ) coordinates researches to eliminate the genes responsible celiac causing components
of the gluten.
Unfortunately industry does not help the project as there is no financial profit expected.Monsanto
hopes to release a glyphosate tolerant wheat type in 2002.
Imidazolinon resistant sugar beets were already developed and are on test.
Cultivation of genetic modified seeds in Brazil

In September 1999 the cultivation of genetic modified soybean[418]will start.
Fields in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and the south of Mato Grosso and Goias will be culti-
vated with Roundup Ready soybeans from Monsanto over the Monsoy enterprise.The seed was
released by the Brazilian commission CTNbio (Commissao Técnica Nacional de Bioseguranca).
Consumer organizations and government sectors have made resistance against GMO soybean.
The GMO plant is coming over the border from Argentina.
Hoechst Schering has received the authorization to cultivate herbicide tolerant rice in Brazil.
According to CNTBio (Brazilian biotechnology safety commission) the worldwide culture of
GM plants is 28 millions hectares
Soybeans are represented with 40% followed by maize, tobacco, cotton, tomatoes and potatoes.
USA has 8,5 millions hectares of GM plantations, China 1,8 millions hectares, Argentina 1,4
millions hectares and Canada 1,3 millions hectares.
Du Pont de Nemours and Co has entered the Brazilian market with Du Pont do Brasil with its
head in Sao Paulo taking over Pioneer Hi-Bred international Inc in march 99.
As Du Pont has overtaken Sementes Dois Marcos the way is open to the production of genetic
modified soy bean seeds together with modified wheat seeds.
The first product of Du Pont in Brazil will be a modified maize seed which was modified with-
out gene transfer so there is no formality necessary to release the seed.This maize has a very
high content of oil. (vwd/6.4.99/mi)
Good business with GM-free vitamin E, phytosterols and isoflavones

Fenchem claims to have established a solid supplier chain of indigenous soybean grown in the
north-east of China. As more and more GMO soybean seed is being planted US, Brazil and else-
where, GMO-free soybean products are getting in great demand. Fenchem received IP (identity
preserved) certification for soy-derived natural vitamin E, phytosterols and isoflavones.
GMO and worldwide famine, an interview with Ian Wilmut Can genetic techniques
solve the problem of famine in the world?
Ian Wilmut, genetic specialist who cloned the sheep ”Dolly” said in an interview with the
Brazilian magazine veja (4.11.1998,page 14):
”It would be exaggerated to say so. The actual production of foods is more than sufficient to
feed the whole planet. The trouble is that the food is unequal distributed. Instead of producing
496
more food we have to improve the storage of already existing food and we have to distribute
them in a fair way. It is sad to know that people still die of hunger just because we do not find
a political and social model which enables us to distribute food in a way with more justice.
The solution of the famine is political and not scientific. What genetics can do is to give a
contribution that this comes true.”
Cloning of animals for better foods [420]

The European Commission requested the European Food Safety Authority to advise on food
safety, animal health, animal welfare and environment implication of live cloned animals, ob-
tained through somatic cell nucleus transfer (SCNT) technique, their offspring and of the prod-
ucts obtained from those animals. [419]
At present in Europe cloning is not a commercial practice and there is no specific regula-
tion on the authorisation of food products from cloned animals for human consumption in the
EU. EFSA’s opinion will therefore help inform any future EU measures for cloned animals and
their products.
Food safety officials from the 27 member states decided that milk and meat from cloned ani-
mals and their offspring should be considered in the same way as any other novel food, such as
genetically-modified organisms (GMOs).
To prepare the advice, the EFSA refers to the Opinion Nr. 9 - 28.February 1997 - Ethical
aspects of cloning techniques.Opinion requested by the European Commission on 28 February
1997 [420]. This opinion was prepared by European Group on Ethics in Science and New Tech-
nologies . [421]
The Group defines cloning as the process of producing ”genetically identical” organisms. It
may involve division of a single embryo, in which case both the nuclear genes and the small
number of mitochondrial genes would be ”identical”, or it may involve nuclear transfer, in
which case only the nuclear genes would be identical.
But genes may be mutated or lost during the development of the individual: the gene set
may be identical but it is unlikely that the genes themselves would ever be totally identical. In
the present context, we use the term ”genetically identical” to mean ”sharing the same nuclear
gene set”.
According to the European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies [421], in their
Opinion nr. 9 - 28/05/1997 - Ethical aspects of cloning techniques express that these new
technologies increase the power of people over nature and thus increase their responsibilities
and duties.
The Group cites the potential uses of cloning animals:

- in the field of medicine and medical research, to improve genetic and physiological knowledge,
to make models for human diseases, to produce at lower cost proteins like milk proteins to be
used for therapeutic aims, to provide source of organs or tissues for xenotransplantation;
- in agriculture and agronomical research, to improve the selection of animals or to repro-

duce animals having specific qualities (longevity, resistance,...) either innate, or acquired by
transgenesis.
From the point of view of animal breeding, the technology could be useful, in particular if
it increases the medical and agricultural benefits expected from transgenesis (genetic modifica-
tion of animals).
By using genetic modification and selection in cultured cell lines, rather than in adult ani-
mals, it could become possible to remove genes, such as those provoking allergic reactions, as
well as adding genes, for the benefit of human health.
Cloning of animals
The Group gives their opinion concerning cloning of animals:
Research on cloning in laboratory and farm animals is likely to add to our understanding of
biological processes, in particular ageing and cell commitment, and hence may contribute to
human well-being. It is ethically only acceptable if carried out with strict regard to animal
welfare, under the supervision of licensing bodies.
Cloning of farm animals may prove to be of medical and agricultural as well as economic
benefit. It is acceptable only when the aims and methods are ethically justified and when it is
carried out under ethical conditions.
These ethical conditions include:

- the duty to avoid or minimize animal suffering since unjustified or disproportionate suffering
is unacceptable;
- the duty of reducing, replacing and when possible refining the experimentation adopted for
the use of animals in research;
the lack of better alternatives;
human responsibility for animals, nature and the environment, including biodiversity.
The group stresses the need to preserve genetic diversity in farm animal stocks. Strategies
to incorporate cloning into breeding schemes while maintaining diversity should be developed
498
by European institutions.
On regard to human reproductive cloning the Group writes that the European Community
should clearly express its condemnation of human reproductive cloning and should take this
into account in the relevant texts and regulations.
According to the Group, further efforts must be made to inform the public, to improve pub-
lic awareness of potential risks and benefits of such technologies, and to foster informed opinion.
Cloned meat in USA

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) said it planned to approve cloning for food
production in 2007 and to allow the product into the food chain without the need for labelling.
Patents on GMO-plants The DBV (Deutscher Bauernverband)German Farmer Union has

urged the German Government not to take over the European Biopatent guideline in the Ger-
man Patent law. The DBV says that European Commission opens the possibility of o wide
spreadread patent on plants.It is also possible that patent protected gens spread in nature
contaminating other plants Farmers would be than unwillingly colliding with patent claims.
According to the German Farmer Union are plants and animals a part of natural life basics
and should not be withdraw from general availability. Plants and animals are part of nature
and should not be put under the monopoly of certain business groups.
GMO rapeseed in Europe GMO-rapeseed has been released in Europe by Advanta Seeds
without knowledge of the farmer. The GMO-seed was distributed in large scale in Ger-
many,France and Sweden and England for two years. France and Sweden gave order to destroy
the GMO- fields. German Environment Ministry says that there is no regulation to force the
destruction of the German fields as there is no direct menace to public heath. This is a sign of
inexcusable weakness of the German Environment Ministry which is unable to protect purity of
nature. Advanta Seeds says that it was a mistake but it is supposed to be a strategy of the seed
companies to contaminate rape seeds with GMOs in order to avoid the GMO-free alternative
to GMO-Soya which is being refused by retailers in Europe.
The contamination of nature is getting ahead because logistics, flying pollen, handling during
processing in storage, on ships and trucks.
GMO Sugar beets in Germany According to daily news from 10.10.2000 sugar beet plants
were genetically modified and not allowed released by KWS SAAT AG in Einbeck (Kreis
Northeim) Germany. They are resistant to the herbicide R̈ound up.̈ KWS SAAT AG says that
it was a technical mistake which caused the release. This is the proof that genetic technology
is being handled careless. It also may be a part of a strategy to contaminate nature in order to
avoid the GMO-free alternative. It is possible that the gene passes over to weed turning these
plants resistant to herbicides.
To counter the growing contamination of nature with GMOs the European retailers urge the
producers to guarantee GMO-free production. Even the 1% contamination which is granted as
unavoidable contamination with GMO in connection with GMO-free labeling is not allowed in
their products.
Recall of Aventis GMO maize “StarLink” Aventis has started a recall of its GMO maize
“Starlink” according to press release from 12.10.99 due to pressure from US- Agriculture Min-
istry and the Environment Protection Agency ( EPA ).
StarLink is a variety of Bt corn that has been genetically engineered to produce a protein,
Cry9C, intended to be toxic to certain insect pests of corn.
StarLink maize was liberated for animal feed. This GMO maize was sold by farmers to the
Azteca Mill in Texas. The maize meal produced from StarLink seed was sold to Kraft as in-
gredient to the Taco-Bell foods.
Half of the crop of StarLink was sold to the farmers of Iowa. In Europe StarLink was mingled
with non-GM seeds. Now almost all plantations are potentially contaminated with StarLink.
Starlink Maize contains a protein which is supposed to cause allergic reactions on humans.
Some Japanese importers denied to import StarLink-Maize as animal feedstuff to avoid the
possibility of being used for human food.
Aventis Crop-Science says there will be no sells on seeds of Starlink in 20001.
Monarch butterfly and the Bt maize Many reports affirmed that the Monarch butter-
fly was killed by toxic compounds of the Bt maize which has parts of the genes of Bacillus
thuringiensis. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reviews of scientific
informations indicates that there are very little risks for the butterfly. Some authors even pre-
dict benefits to the butterfly from farming of corn, cotton and potato Bt plants.
John Obycki and Laura Hansen of the Iowa State University had demonstrated that larvae
of monarch butterflies grew more slowly and suffered a higher mortality rate when being fed
milkweed leaves with deposition of pollen from insect pest tolerant GM maize as sole food
source to monarch larvae, causing 20% mortality in larvae within 48 hours with one variety of
GM maize. The Environmental Protection Agency trying to reach decision regarding renewal
of registrations for several Bt products argues that the situation is different from that prevalent
in natural environment.
The larvae of the monarch butterfly feed on milkweed plants mostly in June whereas the peak
time of maize pollen shed is from mid-July to August.This allegation however is insignificant
500
as toxic materials for living beings are present bt maize is therefor harmful for nature.
GM Maize Mon 863: At the request of the European Commission the Scientific Panel on
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO Panel) of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
has reviewed an evaluation report concerning GM maize MON 863 submitted by Germany
regarding the safety of the insect-protected genetically modified maize MON 863. Results of
the rodent toxicity study with MON 863 maize did not indicate concerns about its safety for
human and animal consumption. (20 October 2004)[1343]
Serious concerns regarding the food safety of GM corn MON 863 [1344]
The maize for animal and human in many countries, including the EU, Japan, Mexico and the
USA.
Signs of liver and kidney disruption: Seralini and colleagues at CRIIGEN (Committee for
Independent Research and Genetic Engineering) based at the University of Caen, in a study
supported by Greenpeace, found signs of liver and kidney toxicity in rats fed with transgenic
maize MON863 which expresses the bt-toxin (Cry3Bb1) protecting against the corn rootworm
pest. According to the researchers, It appears that the statistical methods used by Monsanto
were not detailed enough to see such disruptions in biochemical parameters.
Difference in weight gain: The authors found significant differences in the weight gains
data [1345], with differences between male and females, and suggest that this could be due to
endocrine disruption and/or hormonal metabolism differences caused by the GM corn MON863.
Cause of toxicity not known: It is not known whether the signs of toxicity are caused by the
Bt protein, or from some changes in the plant’s own DNA caused by the genetic engineering
event. The authors cannot conclude that GM corn MON863 is a safe product. Companies
should be more rigorous in the studies and ensure that their data stands up to scrutiny, and
the regulatory authorities such as the EFSA in Europe [1346], should demand more complete
data before approving any crop.
EFSA reaffirms its risk assessment of genetically modified maize MON 863 [691]
The EFSA has examined a paper by Séralini et al. on the statistical evaluation of a 90-day feed-
ing study in animals with genetically modified maize MON863, to identify any consequences for
EFSA’s risk assessment of the safety of MON863. The paper presents an alternative statistical
analysis of the 90-day rat study that was considered in the original risk assessment.
Following a detailed statistical review and analysis by an EFSA Task Force, EFSA’s GMO
Panel has concluded that this re-analysis of the data does not raise any new safety concerns.
The main conclusions are:

- The statistical analysis made by the authors of the paper did not take into account certain
important statistical considerations. The assumptions underlying the statistical methodology
employed by the authors led to misleading results.
- EFSA considers that the paper does not present a sound scientific justification in order to
question the safety of MON 863 maize.
- Observed statistically significant differences reported by Monsanto, Séralini et al., and EFSA,
were considered not to be biologically relevant. Therefore, the GMO Panel sees no reason to
revise its previous Opinions that the MON 863 maize would not have an adverse effect in the
context of its proposed use. Prior to this most recent work, MON 863 maize has been subject
to a comprehensive risk assessment by EFSA and by other authorities which did not identify
any adverse effects on human and animal health or the environment. In addition to the original
Opinion in April 2004, this study has been reviewed again twice since then, prior to this recent
work.
Other related documents:

Letter to the Commission
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/about efsa/structure/who is who/home cgl/correspondence.html
The GMO Panel statement
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/gmo/statements0/gmo statement mon863 ratfeeding.html
EFSA statistical analysis of the Monsanto data
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/scientific reports/statistical analyses MON863.html
Nitrogen-fixing bacterium’s genome The complete genetic sequence of the nitrogen fixing
bacteria Sinorhizobium meliloti[692] has been published. Nitrogen is essential for the growth
of plants. It can be supplied in form of:
1. Nitrogen fertilisers such as ammonium ions (NH4 ) which is 30% of the total amount needed
2. Atmospheric nitrogen are built through various natural processes representing 40% of the
total amount needed by the plants. 3. Atmospheric nitrogen obtained by reduction caused by
symbiosis between legumes and bacteria known as Rhizobium, reducing atmospheric nitrogen
into ammonium ions which can be used for the synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids.
Australian GM field peas

Field peas in Australia were heavily attacked by the field pea weevil Bruchus pisorum. The
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) developed a GM field
pea which was resistant to the weevil.
502
Alfa-amylase blocking gene of GM field peas: A gene from beans introduced in the
field pea blocked the activity of the alfa-amylase enzyme. This enzyme is important for diges-
tion of starch. Weevil larvae feeding on starch in the developing pea seed are unable to digest
the starch and starve.
Beans with the alfa-amylase inhibitor gene were eaten by humans for many years without
evidence of an immune response. However, according to Dr. Simon Hogan and Professor Paul
Foster at the John Curtin School of Medical Researche the peas with the same alfa-amylase in-
hibitor gene did cause an immune response in mice, resulting in inflammation of the lung tissue .
Subtle changes that occurred in the chemical structure of the bean alfa-amylase inhibitor as
it was introduced in the field pea are responsible for the immune responses. These changes in
structure is probably being caused by glycosylation, which occurs when proteins are made via
a particular pathway in cells.
The introduced bean protein had to go through a pathway in cells where it would undergo
several processing steps including glycosylation. Glycosylation can differ from organism to or-
ganism and even in different cell types within an organism causing the immune response in GM
field peas.
CSRIO decided not to progress development of these GM field peas. [1428]
Lycopene from Fusarium sporotrichoides:

Lycopene is the red colour of tomato and is used in nutraceuticals as strong antioxidant, reduc-
ing risk of prostate cancer and heart diseases. It is obtained by extraction and purification from
the carotinoids from tomatoes. Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in Illinois have genetically
modified the fungus Fusarium sporotrichoides to manufacture lycopene using corn fibre mate-
rial which is a leftover of the production of ethanol.
Timothy Leathers, a geneticist working at the National Center for Agricultural Utilisation
Researche changed the metabolic pathway of natural trichothecene toxins of Fusarium sporotri-
choides resulting in the production of lycopene in February 2004.
Genetically enhanced hybrid peppers

The robust pepper varieties, developed at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, widen the eco-
logical conditions under which the vegetable can be grown.
The new hybrid peppers, which come in various colours, have been raised to produce high
yields under night time conditions as low as 10 degrees celcius. This is much lower than previ-
ous hybrids that required temperatures higher than 18 degrees celcius and needed costly heating
to grow and develop.
The breeding project involved large-scale experiments with more than 25,000 plants a year,
grown in target areas, mainly in the Arava region of southern Israel and the south of Spain.
Dr. Elkind noted that vegetable production under mild winter conditions and using simple
plastic or net protection is one of the most rapidly expanding, protective cultivation systems
worldwide.
The major areas which use this production method, in addition to Israel and Spain, are Mexico
and China.
Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
GM corn in France [1429]

The study said that French Bt corn acreage is expected to boom from 500 ha in 2005 to 5,000
ha in 2006, as a result of the economic advantages experienced by Bt corn growers in 2005.
According to the Global Agriculture Information Network (GAIN), backed on French press
reports, biotech corn cultivation is increasing rapidly, since 2005. Marie-Cécile Hénard writes
is this report that pervasive presence of the European corn borer in Southern France provides
strong incentive for further expansion. Bt corn provides an effective and profitable remedy
against the European corn borer in this region.
French consumer resistance leaded by José Bové and other opponents of GM crops in France
tried to to destroy GM fields. José Bové characterized commercial GM corn grown in France
as ”outlaw crops”.
The findings of this pro-GM study suggest that the historical rejection of GM technology
in Europa is on the wane. The WTO of course famously ruled earlier this year that Europe
had violated its trade rules by banning GM food imports between 1999 and 2003.
The EU’s approach to GM food regulation was criticised by pro-GM lobby for having little
theoretical basis, and pandering to the fears and prejudices of its citizens. The EU’s pre-
cautionary principle says that regulators should err on the side of caution, assuming that a
prevention strategy is always appropriate.
Drought and fungal resistant GM wheat[1430]

The BASF plant biotechnology company, together with Australian research centre Molecular
Plant Breeding CRC, CropDesign, a Belgian biotech company, that specialises on traits for
504
yield-enhancement, drought tolerance and improved nutrient use efficiency of crops such as
corn and rice.
These companies have built in 2006 the platform for the development of crops with higher
yields, drought tolerance and resistance to fungal diseases.
Corn and wheat are the most important cereals. Drought and fungal diseases reduces yields in
arid areas, Australia and Europe. These new breeds will help to overcome these serious crop
losses.
Romania and GM soybean:Romania is growing large quantities of GM soybeans. A large

part of which is exported to the European Union for use in animal feed. According to Simon
Barber Romanian farmers would be in competitive disadvantage versus Brazilian, Canadian
and US soybean suppliers, who are already exporting this same product to the EU. [1431]
GM Maize
Monsantos Maize MON 810 had been approved before the EU biotech ban in 1998. Mon
810 has been assessed as safe for human health by the EU Commission. In conclusion, the
Panel considers that the information available for MON 863 x MON 810 maize addresses the
outstanding questions raised by the Member States and considers that it will not have adverse
effects on human and animal health or the environment in the context of its proposed use. [?][?]
In 2004 17 different seed strains of this maize have been allowed to be sold and grown in
the EU.
Greece, however, held its ban despite not having provided any validated scientific evidence to
support a ban, appealing against the EC’s order at the European Court of Justice, the highest
EU court. [1434]
Luxembourg, Greece and Austria consistently vote against GMO approvals, while the UK,
Finland and the Netherlands almost always vote in favour of any new GM authorisation.
Friends of the Earth (FoE) supports the biotech ban of Greece claiming that Monsanto’s
Roundup Ready soybeans, the most extensively grown GM crop today, has led to an increase
in herbicide use. Independent reports from the US show that since 1996, GM corn, soybean
and cotton have led to an increase in pesticide use of 55 million kilos.[1435]
Juan Lopez of Friends of the Earth International said in Kuala Lumpur that the safety of GM
crops cannot be ensured, that they are neither cheaper nor higher quality and that they are
not the magical solution to solve world hunger. [1436] [1437]
The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) argue that
the benefits of the technology to the food industry have simply become irresistible. The ISAAA
is a not-for-profit organization that delivers the benefits of new agricultural biotechnologies to
the poor in developing countries aiming to share these technologies to those who stand to ben-
efit from them and at the same time establish an enabling environment for their safe use.
Emerging economies such as China, Brazil, Argentina and India are likely to be the great-
est growth regions for the use of biotech foods Iran started to plant biotech rice in 2005 as
being the first country to do so. [1438]
According to ISAAA for the first time the absolute growth in the biotech crop area between
2003 and 2004 was higher in the developing countries (7.2 million hectares) than in industrial
countries (6.1 million hectares). The organization highlites that the percentage growth was
almost three times as high (35%) in the developing countries of the South, compared to the
industrial countries of the North (13%). [1439]
BASF and Monsanto are united in plant biotechnology [1440]

The two giants wich dominate agricultural products joined at March 21, 2007 The cooperation
will focus on the development of crops with higher yields and crops that lead to consistent
yields under adverse environmental conditions, such as drought.
The most promising candidate genes of both companies will be advanced for accelerated joint
development and for commercialization by Monsanto.
The two companies expect to generate a greater number of viable research projects than they
could have done on their own, accelerate the development of new products, and bring a greater
number of traits to the market at a faster speed.
Monsanto will receive 60 percent of net profits and BASF will receive 40 percent of net profits.
Stem cell lines from bovine embryos

Dr. Paul Verma from the Dairy Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) made researches on the
multiplication of bovine ES-like cells stem cell lines from bovine embryos.
Results from this research have many implications for the application of advanced breeding
technologies in dairy cattle and other livestock. Advanced stem cell technologies offer the op-
portunity to improve performance of IVF-based animal breeding systems (in vitro fertilisation).
In the dairy industry, this can help to shorten the interval between generations of animals and
speed up the entire process of genetic improvement.
This system requires the use of embryos rather than semen in artificial breeding technology.
Molecular diagnostics are being developed to allow precise monitoring of genes in embryos be-
506
fore they are implanted.
According to CRC the monitoring technology allows the healthiest, most viable, embryos to be
identified and implanted which will improve success rates and lower costs. [1441]
Kanamycin resistant potato has no adverse effect on human health The Scientific
Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO Panel) of the European Food Safety Au-
thority (EFSA) issued in 2005 an opinion on genetically modified potato EH92-527-1 (Unique
identifier BPS-25271-9), with an altered starch composition (higher amylopectin:amylose ratio).
The BASF Plant Science GM potato EH92-527-1 is derived from the cultivar Prevalent. Potato
leaf discs were transformed by Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer technology using kanamycin
resistance gene (nptII) as selectable marker. The modification involves inhibition of the ex-
pression of granule bound starch synthase protein (GBSS) responsible for amylose biosynthesis.
The starch produced has little or no amylose and consists mainly of amylopectin. Amylopectin
starch potatoes are mainly used for the production of starch for industrial purposes, and the
potatoes are not intended for direct human consumption. However it might also be used as food.
Potato rarely survives outside the cultivated environment and there is no indication of en-
hanced weediness or invasiveness of potato EH92-527-1. Potato has no cross-compatible wild
relatives in Europe. Since the natural exchange of genetic material is only possible with other
varieties of potato, there is negligible risk to the environment of any transgene flow. Therefore,
no unintended environmental effects due to the establishment and spread are anticipated.
In the unlikely event that horizontal transfer of gene sequences would occur between the GM
potato and bacteria, the bacteria would not pose any additional risk to human health or the
environment.
No adverse effects on plant-associated organisms and soil function have been observed or would
be likely from cultivation of the potato EH92-527-1. In addition, the GMO Panel agrees with
the approach proposed by the applicant in the environmental monitoring plan.
EFSA found that the BASF GM potato is unlikely to have an adverse effect on human health
or the environment in the context of its proposed uses. [1442]
BASF GM potatoes release between 2007 and 2011 in Germany [1443]

The Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety (BVL) approved the release of
genetic modified potato, developed by BASF Plant Science in ten cultivation areas in Germany
between 2007 and 2011. The approval is extended all over Germany, including Bavaria. The
BVL does not expect any safety incidences which might endanger man and animals.
The marker gene used in these potato varieties, makes them resistant against the antibiotic
kanamycin. The European Food Safety Authority has already identified no safety concerns
which may have an adverse effect upon approval.
Measures to avoid spread out of the GM potato imposed by BVL: - The safety
distance to conventional potato crops should be 10 metres.
- The aerial part of the plant must be destroyed chemically or physically before the harvest of
the GM potato.
- The crops must be identified.
- The cultivation areas must be monitored for new breeds one year after GM use, if GM pota-
toes are found, the monitoring must be extended for another year.
The gene of the tale cress weed Arabidopsis thaliana together with a gene of a wild potato
changes the starch composition of the potato . 677 strains of GM potatoes will be tested.
Some strains will express amylose, other will express only amylopectine. They are tolerant to
the herbicide Imazamox.
BASF GE potato field trial considered as illegal in The Netherlands [1444]

On 7 March 2007, The Council of State in The Netherlands judged that the field trials of BASF
concerning three GM potato herbicide-resistant varieties, two with changed starch content and
one with high late blight resistance, were illegal and destroyed the permits immediately.
Intragenic Ranger Russet potatoes [1445]

Compared to more commonly used Russet Burbank, which is already 131 years old, the Ranger
Russet has superior yields and greater disease resistance. This modified variety may also be
interesting for Europe due to its excellent adaptability.
Caius Rommens indexRommens, Caius and coleagues reduced the expression simultaneously
of the Ranger Russet’s tuber-expressed polyphenol oxidase (Ppo), starch-associated R1, and
phosphorylase-L (PhL) genes. For these changes no foreign DNA was introduced. The re-
searchers say that French fries made from these potatoes contained about one-third the acry-
lamide content of control fries.
According to the authors the Ranger Russet presented increased black spot bruise resistance,
reduced cold-induced sweetening, reduced stress-induced sugar ends, enhanced fry aroma, re-
duced amounts of processing-induced acrylamide, reduced starch phosphate content, and in-
creased starch.
508
Unwanted gene flow from canola
[1446] Unwanted gene flow from herbicide resistance canola can occur between canola varieties
over large distances, but as isolated events.
Janine Baker and Christopher Preston came to the conclusion that insect mediated pollen
transfer accounts for the low levels of gene flow that have been observed to occur sporadically
at long distances from the source.
The scientists sprayed bees with fluorescent paint and determined the level of their move-
ment between canola fields.They found that honeybees tended to return to the same field when
resources were abundant, but that they foraged over larger distances when resources were scare
or patchy. These findings suggest that the honeybee has the potential to contribute to gene
flow over large distances but at a very low frequency.
Increasing likehood of proliferation of GM food

The WTO has ruled in favor of the US challenge of the European Moratorium on approvals
of agricultural crops preliminary decision by a World Trade Organization (WTO) panel on the
U.S. challenge of the European Union (EU) moratorium on approvals for crops derived from
biotechnology.
The United States, joined by Argentina and Canada in the challenge, had asserted the mora-
torium violates international trade rules and undermines the development and use of biotech-
nology. They had argued the ban was not based on scientific evidence and maintained that
biotech crops are as safe to health and the environment as other crops. All parties now will
have a chance to review and comment on the preliminary ruling, which was released February
7 to the U.S. and EU governments and subsequently leaked to the press.
The WTO likely will issue a final decision on the approval challenge in late 2006 or early
2007, a U.S. trade official said in advance of the decision. The loss of U.S. agricultural sales
to Europe because of the ban has amounted to ”several hundred millions of dollars” annually,
the official said. The U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Orga-
nization (WHO) also have said there are no greater risks associated with biotech-derived foods
than with conventional plants and foods.
Resistance to genetically altered crops among consumers in Europe remains strong, therefore
the lifting of the ban might not have a significant effect on the quantity of U.S. agricultural
exports to the region. [1447]
WTO Dispute Settlements, Reports out on Biotech Disputes [1448]

The WTO, on 29 September 2006, issued the reports of the panel that had examined com-
plaints by the United States, Canada and Argentina, respectively, against ”European Commu-
nities - Measures affecting the approval and marketing of biotech products” (DS291, DS292
and DS293).
In this report the panel concluded that the European Communities has acted inconsistently
with its obligations under the SPS Agreement in respect of the relevant member State safeguard
measures, it must be presumed to have nullified or impaired benefits accruing to Argentina un-
der that Agreement.
In the light of these conclusions, the Panel recommends that the Dispute Settlement Body
request the European Communities to bring the relevant member State safeguard measures
into conformity with its obligations under the SPS Agreement.
No repercussion on the European GMO-regulation is expected. [1449]
Improving citrus breeding

The University of California, Riverside is one of the few universities in the world to support an
active citrus breeding program. Professor of Genetics Mikeal Roose developed the GeneChip
Citrus Genome Arrayin classifying the citrus genes that are associated with taste, acidic content
and disease. The citrus array will be used to develop new diagnostic tools for the improvement
of citrus agriculture and post-harvest fruit handling, as well as to understand mechanisms un-
derlying citrus diseases. [1450]
Citrus fruits are abundant in limonoids which are a class of chemically related compounds
present in citrus fruit. Limonoids have been shown to have anti-cancer activity and can inhibit
breast cancer cellular proliferation in estrogen receptor negative (ER-) and positive (ER+) cells.
The researchers found that limonoids, particularly limonin, slowed tumor growth and were
able to prevent or delay the regrowth of resected tumors in these models. Limonoids also re-
duced the incidence of lung metastases. These results suggest that citrus juice components may
be beneficial in the prevention of mammary cancer. [1452]
Other benefits of citrus juice: [1453]

Consumption of 750 mL but not of 250 or 500 mL orange juice daily increased HDL-cholesterol
concentrations by 21% , triacylglycerol concentrations by 30% , and folate concentrations by
18%; decreased the LDL-HDL cholesterol ratio by 16% ; and did not affect homocyst(e)ine
concentrations. Plasma vitamin C concentrations increased significantly.
Kurowska and colleagues found in 2000 that orange juice (750 mL/d) improved blood lipid
profiles in hypercholesterolemic subjects, confirming recommendations of the US food guide
pyramid to consume about 5-10 servings of fruit and vegetables daily.
510
EuropaBio:EuropaBio, the European Association for Bioindustries, has 50 direct members

operating worldwide and 25 national biotechnology associations representing some 1500 small
and medium sized enterprises involved in research and development, testing, manufacturing
and distribution of biotechnology products. http://www.europabio.org
Agricultural Biotechnology International Conference (ABIC) The Foundation was set

up as a not-for-profit corporation, based in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The Foundation’s goal
is to ensure ongoing opportunities for continuous learning and networking within the agbiotech
community through the Agricultural Biotechnology International Conference.
The Foundation performs advisory, promotional and supportive functions for the conferences.
As the Foundation shapes the ABIC concept, it strives to position the Conference at the fore-
front of agbiotech innovation.
The Conference on Co-existence between GM and Non GM crops in Vienna 2006 forms part
of the Commission’s consultations with interested parties on the development of efficient and
cost-effective strategies to ensure co-existence.
Agriculture is an open process, which means that perfect segregation of the different agri-
cultural production types is not possible in practice. Co-existence of these production types
which will not lead to a systematic exclusion of one or more of them can only be ensured if the
segregation measures are designed in a way that takes these limitations into account.
Co-existence thus concerns only the economic implications of GMO admixture, the measures
to achieve sufficient segregation between GM and non-GM production and the costs of such
measures. [1454] [1455] [1456]
It is already completely legal to grow certain GM crops within the European Union, with
this list of permitted crops likely to get longer.
On 23 July 2003, the European Commission adopted Recommendation 2003/556/EC on guide-
lines for coexistence, reaffirming that measures for coexistence should be developed by the
Member States. The guidelines specify that those farmers who introduce the new production
type in a region should bear responsibility for implementing the farm management measures
necessary to limit gene flow. Following these guidelines, measures currently being discussed by
Member States are designed to be taken by GM crop farmers. Furthermore, since seeds may
be a source of adventitious GM presence in agriculture, the European Commission initiated
discussions on setting
specific thresholds for the adventitious presence of GM seeds in conventional seeds, lower than
those allowed in the final crops (0.9%). Therefore, seed production might have to operate under
different coexistence requirements than crop production. These discussions are still ongoing.
[1457]
In 1998 Spain approved the first commercial growing of the transgenic maize BT 176 from
Ciba Geigy (now Syngenta). The Spanish government continues to allow transgenic maize
growing although there is scientific uncertainty over its safety. [?]
NGOs fear widespread contamination

Consumer organizations fear GM crops will cause widespread contamination by genetic modi-
fied with heavy consequences for organic growers such as Enric Navarro, an organic maize corn
grower from Girona in Spain claiming that in 2005 his crop was contaminated up to 12.6 per
cent by GM maize. He burnt the crop at a massive economic loss.”This year I will again sow
maize. But if it is again contaminated (with genetically engineered maize) I will abandon the
growing of organic maize. It is obvious that I cannot carry on my shoulders the episodes of
contamination like these, year after year.” [?]
Jose Bové [1517]

The anti-globalisation leader Jose Bové combats junk food, US trade tariffs and the risks to the
environment of genetically modified organisms. He was arrested and sentenced several times.
He was prevented to enter Mexico to attend a WTO summit in Mexico in 2003. He was deported
from Hong Kong on WTO talks and prevented to enter the US to speak at a conference at Cor-
nell University in New York state in 2006. On april 2006 Jose Bové, was arrested attempting
to occupy Monsanto’s seed facility near Carcassonne in southern France. The action had been
organised by the Collectif des faucheurs volontaires, la Confederation paysanne and Greenpeace.
According to Olivier Keller, national secretary of the Confederation Paysanne, GM is harming

the environment and is causing genetic contamination of the food-chain and agriculture, thus
threatening the right of farmers and consumers to grow and eat GM free food.
Biotech companies and regulators argue that adequate controls are already in place to en-
sure that the cross-contamination is not an issue.
Simon Barber, director of the plant biotechnology unit at EuropaBio - the European association
for bioindustries counters that thousands of European farmers grew GM last year, successfully
co-existing with their neighbours.
According to anti-GM campaigners GM crops will cause widespread contamination, leaving

consumers with no GM-free choice at all. Pro-GM forces on the other hand argue that con-
sumers must be given the choice, and that the WTO ruling backs this up. But opposition to
GM food will scarcely be long lasting.
512
Europe’s food safety authority announced that the GMO Panel is of the opinion hat there
is no reason to believe that the continued placing on the market of Bt176, T25 and MON810
maize, and Ms1xRf1 and Topas 19/2 oilseed rape is likely to cause any adverse effects for hu-
man and animal health or the environment under the conditions of their respective consents,”
said an EFSA statement this week.
Future of biotechnology and BASF

Dr Hans Kast, president and CEO of BASF Plant Science announced in 2006 that BASF has
identified plant biotechnology as the largest of five key future-growth clusters. BASF has built
its work on the cooperation of Metanomics and SunGene companies.
Metanomics covers BASFs gene-discovery research identifying the metabolic functions of each
and every plant gene.Together with SunGene company the gene-mapping knowledge is being
applied to optimise and control specific traits in a plant Increasing the content of valuable
compounds in plants, such as vitamins, carotenoids and proteins, such as NutriDense, the nu-
tritionally enhanced corn for the feed industry. It has higher content of protein, essential amino
acids, oil/energy and more available phosphorous.
Simon Barber, European Association for Bioindustries, EuropaBio argues that co-existence
between GM and non-GM crops has been a success in Europe for years and there is no sub-
stantiated evidence to the contrary. According to Barber In Europe alone, there are thousands
of farmers and dozens of scientists with real field experience of successful co-existence who were
not asked to share their knowledge at this conference. [1461]
EU concept of coexistence
[1462] The concept of coexistence 2003-556/EC The cultivation of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) in the EU is likely to have implications for the organisation of agricultural
production. On the one hand, the possibility of the adventitious (unintended) presence of ge-
netically modified (GM) crops in non-GM crops, and vice versa, raises the question as to how
producer choice for the different production types can be ensured. In principle, farmers should
be able to cultivate the types of agricultural crops they choose, be it GM crops, conventional
or organic crops. None of these forms of agriculture should be excluded in the EU.
On the other hand, the issue is also linked to consumer choice. To provide European con-
sumers with a real choice between GM food and non-GM food, there should not only be a
traceability and labelling system that functions properly, but also an agricultural sector that
can provide the different types of goods. The ability of the food industry to deliver a high
degree of consumer choice goes hand in hand with the ability of the agricultural sector to main-
tain different production systems.
Coexistence refers to the ability of farmers to make a practical choice between conventional,
organic and GM-crop production, in compliance with the legal obligations for labelling and/or
purity standards.
The adventitious presence of GMOs above the tolerance threshold set out in Community legis-
lation triggers the need for a crop that was intended to be a non-GMO crop, to be labelled as
containing GMOs. This could cause a loss of income, due to a lower market price of the crop
or difficulties in selling it. Moreover, additional costs might incur to farmers if they have to
adopt monitoring systems and measures to minimise the admixture of GM and non-GM crops.
Coexistence is, therefore, concerned with the potential economic impact of the admixture of
GM and non-GM crops, the identification of workable management measures to minimise ad-
mixture and the cost of these measures.
1.2. Economic aspects of coexistence versus environmental and health aspects

It is important to make a clear distinction between the economic aspects of coexistence and
the environmental and health aspects dealt with under Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate
release of GMOs into the environment.
According to the procedure laid down in Directive 2001/18/EC, the authorisation to release
GMOs into the environment is subject to a comprehensive health and environmental risk as-
sessment. The outcome of the risk assessment can be one of the following:
- a risk of an adverse effect to the environment or health that cannot be managed is iden-
tified, in which case authorisation is refused,
- no risk of adverse effects on the environment or health is identified, in which case autho-
risation is granted without requiring any additional management measures other than those
specifically prescribed in the legislation,
- risks are identified, but they can be managed with appropriate measures (e.g. physical sepa-
ration and/or monitoring); in this case the authorisation will carry the obligation to implement
environmental risk management measures.
If a risk to the environment or health is identified after the authorisation has been granted, a
procedure for the withdrawal of the authorisation or for modifying the conditions of consent
can be initiated under the safeguard clause set out in Article 23 of the Directive.
Since only authorised GMOs can be cultivated in the EU(1), and the environmental and health
514
aspects are already covered by Directive 2001/18/EC, the pending issues still to be addressed
in the context of coexistence concern the economic aspects associated with the admixture of
GM and non-GM crops.
1.3. The Round Table on coexistence

A Round Table to examine the latest research results on the coexistence of GM and non-GM
crops was hosted by the European Commission in Brussels on 24 April 2003. It focused on
coexistence issues raised by the introduction of GM maize and GM oilseed rape into EU agri-
culture. Expert panels presented the scientific findings, which were then discussed with a range
of stakeholders representing the farming sector, industry, NGOs, consumers and other players.
The Round Table sought to provide a scientific and technical basis, drawing on practical farm-
ing experience, for whatever agronomic and other measures may become necessary to facilitate
the sustainable coexistence of these different agricultural production types.
The present guidelines draw on the results of the Round Table, a summary of which, prepared by
a group of participating scientists, is available on the following Internet site: http://europa.eu.int/comm/
research/biosociety/index.
Table 13.3: Antibiotic resistance markers Consultations 1997 [1463]
Crop antibiotic resistance Antibiotic resistance

Marker used for selection Genes under bacterial
promoters
Corn — 3 nptII
5 bla
1 cat
Tomato 4 nptII —
Oilseed rape 3 nptII —
cotton 3 nptII 2 aad
Potato 2 nptII 1 aad
Soybean 1 nptII 1 bla
Squash 2 nptII —
Papaya 1 nptII tetR
Radicchio 1 nptII —
US FDA/CFSAN 1997
The Round Table on coexistence [1462]

A Round Table to examine the latest research results on the coexistence of GM and non-GM
crops was hosted by the European Commission in Brussels on 24 April 2003. It focused on
coexistence issues raised by the introduction of GM maize and GM oilseed rape into EU agri-
culture. Expert panels presented the scientific findings, which were then discussed with a range
of stakeholders representing the farming sector, industry, NGOs, consumers and other players.
The Round Table sought to provide a scientific and technical basis, drawing on practical farm-
ing experience, for whatever agronomic and other measures may become necessary to facilitate
the sustainable coexistence of these different agricultural production types.
The present guidelines draw on the results of the Round Table, a summary of which, pre-
pared by a group of participating scientists, is available on the following Internet site:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/ research/biosociety/index.
Organic potato production techniques [1492]

Healthy soils, crop rotations and the help of natural predators are used by organic farmers to
control crop pests and diseases in a sustainable agriculture. Few crop diseases, however, are so
resistant to these techniques that additional chemique help is required such as spraying copper
up to 6kg/ha per year together with crop rotation to control potato blight. Organic farmer say
that copper does not build up in the soil, due to the crop rotations. Copper sprayed on leaves
does not accumulate in tubers like other pesticides.
Health concerns related to GM potatoes and tomatoes [1493]

Feeding trials by two scientific teams found that GM potatoes cause lesions in the gut wall
of rats and mice. In October 1999 Ewen and Pusztai wrote that diets containing genetically
modified potatoes expressing the lectin Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) had variable effects
on different parts of the rat gastrointestinal tract, such as the proliferation of the gastric mucosa.
The biotechnology industry reacted very aggressively and tried to mobilise the scientific com-
munity to undermine the credibility of the work. Similar effects have been found with GM
tomatoes in two US feeding trials, which found that GM tomatoes cause lesions in the gut wall
of rats.
Drought resistant tomato [1494]

Hirshi and colleagues studied the AVP1 (vacuolar H+-pyrophosphatase (H+-PPase))gene from
Arabidopsis thaliana which results in enhanced performance under soil water deficits. Accord-
ing to their work, the AVP1 gene plays an important role in root development through the
facilitation of auxin fluxes.
The scientists introduced The AVP1 gene in tomatoes resulting in more robust root systems
allowing transgenic tomato plants to take up greater amounts of water during the imposed wa-
ter deficit stress, resulting in a more favorable plant water status and less injury. The authors
are working on how this technology could be applied to other commercial crops.
516
Exotic library [1495] [1496]

Actual crops resulted on a selective breeding from a very small number of wild plants. The
genetic variation of wild plants is lost. Dani Zamir from Jerusalem University believes that
exhausted genetic diversity presents a limitation for breeders to improve tomatoes.
He suggests to go back into the wild and cross domesticated crops with their wild relatives
in order to gain access to useful traits, such as pest- or drought-resistance by developing exotic
libraries Zamir explains that an exotic library consists of a large number of lines, each of which
carries a small, well-defined chromosomal segment from the wild plant in the genome of the
domesticated crop, and the whole genome of the wild relative is represented in a complete
exotic library.
To develop drought-resistant tomatoes for the Middle East, Zamir crossed wild Lycopersicon
pennellii tomato plants from the deserts of Western Peru, with a M82 high-yield tomato line
of Israeli. In this way he developed a library of 50 introgression lines and crossed them again
with three other lines and obtained a drought-resistant tomato with 30% higher yield than the
original M82 line and does not rely on irrigation.
The delayed-ripening tomato FlavrSavr [?] [1498]
Artificial ripening with ethylene is used in 80% of US tomatoes. Conventional green tomatoes
are harvested and transported. Before selling they are redened with ethylene. The delayed-
ripening tomato Flavr Savr, a from Calgene was a genetically modified tomato that could be
picked when ripe and transported without bruising. It carries the antibiotic resistance gene
(Flavr Savr) for resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin. The enzyme polygalacturonase (PG),
responsible for the tomato’s softness, is supressed and the tomato keeps longer hard.
It was subject to heavy legal pressure from Monsanto and concerns about the use of antibiotic
resistance gene. The tomatoes were only ever sold in a small number and then rapidly with-
drawn.
GM tomatoes for puree

Zeneca developed at that time a GM tomato also based on the kanamycin antibiotic gene, for
use in puree, a tomato to make it bulkier with reduced water content with increased viscos-
ity.This tomato puree was sold starting in February 1996, attaining 60% of total sale of canned
tomato puree. Due to safety concerns, both products were withdrawn from market.
There were concerns made public that the genes passed out of the tomatoes and entered bacte-
ria, the bacteria could develop resistance to the antibiotic, undermining its medical effectiveness.
Other companies developing GM tomatoes: Agritope, Aventis, DNA Plant Technolo-

gies, Seminis and Monsanto.
FDA had decided that GM foods in general should not be regulated differently to non-GM
foods and would not require pre-market approval. Unlike food additives, for which pre-market
approval is required in the US, they argued that GM foods are the same or substantially equiv-
alent to non-GM foods.
Safety concerns about Flavr Savr tomatoes
Calgene had fed rats with either a GM tomatoes. These studies revealed statistically signifi-
cant differences between the effects of the GM and non-GM tomatoes. gross lesions, findings of
gastric erosion or necrosis lesions and microscopic lesions were found in the rats were observed.
The study methodology was argued FDA approved the GMO tomato.
Dr Joseph Cummins warned that the inclusion of a genetic sequence from the Cauliflower
Mosaic Virus could create virulent new viruses and Dr Edwin Mathews wrote that the geneti-
cally modified plants could also contain unexpected high concentrations of plant toxicants.
The FDA was obliged to reveal these internal views in 1998 after a lawsuit filed by consumer
groups.
The GM potatoes were rejected in the US in 2002 by US retailers and The British Retail
Consortium has said UK supermarkets won’t be stocking GM potatoes.
The high-flavolol tomato with chi gene from Petunia [1499]

Shelagh R. Muir and colleagues modified tomatoes introducing a gene from Petunia encod-
ing chalcone isomerase, an enzyme involved in flavonol biosynthesis has been used to produce
transgenic fruit with an increase in peel flavonols of up to 78 fold, mainly due to accumulation
of quercetin glycosides. The in vitro evidence for for One group of flavonoids, the flavonols
(e.g., quercetin and kaempferol) are told to be cardiovascular protective.
Introducing the transgene gene (pBBC50) containing the Petunia hybrida chi gene under the
control of the constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) double 35S promoter. into the skin
of a tomato, Shelagh R. Muir and colleagues were able to increase flavonol production by up
to 78 times. The taste was not affected, and 65% of the flavonols were retained when the GM
tomatoes were processed into paste.
Shelagh R. Muir and colleagues concluded that constitutive overexpression of a Petunia gene
encoding CHI in tomato resulted in elevated flavonol end products in the fruit peel. The tomato
lines contained significantly increased levels of quercetin glycosides, and smaller but still sub-
stantial increases in kaempferol glycosides in fruit peel, offering potential health benefits.
518
USDA field test permission for genetically engineered crop [1500]
The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health inspection Service
(APHIS) is responsible for protecting and promoting U.S. agricultural health, administering
the Animal Welfare Act, and carrying out wildlife damage management activities.
The APHIS mission is an integral part of U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) efforts
to provide the Nation with safe and affordable food.
APHIS maintains the Biotechnology Regulatory Services (BRS) program regulating the field
testing, movement, and importation of genetically engineered (GE) organisms that are known
to be, or could be plant pests. BRS issues various types of permits for each of these activities. A
Compliance & Enforcement program inspects, audits, and oversees activities under the permit
process. BRS also evaluates petitions for deregulation to ensure that products being considered
for removal from regulation do not pose a threat to U.S. agricultural or environmental health.
USDA APHIS protects America’s agricultural and natural resources by ensuring the safe de-
velopment of GE organisms using a science-based regulatory framework controlling :
- Permits for other types of genetically-engineered organisms include transgenic arthropods and
applications for veterinary biologics.
- Permits for Non-genetically engineered articles include Plant pests, Plant and plant products,
and Animal and animal products.
Biotechnology Regulatory Services (BRS)

Companies and organizations who wish to field test a genetically engineered crop, must ob-
tain USDA permission through a permit. Companies must submit all plans for field testing
for review by regulatory scientists who evaluate the risks of the test and the protocols to be
employed. USDA will approve the plan if the proposed test conditions appear adequate to
confine the regulated article within the field test site. To ensure compliance to the permitting
conditions, field test sites are inspected and records are audited.
Depending on the nature of the genetically engineered crop, an applicant files either a no-
tification or a permit application. In general, most of the plants are field tested under the
notification procedure, a more streamlined approval process that is used only for familiar crops
and traits considered to be low risk. Permitting is used for field tests of plants that have an
elevated risk, such as plants producing pharmaceutical or industrial compounds.
APHIS also published a list of isolation distances from any contaminating source, valid for
US, adapted from Table 5, 7 CFR part 201.76
Canada has its own list of isolation distances published under Canadian Food Inspection Agency
(CFIA) APPENDIX 2: MINIMUM ISOLATION distances and periods of post-harvest land

use restriction 2000. [1501]
In Europe isolation distances between GM and non-GM fields are settled in the regulation
2003/556/EC.[1462]
Discussion related to isolation distances [1505] According to Professor David James oil-
seed rape separation distances should be applicable to any other crop. He ignores that rape is
insect-pollinated and has fairly heavy pollen. Other plants like cereal crops are wind-pollinated
traveling farther than rape pollen. (Val Spouge Braintree, Essex)
New tomatoes with increased soluble solids in the fruits [1506]

According to professor of horticulture Avtar Handa of the Purdue University tomatoes with
10% increased soluble solids in the fruits have been geneticalliy engineered by its team. The
fruits grow and ripen like traditional varieties.
Handa and colleagues constructed a backwards gene that inhibits the tomato ripening en-
zyme pectin methylesterase. This gene was introduced in an Agrobacterium which carried the
gene to the DNA of the tomato. This backward gene resulted in higher soluble solids in the
tomato making the production of thicker Ketchup possible.
According to Avtar Handa, crossing commercial varieties with wild species bearing the de-
sired gene, takes years and may transfer unwanted characteritics. Genetic engineering creates
the wanted tomato in less time compared with traditional cross- breeding.
Extended growing season for tomato [1507]

Tomatoes are sensitive to frost. This shortens their growing season. Fish, on the other hand,
survive in very cold water. Scientists identified a particular gene which enables a flounder to
resist cold and used the technology of genetic engineering to insert this ’anti-freeze’ gene into
a tomato. This makes it possible to extend the growing season of the tomato.
Cross the species boundary[1508]

While there may be risks associated with transferring undesirable traits through conventional
breeding, a major concern about gene technology is not with the crossing of two of the same
plant species, but the transfer of genes from one species, for example a fish, into another species
such as a tomato, or a bacterium into a plant.
This ability to ”cross the species boundary” through genetic engineering introduces an ad-
ditional uncertainty and potential for serious harm.
One major area of concern was the gene crossover, sometimes described as transgenic, from
520
one species to another. There was much less concern about wheat genes being used in wheat
than bacterial genes being used in wheat for example. The use of viral promoter genes was a
cause of even graver concern, in particular what might be the consequences of viral changes in
subsequent generations. The Committee was told that little to no research had been done on
later generation viral consequences.
Assurances that there is ”no evidence” of harm may in fact mean no research has been done,
and that worries the community. While there may be genetic exchange between species occur-
ring in nature, genes from fish do not get into tomatoes under normal circumstances.
Opponents have argued that while the products of gene technology, such as herbicide resistant
crops, long shelf life melons and delayed ripening tomatoes, are likely to bring some benefits to
consumers, these products have been mainly developed to meet the needs of those in the food
supply system, growers, transporters, wholesalers and retailers.
Notably, the crops that have been subject to genetic engineering are those that are economi-
cally important in the industrialised not the developing nations, for example maize, oilseed rape
(canola), sugarbeet, tomato and potato. Nevertheless some research and trials have been con-
ducted on wheat, rice, and cassava, an important food source in African and South American
countries.20 Additionally, the main applications of genetic modification are producing herbi-
cide and pesticide resistant plants, with much of the benefit going to the producers rather than
consumers.
Recommendations from the Canadia Canola Council Canola to farmers

[1510] The Canola Council of Canada is a non-profit association representing the entire canola
industry - growers, input suppliers, researchers, crushers, processors, exporters and marketers.
The Canadian Canola-Council urges farmers to protect the reputation of canadian canola as a
safe and high quality product stressing not to grow the canola varieties:
• HySyn 101 Roundup Ready from Zeneca. This variety is not approved in Japan as it was
not intended for widespread commercial release.
• 295BX, Cartier BX, Zodiac BX, Renegade BX, bromoxynil herbicide tolerant , Rhone
Poulenc. These varieties will not be approved because commercial seed is no longer being
sold.
• Exceed, 2631 LL, Swallow, SW Legion LL, SW Flare LL, LBD 2393 LL, Liberty Link
herbicide tolerant. They contain the transformation event T45 that is not approved in the
European Union for food or seed. Within the next year, the canola industry expects that
the European Commission will complete the approvals for Roundup Ready (event GT73)
and the currently sold InVigor (event MS8RF3) varieties allowing imports of canola. This
is important to canadian industry as Europe is now sourcing canola for their expanding
biodiesel industry. However - T45 is not approved and we do not know when, or if, it will
be approved.
• 3850, 2153, 3640, 2063 Liberty Link herbicide tolerant. These varieties contain event
MS1RF1 which is currently approved in export markets, but may not be supported in
the future. This could limit the delivery option for growers in the future.
• 3880, 2163, 2273 Liberty Link herbicide tolerant. These varieties contain event MS1RF2
which is currently approved in export markets, but may not be supported in the future.
This could limit the delivery option for growers in the future.
• Innovator, Independence, HCN 14, Phoenix. These varieties contain event Topas 19/2
which is currently approved in export markets, but may not be supported in the future.
This could limit the delivery option for growers in the future.
Tomato mapping [1511]

The genus Lycopersicon includes the cultivated tomato (L. esculentum Mill.) together with
its wild relatives. The wild species bear a wealth of genetic variability. Less than 10% of the
total genetic diversity in the Lycopersicon gene pool is found in L. esculentum (Miller and
Tanksley, 1990). The center of diversity for tomato is located in western South America, and
the cherry tomato L. esculentum var. cerasiforme is considered as the most likely ancestor
of cultivated tomatoes. Karyotypes of the Lycopersicon species are very similar with little or
no structural difference among species (Barton, 1950). As a crop plant, tomato is one of the
best-characterized plant systems.as diploidyt It is a diploid plant permitting self pollination,
and a relatively short generation time make it amenable to genetic analysis.
Classical genetics has created one of the largest stocks of morphological mutations induced
by radiation (X-rays, UV-light, neutrons) and chemical mutagenesis. A major contributor in
the mutagenesis area was Hans Stubbe who developed over 300 L. esculentum mutants and
200 in L. pimpinellifolium. (for summary see Rick, 1975). A particularly interesting example
of induced mutagenesis was the directed manipulation of fruit size of L. esculentum and L.
pimpinellifolium.(Stubbe, 1971).
The number of mapped genes in the form of cDNAs has increased considerably with the intro-
duction of RFLP markers.
The current tomato map is considered to be complete in that all molecular and classical mark-
ers could be mapped to one of the 12 linkage groups indicating that no loci failed to link up
with thethe map.
522
Propagation and Cultivation of Tomato [1512]

Tomato is a highly specialized crop and bred to be grown under intensive monoculture. The
distance required between foundation seed fields is 200 feet which in practical terms is the
effective distance tomato pollen can travel under field conditions and remain viable
Tomato Does Not Cross-pollinate Other Plant Species [1512]

The factors that prevent cross-pollination are well documented and are applicable to genetically
engineered tomato. Tomato can be crossed by hand-pollination to all wild Lycopersicon species
with varying degrees of success. The genus has been divided into two subgenera, the one easily
crossed with commercial tomato (esculentum complex), and those that cannot be easily crossed
(peruvianum complex). Hybridization between these two subgenera usually leads to early em-
bryo breakdown, which results in seed that is not viable. This problem can be circumvented
by embryo culture and other laboratory techniques, albeit at great effort.
The closest genetic relatives of tomato are in the genus Solanum. Hybrids have been obtained
between L. esculentum and S. lycopersicoides, but these hybrids are usually sterile (Stevens and
Rick, 1986). No other member of the genus, including S. nigrum, a common weed in tomato
fields, has yielded viable hybrids (Taylor, 1986).
There is no evidence that tomato plants can cross-pollinate with other plants in the area of the
field test. Similarly, there is no evidence that the engineered tomato plants will cross-pollinate
with any other tomato plants in the vicinity.
Dissemination of Transformed Tomato Plants [1512]

The transformed tomato has gained no measurable selective advantage over nontransformed
tomato in its ability to be disseminated or to become established in the environment.
The risk of horizontal movement of these genes from the genetically engineered tomato plants
into the genetic environment is negligible because the genes are incorporated into the plant
genome. No mechanism is known to exist in nature capable of transferring the genetic material
from the tomato genome to another organism which tomato does not fertilize.
EU concept of coexistence[1462]
The cultivation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the EU is likely to have implica-
tions for the organisation of agricultural production. On the one hand, the possibility of the
adventitious (unintended) presence of genetically modified (GM) crops in non-GM crops, and
vice versa, raises the question as to how producer choice for the different production types can
be ensured. In principle, farmers should be able to cultivate the types of agricultural crops
they choose, be it GM crops, conventional or organic crops. None of these forms of agriculture
should be excluded in the EU.
On the other hand, the issue is also linked to consumer choice. To provide European con-
sumers with a real choice between GM food and non-GM food, there should not only be a
traceability and labelling system that functions properly, but also an agricultural sector that
can provide the different types of goods. The ability of the food industry to deliver a high degree
of consumer choice goes hand in hand with the ability of the agricultural sector to maintain
different production systems. Coexistence refers to the ability of farmers to make a practical
choice between conventional, organic and GM-crop production, in compliance with the legal
obligations for labelling and/or purity standards.
The adventitious presence of GMOs above the tolerance threshold set out in Community legis-
lation triggers the need for a crop that was intended to be a non-GMO crop, to be labelled as
containing GMOs. This could cause a loss of income, due to a lower market price of the crop
or difficulties in selling it. Moreover, additional costs might incur to farmers if they have to
adopt monitoring systems and measures to minimise the admixture of GM and non-GM crops.
Coexistence is, therefore, concerned with the potential economic impact of the admixture of
GM and non-GM crops, the identification of workable management measures to minimise ad-
mixture and the cost of these measures.
Economic aspects of coexistence versus environmental and health aspects [1462]

It is important to make a clear distinction between the economic aspects of coexistence and
the environmental and health aspects dealt with under Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate
release of GMOs into the environment.
According to the procedure laid down in Directive 2001/18/EC, the authorisation to release
GMOs into the environment is subject to a comprehensive health and environmental risk as-
sessment. The outcome of the risk assessment can be one of the following:
- a risk of an adverse effect to the environment or health that cannot be managed is identified,
in which case authorisation is refused,
- no risk of adverse effects on the environment or health is identified, in which case authorisation
is granted without requiring any additional management measures other than those specifically
prescribed in the legislation,
- risks are identified, but they can be managed with appropriate measures (e.g. physical sepa-
ration and/or monitoring); in this case the authorisation will carry the obligation to implement
environmental risk management measures.
If a risk to the environment or health is identified after the authorisation has been granted, a
procedure for the withdrawal of the authorisation or for modifying the conditions of consent
can be initiated under the safeguard clause set out in Article 23 of the Directive.
Since only authorised GMOs can be cultivated in the EU(1), and the environmental and health
524
aspects are already covered by Directive 2001/18/EC, the pending issues still to be addressed
in the context of coexistence concern the economic aspects associated with the admixture of
GM and non-GM crops.
Foods derived from modern biotechnology Codex guidelines 2003

ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/Publications/Booklets/Biotech/Biotech 2003e.pdf
The Codex Commission published risk analysis and food safety assessment of genetic modified
foods in 2003 comprising:
1- Principles for the risk analysis of foods derived from modern Biotechnology.
2- Guideline for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods derived from recombinant-DNA
plants.
3- Guideline for the conduct of food safety assessment of foods produced using recombinant-
DNA microorganisms
While risk analysis has been used over a long period of time to address chemical hazards
(e.g. residues of pesticides, contaminants, food additives and processing aids), and it is being
increasingly used to address microbiological hazards and nutritional factors, the principles were
not elaborated specifically for whole foods.
The risk analysis approach can, in general terms, be applied to foods including foods derived
from modern biotechnology. However, it is recognised that this approach must be modified
when applied to a whole food rather than to a discrete hazard that may be present in food.
The guidelines represent a risk analysis on the safety and nutritional aspects of foods derived
from modern biotechnology. Environmental, ethical, moral and socio-economic aspects of the
research, development, production and marketing of these foods are not covered.
Genetically engineered food labelling, the position of FDA [1502]

Statements about foods developed using bioengineering
FDA recognizes that some manufacturers may want to use informative statements on labels
and in labeling of bioengineered foods or foods that contain ingredients produced from bio-
engineered foods. The following are examples of some statements that might be used. The
discussion accompanying each example is intended to provide guidance as to how similar state-
ments can be made without being misleading.
”Genetically engineered” or ”This product contains cornmeal that was produced using biotech-
nology.”
The information that the food was bioengineered is optional and this kind of simple state-
ment is not likely to be misleading. However, focus group data indicate that consumers would
prefer label statements that disclose and explain the goal of the technology (why it was used or
what it does for/to the food). Consumers also expressed some preference for the term ”biotech-
nology” over such terms as ”genetic modification” and ”genetic engineering”
. ”This product contains high oleic acid soybean oil from soybeans developed using biotechnol-
ogy to decrease the amount of saturated fat.”
This example includes both required and optional information. As discussed above in the
background section, when a food differs from its traditional counterpart such that the common
or usual name no longer adequately describes the new food, the name must be changed to
describe the difference. Because this soybean oil contains more oleic acid than traditional soy-
bean oil, the term ”soybean oil” no longer adequately describes the nature of the food. Under
section 403(i) of the act, a phrase like ”high oleic acid” would be required to appear as part
of the name of the food to describe its basic nature. The statement that the soybeans were
developed using biotechnology is optional. So is the statement that the reason for the change
in the soybeans was to reduce saturated fat.
”These tomatoes were genetically engineered to improve texture.”
In this example, the change in texture is a difference that may have to be described on the la-
bel. If the texture improvement makes a significant difference in the finished product, sections
201(n) and 403(a)(1) of the act would require disclosure of the difference for the consumer.
However, the statement must not be misleading. The phrase ”to improve texture” could be
misleading if the texture difference is not noticeable to the consumer. For example, if a man-
ufacturer wanted to describe a difference in a food that the consumer would not notice when
purchasing or consuming the product, the manufacturer should phrase the statements so that
the consumer can understand the significance of the difference. If the change in the tomatoes
was intended to facilitate processing but did not make a noticeable difference in the processed
consumer product, a phrase like ”to improve texture for processing” rather than ”to improve
texture” should be used to ensure that the consumer is not misled. The statement that the
tomatoes were genetically engineered is optional.
”Some of our growers plant tomato seeds that were developed through biotechnology to in-
crease crop yield.”
The entire statement in this example is optional information. The fact that there was in-
creased yield does not affect the characteristics of the food and is therefore not necessary on
the label to adequately describe the food for the consumer. A phrase like ”to increase yield”
should only be included where there is substantiation that there is in fact the stated difference.
Where a benefit from a bioengineered ingredient in a multi-ingredient food is described, the

526
statement should be worded so that it addresses the ingredient and not the food as a whole; for
example, ”This product contains high oleic acid soybean oil from soybeans produced through
biotechnology to decrease the level of saturated fat.” In addition, the amount of the bioengi-
neered ingredient in the food may be relevant to whether the statement is misleading. This
would apply especially where the bioengineered difference is a nutritional improvement. For
example, it would likely be misleading to make a statement about a nutritionally improved
ingredient on a food that contains only a small amount of the ingredient, such that the food’s
overall nutritional quality would not be significantly improved.
FDA reminds manufacturers that the optional terms that describe an ingredient of a multi-
ingredient food as bioengineered should not be used in the ingredient list of the multi-ingredient
food. Section 403(i)(2) of the act requires each ingredient to be declared in the ingredient state-
ment by its common or usual name. Thus, any terms not part of the name of the ingredient
are not permitted in the ingredient statement. In addition, 21 CFR 101.2(e) requires that
the ingredient list and certain other mandatory information appear in one place without other
intervening material. FDA has long interpreted any optional description of ingredients in the
ingredient statement to be intervening material that violates this regulation.
Statements about foods that are not bioengineered or that do not contain in-
gredients produced from bioengineered foods [1502]
Terms that are frequently mentioned in discussions about labeling foods with respect to bioengi-
neering include ”GMO free” and ”GM free.” ”GMO” is an acronym for ”genetically modified
organism” and ”GM” means ”genetically modified.” Consumer focus group data indicate that
consumers do not understand the acronyms ”GMO” and ” GM” and prefer label statements
with spelled out words that mean bioengineering.
Terms like ”not genetically modified” and ”GMO free,” that include the word ”modified”
are not technically accurate unless they are clearly in a context that refers to bioengineering
technology. ”Genetic modification” means the alteration of the genotype of a plant using any
technique, new or traditional. ”Modification” has a broad context that means the alteration
in the composition of food that results from adding, deleting, or changing hereditary traits,
irrespective of the method.
Modifications may be minor, such as a single mutation that affects one gene, or major al-
terations of genetic material that affect many genes. Most, if not all, cultivated food crops have
been genetically modified. Data indicate that consumers do not have a good understanding
that essentially all food crops have been genetically modified and that bioengineering technol-
ogy is only one of a number of technologies used to genetically modify crops. Thus, while it is
accurate to say that a bioengineered food was ”genetically modified,” it likely would be inaccu-
rate to state that a food that had not been produced using biotechnology was ”not genetically
modified” without clearly providing a context so that the consumer can understand that the
statement applies to bioengineering.
The term ”GMO free” may be misleading on most foods, because most foods do not con-
tain organisms (seeds and foods like yogurt that contain microorganisms are exceptions). It
would likely be misleading to suggest that a food that ordinarily would not contain entire ”or-
ganisms” is ”organism free.”
There is potential for the term ”free” in a claim for absence of bioengineering to be inaccurate.
Consumers assume that ”free” of bioengineered material means that ”zero” bioengineered ma-
terial is present. Because of the potential for adventitious presence of bioengineered material,
it may be necessary to conclude that the accuracy of the term ”free” can only be ensured when
there is a definition or threshold above which the term could not be used. FDA does not have
information with which to establish a threshold level of bioengineered constituents or ingredi-
ents in foods for the statement ”free of bioengineered material.”
FDA recognizes that there are analytical methods capable of detecting low levels of some
bioengineered materials in some foods, but a threshold would require methods to test for a
wide range of genetic changes at very low levels in a wide variety of foods. Such test methods
are not available at this time. The agency suggests that the term ”free” either not be used in
bioengineering label statements or that it be in a context that makes clear that a zero level
of bioengineered material is not implied. However, statements that the food or its ingredients,
as appropriate, was not developed using bioengineering would avoid or minimize such implica-
tions. For example,
- ”We do not use ingredients that were produced using biotechnology;”
- ”This oil is made from soybeans that were not genetically engineered;” or
- ”Our tomato growers do not plant seeds developed using biotechnology.”
A statement that a food was not bioengineered or does not contain bioengineered ingredi-
ents may be misleading if it implies that the labeled food is superior to foods that are not so
labeled. FDA has concluded that the use or absence of use of bioengineering in the production
of a food or ingredient does not, in and of itself, mean that there is a material difference in
the food. Therefore, a label statement that expresses or implies that a food is superior (e.g.,
safer or of higher quality) because it is not bioengineered would be misleading. The agency will
evaluate the entire label and labeling in determining whether a label statement is in a context
that implies that the food is superior.
In addition, a statement that an ingredient was not bioengineered could be misleading if there
is another ingredient in the food that was bioengineered. The claim must not misrepresent the
absence of bioengineered material. For example, on a product made largely of bioengineered
corn flour and a small amount of soybean oil, a claim that the product ”does not include ge-
netically engineered soybean oil” could be misleading.
528
Even if the statement is true, it is likely to be misleading if consumers believe that the en-
tire product or a larger portion of it than is actually the case is free of bioengineered material.
It may be necessary to carefully qualify the statement in order to ensure that consumers un-
derstand its significance.
Further, a statement may be misleading if it suggests that a food or ingredient itself is not
bioengineered, when there are no marketed bioengineered varieties of that category of foods or
ingredients. For example, it would be misleading to state ”not produced through biotechnol-
ogy” on the label of green beans, when there are no marketed bioengineered green beans.
To not be misleading, the claim should be in a context that applies to the food type instead
of the individual manufacturer’s product. For example, the statement ”green beans are not
produced using biotechnology” would not imply that this manufacturer’s product is different
from other green beans.
Substantiation of label statements [1502]

A manufacturer who claims that a food or its ingredients, including foods such as raw agricul-
tural commodities, is not bioengineered should be able to substantiate that the claim is truthful
and not misleading. Validated testing, if available, is the most reliable way to identify bioengi-
neered foods or food ingredients. For many foods, however, particularly for highly processed
foods such as oils, it may be difficult to differentiate by validated analytical methods between
bioengineered foods and food ingredients and those obtained using traditional breeding meth-
ods.
Where tests have been validated and shown to be reliable they may be used. However, if
validated test methods are not available or reliable because of the way foods are produced or
processed, it may be important to document the source of such foods differently. Also, special
handling may be appropriate to maintain segregation of bioengineered and nonbioengineered
foods.
In addition, manufacturers should consider appropriate recordkeeping to document the seg-

regation procedures to ensure that the food’s labeling is not false or misleading. In some
situations, certifications or affidavits from farmers, processors, and others in the food produc-
tion and distribution chain may be adequate to document that foods are obtained from the use
of traditional methods. A statement that a food is ”free” of bioengineered material may be
difficult to substantiate without testing. Because appropriately validated testing methods are
not currently available for many foods, it is likely that it would be easier to document handling
practices and procedures to substantiate a claim about how the food was processed than to
substantiate a ”free” claim.
FDA has been asked about the ability of organic foods to bear label statements to the ef-
fect that the food (or its ingredients) was not produced using biotechnology. On December 21,
2000, the Agriculture Marketing Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) pub-
lished final regulations on procedures for organic food production (National Organic Program
final rule; 65 FR 80548). That final rule requires that all but the smallest organic operations be
certified by a USDA accredited agent and lays out the requirements for organic food production.
Among those requirements is that products or ingredients identified as organic must not be
produced using biotechnology methods. The national organic standards would provide for ad-
equate segregation of the food throughout distribution to assure that non-organic foods do not
become mixed with organic foods. The agency believes that the practices and record keeping
that substantiate the ”certified organic” statement would be sufficient to substantiate a claim
that a food was not produced using bioengineering.
Genetic regulations in the EU

EU Release directive 2001/18EG
Directive 2001/18/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 March 2001 on the
deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organisms and repealing Council
Directive 90/220/EEC - Commission Declaration. http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga doc?smartapi
Labelling directive (EG) 1829/2003

Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September
2003 on genetically modified food and feed. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=C
Gene register decision 2004/204EG

2004/204/EC: Commission Decision of 23 February 2004 laying down detailed arrangements
for the operation of the registers for recording information on genetic modifications in GMOs,
provided for in Directive 2001/18/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council (Text with
EEA relevance) (notified under document number C(2004) 540) http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga d
Table 13.4: GM food and feed applications in EU

EFSA-GMO Nr. Event/Species Scope of the
application
UK-2004-1 NK603 x MON810 Maize Food, Feed
NL-2004-02 1507 Maize Food
530
DE-2004-03 MON863 x MON810 Maize Food, feed

UK-2004-04 Rice LLRICE62 Food,feed
import and processing
UK-2004-05 1507 x NK603 Maize Food, feed
import and processing
UK-2004-06 MON863 x NK603 Maize Food, feed
Import and processing
BE-2004-07 MON863 x MON810 x Food, feed
NK603 Maize import and processing
UK-2004-08 H7-1 Sugar beet Food, feed produced
from GM plants
(derived products)
UK-2005-09 MON 531 x MON 1445 Food, feed produced
Cotton from GM plants
(derived products)
MON 15985 and Food, feed produced
UK-2005-10 MON 15985 x MON from GM plants
1445 Cotton (derived products)
UK-2005-11 MIR604 Maize Food, feed
NL-2005-12 591223 Maize Food, feed
NL-2005-13 LLCotton25 Fodd,feed??
UK-2005-14 Amylopectin Potato Food, feed
event EH92-527-1
NL-2005-15 1507 x 59122 Maize Food, feed
NL-2005-16 281-24-236 x Food, feed
3006-210-23 Cotton Food, feed
UK-2005-17 1507 x NK603 Maize Food, feed, Import
and processing,
CULTIVATION
NL-2005-18 A2704-12 Soybean Food, feed
UK-2005-19 GA21 Maize Food, feed

UK-2005-21 59122 x 1507 x NK603 Food, feed
NL-2005-22 NK603 Maize Food, feed
CULTIVATION
NL-2005-23 59122 Maize Food, feed
CULTIVATION
NL-2005-24 40-3-2 Soybean CULTIVATION
UK-2005-25 T45 Oilseed rape Food, feed
NL-2005-26 NK603 x MON810 Maize CULTIVATION
CZ-2005-27 MON 88017 Maize Food, feed
NL-2005-28 1507 x 59122 Maize Food, feed
CULTIVATION
CULTIVATION
UK-2006-30 59122 x 1507 x NK603 Food, feed
CULTIVATION
NL-2006-31 LY038 Maize Food, feed
NL-2006-32 LY038 x MON810 Maize Food, feed
CZ-2006-33 MON 88017 x MON 810 Maize Food, feed
UK-2006-34 Event 3272 Maize Food, feed
NL-2006-35 LLCotton25 x MON Food,feed produced
15985 Cotton from GM plants
(derived producs)
532
Insect-resistant GMO Maize 59122 approved in EU [1503]

The maize 59122 from Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. and Mycogen Seeds, c/o Dow Agro-
sciences LLC was approved on the 23 March 2007 by the Panel of the European Food Safety
Authority for food and feed uses, import and processing of maize 59122 but does not include
cultivation.
Maize 59122 was transformed by Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer technology and ex-
presses CRY34Ab1, CRY35Ab1 and PAT proteins. The molecular characterisation data estab-
lished that maize 59122 contains a single insert of the T-DNA. The structure of the insert in
maize 59122 was determined by Southern analysis and DNA sequencing. No vector backbone
sequences were detected. BLAST sequence analysis revealed that border regions of the maize
event 59122 show significant homology to maize genomic DNA and EST sequences. None of
the EST sequences showed homology to known toxin or allergen encoding sequences. Analysis
of ORFs spanning the two junction regions was performed by bioinformatic analysis and no
novel ORFs with sequence similarity to known toxins or allergens were identified.
the GMO Panel concludes that maize 59122 is unlikely to have any adverse effect on human
and animal health or on the environment in the context of its intended uses.
Genetically Engineered Enzymes [1504]

Enzymes are naturally occurring proteins that speed up biochemical processes. They’re used
to produce everything from wine and cheese to corn syrup and baked goods.
When enzymes are genetically engineered, the manufacturer is not required to notify the FDA
that the enzymes have been modified. The FDA provides an incomplete list of GE enzymes:
Table 13.5: FDA List of GE enzymes [1504]
Enzymes Used for

Chymosin production of cheese
Novamyl(TM) production of baked goods, preserves freshness
Alpha amylase white sugar, maltodextrins and nutritive
carbohydrate sweeteners (corn syrup)
Aspartic (proteinase enzyme from R. miehei) production of cheese
Pullulanase production of high fructose corn syrup
FDA Food safety evaluation of new Non-Pesticidal proteins [1511]

The FDA asserts in its policy on GM foods that genetically engineered crops are no different
than those created through traditional breeding methods. The agency bases its position on the
fact that foods derived from traditionally bred crops have a history of safety. Thus the FDA
takes the position that genetic engineering is just another traditional breeding method, and
reasons that GM foods should be considered safe.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final guidance for industry entitled ”Rec-
ommendations for the Early Food Safety Evaluation of New Non- Pesticidal Proteins Produced
by New Plant Varieties Intended for Food Use.” The guidance provides recommendations to de-
velopers of new plant varieties, including bioengineered plant varieties, on the early food safety
evaluation of new non-pesticidal proteins produced by such new plant varieties, including for
example such proteins produced in bioengineered plants. The guidance describes procedures
for submitting an early food safety evaluation of such proteins to the agency.
The guidance describes the procedure for early food safety evaluation of new proteins in new
plant varieties that are under development for food use. In most cases, the proteins expected
to become components of food, whether as a result of the use of traditional or modern biotech-
nology methods, will be the same or quite similar to proteins commonly found in food. FDA
believes that any food safety concern related to such material entering the food supply would
be limited to the potential that a new protein in food from the plant variety could cause an
allergic reaction in susceptible people or could be a toxin in people or animals.
FDA recommends that sponsors and developers of new plant varieties intended for food use
consult with FDA about their evaluation of the food safety of any new proteins produced in
these plants prior to the stage of development where the new proteins might inadvertently
enter the food supply. Thus, the safety evaluation recommended by this guidance is termed an
”early” food safety evaluation of new proteins.
If a protein has been evaluated in an early food safety evaluation and no safety concerns are
identified, we would not expect an additional early food safety evaluation to be submitted if
the same protein is introduced into another plant species. Also, if a protein has previously been
reviewed as part of a biotechnology consultation and there were no safety concerns identified,
we would not expect you to submit an early food safety evaluation for such a protein. This
guidance does not apply to plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), which are regulated by EPA.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for evaluating the safety of pes-
ticides, including plant-incorporated protectants. As such, these proteins are not subject to
FDA review and are not the subject of this guidance.
Tomato chloroplast DNA transformation as promising nutraceuticals [1513]

Genetic engineering scientist are searching the way of production of food crops with enhanced
nutritional or medicinal value, the so called nutraceuticals.
534
Ralf Bock and colleagues from the Institute of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology in Münster,
Germany, in cooperation with Helaine Carrer of the Centre of Agriculture Biotechnology of
Piracicaba, Brazil, created a new technique of genetic engineering. Instead of modifying the
DNA of the nucleus of the cell, the scientists modified the DNA of plastids such as chloroplasts.
In this way efficient production of edible vaccines, pharmaceuticals, and antibodies in tomato
can be realised, while the new genes are hindered to pass to other crops or weeds.
This technique had already been used in genetic engineering of tobacco. Ralf Bock and his
team optimized plant tissue culture and regeneration, nutrition, plant hormones and light in-
tensity for the tomato plant.
Only one marker gene has been used yet, but more genes will now be focused in the experiments
of Ralf Bock.
The idea to use GM tomatoes with transformed plastids to develop edible vaccines is also
backed up by Pal Maliga from the University in Piscataway, New Jersey. [1514]
Some of the technical issues that require resolution comprising the transfer of foreign genes
from chloroplasts to the nucleus were described by Henry Daniell and Christopher L. Parkin-
son, University of Central Florida. [1515]
Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes and approval of APH(3’)II gene [1516]

The FDA position to antibiotic resistance marker genes is given in the draft guidance ”Use of
Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes in Transgenic Plants: Guidance for Industry” (the draft
guidance) and report entitled ”Report on Consultations Regarding Use of Antibiotic Resistance
Marker Genes In Transgenic Plants.”
The report summarizes FDA’s recent consultations with outside experts on the use of an-
tibiotic resistance marker genes in transgenic plants. The draft guidance is intended to provide
information to crop developers that will assist them on the use of antibiotic resistance marker
genes in the development of transgenic plants.
In the Federal Register of May 29, 1992 (57 FR 22984), FDA published a notice on a pol-
icy statement (the 1992 policy) regarding foods derived from new plant varieties, including
those derived using genetic engineering techniques. In the 1992 policy statement, FDA specifi-
cally discussed antibiotic resistance selectable marker genes and noted that both the antibiotic
resistance gene and the enzyme encoded by the gene, unless removed, are expected to be present
in foods derived from plants developed using the markers.
The agency acknowledged that, when present in food, enzymes that are encoded by selectable
marker genes and that inactivate certain clinically useful antibiotics theoretically might reduce
the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics administered orally. Accordingly, FDA believes that it
is important to evaluate such concerns with respect to commercial use of antibiotic resistance
marker genes in food, especially those marker genes that will be widely used. In addition, the
agency also believes that it is important to consider the possibility that resistance to antibi-
otics in microorganisms has the potential to spread through horizontal transfer of antibiotic
resistance marker genes from plants (59 FR 26700, May 23, 1994).
This second consideration was reflected in FDA’s evaluation of the safety of the use of the
kanamycin resistance (kan¡SUP¿r¡/SUP¿) gene product, aminoglycoside 3’-phosphotransferase
II (APH(3’)II, also known as neomycin phosphotransferase II or nptII) when the agency
amended the food additive regulations to permit the use of APH(3’)II in the development
of transgenic tomato, cotton, and oilseed rape.
FDA received several comments from the public regarding the use of antibiotic resistance marker
genes in transgenic plants in response to the 1992 policy, and in response to the agency’s solici-
tation for comment regarding the request of Calgene, Inc., for an advisory opinion on the use of
the kan¡SUP¿r¡/SUP¿ gene as a selectable marker in the development of transgenic tomatoes
(56 FR 20004, May 1, 1991). FDA responded to these comments when it issued the final rule
permitting the use of APH(3’)II in the development of transgenic tomatoes, oilseed rape, and
cotton (59 FR 26700 at 26706).
Since FDA’s decision approving the use of the APH(3’)II in the development of transgenic
tomatoes, cotton, and oilseed rape, the agency has continued to receive inquiries from crop
developers as well as from the public regarding the safety and regulatory status of antibiotic
resistance marker genes. Therefore, FDA sought to develop sound scientific principles regard-
ing the safety of the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in the development of transgenic
plants intended for food use so as to provide sound scientific guidance to crop developers re-
garding the safe use of antibiotic resistance marker genes.
Toward this end, FDA undertook several consultations with outside experts having expertise
in relevant fields including gene transfer and antibiotic resistance. The purpose of the con-
sultations was to determine whether circumstances exist under which FDA should recommend
that a given antibiotic resistance gene not be used in crops intended for food use, and if so, to
delineate the nature of those circumstances.
Guidance for Industry: Use of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes in Transgenic

PlantsDraft Guidance. September 4, 1998 [1463] In 1992, the Food and Drug Admin-
istration (FDA) issued a policy statement regarding foods derived from new plant varieties
including those derived using genetic engineering techniques (U.S. FDA, 1992). In this policy
statement, FDA specifically discussed antibiotic resistance selectable marker genes and noted
536
that both the antibiotic resistance gene and gene product, unless removed, are expected to be
present in foods derived from plants developed using the markers. The agency acknowledged
that selectable marker gene-encoded enzymes that inactivate certain clinically useful antibi-
otics, when present in food, theoretically might reduce the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics
administered orally.
Thus it is important to evaluate such concerns with respect to commercial use of antibiotic
resistance marker genes in food, especially those that will be widely used. In addition, the
agency believes it is important to consider the possibility that resistance to antibiotics in mi-
croorganisms might spread through potential horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance marker
genes from plants to microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract or in the environment.
Since FDA’s decision regarding the use of the kanamycin resistance (kanr ) gene product, amino-
glycoside 3’-phosphotransferase II (APH(3’)II, also known as neomycin phosphotransferase II
or nptII) in the development of transgenic tomato, cotton, and oilseed rape,
the agency has continued to receive inquiries regarding the safety and regulatory status of
antibiotic resistance marker genes. Therefore, FDA sought to develop sound scientific princi-
ples regarding the safety of the use of antibiotic resistance marker genes in the development
of transgenic plants for food use and to provide sound scientific guidance to crop developers
regarding the safe use of antibiotic resistance marker genes.
Towards this end, FDA undertook several consultations with outside experts between Novem-
ber, 1996 and February, 1997. The purpose of the consultations was to determine whether
circumstances exist under which FDA should recommend that a given antibiotic resistance
gene not be used in crops intended for food use, and if so, to delineate the nature of those
circumstances.
Overall, the arguments made concerning the improbability of the transfer of the kanr gene
to gut microorganisms in the case of the Flavr Savr tomatoes (U.S. FDA, 1994) could also be
applied to other antibiotic resistance marker genes. However, while the possibility of transfer
from plants to microorganisms is remote for all marker genes, crop developers should consider
the following factors in evaluating whether an antibiotic resistant gene is suitable for use as a
selectable marker:
1) whether the antibiotic that may be affected is clinically important,
2) whether it is frequently used,
3) whether it is administered orally,
4) whether it is unique or acceptable alternative antibiotics exist,
5) whether there would be selective pressure for transformants to be selected, and
6) whether there already is resistance to the antibiotic in the environment.
FDA’s analysis (U.S. FDA, 1994) showed that the kanr gene that was used in the case of
the Flavr Savr tomato passes the paradigm outlined above. Neomycin and kanamycin are in-
frequently used antibiotics, neither is unique for any use, and rarely are administered orally.
Thus, selective pressure would be minimal for development of resistant bacteria because the
drugs are not used in humans or in animals to any great extent. Similarly, these antibiotics are
not used in agriculture or aquaculture to any great extent. Therefore, they would not provide
the selective pressure required to select for the kanr determinant if transfer from plants to soil
microorganisms were to take place. In addition, existing resistance levels far exceed any trans-
fer that may take place from transgenic plants to microorganisms.
However, different circumstances may apply to other antibiotics. For example, with regard
to the presence or absence of selective pressure, streptomycin and oxytetracycline may provide
selective pressure in the environment because of their use as pesticides in agriculture. On the
other hand, ampicillin may provide selective pressure in the human gut when used in the clinical
setting but not in the environment.
The notion that it may be possible to construct a list of antibiotic resistance marker genes
that are acceptable for use in the development of transgenic crops was discussed. The kanr
gene can be placed on such a list. Some experts suggested that the hygromycin resistance gene
may be included on such a list because of its limited use in humans. It was noted, however,
that it may have important veterinary uses.
Other experts would include the beta-lactamase gene of p UC18 (that confers resistance to
a narrow spectrum of beta-lactam antibiotics), and the tetracycline resistance gene on such a
list. There is so much resistance to these antibiotics already in the environment that any po-
tential transfer from transgenic plants to microorganisms, especially when compared to transfer
among bacteria, is unlikely to add to the existing levels of resistance in any meaningful way.
The idea was put forth that antibiotic resistance genes could be ranked on a continuum with
the kanr gene on one end as the most acceptable, and the vancomycin resistance gene on the
other. It was further suggested that use of marker genes beyond the kanr and hygromycin
resistance genes might be acceptable on the basis of studies to address potential transfer and a
commitment to conduct post-market surveillance for transfer of the gene in question.
Potential Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance Marker Genes to Microroganism in

the Environment [1463]
Some experts noted that some soil microbes may be naturally transformable and that they may
take up and incorporate DNA causing genomic rearrangements that might help them occupy
particular ecological niches.
Some experts felt that it does not make sense to expand the availability of the resistance
538
gene in the environment because abundance of marker genes may compress the typical 4- 5-
year time lag between first use of new antibiotic and the emergence of resistance in hospitals.
Others felt that the risk of transfer from plant genome to soil microorganisms is not a signifi-
cant one. This latter group felt that DNA from plant debris would be unavailable for transfer
because it would be degraded by nucleases when the plant cell lysed; in addition, there would
be no selective pressure in most cases although there are exceptions such as when streptomycin
and tetracycline are used as pesticides to prevent fire blight in fruit trees, or when manure
is used as fertilizer following use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animals. It was noted
that transfer from bacteria to bacteria accounts for the wide dissemination of certain antibiotic
resistance markers in soil bacteria.
Approaches to Assessing Potential for Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance Marker

Genes and Conducting Surveillance for Resistance [1463] Participants in the consul-
tations discussed a study conducted by a crop developer wherein plant DNA containing the
beta-lactamase gene from an insect-resistant transgenic corn line (intact or nuclease degraded)
was incubated with competent E. coli. The study was intended to determine if any bacteria
were transformed and acquired ampicillin resistance; the experiment showed that transforma-
tion did not occur above a frequency of 1 in 6.8 x1019 .
Some experts said that if transformation were to take place, it would be more likely to do
so in experiments using competent bacteria in the laboratory than in nature because compe-
tent bacteria have the highest transformation frequency. They added that if transformation was
not observed in the laboratory, especially if the experiment was carried out in gram negative
and gram positive bacteria (an Enterococcus strain and an E. coli), the results would suggest
that such transfers may not take place in the natural setting to the extent that they would
raise health or safety concerns.
Other experts stated that an in vitro experiment does not give them much confidence because
it does not reflect the complex ecological system that exists in nature. In addition, a mono-
culture of E. coli, is an artificial system that would not be a strong basis on which to assess risk.
Conclusions [1463]
• The approach taken by FDA in its evaluation of the safety of the use of the kanr gene and
its product, APH(3’)II, in the development of transgenic tomato, cotton, and oilseed rape,
is scientifically sound and included all relevant parameters. These included: 1) evaluation
of the safety of the protein with respect to toxicity and allergenicity, 2) an assessment
of whether presence in food of APH(3’)II would compromise the therapeutic efficiency of
orally administered neomycin and kanamycin, and 3) an assessment of whether therapy
with antibiotics might be compromised through transfer of the kanr gene from plants to
microorganisms in the gut or in the environment or to the cells lining the gastrointestinal
tract.
• The presence in food of proteins encoded by antibiotic resistance genes is not of great
concern. They can be evaluated with respect to toxicity and allergenicity and with respect
to potential to compromise therapy with antibiotics (in similar fashion to the approach
taken by FDA for APH(3’)II).
• Similarly, the potential transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from foods derived from
transgenic plants to cells lining the gastrointestinal tract does not raise a safety concern.
Most DNA is degraded in the gut and thus, would be unavailable for transfer, and even
if some DNA survived and was available for transfer into these cells, it would not be
integrated and expressed due to lack of selective pressure. Additionally, because these
cells are continuously sloughed off and replaced by new cells, a cell that incorporated
an antibiotic resistance gene would not be long-lived and present a safety hazard with
respect to compromising therapy with antibiotics.
• The likelihood of transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from plant genomes to microor-
ganisms in the gastrointestinal tract of man or animal, and in the environment is remote.
Several barriers operate against such transfer. In addition, the rate of such transfer,
if any, would be insignificant when compared to transfer between microorganisms, and
would not add to existing levels of resistance in bacterial populations in any meaning-
ful way. Nonetheless, caution should be the rule for antibiotic resistance markers that
inactivate clinically important antibiotics.
• The kanr gene is safe to use as a selectable marker in the development of transgenic crops.
Some experts also felt that there would be little concern with use of the hygromycin resis-
tance gene as a selectable marker. However, hygromycin may have important veterinary
uses and, therefore, its use should be carefully evaluated in those crops that have animal
feed applications.
• There are varying levels of concern with use of other antibiotic resistance genes as se-
lectable markers in transgenic plants, with the highest level of concern for those genes
that confer resistance to antibiotics such as vancomycin, an antibiotic viewed as a drug
of last resort for some infections. Overall, use of these antibiotic resistance marker genes
should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis with the evaluation taking into account infor-
mation on 1) whether the antibiotic is an important medication, 2) whether it is frequently
used, 3) whether it is orally administered, 4) whether it is unique, 5) whether there would
be selective pressure for transformation to take place, and 6) whether there already is
resistance to the antibiotic in bacterial populations.
540
• Some experts suggested that surveying the current levels of resistance to various an-
tibiotics would be important in order to gauge the impact of any potential transfer of
antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic plants to microorganisms. In addition, some
experts recommended that developers of transgenic crops might be encouraged to con-
duct surveillance to ascertain that transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from transgenic
plants to microorganisms is not taking place. Such surveillance would safeguard against
the occurrence of drug resistance from use of marker genes in transgenic plants and pro-
vide the public health community and the regulatory agencies an opportunity for early
intervention to prevent adverse impact on public health.
German executiv agencys contact for genetic engineering The Bavarian Environmen-
tal Agency (Bayerisches Amt für Umweltschutz) http://www.bayern.de/lfu/gentec/index.html
provides useful service for genetic engineering projects, the registration, the release of ge-
netic modified organism, to place a GMO on the market, the official supervision of fields,
texts of relevant regulations, a link to the Federal Agency for Consumer Protection and Food
Safety (Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit (BVL) ) is provided.
http://www.bvl.bund.de/cln 027/nn 495478/DE/06 Gentechnik/gentechnik node.html nnn=true
The Federal Agency for Consumer Protection and Food Safety is responsible for the entire ge-
netic legislation enforcement since 2004.
Genetic risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus [1464]

Diabetes is widespread in industrial countries. It develops mainly in advanced age, but children
may also have type 2 diabetes mellitus. Overweight, lack of physical exercise and genetic factors
may trigger the disease.
It is supposed that the body on behalf of continuously high blood-sugar, produces so much
insulin that the cells do not react any more on this hormone and at some moment the produced
insuline is not sufficient any more. Type I diabetes is somewhat of an autoimmune reaction
working against the production of insulin of the pancreas.
Robert Sladek and colleagues from the McGill University in Montreal identified four loci in
the human genome, containing variants that confer type 2 diabetes risk, in addition to confirm-
ing the known association with the TCF7L2 gene.
These loci include a non-synonymous polymorphism in the zinc transporter SLC30A8, which
is expressed exclusively in insulin-producing beta-cells, and two linkage disequilibrium blocks
that contain genes potentially involved in beta-cell development or function (IDEKIF11HHEX
and EXT2ALX4). These associations explain a substantial portion of disease risk and consti-
tute proof of principle for the genome-wide approach to the elucidation of complex genetic traits.
The researchers are developing an easy test which can identify the genetic anomaly and di-
rect the therapy toward the modified zinc transporter. The authors look forward to a genetic
test of persons with the predisposition to type 2 diabetes. This can motivate these persons to
a follow a specific nutrition plan and practice more sports and avoid the development of the
disease.
Antibiotic resistance marker genes nptII in GM plants poses no risk to human,

animal or environment [1465]
The nptII gene (neomycin phosphototransferase II) provides resistance to certain antibiotics,
such as the aminoglycosides kanamycin, neomycin and geneticin, in plants. In in 2004 the
EFSA found no scientific evidence that a transfer of this gene to bacteria, animals or humans
could occur.
The EC asked EFSA to consider an information of EMEA and any potential consequences
for the safety of the nptII gene as a marker gene in genetically modified plants and for previous
opinions on specific GM plants (and derived food and feed) comprising the nptII gene.
According to the European Medicines Agency EMEA information, aminoglycosides comprise

a class of antibiotics that has become increasingly important in the prevention and treatment
of serious invasive bacterial infections in humans. This is because bacteria, such as tuberculo-
sis bacteria, are becoming resistant to other classes of antibiotics. It also said that, although
kanamycin and neomycin are used relatively infrequently, the development of similar antibi-
otics should be taken into account and that aminoglycosides as a group are a class of antibiotics
critically important for veterinary medicine.
The GMO Panel responded agreeing with the EMEA that the preservation of the therapeutic
potential of the aminoglycoside group of antibiotics is important. The Panel is also of the
opinion that the therapeutic effect of these antibiotics will not be compromised by the presence
of the nptII gene in GM plants, given the extremely low probability of gene transfer from plants
to bacteria.
The GMO Panel reconfirms its earlier conclusions in its opinion on antibiotic resistant marker
genes that the use of the nptII gene as selectable marker in GM plants (and derived food or
feed) does not pose a risk to human or animal health or to the environment.
The FSA arguements

Likelihood of transfer of the nptII gene from the genome of GM plants to bacteria
[1466]
(i) DNA is released from plant material by normal digestion processes that take place in the gas-
542
trointestinal tract, or by activities of nucleases present in various organisms in the environment.
(ii)The probability that bacteria will be exposed to DNA stretches long enough to contain
the intact nptII gene is very low because of the above mentioned digestion and degradation
processes.
(iii) The nptII gene from plant material can only be taken up by competent bacteria via natural
transformation, a process that occurs infrequently in many bacteria and in most environmental
conditions.
(iv) If the intact nptII gene enters the bacteria, it will be rapidly degraded by restriction
endonucleases inm many bacterial cells which possess DNA restriction systems in order to de-
stroy foreign DNA.
(v) If the intact nptII gene does indeed survive, the probability of its incorporation into the
bacterial genome is very low unless there are homologous regions already present in the bacterial
genome. Gene transfer from plants to bacteria has only been demonstrated under laboratory
conditions when regions of homology were already present in the recipient bacterium.
(vi) Expression of the incorporated nptII gene is unlikely considering that in GM plant material
the nptII gene is under the control of a promoter with preferential expression in plants, which
does not support its efficient expression in bacteria.
(vii) Stable integration and inheritance of the nptII gene in the host bacterium is not likely in
the absence of selective pressure from a relevant antibiotic.
When all of the above mentioned aspects are taken into account, the probability of func-
tional gene transfer from plants into microorganisms is extremely low. It is not surprising that
transfer of an antibiotic resistance marker from GM plants to bacteria has not been observed
under natural conditions.
The EMEA has indicated that under laboratory conditions gene transfer from plants to bacte-
ria has been demonstrated. According to EFSA, however, gene transfer from plants to bacteria
has only been demonstrated in a few highly transformable bacterial species (e.g., Acinetobacter
sp. BD413 or Pseudomonas stutzeri) under artificial and forced laboratory conditions when
regions of homology were already present in the recipient bacterium. In the absence of this
optimisation of the process and selection pressure, resistance gene transfer from GM plants to
bacteria, even in the laboratory, could not be demonstrated.
Prevalence of the nptII gene in soil, humans and animals [1466]

Antibiotic resistance is a common feature in natural microbial communities in soils, aquatic
systems, and habitats associated with animals and humans. There is already a widespread
presence of nptII in the soil environment.
Studies indicate that, as expected of a gene located on a transposable genetic element, nptII is
located on a wide range of replicons in bacterial clinical isolates from humans The nptII gene
was present in 2.5% of bacterial clinical isolates resistant to kanamycin and neomycin collected
between 1987 and 1991 in several European and Central and South American countries (Shaw
et al., 1993). Studies on the prevalence of the nptII gene in animal-associated bacterial popu-
lations have not been found in the scientific literature.
Contribution of the nptII gene to the prevalence of resistance to kanamycin [1466]

Kanamycin-resistant bacteria are ubiquitous in nature. Only a fraction of kanamycin-resistant
bacteria contain the nptII (aph(3)-IIa) gene, the other resistant bacteria having different genes
and/or other mechanisms conferring kanamycin resistance.
The nptII gene has been reported to occur naturally only in eubacteria. In one survey, 3
out of 184 kanamycin resistant bacterial isolates from three stream sites in the USA (Leff et
al., 1993) and 44 out of 355 from different habitats in the Netherlands (Smalla et al., 1993)
contained nptII sequences.
Potential mutations of the nptII gene resulting in resistance to other antibiotics

[1466]
Resistance towards amikacin, an important reserve antibiotic could be obtained under labora-
tory conditions and was the result of a mutated nptII gene and a diminished rate of amikacin
uptake into the bacterial cell. However, to date no clinical amikacin resistant strains with a
mutated nptII gene have been identified.
Rice genetically modified with high flavonoid content. [1467] Researchers from the
from Hamburg University and the University of Hyderabad (India) found in 2007 GM rice
with high antiooxidant activity. The rice contains the anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) enzyme.
ANS enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of flavonoids, transforming leucoanthocyanidins
into coloured anthiocyanidins. The transgenic rice 10TC is a mutant strain of the rice called
Nootripathh.
The authors compared the favonoid content of the transgenic Rice with that of normal non
GM rice:
544
Flavonoids Produced in 10TC Rice Normal nonGM Rice

micrograms per milligram micrograms per milligram
Anthocyanins 2.52 0.12
Quercetin 1.37 0.55
Proanthocyanidins 0.09 0.40
The content of flavonoids had 22% higher antioxidant activity than untransformed rice. The
authors claim that their method can be used to enhance the nutritional value and resistance
against biotic and abiotic stresses of different food crops. This would strongly support genetic
modification of staple foods.
Defra final decision on BASF GM potato trial postponed [1468] [1469]

The UK’s department for the environment, food and rural affairs (Defra), which originally gave
approval in December for BASF to undertake research trials of a GM potato at two sites in
England, one in Cambridgeshire and the other in Derbyshire, said that it would now consider
BASF’s proposal as a new application in accordance with the Genetically Modified Organisms
(Deliberate Release) Regulations 2002. Similar trials are already underway in in Sweden, Ger-
many and the Netherlands. But before reaching a definitive decision, Defra said that it would
consider any representations that people may wish to make about the risk of environmental
damage posed by the GM trial. The deadline for representations is 20 April 2007.
Defra announced in its News Release from 01.12.06 the approval of an application of BASF to
undertake trials of a late potato blight disease GM potato on two sites in England, starting in
2007.Evaluation of the application by the Advisory Committee of Releases to the Environment
(ACRE ). found that the trials will not result in any adverse effect on human health or the
environment. [1470]
Clare Oxborrow Friends of the Earth says that the trials pose a significant contamination
threat to future potato crops, claiming that there is no need for GM potatoes and no consumer
demand for them. This was backed by Lord Peter Melchett from the Soil Association warning
that other crops risk contamination by GM. [1471]
Professor Philip Dale of the plant-breeding John Innes Centre argued that the Soil Associ-
ation is opposing this project because the Association see these kinds of advances in general
agriculture to be a threat to the profitability of organic farming.
GM rice with human genes

In 2004 the company, Ventria Bioscience, Californis, started to cultivate rice engineered to pro-
duce lactiva and lysomin. These proteins are found in breast milk and should improve recovery
from diarrhoea. [1472] The company has now received approval from the US Department of
Agriculture to cultivate this rice in the state of Kansas. According to Robert Wittler, from
Kansas University School of Medicine at Wichita the outcomes of a clinical trial using the new
rice suggests that children suffering from diarrhoea may recover sooner compared with tradi-
tional traditional medication. [1473] GeneWatch UK and Friends of the Earth, point out the
danger of a broad contamination of staple foods with pharmaceutical producing genes. The
genes, cultivated and copied in a laboratory to produce a synthetic version, are carried into
embryonic rice plants inside bacteria. [1474]
Pharmaceutical rice [1475] [1476] [1477]

The California Rice Commission was created by the government of California to serve the in-
terests of the California rice industry by expanding and maintaining the industry’s markets.
California ranks second in the United States behind Arkansas in rice production, accounting
for 20% of the U.S. total production.
In 2000, the California legislature, in response to a proposal advanced by the CRC, enacted
the Rice Certification Act of 2000279 with the broad intent of enhancing and protecting the
reputation of California’s rice industry throughout the nation and around the world.
Ventria [1478] Lonnerdal in a review states that expression of recombinant human milk
proteins in rice is realistic and a possibility for the addition of bioactive factors to infant for-
mula and baby foods. The protein composition of infant formula is still quite different than
that of human milk, as there are proteins in cow’s milk which are absent in human milk, and
many proteins in human milk are absent in cow’s milk such as lactoferrin. Addition of human
milk proteins to infant formula may be necessary to obtain some of the nutritional and health
benefits that breast-fed infants enjoy.
Recombinant human milk proteins can now be expressed in a variety of systems.
Recombinant human lactoferrin and lysozyme added to a rice-based oral rehydration solu-
tion were found to increase recovery of children with acute diarrhea. [1479]
Ventria rice expresses human lactoferrin or lysozyme protecting the intestinal tract similarly
to subtherapeutic antibiotics. The GM rice has potentials to to be used as a substitute for
antibiotics in broiler diets. [1480]
546
Saccharomyces is used for expression of human lactoferrin but has low expression levels. As-
pergillus is being used in the production of recombinant human lactoferrin but the cost is too
high for use as a food additive. [1478]
Ventria and its GM rice [1475] In the fall of 2002, Ventria began formal discussions with
the CRC on its intent to commercially plant its pharma rice during the 2004 planting season,
and, in December 2003, Ventria submitted an application to APHIS to renew its California
field trial permits.
In order for Ventria’s pharma rice product to be commercialized in California, APHIS would
have to authorize the necessary planting through the issuance of an appropriate permit. Of
the 84 permits for the field testing of pharma crops that APHIS has issued nationwide, nine
have been issued for trials in California, including for pharma rice, but APHIS has not to date
authorized commercial production for any pharma crop.
Ventria stipulated that its pharma rice had characteristics of commercial impact. The advi-
sory board of CRC worked with Ventria to develop proposed conditions for the production and
handling of the company’s pharma rice. These included growing the pharma rice in Southern
California, which is outside the state’s rice belt; not seeding the rice from the air, ensuring a
buffer zone of 100 feet between biotech rice and other crops; ensuring seed containers are sealed
and numbered and silos are labeled and locked in order to keep pharma rice separate from other
rice; and testing for the presence of the biotech pharma trait.
On March 29, 2004, by a vote of six to five, the advisory board recommended to the secretary
of agriculture conditions and protocols under which Ventria’s pharma rice could be planted
commercially with adequate identity preservation and containment.
California Department of Food and Agriculture CDFA Secretary Kawamura denied the rec-
ommendation of the commission’s advisory board for an emergency exemption to plant its
pharma rice crop during the spring 2004.
Ventria said the company has plans to reapply in California and is also considering other
options, such as planting in Hawaii and states in the South.
Japans concern about the US pharma rice Japan imports 40% of the California’s pro-
duction of rice. The Japanese Rice Retailers Association has been concerned about biotech
products in general and the commercialization of pharma rice specifically which will evoke a
distrust of U.S. rice as a whole among Japanese consumers,
The argument supporting pharmaceutical rice The Biotechnology Industry Organiza-

tion (BIO) argues that the health benefits of pharma crops outweigh the risks and that the
risks are adequately regulated by the federal government.
The industry also points out that food crops are good platforms for pharma crop develop-
ment and production.
Acording to Ventia the health benefits of the technology outweigh the risks, claiming that
producing these proteins through crops is the most cost-effective and efficient means of reach-
ing the most people. Planting 65 acres of pharma rice, they say, could generate 1,400 pounds
of lactoferrin, which would be enough to treat 650,000 children with dehydration, a condition
that kills 3 million infants each year worldwide, mostly in developing countries.
However, a report by the National Research Council on the biological containment of geneti-
cally modified organisms concluded that crops used to produce common food products would
be a ”poor choice” for use to produce pharma and industrial crops unless they can be grown
under ”stringent conditions of confinement.”
The USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) had discovered GM in
a variety of long grain rice seed from BASF, all of them outside of the California state. Follow-
ing this announcement, the California Rice Commission (CRC) called for a suspension of field
testing of all genetically modified rice cultivars in the State of California for the 2007 crop, and
for future crops, until safety is guaranteed.
These arguments made the California Rice Commission, to call for a moratorium on GM field
testing in the state, allowing for an opportunity to evaluate federal regulations that safeguard
the rice industry.
Reduction of Pressure on Palmoil production [1481] John Shanklin looking for better
understanding of the enzymes and metabolic pathways that produce oils in oil plants found
how to manipulate the accumulation of fats using genetic techniques. They found that reducing
the levels of the gene Arabidopsis KASII convert temperate oilseed composition of temperate
oil plants , such as canola, soybean, and sunflower to that of a palm-like tropical oil.
Temperate oil add two carbons with a desaturating activity of the expression of the gene
KASII. Reducing the expression of this gene the double bounded elongation of the fatty acid
chain from C16 to C18 is reduced. A higher melting point of the fat is attained which resembles
that of palm oil.
This may reduce the pressure on the forests in Asian countries saving thus precious wildlife.
548
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) [1482]
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) is a poorly understood phenomenon involving the massive
die-off of a beehive or bee colony. CCD is alternatively referenced as Vanishing Bee Syndrome
(VBS). CCD was originally found only in colonies of the West honey bee in North America, but
European beekeepers have recently claimed to be observing a similar phenomenon in Poland,
Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain, Switzerland and Germany. From 1971 to 2006 approximately
half of the U.S. honey bee colonies have vanished.
Causes: The cause (or causes) of the syndrome is not yet well understood and even the
existence of this disorder remains disputed. Theories include environmental change-related
stresses, malnutrition, unknown pathogens, mites (Varroa mites), pesticides such as neonicoti-
noids, emission from cellular phones or other man made devices, and genetically modified crops.
This set of symptoms has in the past several decades been given many different names (disap-
pearing disease, spring dwindle, May disease, autumn collapse, and fall dwindle disease).
A sticky paper to fight varroa mite [1483]

Jeff Pettisan entomologist from the USDA Agricultural research Service, Maryland says that
varroa mite infestations have become such a serious problem that maintaining bee colonies
without chemical treatment is virtually impossible. Apistana strip that contains the chemical
tau-fluvalinate is being used. Varroa, however, have begun to show resistance to the chemical.
Pettisan looking for alternatives introduced a sticky paper which is located beneath the hive
bottom. Mites get stick to the paper and can be removed from the hive. As safe and effective
chemical controls continue to be researched and developed, the sticky paper will complement
Apistan in assisting beekeepers with the control of invading varroa.
Other causes of the Colony Collapse Disorder, according to Pettisan, may be an unknown
virus, Bacteria, pesticides or a combination of these causes.
Genetic causes: The honey bee has a reduced number of genes which express resistance
to toxics and diseases, compared with the genetic code of the fruit flies and ants. According
to May Berenbaum from the University of Illinios this could make the bees more vulnerable to
toxics and diseases. Berenbaum caled for improving genetic stocks of bees. He stressed the fact
that supplies of animal-pollinated foods - most fruit, vegetable, and nut crops, which provide
the bulk of vitamins and other necessary nutrients in our diets - may well be dramatically
affected in case of further losses of hives. [1484]
Symptoms of Colony Collapse Disorder [1485]

Jerry Bromenshenk from Montana describes the signs of the disorder as follows: Colony Col-
lapse Disorder (CCD) is the latest problem facing bee keepers today. Symtoms of CCD are:
1) In collapsed colonies
• The complete absence of adult bees in colonies, with no or little build up of dead bees in
the colonies or in front of those colonies.
• The presence of capped brood in colonies.
• The presence of food stores, both honey and bee bread

i.which is not immediately robbed by other bees
ii.when attacked by hive pests such as wax moth and small hive beetle, the attack is
noticeably delayed.
2) In cases where the colony appear to be actively collapsing
• An insufficient workforce to maintain the brood that is present.
• The workforce seems to be made up of young adult bees.
• The queen is present.
• The cluster is reluctant to consume provided feed, such as sugar syrup and protein sup-
plement.
Jerry Bromenshenk is a member of a team of researchers studying the disorder. He developed a

questionnaire, ”National Bee Loss Survey” which can be found at http://www.beesurvey.com/
Transgenes in Mexican maize at the preliminary stage of climate change [1486]

The actual discussion on the introduction of drought resistant transgenes facing the climate
change may include the outcomes of the findings of Ortiz-Garcia in 2004 concerning maize
transgenes in the Mexican state of Oaxaca which find no danger to maize diversity in that
region.
The presence of transgenes in maize landraces in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico had been re-
ported by Quist and Chapela [1487] in 2000, but there were doubts the methodology used.
However, he Mexican government confirmed the presence of transgenes in Oaxaca in 2000 and
2001 [1488] [1489]. Ortiz-Garcia et al.in 2003 and 2004 [1490],found no transgenes in the area.
It is presumed that their frequency had diminished greatly over the course of 2-3 years, and
the genes may even have disappeared.
Peter Raven believes that whether or not transgenes are present in landraces in Oaxaca at
550
present, they will inevitably be found in them as time passes, because of the nature of the in-
digenous agriculture. There they will persist if they confer a selective advantage on the plants
in which they occur, or they may disappear if they do not confer such an advantage in the
prevailing conditions.
As Ortiz-Garcia et al. [1490] have pointed out, it is unlikely that the presence of transgenes
could reduce the genetic diversity of the landraces in which they might occur. In general, for
the landraces of maize in Mexico or for any other populations, their genetic characteristics
should remain essentially unchanged unless there is strong selection for whole constellations of
characteristics from radically different strains of maize, conditions that have not been observed
in southern Mexico.
Raven concludes that the introduction of the transgenes currently in use for maize poses no
danger to maize near its center of origin, to the Mexicans, or generally.
New-Zealand GM cow produces skimmed milk [1491]

In an article by Cath O’Driscoll 2007 in Chemistry and Industry genetic modification of cows
to produce skim milk is reported. The authors claim that special genes could be used to breed
herds of animals producing only skimmed milk.
The authors say that a commercial herd will be available by 2011. The research is being
done by the biotech firm ViaLactia at the dairy co-operative Fonterra which already makes
milk from one of the GM cows which was named Merge. The new GM cow will fit very well
into the good selling market of low fat products.
According to the authors this could reduce the surplus of cream and there would be no need
for disposal. However, the cream is used to make butter and other products such as ice cream,
confectioneries,and bakeries.
Another exciting development of their cows they are working on is to produce a GM cow
which gives butter that is spreadable straight from the fridge. Experiments to soften butter
using special feed are not so successful as the change to GM cows.
Detection of L and D amino acids to study modified composition of new GM plants.

[1257]
Miguel Herrero and colleagues 2007 presented a new technique detecting significant differences%
D-aa values for the different conventional varieties (Aristis, Tietar, and PR33P66 maize).
The transgenic maize Tietar-Bt with the new inserted Cry1Ab transgene presented % D-aa
values which were similar to conventional maize Trietar. According to the authors this indi-
cates that, in these maize samples, no metabolic pathway were modified in Trietar-BT.
The method is based on changes of the ”L” or ”D” form of amino acid (the so called chi-
ral amino acids). Such changes may affect nutritional quality and digestibility. The method
combines micellar electrokinetic chromatography with a chiral selector and laser-induced fluo-
rescence to investigate the prevalence of L- and D-amino acids.
The authors suggest this new method to be used as proof of substantial equivalence of GM
maize and conventional plants.
EU rises the threshold of ”GM Free” labelling [1258]

Natural normal grown food is acute endangered to be contaminated by the genetic engineering
escapades of a handful global enterprises. Governments bow their head to their lobby and
rise the threshold labelling of contamination instead of combating the underlying cause which
would be to phase out GM food.
EU agriculture ministers last week agreed that food accidentally contaminated with up to
0.9% genetically modified content could be labelled ”GM free”. But the Soil Association and
Organic Farmers and Growers, which together certify more than 90% of the UK’s organic food,
today pledged to keep their own criteria at the current 0.1 per cent.
On 21 June 2007, a delegation representing 70 organic businesses, urged the Secretary of State
for the Environment not to make organic consumers pay for GM contamination. The Govern-
ment currently proposes to allow up to 0.9% GM in organic food without the GM companies
being liable for this damage. This is despite the fact that in European law, 0.9% is not a general
GM threshold, but rather a threshold below which accidental contamination does not have to
be labelled.
The UK ognanic associations confirmed that they would maintain their current non-GM stan-
dards for organic food, at the effective minimum detectable level of 0.1% GM, whatever the
Government decides.
During their consultation, the Government met with a number of GM companies, including
AstraZeneca, BASF Plant Science, Bayer CropScience, Dow AgroSciences, Du Pont (UK) Ltd,
Monsanto UK Ltd, and Syngenta Ltd. Not one organic business was consulted directly, and
this is the first meeting the Government has had with representatives of organic businesses.
EU Council of Ministers postpones its decision on approval of GM Amflora potato

from BASF: On the 29. July 2007 the Council of Ministers postponed the decision over
whether GM potato Amflora may be commercially cultivated in Europe in December.
552
On 14. July 2007 the trade commissioner Peter Mandelson delivered a strong exhortation
to the EU to take a lead in shaping global rules on GM trade warned about the economic
consequences. Na statesman can take the risks of acting hastily and place financial and trade
interests in front of safety. The trade commissioner Mandelson would be well advised to look
after his trade and leave the biotechnology to the board of scientific advisers whose job is to
look after food and environmental safety.
Amflora is deeply modified in the starch it produces. Non-GM potatos produce two com-
ponents starch. 80% are amylopectine with a long molecule with thickening properties. and
20% amylose with short molecule with gelling character. Amflora produces only amilopectin,
which is more useful for the industry as amylose.
GM maize Herculex RW import approval on the EU agenda: Representatives from

the 27 EU member states will vote on the 25 of June 2007 to authorise imports GM Maize
59122 known as Herculex RW with the bt protein resisting the maize rootworm. Approval will
be for use in food, feed and processing.
Herculex RW has been planted for the first time in US in 2006 and was approved. Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, China, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Philippines and Taiwan.EFSA approved
it in March 2007. Only Austria and Luxenburg may block the vote. Overrunning Austria and
Luxenburg will not be to difficult for Herculex RW which will contaminate the whole European
feed (meat, eggs, aquaculture), the glucose-fructose syrup (broadly used in all fruit yoghurt
and dairy products, bakery products).
The European Green Party is against the authorisation claiming that there are serious and
legitimate health concerns about Herculex RW maize as changes in the blood parameters and
in liver weight in rats fed with this GM variety were found in a research.
This is being sustained by the Italian Green Party and the Italian farmers’ union which also
protested against the plans to test GM versions of GM olives and tomatoes. Organic associa-
tions strongly protest against an increasing contamination of their products by GM intrusion.
New germplasm lines for breeding sunflowers [1259]

To improve plant resistance of sunflower plants to downy mildew, caused by the fungus Plas-
mopara halstedii. the USDA’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and North Dakota Agri-
cultural Experimen developed the HA 458, HA 459 and HA 460 lines crossing elite sunflower
lines with wild plants collected from Idaho and Texas.
The downy mildew fungus affects seedlings and mature plants. The oleic fatty acid has been
increased, resulting an increased frying stability.
In 2003 the Archer Daniel Midland’s NuSun, a mid-oleic oil became commercially available. It
has less than 10 per cent saturated fat and oleic levels of between 55-75 per cent.
According to ARS, 15 new races of downy mildew developed resistance to the fungicide meta-
laxyl, the new germplasms will acquire outstanding imortance to reduce crop losses.
In 2004 it released three others, known as RHA 439, RH 440 and HA 441, intended to fight
sclerontinia sclerotiorum, a disease that causes stalk and head rot in the plants.
The oleic acid concentration of HA 444, HA 445, and HA 446 was 83.6, 85.9, and 81.7%,
respectively, compared with the oleic acid concentration of 86.1% for HA 434. [1260]
ARS plant pathologist Tom Gulya is researching the integrated control of Sclerotinia wilt
and headrot, and control of metalaxyl-resistant downy mildew through new resistance genes
complimented with the new fungicides. Other research topics include finding resistance to a
new strain of Verticillium wilt and continued work on Phomopsis stem canker. [1261]
554
Chapter 14
Nutritional Genomics
The beginning of nutritional genomics

Nutritional genomics:
Genomics is the characterization and sequencing of an organism’ s genome and analysis of the
relationship between gene activity and cell function Nutritional genomics, or food genomics is
the specific application of genomics in research pertaining to agriculture, food processing and
food consumption. Food genomics covers the entire food chain. Agriculture use food genomics
to increase vitality, disease resistance and drought and salt tolerance resulting in increase of
yield, reduced loss during storage and transport, enriched micronutritions and microorganism
producing auxiliary substances and food ingredients.
The knowledge of biological active components has been developed during the last ten years
being the basis for the development of new functional foods, looking forward to tailored func-
tional foods and personalized foods.
Genomics researche is arousing hope that food will be adaptable to individuals’ genetic profiles.
Genetic susceptibility to disease ranging from intestinal cancer to food infection. Genomics
researche is helping to map these phenomena and give food advice to the personal genetic
constitution. Consumer will be choosing food on the basis of their own genetic constitution
within ten to twenty-five years. People will have a genetic passport that allows them to use
personalized nutrition, personal food with a preventive function.[1202]
Jean Baptiste Lamarck developed at the end of the 18th century a theory which modern biol-
ogists rated as nonsense.
Lamarck explained nature as being controlled by three biological laws:
• Environmental influence on organ development.
555
556
• Change in Body structure based on use and disuse of parts.
• Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Lamarck lived from 1744 to 1829. He was a French botanist and invertebrate zoologist. He
wrote that acquired characteristics could be inherited to following generations, even not being
genetically encoded. Genetic science experienced then a recession. It was only in 1865 that
George Mendel published the ”Mendel’ s Laws” of autosomal inheritance, followed by Charles
Darwin with ”The Origin of Species” in 1859. Francis Galton (his cousin) rediscovered Mendel’
s laws and is considered to be the father of modern genetics.
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the DNA in 1940’ s. The Human Genome Project
begun in 1990.
Uses of food genomics

Through informatics driven metabolomic analysis it is possible to identify and predict the im-
pact of diet on the health of individuals with different genotypes.
Metabolome: The small molecule inventory (SMI) or metabolome is a pattern of molecules

that reflects the cell’s statues. It is the totality of metabolic processes including anabolism and
catabolism. It results from the expression of the genome and proteome in response to the cellu-
lar environment. The metabolome gives a direct picture of the cells activity and its environment.
The cumulative effects of all expressed and modified proteins represent an information which
is stored in the small molecular inventory (SMI) of the cell. These molecules include important
cellular function compounds, such as nucleotides, vitamins, antioxidants and catecholamines.
This area of researche is called metabolomics.
When taken in its entirety it is not always necessary to know the identity of individual com-
ponents in a metabolic profile. Systemic changes in pattern are indicative of specific states
or of changes in status. This can be measured by quantifying the redox active components.
Detecting and identifying subtle changes can be problematic with the sensitivity required to
identify such molecules. New analytical technology addresses both problems using the central
position of redox biochemistry in the biological process[1203]
The general aim of metabolomics is to identify, measure and interpret the complex time-related
concentration, activity and flux of endogenous metabolites in cells, tissues, and other biosam-
ples such as blood, urine, and saliva. Metabolites such as small molecules that are the products
and intermediates of metabolism, carbohydrates, peptides, and lipids vary in concentration,
size, structure, polarity, and functional groups. An integrated set of technologies is needed to
address the entire spectrum of metabolomics.[1204]
Metabolomics in human blood: Mass spectrometry can now monitor enzymatic and hor-
monal regulation of thousands of metabolites by means of metabolomic techniques. The Ger-
man Institute of Human Nutrition (DIFE) in cooperation with the Max-Planck Institute for
molecular Genetics of Plants in Golm/potsdam and Metanomics in Berlin are adapting a plant
analytic system for human tissue and plasma. A specific metabolite pattern in diabetes patients
was possible to be identified. More detailed knowledge should allow the early identification of
unfavorable metabolic profiles in order to develop preventive strategies.[1206]
Plagemann revives the theory of Jean Baptiste Lamarck quoting that a high diabetes risk
can be passed on to several generations. This is not caused by a genetic modification, but is
due to an acquired condition. Experiments with rats have demonstrated that diabetes leads
to an increased level of insulin in the unborn. The cells of the brain where the experience of
hunger or satiety are located are irreversibly damaged and the production of insulin excessively
secreted. Diabetes and overwight is therefore programed[1207].
Supplementation during pregnancy

The mother’s nutrition can be so important that it can alter her offspring’s susceptibility to
disease by changing gene expression, say researchers who claim to have explained for the first
time how maternal nutrition can predetermine risk of obesity or cancer.
Scientists from Duke University in the US showed they could change the coat color of baby
mice simply by feeding their mothers four common nutritional supplements before and during
pregnancy
Dr Randy Jirtle, senior investigator of the study, published in today’s issue of Molecular and
Cellular Biology. ”For the first time ever, we have shown precisely how nutritional supplemen-
tation to the mother can permanently alter gene expression in her offspring without altering the
genes themselves.” In experiments, pregnant mice that received vitamin B12, folic acid, choline
and betaine (from sugar beets) gave birth to babies predominantly with brown coats. In con-
trast, pregnant mice that did not receive the nutritional supplements gave birth predominantly
to mice with yellow coats. The non-supplemented mothers were not deficient in these nutrients.
A study of the cellular differences between the groups of baby mice showed that the extra nu-
trients reduced the expression of a specific gene, called Agouti, to cause the coat color change.
Yet the Agouti gene itself remained unchanged. This is called ’DNA methylation’, and it could
potentially affect dozens of other genes that make humans and animals susceptible to cancer,
obesity, diabetes, and even autism.
During DNA methylation a methyl group attaches to a gene at a specific point and alters
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its function. The methyl group silences the gene or reduces its expression inside a given cell,
but does not actually change it. Such an effect is referred to as ’epigenetic’ b
These changes occur early in embryonic development, before the mother would even be aware
of the pregnancy. According to Dr. Jirtle, any environmental condition that impacts these
windows in early development can result in developmental changes that are life-long, some of
them beneficial and others detrimental. If such epigenetic alterations occur in the developing
sperm or eggs,
Humans and other animals are susceptible to epigenetic changes because of an evolutionary
trait in which ”junk” remnants of viral infections, called ”transposons,” inserted themselves
randomly within the human and animal genomes. If the transposons have inserted themselves
in or near a functional gene, the gene can be inadvertently methylated, too, thereby reducing
its expression.
More than 40 per cent of the human genome is comprised of transposons that are likely to
be methylated, so any genes positioned near them could be at risk for inadvertent methylation.
For example, methylation that occurs near or within a tumour suppressor gene can silence its
anti-cancer activity, said Jirtle. Also they do not know which of the four nutrients caused
methylation of the Agouti gene, revealing the uncertainty of nutrition’s epigenetic effects on
cells.
Methylating a single gene can also have multiple effects. For example, as well as changing
coat color, mice that over-express the Agouti protein tend to be obese and susceptible to dia-
betes because the protein also binds with a receptor in the hypothalamus and interferes with
the signal to stop eating. Methylating the Agouti gene in mice, therefore, also reduces their
susceptibility to obesity, diabetes and cancer. The researchers stressed the importance of un-
derstanding the molecular effects of nutrition on cells, not just the outward manifestations of it.
Dr.Waterland says that diet, nutritional supplements and other seemingly innocuous com-
pounds can alter the development in utero to such an extent that it changes the offspring’s
characteristics for life, and potentially that of future generations. Nutritional epigenetics could,
for example, explain the differences between genetically identical twins, or the disparities in the
incidence of stroke between the South and the North.
That is the reason why all supplements such as vitamines, minerals probiotics and a lot of
other compounds should be analyzed carefully and nutrition should be kept as natural as pos-
sible.
Chapter 15
HACCP and ISO 9000
The European Commission trying to improve safety of food has published two documents
”Consumer Health and Food Safety” and ”The General Principles of Food Law in the Euro-
pean Union”.
These papers have three general principles:
1.- The responsibility for legislation should be separate from that for scientific consultation.
2.- The responsibility for legislation should be separate from that for inspection.
3.- There should be more clarity and easier access to information throughout the decision-
making process and inspection measures.
There are three complementary instruments for protecting consumer health:

1.- Scientific advice
2.- Risk analysis
3.- Control.
Food chain steps

There are different steps in the food chain: Agrarian origin, transportation, storage, industrial
processing and handling by the consumer.
Every step must be covered by specific standards to ensure a high level of food safety. The
whole food chain must be monitored. This includes also the environment as there is no seafood
in a poisoned sea and there are no crops in a dead landscape.
The aim is to link failed productions with their causes so auditing can find failures of the
existing food safety systems and avoid harm.
The different steps in the food chain are:
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560
Agrarian origin,
Transportation,
Storage
Industrial processing,
handling by the consumer.
Every step must be covered by specific standards to ensure a high level of food safety. The whole
food chain must be monitored. This includes also the environment as there is no seafood in a
poisoned sea and there are no crops in a dead landscape. The aim is to link failed productions
with their causes so auditing can find failures of the existing food safety systems and avoid harm.
The World Health Organisation Department of Food Safety quotes at www.who.int/sfs/ : ”

...access to nutritional adequate and SAFE FOOD is a right of each individual ” This right
does not come from itself.
Controls, inspections and auditing standards are necessary to look after safety in food. Do
not believe one single thing. Check it by yourself. How to do it, that is why we are here.
Food safety depends on:

1. Basic knowledge in farming, industrial know-how, transport and storage.
2. Ethical behaviour
3. Controls: HACCP, ISO 9001:2000, GMP, HALAL
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)

EFSA was established by the European Parliament with the regulation 2002 following a series
of food scares in the 1990s (BSE, dioxins.) which undermined consumer confidence in the safety
of the food chain.
The EFSA with seat in Parma, Italy and has the following tasks:
- Provision of independent scientific advice to support EU action on food safety, including

all stages of food production and supply.
- Scientific evaluation of risks to the food chain, and any matter that may have a direct or
indirect effect on the safety of the food supply.
- Safety evaluations of dossiers put forward by industry for EU level approval of substances
or processes.
- Identification of emerging risks.
- Scientific support to the Commission, particularly in the case of a food safety crisis.
- Direct communication to the public on issues coming within its responsibility.
- EFSA is included in the rapid alert system managed by the Commission.
EFSA will assess risks to the food chain and advise the Commission, which is responsible
for managing those risks.
What to take care of in order to ensure food safety

a - Biological hazards: Bacterial infections (Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Aspergillus),
virus infections (Hepatitis, Creuzfeld-Jacobs-Disease) b - Parasites: Such as nematodes in her-
ring and other relevant worms.
c - Chemical contaminants: Herbicides, pest control substances and other chemicals such
as mercury in Japan.
d - Bacterial poisoning: Natural toxins can harm people even after the agent has been
removed or killed. (Staphyloccocine, botulism and other poisons)
e - Physical hazards: Ground Glass, metal or plastic fragments.
f - Radioactive contaminants: Radioactive fall-out of nuclear tests such as Brazil nuts

with Strontium 90 due to fall-out of nuclear tests coming down in the rain forest of the Ama-
zon region, or fall-out from the catastrophe of Tschernobyl.
g - Wrong industrial food processing and bad kitchen habits: High Temperature on
backing and frying. Just to mention acrylamid in french fries, crisp bread and breakfast cereals.
h - Wrong nutritional habits: Under- or oversupply of vitamins and trace elements, in-
sufficient supply of dietary fiber.
History of HACCP
The HACCP concept had its origin in the USA and stands for ”Hazard Analysis Critical Con-
trol Point”.
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Chronology of its development:

1958- Foundation of the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
1959- Development of the HACCP concept to assure one hundred percent safety of food to be
used in space.
1971- The HACCP system was published and documented in the USA.
1985- The National Academy of Science (NAS) recommended the use of the system. World-
wide the system became used and the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius (Food and Agriculture
Organisation/World Health Organisation) cited the system in the Codex.
1993- The European regulation 93/43 EG from 14.7.93 provides the use of the system for the
production of food.
1998- With coming into force on the august the 8th of 1998 the Hygiene Verordnung (German
hygiene Rule) demands the use of the HACCP system in Germany.
The HACCP-concept The European hygiene rule defined in the paper 94/356/EG demands
for an HACCP-concept which can be integrated in a quality management system
This HACCP concept has to be developed for all products of every factory. The five basic ideas
of HACCP-concept are:
1. Make a hazard analysis
2. Determine the critical points (CPs) which might be of hazard in the production of the
food.
3. Determine the CPs which may be CCPs being of high importance to the safety of the
food and which may be controlled safely using simple checks named ”Controlling”.
For the controlling define the specifications of the product.
4. Define a control system of the critical points, using tests which can be carried out during
production in order to interfere in case of wrong production. ”Monitoring”.
Introduce a documentation in order to record every happening.
Define the corrections to be made in case of critical point being out of control.
5. Define the way of verification to confirm that the HACCP-system works.”Verification”
Timetable to install an HACCP System

1. The head of the enterprise names the QS Manager who is responsible for the installation
of the HACCP System
2. The QS Manager names the members of the team which shall work out the HACCP
system.
The team should be composed of members of the production line, members of the bac-
teriological control, members of the quality control, members of the development. There
should be persons with knowledge of food bacteriology, food hygiene, food technology. If
there are not such persons in the factory, external aid should be taken in the phase of
installing the system.
3. The team determines what products can be handled together ”Valid for..”
4. Come together of the team to make a ”Description of the Products”.

It should contain:
A short description of the product,
List of regulations and laws which regulate the food
The list of the ingredients
Important specifications of the product such as chemical and bacteriological limits
Temperatures
Packaging of glass, tin can, PP, PE, paper or aluminium wrapping
Shelf life
Instructions of use
and storage conditions.
5. Come together of the team to make the ”Flow Diagrams of the Products”.
6. The team checks all documents to make corrections of possible errors.
7. The team marks all CPs on the flow diagrams.

CPs are all points were a hazard for health of the consumer might occur.
8. The team identifies and marks all CCPs on the flow diagrams, trying to have a low num-
ber of critical control points.
CCP is a Critical Point were the hazard can be avoided, eliminated or reduced to an
acceptable level.
How to identify a CCP ?
At any point of the production line ask the question:
- Is this point a hazard to the health of the consumer ?
IF NO go to the next point. IT IS NOT A CP
IF YES . The hazard is put under control at this point and it is reduced to an insignificant
tolerable danger with the correct activity or it is totally eliminated.It IS A CCP and is
put under control
- Are the control activities sufficient to avoid, eliminate or reduce the danger to an ac-
ceptable level?
NO, the technology of the production should be changed. YES, the CCP is marked in
the flow diagram. and the controls are enumerated how often they have to be done and
what specifications have to be observed.
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For every CCP there should be made a list containing the following informations:
The place were the CCCP is situated (heater, packing line, Storage
What kind of controls should be made ( chemical bacteriological) What kind of instru-
ments are necessary (thermometers, culture agar, microscope)
Instructions how to handle the instruments and detailed description of the laboratory
methods
How often shall the controls be made?
Who makes the controls ? (Name the personal and the substitutes who have to make the
controls)
9. The team determines the tests to be made at the CCPs (temperature, pH, acidity, filter,
metal detector etc. The team marks the intervals between these tests.
10. The team determines the corrections to be made in case of fail production. The team
determines who is responsible to execute the corrections
11. The team determines the methods used to control the CPs
12. The QS Manager verifies if the system works or not and if the internal audits are made
in time HACCP is a living system. After installing the system it should be rechecked
periodic. The work on the basic documents will never end.
Don’t forget to answer in your documents the following questions:

Who controls? When? How the controls are made? Where the controls are made?
The Hygiene Rule 93/43 EWG demands quality controls which should be recorded in an
appropriate documentation.
Basic documentation should contain [99]
1. Make a drawing of the building enumerating the rooms
2. Make a drawing of the machines enumerating them
3. Make a diagram of the production line with including the material flow
4. Make a drawing of the rooms containing all water tabs, enumerating them
5. Make a drawing of the way the personal has to walk, starting from the entrance to the
room where they may change clothes, the way to their working place, the way they have
to go during work and the way back to change clothes.
6. Make a drawing of the sewage system
7. Make a plan of progressive education of the personal. This plan should include informa-
tions about new machines, new products, hand washing and disinfection, informations
about shelf life of the products.
Fingernail colours make an inspection of clean nails difficult. Therefore it should not be
allowed.
8. Make a cleaning and disinfection plan
9. Make a plan to control the cleaning and disinfection

566
10. Plan of the controls of water used in production
11. Plan of pest control
Industrial hygiene is teamwork. Everyone engaged in production of food must cooperate.

There must be a detailed description of every work. The procedural rules should be available
at the place where work takes place.
The quality and the safety of the end product depends on interventions at all stages of
agricultural production or
harvesting through manufacture, processing,storage and transport to the final consumer.
The main concern is to avoid contaminations originated from:
• Biological factors :
• Bacteria, such as Salmonella, pathogen Escherichia coli, Clostridium botulinum,
• viral infections or BSE.

The biological factors can be avoided through cleaning and disinfection activities.
They must be supervised by a controlling person making periodic surface contact cultures
and cultures from different points of the production line.
Bioluminescence ATP tests are also performed with good results.
On market there are test stripes which indicate after some minutes the presence of pro-
teins signalising bad cleaning.
• Introduce a documentation in order to record every happening.
• The Hygiene rule 93/43/EWG demands also for a hygiene training of the staff.
• Chemical factors:
• Residues of cleaning agents, insecticides and other chemicals. Very important is to make
sure that all residues of cleaning and disinfection agents are eliminated before product
processing starts. This is done with rinsing with clean drinking water. There should be
a daily cleaning and disinfection plan.
• Physical factors:
• Splinters of metal, glass, bones, wood, stones and other materials.

System to avoid the risk of physical factors are filters, X-ray scanners and metal detectors
are widely used. Other materials can hardly be detected. So every effort should be
undertaken to avoid splinters of glass, wood and plastics into the food. The bottles
should be turned overhead and blown out with a flush of compressed air before filling.
All the way to the filling should be covered, so splinters cannot get into the glass. Start a
”Glass damage book” where damage of Glass is registered telling the name of the product,
the filling machine, the name of the operator, date and the time of damage.
All handling and controlling of the production of food should be conform to the system of
”Good Manufacturing Practice ( GMP ).
Risks which might endanger the health of consumer The health of the consumer may
be endangered by following factors:
• Contamination and recontamination of food by pathogen bacteria
• Parasites or chemical substances
• Survival of heat processing of pathogen bacteria, her later multiplication under favourable
conditions and formation of undesired chemical reactions
• Formation or undesired, toxic substances and formation of bacterial toxins
HACCP= Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point The HACCP - Concept is now
introduced by the Hygiene Rules 93/43/EWG in the production line of food in Europe. It
bears the main ideas from the worldwide accepted HACCP-System of the FAO/WHO Codex
Alimentarius
The HACCP is a system demanded by the EG Hygiene Directives and avoids the hazards to
the health of the consumer. Everything which is not a hazard to the health of the consumer is
not covered by the system.
Hygiene regulations in Germany

The main regulations concerning hygiene in the production of food in Germany are based on
the Hygiene Rules 93/43/EWG and are found under the 3 of the Lebensmittel Hygiene Regu-
lations ( Food hygiene Regulations LMHV.
This regulation says that food is to be produced in a way so that there are no negative modifi-
cations possible during the production, handling, storage and transport.Supervision should be
made with an HACCP concept.
HACCP may be integrated in the ISO 9000 Quality Assurance System

Other demands related to food safety are made by :
• Governmental agencies which may cover the rules and directives of the European Union,
specific laws of countries outside the EU. To give global directive on food safety the Codex
Alimentarius may be a further help to make a global distribution of food possible
568
• Special demands from manufacturers in case of raw material which are used in the pro-
duction of more sophisticated foods such as caned food or frozen food to produce salads
or sauces.
Special demands from the retailer chains covering special demands trying to avoid any
public controversy such as local ban of beef to avoid BSE problems or certain health food
regulations established by special health food brands.
Special regional demands rising from anxiety of the consumer such as dioxin, agro chem-
icals and aflatoxin contamination of food.
These demands may be the origin of specifications such as non-GMO materials being
employed or no artificial sweetener or chemical preservatives being used. These demands
must be surveyed with periodic checks which must be integrated in the quality control
system.
• Demands from the British Retail Consortium standards ( BRC )

The ISO 9000 System controls the characteristics of quality of the production covering all
aspects of quality.
Hazard With hazard every risk of the health of the consumer are meant.
Excluded are all events which are not related to health. This is the difference of the Quality
Management of ISO 9.000 which covers every events of quality.
Critical Point It is every point in the production of Food where risks of the health of the
consumer can be present.
Critical Control Point A Critical Control Point ( ”CCP” ) is a point in the production line
where a risk of hygiene may be put under control or eliminated.
With appropriate measures at that point the risk can be:
• avoided
• eliminated
• or reduced to an acceptable level

Examples of critical control Points (CCPs) are:
• Income of raw materials
• Storage and cooling of food
• Recipes, handling and processing of food
• Defrost, heating, warm hold phase and cooling

• Distribution of food in restaurant, fast-food
• pH of food
• Correct separation between clean and unclean sectors
• Cleaning and disinfection
• Hygiene of the surroundings and hygiene of the stuff
In case of deviations of the specifications it is proceeded as follows:
• The product is given to rework
• The product is mixed with another charge in order to bring the analytic to acceptable
values
• The customer is informed about the deviation and accepts the product
• When no rework is possible and the customer does not agree with the deviation a selling
to other customers at reduced price is to be considered
• When above procedures are not indicated the product must be rejected
Planing HACCP To plan HACCP proceed as follow: Prepare the following tables:
Detailed description of every product A detailed schematic description for every product
should contain:
• Definitions: Explain used terminologies and abbreviations
• Cite the different foods which belong to the described group
• Characteristics: like flavour, smell, consistency, etc
• Ingredients: All ingredients should be listed
• Chemical and physical properties: Important analytical values such as pH, acidity, vis-
cosity should be established as specification. Maximum and minimum of the deviations
should be included in this table
• Purchasing department
• Processing: such as pasteurisation,sterilisation etc should be mentioned
• Packing:glass ,tin can ,PP , PE etc

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• Storage:Specification of the storage temperature,moisture etc
• Shelf life
• Indication for consumer for final preparation of the food before eating
• Special informations for specific consumer groups such as diabetics
Description of processing Prepare a table with a complete information about the produc-
tion containing:
• Incoming of raw materials
• Description of the processing
• Temperatures,heating time, pressures
• Temperature maximum time for storage
The description of processing must be completed with a process flow diagram of the whole
proceeding with the marked CCPs, the target values and tolerances and the corrective action
should the product fall out of specification.
Static hygiene conditions:Building The building where food is being handled according
to hygiene rules must be in a condition to avoid negative influence during processing.
Cleaning and disinfection of the rooms must be possible.
Necessary temperatures for handling,processing and storage must be available.
The building must be clean and the maintenance must have been done.
The floor must be easy to clean and to disinfect. It should be watertight.
The walls are to be covered with watertight material, easy to clean and to disinfect.
The ceiling should be covered wit watertight material avoiding condensation water, dirt and
molds.
There must be a sufficient number of hand washers with spender of liquid soap and disinfection
based on alcohol.
There must be a sufficient natural and artificial illumination of all rooms.
There must be a facility for the personal to change cloth. Windows must have fly screens.
The rooms are not to be used for other activities.

The surface of tables and other surfaces which come in contact with food must be easy to clean
and to disinfection.
To wipe there should be used only one-way towels ,not using it more then a day.
Buckets and other cleaning utensils should be of different colour in order do avoid cross con-
tamination from one place to another.
Machines and other utensils for processing of food : All surfaces must be easy to clean
and to disinfect.
Everything should be of stainless steel.
Plastic parts should be made of polyester heat resistant to 1300 C .
The wire used to hold brushes together should be of stainless steel.Brushes should be made of
polyester. They should be of different colour in order to avoid toilet brushes or highly contam-
inated places be used in the kitchen.
All parts and utensils should be free of cadmium.
Toilets: There must be a sufficient number of toilets with water flushing. Toilets should not
have a direct communication with the processing rooms. The hand washers in the toilet room
should provide liquid soap an disinfection based on alcohol being operated automatically or by
arm, (not by hand !)
One way paper towels should be used.
There must be cold and warm water.
The toilet room must have an air exhauster
Dynamic hygiene conditions: Cleaning, disinfection and maintenance of the build-

ing,hygienic handling of food. The building must be cleaned and disinfected properly.
Maintenance of the building includes painting of walls and ceilings to avoid molds. Change
broken coverings of walls and close all unnecessary holes.
Control the handling through all phases of the production, from income control, from produc-
tion to storage and transportation.
Incoming control: Raw products and ingredients should not be accepted when there is
evidence for the presence of pest,pathogen microorganism or there is evidence that the products
are spoiled.
If necessary the products must be changed to adequate containers, or changed from wood pal-
lets over to plastic pallets.
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All products should be labelled with:

Name of the producer,
Date of delivery,
Expiration date.
Storage and handling of raw materials:
Raw materials must be stored and handled under well defined conditions.
As Salmonellae were mainly transmitted by contaminated eggs,minced meat and related prod-
ucts great attention was paid to these topics.
1.- Eggs and egg products
In the late 1980s the importance of the storage conditions was shown in Germany by an in-
crease of salmonella diseases. To reduced this hazard the following rules were established by
the German Hünerei Verordnung (Hen’s Egg Regulation) should be observed: in 2-4:
Food prepared with raw eggs which are being pasteurised: They demand no special
precautionary measures.
Food prepared with raw eggs without heating: They must be eaten immediately after
production.They are not allowed to be carried away. If they are heated right before eating this
should not happen after two hours after production.
Food prepared with raw eggs without heating to be chilled consumed such as
desserts:They have to be cooled down to +7o C. They have to be maintained at this tempera-
ture or below and be eaten within 24 Hours after production.They also can be deep frozen and
consumed 24 hours after defrosting its temperature not rising over +7oC.
Production units preparing food for old or sick people and children: Food containing
eggs or egg components must be heated properly by these units.
Charitable units which prepare food shortly before distribution: They have to pro-
ceed as described for production units for food for old or sick people and children added with
the written information ”to be consumed immediately”.
Other production units cited above: They are allowed to produce food containing eggs or
egg components when these ingredients were heated.No further special precautionary measures.
If there is no thermal treatment the food must be cooled down to +7o C within two hours after
production and maintained at this temperature or below and consumed within 24 hours or deep
frozen.After defrosting it must be maintained at +7o C or below and consumed within 24 hours.
Production units with more than 30 meals with unheated eggs or egg components:
These units have to keep samples of these meals at +4o C for 96 hours after distribution. These
samples have to be marked with day and time of production.
2.-Meat
Minced, chopped and cut to small pieces meat such as kebab should only be served in heated
form when there are no good hygienic conditions.
Unheated minced meat or kebab should be kept by +4o C. For an immediate selling the meat
can be kept be +7o C.
Minced meat is allowed to be sold only at the day of preparation. Sausages and kebab can
be sold on the day after production according to the Hackfleisch Verordnung (German minced
meat regulation).
Production, improve the technical processing:
Use good manufacturing practice principles handling food during processing.Make a separa-
tion of ”dirty” and ”clean” areas making sure that the routes of transportation of ”dirty” and
”clean” material does not cross each other (For example: keeping cooked meat and uncooked
meat together in one refrigerator or one cooling room. this must be avoided)Avoid crossing
unpacked food with already packed food. Avoid people working in ”dirty areas” to get to ”clean
areas”. This can be controlled by different hair coverings: Red for dirty areas and green or
white for clean areas.
Wood utilities should be avoided as they bear pathogen moulds, bacteria and virus.This in-
cludes Tables, doors and environment:
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Health condition or the staff which comes in contact with food
Medical inspection of all people handling food is to be periodic repeated and documented. This
includes clinical inspection, bacteriological examination of faeces with regard to Salmonella
bacteria, daily control of the personal to avoid purulent wounds, persons with diarrhoea and
other problems to come in contact with food. These persons should be engaged in areas were
they cannot come in contact with open unpacked food.
Diseases which are spread by food.
Persons with the diseases mentioned below should not come in contact with unpacked food.
Cholera, Enteritis infectiosa, paratyphoid, dysentery, tuberculosis, dermatosis, salmonellosis
and shigellosis.
Pest control The European rules related to hygiene in handling with food demands to avoid
any negative affecting of food.
Pest[61] and their excrement affects food in this way. The measures to control the affecting
should be integrated in the HACCP system.
Hazard analysis of pest control Possible Pest in a food factory
• Insects: cockroaches, moths, ants, beetles, flies, wasps,mites and spiders
• Rodents: rats, mice.

Dissemination of pest Dissemination of pest can happen through:

• Dissemination with the product itself- such as banana spiders.
• Dissemination with the packing Such as bacteria and moulds on cardboard boxes such as
seen on a piece of cardboard on nutrient media:
• Dissemination with the transport devices, such as pallet giving places for mice and rats
to hide. Pallets can also transmit insects like wood spoilage :
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• Dissemination from one place of the plant to another, such as the transport from storage
of raw material at open air facilities.
There are many ways of affecting food by pest:
• Transmission of bacteria.
• Damage of product and packing material.
• negative affecting of Taste and smell.
• Modification of appearance
• Spoiling
• Attack by secondary pest at the point of packing damage.
Determination of critical points in relation to Pest control (CCPS) There should

be made a flow diagram, of the product to be analysed and a diagram of the building where
the production and the storage of the raw material, packing material and end product is taken
place.In this diagram the CCPS should be marked.
Factors which can facilitate pest dissemination

• Possible food for pest like garbage,empty tin cans with rests of food, open drainpipes etc.
• Temperature of the different surroundings.Warm rooms and hot places facilitate the mul-
tiplication of pest.
• Humidity:High humidity intensifies not only yeasts and molds but also the multiplication
of pests
Neglected or abandoned rooms or environment can act as biotope for pests which can migrate
to other parts of the building used for the actual production.
The whole building and his environment should be considered as one.
The best place is as good as the worst place is.
Categories of effects of pest attack,according to Voigt

• Catastrophic: When the health of the population is endangered
• Critical: When the food is not suitable or when it is spoiled
• Small: When consumption is restricted
• Insignificant: When the consumer does not notice the failure.
General considerations about pest control Contamination caused by rodents and insects
produces loss of material and is a way of transmission of diseases. The European Hygiene rules
demand to keep food free of influence of pest and pesticides and repulsive modifications as well
all hazards for the health of the consumer.
Rodents
Rats and mice They generally live near garbage and drainpipes.As these animals live in
places with high contamination with bacteria they bear on the hairs of their coat dirt and
pathogen bacteria and contaminate the food with which they come in contact.
Rats and mice feed themselves with garbage and deteriorated food contaminating itself with
bacteria which are eliminated in their faeces and urine.
When rats and mice die the fleas abandon the corps an can attack human transmitting diseases
or cause allergies.
The teeth of rodents grow continuously. In order to keep them short they have to gnaw hard
objects such as electrical wires, causing electrical shorts and fire.
Rats and mice should therefor be exterminated.
Extermination of rats and mice Combat of rats and mice are made with anticoagu-
lants. In the surroundings of food only products of the list of the BBA (Biologische Bunde-
sanstalt,Germany) are allowed.
As babies of rats and mice can feed by itself after 17 days of lactation it is necessary to proceed
with the lay out of poison for at least 14 days after the death of adult animals. The new
generation can leave their nest in that time.
Rats and mice are reservoir of Borrelia, which is transmitted to humans by ticks.
Bacteria transmitted by rodents, according Hoffmann 1986
Bacteria transmitted by rodents according to Hoffmann 1986
• Salmonella, cause salmonllosis, paratyphi and salmonellosis of cattle
• Shigella, cause shigelosis
• Yersinia enterocolytica
• Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
• Francisella tularensis, cause tularemie
• Listeria monocytogenes, cause listeriosis

578
• Pseudomonas pseudomallei, causes melioidosis
• Streptobacillus moniliformis, causes rat-bite fever and complications
• Clostridium botulinum
• Leptospira interrogans, it is pathogenicindexLeptospira interrogans
• Leptospira interrogans,serogroup Icterohaemorrhagiae, cause Weilsch disease
• Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Grippotyphosa, cause hay-fever
• Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Pomosa,causes pig breeders disease
• Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Canicola,cause dogs disease
• Spirillum minus, cause rat-bite fever and ”Sodoku”
• Coxiella burnetii, cause Q fever
• Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae cause pig epidemic
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis, cause tuberculosis
• Vibrio cholerae, cause cholera
• Borrelia sp., cause borreliosis
Viruses transmitted by rodents
• Pig pest
• Rabies
• Virus of encephalitis
Molds transmitted by rodents
• Tricophyton quinckeanum
• Trichophyton schoenleinii
Nematodes transmitted by rodents

• Trichinella spiralis
• Hymenolepis nana
• Hymenolepis diminuta
• Echinococcus multiocularis
Cockroaches They like damp and hot places eating all kind of food, including spoiled
garbage.They make therefore the transport of bacteria. They contaminate food with their
legs, faeces and vomits.
Bacteria transmitted by cockroaches.According to Hoffmann, 1985

• Salmonella
• Shigella
• Escherichia coli
• Proteus
• Klebsiella pneumoniae
• Enterobacter
• Serratia marcescens
• Vibrio cholerae
• Vibrio parahaemolyticus
• Yersinia pestis
• Pseodomonas aeruginosa
• Streptococcus sp
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Listeria monocytogenes
• Bacillus anthracis
• Chlostridium welchii type A
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Mycobacterium leprae
580
Viruses transmitted by cockroaches. According to Hoffmann, 1985

• Hepatitis virus B
• Poliomielitis virus type1
• Cocksackie virus type B5 abd A12
• ECHO virus type 6
Yeast and molds transmitted by cockroaches. According to Hoffmann, 1985

• Candida albicans
• Aspergillus
• Trichophyton rubrum
Protozoa and nematodes transmitted by cockroaches. According to Hoffmann,

1985
• Balantidium coli
• Entamoeba hystolytica
• Giardia intestinalis
• Toxoplasma gondii
• Taenia sp
• Ascaris and other nematodes
Flies Flies like the house fly Musca domesticaand Fannia canicularis make the transport of
bacteria like Salmonella.
Bluebottle The genus Calliphora sp. and Lucilia sp. inhabit contaminated places such as
latrines garbage etc.They enter buildings carrying diseases and putrefaction agents.
Contact of food with bluebottle can be avoided keeping food in refrigerator or covering food
with a covering bell or plastic coverings, the doors and windows should be closed with fly lattice.
Indoor electrical devices with blue light should be used which kill insects using high voltage.
Larvae should be killed with insecticides and keeping the environment clean and free of garbage,
deteriorated meat and carcases. Interior and surroundings of the buildings should be free of
garbage and carcases.
Insecticides should not come in to drain pipes as they may kill small animals which are part of
the food chain for other animals.
Bacteria transmitted by flies. According to Hoffmann 1985,Steinbrink 1989
• Salmonella
• Shigella
• Escherichia coli
• Proteus vulgaris
• Vibrio cholerae
• Brucella abortus
• Brucella suis
• Streptococcus sp
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Erysiopelothrix rhusiopathiae
• Bacillus anthracis
• Clostridium botulinum
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Bird control Interior and surroundings of food storage, market halls and stores, food pro-
cessing buildings the presence of birds are not acceptable. Common bird which try to built
their nests in the interior of buildings are pigeons, starlings and sparrows.
Bird control should be done by removing their nests and avoid reinvasion.
Shooting is not always effective and should not collide with rules of animal protection.
Pest control tries to avoid pests, early detection and control.
Important are tight doors, smooth surface of walls and floors and good air conditioning.
Fumigation, Methyl bromide Methyl bromide is being used as a method of fumigation for
raw materials such as wheat, semolina and flour to ensure effective eradication of insect pests.
Chemical fumigation however is to be banned by 2005. Natural solutions are therefore being
searched, such as heat and controlled humidity.
582
Canadian IPM without methyl bromide [62]

The Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency Canada developed the Integrated Pest
Management in Food Processing: Working Without Methyl Bromide Series to the phaseout of
methyl bromide. This IPM acquires increasing importance facing the high number of containers
being fumigated with all kid of toxics.
Methyl bromide is identified under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone it was used in in large space fumigation, for example, in flour and oat mills, and in food
processing operations.
A number of pest management products and techniques exist or are under development for
use in food processing facilities. It is clear, however, that there will not be a single treatment
or practice that will suffice to replace methyl bromide.
A combination of preventative and treatment practices will be necessary for effective pest
management. The Integrated Pest Management in Food Processing gives instructions for pest
management without methyl bromide. Consistent and effective sanitation is the most impor-
tant component of an IPM plan.
In some areas alternative treatments to methyl bromide are not available. Procedures and
criteria are being developed in Canada and under the Montreal Protocol for emergency and
critical use exemptions where no technically and economically feasible alternatives exist.
The highlights of the IPM are:
IPM Strategy
1. Assessment The first step of the IPM strategy is an assessment of the actual or potential
pest problem.
2. Development of Pest Management Plan The next stage is to develop a pest man-
agement plan for implementation, based on the assessment findings.
3. Plan Implementation Implementation of the pest management plan starts with a facil-
ity’s management and decision makers. The leadership shown by the management of a facility
and a company, indeed by the industry as a whole, may be the most important step in adoption
of IPM.
4. Evaluation of Plan The effectiveness of the pest management plan must be reviewed
based on monitoring of pests and inspection reports.
5. Adjustments Changes to the pest management plan are designed and implemented based
on the analysis of the plans effectiveness.
A variety of techniques are in use or under development for treatment of stored grain and
other products, such as the use of phosphine gas, irradiation, malathion, diatomaceous earth,
carbon dioxide and high energy non-ionizing microwave and millimetrewave radiation.
Phosphine Phosphine is the most frequently used alternative to methyl bromide for durable
commodities. It is widely used to kill pests in cereals, legumes, dried fruits, nuts and other
commodities. Phosphine requires a long exposure period (5 to 15 days) and usually tempera-
tures of over 15o C to release phosphine from its tablet form, making its use not practicable in
cold climate. It can be used in transit.
Phosphine gas is generated by the reaction of metallic phosphide such as aluminium phos-
phide or magnesium phosphide granules and tablets with atmospheric moisture.
Other systems use compressed gas cylinders mixed with carbon dioxide, or by reacting phos-
phide granules with water and carbon dioxide (Horn Generator). Used on its own initial dosages
of 900 to 1200 ppm and final concentrations of 200 to 400 ppm for 36 to 48 hours.
Corrosion, however, should be kept in mind as it endangers electrical equipment. Resistance of

pests to phosphine develop under frequent use with poor sealing of structures.
Heat, phosphine, Carbon dioxide treatment Combination of heat(30 to 38o C), phos-
phine (150 to 500 ppm) and carbon dioxide (3 to 7%) increase respiration in insects, allowing
reduced concentration of phosphine and reduces the potential for corrosion. These values com-
pare to temperatures over 50o C for a heat treatment alone, or an initial dosage of phosphine of
900 ppm or more when used on its own.
Irradiation Irradiation can be used to disinfect packaged or bulk products. In Canada irra-
diation is allowed only for wheat and wheat flower, spices, herbs and vegetable seasonings.
High-speed centrifugal impact High-speed centrifugal impact machines (Entoleters) are

useful to destroy any insects that may be in flour. This procedure is less useful for semolina as
it tends to break up the larger particles.
Diatomaceous earth (DE) The fossilized diatoms are amorphous silicon dioxide which
works as an insecticide by adsorbing to the wax coatings on insect bodies, leading to death by
drying.
584
It is used on grain, in grain storage and transport containers, and in food processing plants and
flour mills. It is primarily used in specific areas as a spot treatment or surface treatment of
containers. It can also be applied inside electrical and control panels and in dead spaces behind
walls before they are closed up.
Personnel items A separate area should be provided for personal items such as coats, shoes
and lunches that are brought into the plant as they might be a root of pests.
Good Sanitation Practices The importance of cleaning and sanitation must be empha-
sized to all staff. In particular, cooperation among cleaning crews, quality control officials, and
a pest control service will be beneficial. In case of faulty food injured people have rights of
recourse.If the producer of the faulty food has a valid HACCP concept with written results
of his controls the injured person must provide the evidences that the failure was originated
during during handling and treatment of a specific producer.
If the produce does not have the written results of his controls or the frequency of the controls
are not sufficient he has to prove that the failure has not been originated under his responsi-
bility.
The HACCP system is therefore a practical instrument of protection against unjustified accu-
sations.
However if he fails to proof that the failure could not be originated during his responsibility
the producer has to assume the liability.
HACCP for supermarkets
Supermarkets have a complex system of storage,distribution and selling of their goods.

Many hazards which may be present are identical with those described above. The structure
of a supermarket includes the head of the organisation with
the main delivery of food, their storage and the distribution to the branch stores.
Supermarkets deal with stabilised food like tin cans and dried foods as well as frozen food and
perishable food like salads, dairy products cheese, yoghurt, butter, meat and meat products as
well as fish and derivate.
This means all efforts concerning distribution, storage, handling and processing have to be
made related to cooling and freezing, in relation to cleaning of the machines and utensils, disin-
fection and hygiene of the personal, Pest control, good condition of the building, hand washing
facilities, toilets with no direct access to the area where food is stored,handled or sold.
How to install an HACCP system for supermarkets

Timetable to install an HACCP system for supermarkets See ”Timetable to install
an HACCP system”15for details:
• Determination of the QS manager.
• The QS manager names his team.
• The team groups similar products to be described under the same title: ”Document is
valid for...”.
Examples of Groups of similar products for which same documents are valid:
Group of tin cans and all types of sterilised food.( No refrigeration needed )
Group of milk and derivate like yoghurt and cheese, as well as pasteurised products like
fine salads.(To be stored at +2o up to +7o C)
Could cuts. (Slices of sausages and could meat should not be touched with bare hands.Portioning
should be made with fork or a plier.To handle meat and their products, use one way
gloves.)
Group of fresh unpacked meat, fresh unpacked fish, fresh unpacked cheese. (To be stored
at +2o up to +7o C)
Group of Minced meat (To be stored at +2o up to +7o C. and not to be stored over 24
hour after mincing because of Salmonella danger.)
Group of fresh poultry. (To be stored at +2o up to +7o C.Special hygienic handling is
necessary because of Salmonella danger.)
Group of frozen food .(To be stored at -18o C and below.)
Group of fresh eggs and products made with unheated fresh eggs.(Special care is needed
because of the danger of Salmonella.(See ”Storage and handling of raw materials”15
Food with fresh eggs ( German Hen’s Egg Decree 2 - 4 ) without thermal treatment should
be sold and consumed within 2 hours after production.
Food with fresh eggs without thermal treatment but cooled down to +7oC can be sold
and consumed within 24 hours after production.
Food with fresh eggs without thermal treatment but deep frozen can be consumed within
24 hours after defrost.
Food with fresh eggs for old or sick people as well as children should be thermal teated.
Production of food with eggs to be sold without restriction must be thermal treated.
In the production of mayonnaise salted egg yolk is used after being pasteurised. A new
thermal treatment of the final mayonnaise is therefore not necessary.
• Description of the products as ”Product Specification”.

Every product should have a product specification form containing:
Product name, product number,name and address of the manufacturer of the Product,
phone number of the producers Quality Manager.
586
Type of packaging PVC, PP, PET ,

Shelf life,
Storage conditions like best storage temperature, indication to avoid light incidence, hu-
midity and sun light.
Informations concerning preparation of the food, special care after opening of the pack-
aging.
They should also contain chemical, bacteriological and physical analytical data specifying
maximum and minimum tolerances such as:
pH
Acidity
Fat
Viscosity
Nutritional facts
Fatty acids and their distribution
Total viable germs maximum allowed
Yeast maximum allowed
Moulds maximum allowed
Lactobacillus maximum allowed
Enterobacteriaceae maximum allowed
Product specifications are documents which should be written and signed by the produc-
ers Quality Manager and should be part of the terms of purchase or every product.
• Make a form to be used by the ware entry department to be used for goods entry con-
trol.For example:
SUPER CHEAP GOODS ENTRY CONTROL Form 01-1, 10.02.99, Page 1
MARKET of 1
Goods en- Temperatureo C External control OK
try/supplier
• Make the flow diagrams of all products.

• Identification of the CPs in the flow diagram.
• Identification of the CCPs in the flow diagram.
• Determination of all checks to control the CCPs.
• Corrections for the case of fail production, fail entry ware
• Laboratory methods to be used to control ware entry and to control handling of fresh
meat and unpacked cheese.
• The QS manager verifies if the system really works.
Basic documentation
For detailed informations see ”Basic Documentation”15.
The basis of a HACCP system is the documentation. Everything must be written and all results
of checks must be recorded.
Head of documents and forms All documents and all forms should have a head contain-
ing:
Name of the enterprise
Name and address of the branch office
Name of the document or form
Identification number of the document or form
The number of the version
The date of the version
The number of pages of the document or form
SUPER CHEAP Name of the document or Form Number of the document

MARKET version, date, number of
pages
Basic documents are
• Drawing of the building,enumerating the rooms Valid for the main supermarket with the
main ware house be made for the
• Drawing of the flow of ware entry, the ware entry control,storage shelf s, the way to the
point of sale, as well as automatic vending machines and counters.
• Drawing of the machines, such as meat slicing machines, meat mincer and cheese slicing
machines enumerating them.
• Drawing of the water supply system and hand washing facilities with enumeration
588
• Drawing of the way of the personal from the locker room to their working place
• Drawing of the sewage system
• Hygiene training and product information of the personal All employee should be trained
on hygienic behaviour, product information, storage temperatures and shelf life of ware.
In rooms where unpacked food such as meat, cheese, fruits and vegetables are stored,
handled or sold smoking or eating is forbidden.
All employees should maintain a high standard of hygiene wearing clean clothes and hair
cover. After toilet use hand washing and disinfection is necessary.
The wear of jewels, rings and watches is not allowed.
• Cleaning and disinfection plan of slicing and mincing machines. Plan of the cleaning and
disinfection of tables racks, counter, floor, walls and surroundings of the store.
Cleaning and disinfection should be monitored by bacteriological tests or bioluminescence
tests
• Bacteriological control plan:

Samples of fresh meat, fish and sausages should be controlled determining the total viable
germs, yeasts, moulds lactic acid bacteria and pathogen germs.
• Plan of the control of water

This should include bacteriological control.Total germs should not exceed 100 germs in 1
ml. Escherichia coli, indicator of fecal contamination, should be absent in 100 ml water
• Plan of pest control:

Pest control15 should be made by an external company which is specialised on pest
control.These companies set pest traps and report results of pest control.
• Internal audit plan. Audits are verification of the functioning of the system . Audits
are made by an auditing team composed of employees of the company. This plan should
determine the intervals and dates of audits of the different sections of the supermarket
Distribution of ware from the main ware house to the branch stores Transport
should be made according a document with following informations:
Name of the ware or group of related wares
Delivery documents
Temperature to be maintained during transport
Special care needed, such as ”Don’t throw, protect against sunlight, rain and humidity, use no
hooks ”.
Waste control There should be a document with informations about:

Type of waste
Place where waste and garbage is collected.
How the waste is transported and to where it should go.
Date and signature.
Garbage and waste cannot be collected and stored in the store where food is being sold, stored
or handled.
Containers should have a lid and they should always be closed
Pest control should avoid rats and insects to get to the garbage.
HACCP for cheese dairies To start an HACCP concept for cheese dairies please get the
basic informations which were given before. Flow Diagram : Start the flow diagram beginning
with the collection of the milk at the farms and end it with the delivery of the product. During
the flow diagram special attention should be payed on pipelines, fittings and taps. They need
special care.
The high pressure which is used with the CIP systems causes erosion. After a short time
automatic valves get leaking and leek. Gaskets can lift from their seat, hiding traces of products
which get spoiled after a short time.
In old cleaning procedures heat in form of steam was used as disinfectant. Heating the pipeline
systems with steam was good as it sterilised also product particles hidden under gaskets or left
in dead zones. The new way using low temperature and sterilising with chemical disinfectants
bear the risk to leave bacteria acting as focal contamination.
As the production of cheese needs long storages to ripe, low bacterial count can turn out to get
dangerous.
Pipeline Diagrams for cheese dairies In addition to the flow diagram for cheese dairies
a diagram of all pipelines should be made enumerating all valves so they can be disassembled
and the gaskets be changed in preset times.
Don’t trust your engineers saying the new generation of valves are safe, they are not and do
need periodic care and maintenance.
590
Own experiences with pipelines have shown leaking valves between product line and pipes being
cleaned in place, so that CIP solutions got into the product.
Don’t underestimate the value of pipeline diagram. Engineers like to talk it down because of
the trouble to make the initial drawing and to keep it update.
Only with complete diagrams hazards like lealing valves placed between product and CIP lines
operated simultaneously can be made visible.
Due to failure of the CIP program in a production line of the dairy company SNOW BRAND
in Japan 14.000 people were intoxicated by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. These bacteria
were located on a valve of a storage tank of skimmed milk of “Delicious Milk” brand which had
not been cleaned for three weeks.
AS a result of this production failure the company closes their factories in Tokyo, Osaka, Sendai,
Niigata and Takamatsu[681].
Failure of CIP systems such as the break down of Snow Brand can only be avoided by visual
control of all dead ends, of fittings and gaskets. Visual checks should be done with a strong
spot light and additional bacteriological controls.
Water in cheese dairies: Water leaving the main pipe reduces its velocity and often comes
to a total stop.
Only few meters after the main stream water can be highly contaminated. Pipelines with low
flow tend to develop a biofilm of bacteria rising up bacterial count.
If such water is used to rinse equipments and pipelines after disinfection all hygienic efforts are
useless.
Water should be controlled as a CP.
In case of rising bacterial count in Water bacterial filters such as those from Sartorius should
be installed at all points entering a CIP equipment and entering the product.
Another point of concern in cheese dairies are the gutters and sewage as they bear Listeria
monocytogenes. Gutters should be easily to access , be cleaned every day and sterilised.
The HACCP system is concerned only with hazards which might endanger health of the
consumer. It is part of sanitary regulations of some countries. It does not bother with quality
control which is being covered by the standard ISO 900015.
Companies which do not need certified according the ISO 9000 use to add quality control to
the HACCP system. It is that why many parts of some HACCP systems include quality checks
which are no hazard points. It would not make any sense to produce or sell healthy products
which do no maintain a certain quality standard.
HACCP should be the first step in safety and quality control of the production, handling and
merchandise of food.
ISO 9.000 is a wide concept of quality control beyond the hygiene and safety rules determined
by the HACCP system.This system can be certified by certifying enterprises.ISO 9000 is not
always necessary.
Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management TQM can be installed after ISO 9000. The system tries to unite all
the different phases of the activities of a company beginning from the financial control down
to production and technical details.
With growing international business [304]the enterprises have to integrate modifications in the
basic structure concerning the rapid changing international market. ISO 9000 is the basic ac-
tivity which supports Total Management.
Characteristics and ability of the Total Management staff The staff according A.Borning
should have:
• International communicability.
• The ability to create and guide international teams
• Intercultural sensibility
• Knowledge of the differences between the nations as basis of negotiations
In the past quality control and quality improvement was considered as being in the responsi-
bility of one department or a part of an enterprise.
In Total Management Quality has to concern every part of the enterprise. The whole personal
staff is responsible for the quality management of the enterprise.
To coordinate internal processes and external demands of customers Business Process Man-
agement BMP can be used. It is a structured, methodical enterprise specific handling of the
592
transaction. The relation from supplier to customer is in BMP of great importance.

The different goals of the TQM should be:
• Continuous improvement of processes
• Information and coordination of the staff in case of innovations
• Complete basic activities before begin of an innovation
• Delegation through description of the position and jobs of every employee.
• Time Management
• Rules of meeting
• Education and training
• Target to be achieved
• Opinion poll
The integration of manager and the way of thinking of different continents and cultures must
be kept always in mind to solve international problems.Therefore are opinions and conferences
with a multinational staff extremely important.
The main question which rules all activities of Total Quality Management is:
What can be improved ?
The target of the Total Quality Management is:
The most important targets are:
High capital rentability
Team spirit, culture of the enterprise directed to Total Quality Management resulting in success
on long terms.
Targets must be arranged according to their priority in order not to create conflict situations
between employees responsible for the execution of the different sections. In case of neces-
sary changes in the structure of the organisation the international manager staff should have
flexibility to overcome difficulties related to:
• Isolated business groups
• Market Oriented Profitcenter
• Joint Venture fusions
• Decentral Diversification Activities
• Outsourcing
• Horizontal Networklike Project Organisation like Matrixstructures
• Creation of Experimental Units
• Modifications resulting from Common Cost-Analysis
• Lean Management
Rotation of the Management between branches inland as well as branches from abroad with
the main head is very useful to create a common feeling and fortify the unit of the enterprise.
Loyalty The career of managers with many changes of jobs between enterprises should be
analysed very skeptical.They show little care about the flag they serve and the destiny of the
enterprises. Their goal is their own career. They have no identification with the history and
with the future of the enterprise. In bad times they go and take the know how and company
secrets to bargain with it for a new job.
Hyperlinked Management
Hyperlinked Management is a system covering all other systems.
Hyperlinked Management establishes the link of the enterprise with his costumers All phases
of the technical activities, financial control and all activities of the branch stores.
Hyperlink is the management of the Global administration of raw ware, production and retail
from technology, distribution and trade.
Its main concern is to create an information flow and centralise all data making them accessible
to the head of the enterprise. Decisions can be made on the base of the latest data. Delays
caused by long data researches, lost documents are avoided.
Introduction of the Hyperlinked Management

Phase one: Educational work 1.-Conference of the head and the manager of the en-
terprise.Not more than fifty participants should be present. Introduction of the Hyperlinked
Management System has to overcome a natural resistance of the different sections of the enter-
prise trying to protect their autonomy.
The main message of this conference should be to explain the System giving confidence that
there will be no detriment to the autonomy of the different sections of the enterprise.
The conference should be held by the head of the enterprise comprising :
• Greetings
594
• Why Hyperlinked Management?

The value of information
Data exchange and feed back
a)- Internal data link
Central access to all data concerning international available raw ware, stock exchanges,
technologies in use, actual output, shelf life of all products, formulations, labelling, mar-
keting lay out, prices , trends, custom informations.
c)- External data link
Producer as well as customer depend on informations about the goods they produce,
handle or sell. A retailing supermarket for example needs ware with optimal marketing
service.
The producer is specialised in relation to his product concerning packaging ,labelling,
technology, ingredients, taste, smell and colour of food.
The know how about his specific product concerning nutritional facts, physiology, and
origin of the raw ware are deeper as available in public bibliography. In case of crisis
management updated data avoid fail reactions.
Supermarkets and retailer should be integrated in the Linked Management of the pro-
ducer or supplier of the ware they sell.
To maintain a global business producers, suppliers and retailer have to unite in the in-
formation flow. Forwarding business means to cooperate friendly in benefit to the end
consumer.
Hyperlinked Management Structure
Head of
the Global
Enterprise
INTERNET INTRANET
Braches Stores
of the Offices
Factories Management of head production line
enterprise
Production Administration Ware house
Customer Supplier
Consumer
Working Stations
Line Lab Accounts Personal Income Deliver
Ware and Logistics Ware Informations General management
GLOBAL MAIN SERVER
There are countless advantages for the customer.
• The supplier is always within reach.
• Disposition of ware is always optimal.

596
Software to handle Global Hyperlinked Management

There are countless software systems.Most of them are inadequate to handle the tasks.For in-
stance from the point of view of the author of this home page is the LIMS System integrated
in the program ”Collier” slow in its flow path, rigid in the design of reports and is not user
friendly.
Integrated data gathering systems such as ERP and more advanced global links should avoid
ready systems.
Software engineers should provide their isolated programs with standardised interfaces so that
the user can assemble different modules according the demands of the market.Central managed
master data like Product numbers, specifications, prices etc must be located in every subunit.
Interchange or updating can be handled online or be made once a day according demands of
the system.
In this way short programs loops and resulting waiting time are achievable. Adaptation to ac-
tual circumstances concerning reports and flexibility relating the change some isolated modules
is at any time possible. A gradual upgrading is unlimited possible such as the link to intranet,
internet ERP Enterprise Resource Planning and Hyperlinked Management.
Small simple programs are to be favourized in maintenance, they are less susceptible to system
crashes and are visible at a glance. Remember: ” Small is beautiful ”.
Complete systems create dependency, the user turns out to be open to blackmail by the soft-
ware engineer. This can cost fortunes.
Marcam Software Solutions [358] Marcam Software Solutions supplies ERP software for
food and drink industries. It is one of three suppliers being considered by Nestlé to link and
manage the whole global enterprise.
Weak areas in ERP systems are production planning and scheduling, costing and warehouse
management. In food production throughput time is the time of production measured in shifts
or days. Variability and availability of raw materials changes of prices must also be considered.
To overcome these difficulties it is almost impossible to handle with one stiff giant system.
Only linked modules working independent of a central program can avoid system crashes.
These problems bring Nestlé to the conclusion that there will be no decision concerning the
introduction of a worldwide system before 2000.
Wilab LIMS [359] The Wilab LIMS is a LIMS System which can be used in a global system.
But using this system on one platform may not be a good solution for the future. To globalize
the data would turn the program to great to be handled in future links.Small working units
with data exchange should be used.
ISO 9000 The standard ISO 9000 dates at the year 1989 an was accepted in Europe un-
der the Number EN 29000 as European norm.The different standardisation organisations have
integrated the ISO series under different denomination. The European standardisation organ-
isation CEN C=Conformit E=Europn has created the denomination ”DIN EN ISO 9000 ff”
published in English, German,and French.
This standard contains the norms and the procedure to obtain the Certificate ISO 9000. There
are many organisation which are accredited to give out certificates, such as DGS (Deutsche
Gesellschaft zur Zertifizierung von Qualitäts managementsystemen], TÜV (Technischer Überwachungs
Verein).
The interested company makes a contract with a certifying.It takes approximately 1 to 2 years
to obtain the certificate depending on how complex the company is.
In this period the company writes the ISO 9000 documentation which is finally audited by the
certifier. This documentation is generally written with the help of external advisors.
The centre of all organisation is the Quality Management Manual.
Quality Management Manual The Quality Management Manual contains all topics con-
cerning Quality Management QM having a description of all standards of the QM system.All
other documents are subordinated to the Quality Management Manual.
When the whole enterprise is organised according to the principles of ISO 9000 it is certified
during a period of 3 years.
During this period the certifying company makes audits each year
External audits index Audits, external The external audits are made by the company which
had certified the enterprise.
The external audit controls the actual work to be accord to the established rule of the Quality
Management Manual.The duration of an external audit is approximately one day.The external
auditor may negate the certificate when serious faults are found.
ISO norms dealing with quality management

• DIN EN ISO 9001: 1994, ”Description of development of new products, Production,
controls, assembling and final inspection” The accreditation under the ISO 9001 is the
mostly used when development of new products, production and distribution is being
made.
• DIN EN ISO 9002: 1994 ”Description of production, assembling and final inspection
”Accreditation according to ISO 9002 is suitable when production on request is being
made
• DIN EN ISO 9003: 1994”Description of final inspection.”Accreditation according to ISO

9003 is suitable when only trading is made, like import and exportation.
• DIN EN ISO 9004: 1994”Quality Management and elements of a Quality Management

System - A Guideline ”
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The ISO 9004 is a deep quality management system which has to be adapted to each
enterprise, There are only individual solutions because of the complex situation of every
product and every factory.
A Quality Management system can integrate the rules of Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP),
the HACCP and the Good Laboratory Practice (GLP).A QM System is made of three basic
parts:
1. Quality Management Handbook (QMH) This Manual is a Presentation of the System.

It has a short description of the complete system. It contains the main activities of the
different parts of the enterprise,the responsibilities, the competences and refers to the In-
structions of Procedures. The instruction of Procedures contains the normal procedures
of production, Plans such as Hygiene Plans of the personal, Cleaning and Disinfection
Plan and Flow Diagrams where the whole production is schematically represented and
the CCPs are marked, defining the responsibilities. Are detailed instructions for every
specific work.
DIN EN 9001 norm The DIN EN 9001 norm will here be more detailed described. It is
built up of different parts:
1. Responsibility of the highest direction The highest direction of the enterprise has the
responsibility to determine a person responsible for the documentation of quality has
the responsibility to verify the working of the system. The execution of all activities
concerning the quality system is under responsibility of the chief of each department.
The highest direction defines the quality politics and makes it public.
Quality politics may be for instance the concentration on quality,chose ingredients of
superior quality, the continuous improving of the technical equipment and improving
continuously the education of the personal,define new aims such as to reduce complaints,
reduce accidents at work, improve the communication between the different departments,
to improve motivation of the personal.
Define the organisation of the enterprise making a schematic diagram of the organisation.
2. Basis of the QM-System The basis of the Q’S is the documentation.
3. Contract control The contracts are controlled concerning its practicability. It is to be

controlled that every specification mentioned in the contracts can be complied with.
Therefore checks must be determined to be used to control these specifications. The
verification of the purchase contracts is to make sure that the supplier has the same de-
mands concerning the quality of the product as the client has. All contracts like purchase
contracts or selling contracts must be controlled. Verification or contracts
• Design guide (Development of new products)

• Guideline of documents and data
• Purchasing department
• Products available through the requesting client
• Identification and hazard control of products
• Production and assembling
• Procedural rules
• Controls
• Equipment Calibration Procedure Records
• Status of control
• Failure of production, what to do
• Corrections and measures to avoid failures
• Handling,storage,packing and distribution
• Specification and product listing
• Internal quality audits
• Customers service
• Statistical methods,trend analysis
Model SA 8000 (Social Accountability) [?] In Brazil due to the great demand of orange
juice great plantations of orange trees were created.
About 100.000 peoples are working to harvest the oranges. Their pay is so small that they are
unable to feed the family, so the children must help to increase income of the family. 30 to 35
% of the workers are children ,many of them are only 10 years old, working up to 14 hours a
day. They cannot go to school and are endangered by pesticides.
UNICEF and other organisations make efforts to avoid the work of children and to give them
the opportunity to go to a school. Some enterprises already have agreed to avoid or to reduce
the work of children. There is still a need of external organisation to control the promise of not
having children work.
The CEPAA (Council on Economic Priorities Accreditation Agency)has developed the Model
SA 8000 (Social Accountability) which is a new international norm similar to ISO 9000.
The Model SA 8000 describes Standards in nine sectors of daily work, the health protection,
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the security during work and children work.

The control in the different enterprises is to be made from external free certificating companies.
The model SA 8000 certifying the working condition of a producer similar to certify the quality
of the product according to ISO 9000 can make life difficult for people engaged in the harvest
of oranges in Brazil.
It is important to rise the pay of the farm workers in a way to make it possible for a head of
a family to feed his children.In order to attain this it is important to rise the price of orange
juice in Germany an other consuming countries.
Another certification norm should survive the overpay to come to better pay of the farm worker.
The British Retail Consortium ( BRC) The introduction of the UK Food Safety Act
in 1990, the statutory of `‘ due diligencem̈ade necessary to formalise food inspection by the
retailer. The retailer could no longer rely on a warranty defence in case of any complaint.
HACCP and small businesses

Since 1995, all proprietors of food businesses in the UK have been required to carry out a
hazard analysis to identify the food safety hazards within their businesses. This covers five of
the seven HACCP principles. The businesses are not required by legislation to document or
formally verify their controls.
However, larger food businesses have already included all seven principles in their control sys-
tem for their own advantage. In the future this will be a legislative requirement in the whole EU.
A study on the implementation conclude that it has become increasingly apparent that without
a requirement for food businesses to perform the latter two steps of HACCP, recording and
verification, enforcement officers have difficulty in proving non-compliance with the existing
hazard analysis requirement in UK legislation. They have found that over half of all premises
surveyed in the UK, were not cleaning and disinfecting correctly.
Situation in Australia: The same situation is found in Australia. The School of Leisure,
Hospitality and Food Management at the University of Salford, notes that change in larger
companies has been primarily customer driven (the large supermarket chains) but this has
had little impact on smaller operations where the customer is often the end-user. The typical
owner/manager has yet to be convinced that HACCP is either practical or effective in the
context of his business.
Small food businesses face special problems when trying to implement HACCP. This is pos-
sibly even more pronounced in catering rather than processing or retail situations. A strong
support system will need to be in place for an extended period if HACCP is to be successfully
implemented in this type of business. Small businesses dealing directly with the public account
for a significant part of the food industry and must be supported accordingly.
HACCP in the feed chain: HACCP concept should be implemented in the feed chain as this
industry has been on the headlines in food scandals. The Third International Conference
on Mycotoxins, which took place in Tunisia in March 1999, issued general recommendations
to implement HACCP principles taking special attention in the control of risks associated
with mycotoxin contamination of feed. Other hazards include dioxin, nitrofen, MPA in feed in
Netherlands (MPA -Medroxy Progesterone Acetate- could affect a woman’s ability to conceive),
and BSE prions.
Publications: ”The Codex Guidelines” has published several guidelines regarding feedstuffs
such as, the Code of Practice for the Reduction of Aflatoxin B1 in Raw Materials and sup-
plemental Feedingstuffs for Milkproducing Animals CAC/RCP 45-1997 1, The Proposed Draft
Code of Practice for the Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals CX/FAC 02/21
November 2001.HACCP can help to reduce aflatoxins in crops. Critical control points often do
not exist in the field because , many factors which influence the mycotoxin contamination of
cereals are environmentally related, such as weather and insects. A HACCP system should be
built on sound GAPs and GMPs.
Regional Programmes for Food Security (RPFS)

FAO broadened its partnership with 12 Regional Economic Organisations in Africa, the Caribbean
and South Pacific, providing assistance to:
- identify regional issues/constraints affecting food security, agriculture and rural development;
- prepare RPFS, including a plan of operation to address regional constraints; - prepare detailed
projects for submission to donors, and facilitate resource mobilisation for their implementation.
The RPFS projects incorporated a combination of production and productivity increases at the
level of small farmers, development of domestic markets and of regional and international trade.
Priority was given to structural reforms for sustainable growth, harmonisation of policies, re-
duction of barriers to trade and development of human resources at both the national and
regional level. Strengthening the agrarian structure of developing countries open the way for a
later introduction of safety systems and guidelines. Without a substantial aid, the implemen-
tation of these systems are not realistic.
The poor countries will not benefit from an international food market if the world commu-
nity represented by the UN acting through the FAO and WHO do not give them the necessary
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to help to fulfil the heavy demands of food safety and quality emanating from different Agree-
ments and Negotiations.
Multilateral trade negotiations on agriculture

The basic concepts of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) agreements which affects directly
agriculture are: - The Agreement on Agriculture (AoA): The WTO’s Agriculture Agree-
ment was negotiated in the 1986-94 Uruguay Round and is a significant first step towards fairer
competition and a less distorted sector. It includes specific commitments by WTO member gov-
ernments to improve market access and reduce trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture. These
commitments are being implemented over a six years period (10 years for developing countries)
that began in 1995.
- The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

(SPS): An agreement on how governments can apply food safety and animal and plant health
measures (sanitary and phytosanitary or SPS measures) sets out the basic rules in the WTO.
It helps to ensure that strict health and safety regulations are not being used as an excuse for
protecting domestic producers.
- The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT): Technical regulations and

product standards may vary from country to country. Having many different regulations and
standards makes life difficult for producers and exporters. If regulations are set arbitrarily, they
could be used as an excuse for protectionism. The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
tries to ensure that regulations, standards, testing and certification procedures do not create
unnecessary obstacles.
- The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS):

The WTO Decision of the General Council of 30 August 2003 agrees on legal changes on TRIPS
that will make it easier for poorer countries to import cheaper generics made under compul-
sory licensing, if they are unable to manufacture the medicines themselves. There is hope that
likewise to the ”Decision”, in the future the benefits of food science will be shared with poorer
countries, providing a more practical access to seeds and agrarian knowledge.
The treaties, agreements, guidelines are hurting sometimes even powerful nations, like recent
problems of the food chain:
The bird flu outbreak in Texas in February 2004 is hurting poultry producers. Shares in a
number of US chicken processors have already fallen.
According to the experts, it is not as virulent as the outbreak in Asia, but nevertheless its
a highly contagious virus and therefore does require an immediate response from the EU.
The US exports about 15 per cent of its chicken, and the loss of these vital poultry export
markets comes together with the first US case of mad cow disease in December resulting in a
near-global ban on US beef loosing the export of about 10 per cent of its beef production. The
US, on its turn, banned imports of French meat and poultry because of problems with French
plants that have been certified to export.
ISO 15161:2001, Guidelines on the application of ISO 9001:2000 for the food and
drink industry
ISO 15161:2002 combines ISO 9001:2000 and HACCP. It is a useful model for the business
improvement in the food industry. It makes special reference to:
- A food safety risk assessment programme - Maintaining compliance with legal requirements -
Maintaining emergency procedures and response - Maintaining operational risk control, mon-
itoring and measurement - The continuous improvement of food safety management system
performance - The effectiveness of corrective and preventative actions
Different aims of HACCP and ISO 9001: The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP) ensures the safety, whereas the ISO 9001 system is focused on ensuring the quality.
The application of HACCP within an ISO 9001 quality management system can result in a
food system that is more effective than the application of either ISO 9001 or HACCP alone,
leading to enhanced customer satisfaction and improving organisational effectiveness. These
guidelines give an interpretation of how ISO 9001 could be applied on a food organisation and
are designed for organisations involved in all aspects of food industry.
ISO 15161:2001 includes sourcing, processing and packaging food and drink products and ex-
plains the possibility to link the common interests and the communication between the two
systems. It is important to consider, that ISO 15161 is not a HACCP standard and cannot
be a reference document at certification, but these guidelines are intended to provide a clear
management system supporting HACCP controls for an effective food safety system, under the
recognised framework of an ISO 9000 Quality Management System.
List of acceptable alternative standards to ISO 15161:2001: IRCA (International Reg-

ister of Certified Auditors) has determined that, for the purposes of compliance with the food
safety auditor certification criteria, the CAC/RCP 1 Code of Practice Food Hygiene is consid-
ered to be acceptable alternatives to ISO 15161:2001.
IRCA’s evaluation of these standards consisted of a technical review for the purposes of val-
604
idation of acceptability of an applicant’s claim of experience ”equivalent” to auditing to ISO

15161:2001.
ISO publishes the standard ISO 22000 ”Food safety management systems- Requirements”.
These two standards are quite different. ISO 15161 deals with all aspects of food quality and
shows how the HACCP system can be integrated into a quality management system. On the
other hand, ISO 22000 concentrates exclusively on food safety and will instruct food producers
how they can build up the food safety system itself.
ISO 22000: 200x Food Safety Management Standard

ISO 22000 will be international and will define the requirements of a food safety management
system covering all organisations in the food chain from farmers to catering, including packag-
ing. In recent times there has been a worldwide proliferation of third party HACCP and Food
Safety Standards developed both by national standards organisations and industry groups in-
cluding the UK’s own BRC.
The idea of harmonising the relevant national standards on the international level was initiated
by the Danish Standards Association (DS). ISO 22000 aims to harmonise all of these standards.
The standard has the following objectives: 1.Comply with the Codex HACCP principles.
2.Harmonise the voluntary international standards.
3.Provide an auditable standard that can be used either for internal audits, self-certification or
third-party certification.
4.The structure is aligned with ISO 9001:2000 and ISO 14001:1996.
5.Provide communication of HACCP concepts internationally.
The ISO 22000 gives definitions on related terms, describes a food management system in-
cluding:
1.General system requirements.
2.Definition of the management responsibility and commitment.
3.Documentation requirements.
4.Definition of responsibility and authority.
5.Calling for a food safety team, communication, contingency preparedness and response.
6.Gives a review on management, resource management, provision of resources, human re-
sources, realization of safe products, product and process data, hazard analysis, design of the
CCP plan, design of the SSM programmes, operation of the food safety management system,
control of monitoring and measuring devices, measurement, analysis and updating of the FSM
system.
7.System verification,validation and updating.
8.Correspondence between ISO 22000:200x and ISO 9001:2000.
The BRC/IoP Packaging Standard and ISO 22000:200x
Overview of the BRC/IoP Standard

The BRC/IoP Packaging Standard dates from 17 October 2001 and was developed by The
British Retail Consortium and The Institute of Packaging , together with retailers, food pro-
ducers, trade associations and packaging companies.
The suppliers of many UKś retailers such as Marks and Spencer, Sainsbury’s, Safeway, Co-
op, Tesco and Waitrose must achieve certification to the BRC/IoP Packaging Standard. EU
Food Safety Directive 93/43/EECwas the response to the need to increase food safety. Under
the terms of the UK Food Safety Act, retailers have an obligation to take all reasonable pre-
cautions and exercise all due diligence in the avoidance of failure, whether in the development,
manufacture, distribution, advertising or sale of food products to the consumer.
The BRC/IoP Standard will probably become the benchmark by which audits are undertaken
and it will likely supersede previous hygiene certification schemes.
Requirements of the BRC/IoP Standard

1.The adoption of a formal Hazard Analysis System.
2.A documented Technical Management System.
3.The control of factory standards, products, processes and personnel Benefits of certification.
1.Supported by most of the major UK Retailers.
2.A single standard and protocol, evaluations will be carried out by third party certification
bodies accredited to European standard EN45011.
3.Packaging manufacturers can use the standard to ensure that their suppliers are following
good hygiene practices and complete the ’due diligence’ chain.
The standard has been translated into Swedish, Dutch, Italian, German, French and Span-
ish. UK hopes are that pressure will be achieve by the retailers to get the BRC/IoP Packaging
Standard applied to all their suppliers.
The requirements of the standard differ depending on the risk of the food. The ’decision
tree’ in section 8 is intended to determine whether the category ’B’ meeting higher level re-
quirements of the standard is to be used, or category ’A’ with less rigorous requirements is
applied.
The standard is flexible and allows suppliers to operate both category A and B standards
606
in separate ’risk areas’ of the factory. In addition suppliers may apply for exemptions to cer-
tain clauses of the standard if they can be identified and confirmed through the hazard analysis.
Content of the BRC/IoP Standard

The standard consists of eight sections plus an associated protocol.
1. Scope: General overview of the standard, whom the standard applies to and what the
requirements of the standard are.
2. Organisation: Covers the requirements for the organisation in terms of management re-
sponsibility, organisational structure and management review.
3. Hazard and risk management system: Covers the requirements for a formal hazard
analysis of the production process considering foreign object, chemical and microbiological con-
tamination as well as packaging defects that compromise consumer safety.
4. Technical management system: Covers the quality and hygiene policy, hygiene system
documentation and control, specifications, management of incidents and product recall, trace-
ability system, internal audits, complaints, supplier monitoring, subcontracting and product
analysis.
5. Factory standards: Covers the requirements for the building infrastructure, facilities and
fabric, product flow, maintenance of equipment, housekeeping, cleaning and waste manage-
ment.
6. Contamination control: Covers the requirements for foreign object training, glass con-
trol, blade control, chemical and biological control, pest control and transport, storage and
distribution.
7. Personnel: Covers the access and movement of personnel, staff facilities, toilets and hand
washing, eating, drinking and smoking, illness and injury, jeweller and personal items, protec-
tive clothing and hygiene training.
8. Risk category determination: In this section the supplier uses the decision tree to
determine whether they are a category A or B risk supplier.
Certification bodies
It is a requirement that the certification bodies evaluating against the standard are formally
accredited to the European standard EN45011 (General requirements for bodies operating prod-
uct certification systems).
Formal accreditation of a certification body can only be granted by a National accreditation

body; in Great Britain this Body is The United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS). In
other countries this will include National accreditation bodies which are members or associate
members of EA (European Co-operation for Accreditation) or subject to bi-lateral or multilat-

eral agreements.
EN45011: The standard for the European Accreditation of bodies who are involved
in certification
Certification body: Companies who have gained accreditation to EN 45011 for the scope of
the BRC/IoP standard.
Evaluation: A systematic examination to measure compliance of practices with a pre-determined

system, whether the system is implemented effectively and is suitable to achieve objectives, car-
ried out by certified bodies. UKAS: The United Kingdom Accreditation Service, recognised by
the British Government as the sole national body responsible for assessing and accrediting the
competence of organisations in the fields of measurement, testing, inspection and certification
of systems, products and personnel.
Types of standards ISO has several types of standards:
Auditable standards: Auditable standards are developed in a manner that all elements are
applicable (unless stated otherwise (exclusions)) and must be implemented. The ISO 9001:2000
is an auditable standard.
Guidance standards Guidance standards are intended to be used by organisations to pro-

vide an interpretation of the auditable standard. ISO 22000:200x will be a guidance standard
describing the requirements of a food safety management system, it will also be an auditable
standard and can be used for certification and registration. The scope of the standard will be
food safety. Food quality issues are to be addressed using ISO 9001:2000. ISO 9000:2000 and
ISO 9004:2000 are guidance standards that are used to interpret ISO 9001:2000.
The BRC/IOP Packaging Standard does not completely separate the food safety issues and
the quality issues, turning the Standard a good tool for the food industry.
Detail of the Standards

ISO 22000:200x appears to be less prescriptive than the BRC/IOP Packaging Standard, in
that it does not address in detail the Good Manufacturing Programs (GMPs), (Good Hygiene
Programs) or prerequisite programs.
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Structure of the standards: ISO 22000:200x will be compliant with ISO GUIDE 72. ISO
Guide 72 is a standard that describes the structure of management system standards. This
will ensure that the ISO standard has a parallel structure to ISO 9001:20000. The structure of
BRC/IOP Packaging Standard appears to be similar to ISO 9001:1994.
Scope: ISO 22000:200x is intended to be used by organisations throughout the food chain,
while the BRC/IOP Packaging Standard is intended to be used by food packaging organisations.
ISO22000 will probably turn out to be the auditable standard or a standard that can be used
for registration / certification for the future, but it does require the implementation of relevant
industry GMP’s, Standards and prerequisite measures. The BRC/IOPI may therefore remain
in Britain as a standard that could provide more guidance to the food packaging companies on
the interpretation of the GMP or prerequisite programs.
Food industry organisations who trade solely within the UK may never be required to achieve
certification to ISO 22000:200x, but global suppliers will have to get the ISO 22000 certificate.
Auditing Standard ISO 19011

This International Standard can be used by internal and external parties, including certification
bodies, to assess the organisation’s ability to meet customer, regulatory and the organisation’s
own requirements. The quality management principles stated in ISO 9004:2000 have been taken
into consideration during the development of this International Standard.
Other special rules on food production to ensure food safety Auditing for Bovine Spongi-
form Encepalopathy (BSE): Australian system of certification applying to each country
which wishes to export bovine products to Australia is intended to protect Australians from
BSE and vCJD. Australia has announced a system of certification which will apply to each
country which wishes to export bovine products to Australia. This will replace the current
suspension of imports of beef and beef products from a number of countries.
ANZFA has categorised countries according to their BSE risk. Countries where BSE has been
reported will have current import suspensions on beef products extended, while others will be
required to provide official government certification of their BSE status based on their measures
to protect against BSE, scientific assessment by specialist international bodies such as the Sci-
entific Steering Committee of the European Union and the World Animal Health Organisation
(OIE), and other informations. There will be four categories:
Category A (certification required) countries are regarded as posing a negligible risk to hu-
man health.
Category B (certification required) countries, while not reporting cases of BSE, may have been
exposed to high risk factors such as the importation of high-risk meat and bone meal.
Category C (certification required) countries are known to have considerable exposure to BSE
risk materials, but have not reported indigenous cases of BSE.
Category D countries, which have reported cases of indigenous BSE in their herds, pose the
highest level of risk and their beef and beef products will be refused entry to Australia.
Products from category B and C countries can only be imported if the national authority
can certify that the product is derived from animals not exposed to BSE risk and if specific risk
materials have been excluded from the food chain. Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom - where cases of BSE have been reported - will
be deemed Category D and will have existing temporary import suspensions of beef and beef
products extended.
Quality Control
Deming’s Management-Program
W. Edwards Deming influenced worldwide quality control. He stressed the need to ”drive out
fear,” to stop relying on inspection for insuring quality, and to focus on building cooperation
and not competition within an organisation.[1209]
The philosophy of Deming was successful in US. In Germany there are only weak responses
to the ideas of Deming. The German site www.deming.de tries to bring these ideas to the
German-speaking area. In Switzerland The Swiss Deming Institute and in Great Britain,
however, The British Deming Association are propagating the philosophy based on Deming’s
fourteen points:[1294]
1. Create constancy of purpose towards improvement of product and service, with the aim
to become competitive, stay in business, and to provide jobs.
2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must
awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change.
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a
mass basis by creating quality into the product in the first place.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead minimise total cost.
Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long term relationship of loyalty and
trust.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to improve quality
and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.
6. Institute training on the job.
7. Institute leadership (see point 12.) The aim of leadership should be to help people and
machines and gadgets to do a better job. Leadership of management is in need of overhaul, as
610
well as leadership of production workers.

8. Drive out fear so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production
must work as a team, to foresee problems of production and in use that may be encountered
with the product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force that ask for zero defects
and new levels of productivity.
11a. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership.
11b. Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals.
Substitute leadership.
12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to pride of workmanship. The
responsibility of supervisors must be changed from sheer numbers to quality.
12b. Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of their right to pride
in workmanship. This means, abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of management
by objective, management by the numbers.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. The transfor-
mation is everybody’s job.
The Seven Deadly Diseases:
1. Lack of constancy of purpose to plan product and service that will have a market and
keep the company in business, and provide jobs.
2. Emphasis on short-term profits: short-term thinking (just the opposite of constancy of pur-
pose to stay in business), fed by fear of unfriendly takeover, and by push from bankers and
owners for dividends.
3. Personal review systems, or evaluation of performance, merit rating, annual review, or annual
appraisal, by whatever name, for people in management, the effects of which are devastating.
Management by objective, on a go/no-go basis, without a method for accomplishment of the
objective, is the same thing by another name. Management by fear would still be better.
4. Mobility of management; job hopping.
5. Use of visible figures only for management, with little or no consideration of figures that are
unknown or unknowable.
6. Excessive medical costs.
7. Excessive costs of liability.
Deming’s Chain Reaction: Deming developed what was called D̈emigś Chain Reaction:̈
Improved quality −→ Improved productivity−→ Costs decrease−→ Greater market share−→
sollid company structure−→ Secure working places.[1293]
Arman Feigenbaum
Armand Feigenbaum together with Deming created the basis of quality management and in-
troduced the ”Total Quality Control”. The idea is that quality requires a ”total” effort of
management and not simply the inspection department. Feigenbaum defined four keys compo-
nents of quality cost:
1 - Prevention costs including quality planning.
2 - Appraisal costs including inspection.
3 - Internal failure costs including scrap and rework.
4 - External failure costs including warranty costs, complaints etc.
Feigenbaum has summarised his ideas about Total Quality into ten key concepts. Feigen-
baum called for a separate Quality Assurance Department to help coordinate the Total Quality
effort.[1209]
Kaoru Ishikawa: Kaoru Ishikawa developed many of the tools of quality management like the
Quality Circles, the Cause-and-Effect Diagram (Fishbone Graph or Ishikawa Graph), and the
Seven Tools of Quality Control. According to Ishikawa, workers alone should not be blamed
poor quality, failures of the management system should be looked upon too. Worker attitudes
would improve as the systems which are provided by management improve.[1209]
Interoperability of Standards
The main producers of national standards
Western Europe
United Kingdom
British Standard Institution
BSI
Germany
Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V.
DIN
France
Association Franis de Normalisation
AFNOR
Europe
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
CENELEC
European Committee for Standardisation
612
CEN
Electronic Components Committee
CECC
European Standard Harmonized Document
EN HD
Institutions Outside Europe

America
American National Standards Institute
ANSI
Canada
Canadian Standards Association
CSA
International Standards
International Standards themselves are drawn up by international technical committees which
have been approved by ISO or IEC member countries.
Where different national Standards persist they will do so as a reflection of different mar-
ket preferences. Quality is today seen by a customer when a product always meets the quality
standard that was initially offered and/or recommended.
Other countries such as Japan and Saudi Arabia develop their own Standards, but European
and North American Standards are the most widely used ones. International trade has been
hindered by the diversity of standards. Many suppliers do not have copies on the relevant
standard of the country to which they want to export, or they do not find it cost-effective to
retool their entire works in order to conform to the requirements of that particular standard.
For this reason international standards are becoming increasingly important.
International Organization for Standardisation

Industrial standards
ISO
International Electrotechnical Commission
Electrical equipment
IEC
International Telecommunications Union

Global telecom networks
ITU
NSO
Associating ISO 9001:2000 with complementary systems such as BS 8800 Health and Safety
and the ISO 14001:1996, Environmental Management, increases the synergic effect of the sys-
tems. There is an overlap between 9001:2000 and 14001:1996 and there are some elements
which differ:
ISO 9001:2000 aims to achieve customers satisfaction looking on competitive price. The ISO
14001:1996 aims to improve environmental impact on nature.
The 2000 revision is an attempt to harmonise ISO 9000 (quality) withe ISO 14001 (envi-
ronment) and BS 8800 (health)so that an organisation can handle quality, environment, health
and safety with one system.
ISO 9001:2000
The ISO 9000 series turnbed out to be the best international quality management system. The
ISO-9001:2000 can be used for internal application by organisations, certification, or contrac-
tual purposes.
The ISO 9001:1994, ISO 9002:1994 and ISO 9003:1994 family of standards have been con-
solidated into a single revised ISO 9001:2000 which contains a single quality management
requirements standard that is applicable to all organisations, products and services aiming to:
Address customer satisfaction.
Meet customer and applicable regulatory requirements.
Enable internal and external parties to assess the organisation?s ability to meet these require-
ments.
The ISO-9001:2000 quality system aims to enhance customer satisfaction. This includes the
processes for continual improvement of the quality system and the assurance of conformity to
the customer and applicable regulatory requirements.
In global business the certification according ISO 9000 turned out to be an imperative duty.t
The HACCP concept should be integrated in the quality system fulfilling hygiene regulations.
The ISO 9000 was first released in 1987, a first revision was published in 1994 and in 2000 the
modification to ISO 9001:2000 was released. Since then only three main standards subsisted:
ISO 9000:2000: Includes a description approach to quality Management as well a revised vocab-
ulary. ISO 9001:2000: Includes the quality management system, requirements. ISO 9004:2000:
Includes guidelines for performance improvement moving toward Total Quality Management.
It is not intended for certification or contractual use.
614
They rely on the following eight principles:

1.Customer focused organisation
2.Leadership
3.Involvement of people
4.Process approach
5.System approach to management
6.Continual improvement
7.Factual approach to decision making
8.Mutually beneficial supplier relationship
Documentation of the system should include:

1.Quality Manual.
2.Specific statement regarding quality policy and quality objectives.
3.Documented procedures that describe the sequence of processes necessary to ensure the con-
formity of the product.
4.Documented instructions to ensure the effective operation and control of the processes.
5.Quality records.
Control of documents: A procedure for the control of documents should include: 1.Controlled
distribution of documents.
2.Approval of documents prior to issue.
3.Review and updating and re-approval of documents.
4.Identifying the current revision status of documents.
5.Ensuring that only relevant versions of applicable documents are available at points of use.
6.Insuring that documents remain legible, readily identifiable and retrievable.
7.Identifying, distributing and controlling documents from an external source.
8.Controlling obsolete documents.
Control of records should include:

Maintenance
1.Identification
2.Storage
3.Retrieval
4.Protection
5.Retention time
6.Disposition of all quality records.
Management commitment:
1.Conduct regular management reviews
2.Ensure the availability of necessary resources
3.Ensure that everyone is aware of the importance of meeting customer, regulatory and legal
requirements.
Customer focus:
1.Customer needs and expectations must be determined.
2.They must be converted into requirements
3.The requirements must be fulfilled.
Quality policy:
The quality policy of the organisation should be communicated and understood by everyone.
It should be capable of continual improvement and regularly reviewed.
Quality management system planning:

Quality planning should be documented including quality objectives and resource.
Responsibility, authority and communication:
The administration of the QMS covering the responsibilities and authorities, function, rela-
tionship and the internal communication must be documented.
Review input from:

1.Earlier management reviews such as follow-up actions.
2.Previous internal and external audits.
3.Customer feedback.
4.Process performance.
5.Product conformance.
6.Preventive and corrective actions.
7.Changes that could affect the QMS and recommendations for improvement.
Review output:
1.Improves the overall QMS and its process.
616
2.Improves the product.

3.Enhances customers satisfaction.
4.Confirmes the resources required.
Resource management includes:

1.Human resources on regard of competence, awareness and training.
2.Provision of resources.
3.Work environment.
4.Infrastructure.
Specifications
Specifications: Specifications are essential technical requirements for items, material, or ser-
vices, including the procedures to be used to determine wether the requirements have been
met. Specifications may also include requirements for preservation, packaging, packing and
marking.[1295]
Without proper specifications it is impossible to expect a manufacturer or supplier to pro-

duce an article, equipment or system that completely satisfies the customer.
Types of specifications
Three types of specifications can be used to settle product requirements:
1. General specifications: Are overall specifications of the product written by the purchaser.
It requires a detailed description of the article. Suitable, appropriate, conventional harmless or
healthy should not be used as they open loopholes in case of complaints. It should contain the
whole formula for food, ingredients and packaging.
2. Overall performance specifications: These Specifications have vague contents. They
leave everything up to the manufacturer. Later complaints are almost impossible.
3. Standard specification: Here a detailed description of every ingredient is given. Lists of
the National Standards Organisations NSOs of parts commonly used by manufacturers, or The
British Standards Institution (BSI) lists such as BS 9000, CENELEC and IECQ and CECC as
well as standards and regulations such as Codex Alimentarius and other organisations can be
used.
Control of non-conforming products

This part of the System is to avoid:
1.Products which do not conform to requirements are prevented from unintended use or deliv-
ery.
2.Non-conforming products that have been corrected are re-verified to demonstrate conformity.
Economics of Quality
BS 6143-2:1990 This standard gives procedures in case of non- conformity products.
BS 6143:Part 1:1992 Process cost model: Control of quality costing of any process or
service.
BS 6143:Part 2:1990 Prevention, appraisal and failure model (PAF).
Robot for food production reducing handling contamination [1296]

Robots may reduce human contact with food products during separating, dosing, packing,
sealing and labelling, eliminating thus a major source of contamination. his may become an
important step toward an improved aseptic production.
The Quickplacer robot of the Fatronik corporation can be used for quality control in the pro-
cessing of vegetables or feeding various products such as fish or meat to flowpack machines, in
positioning chocolates in individually-shaped slots or for packaging bars of chocolate, biscuits,
peppers, lipstick bars and baby towelettes, either individually or in groups, work being done
by workers.
Pork quality and pH

[1297] Ken Prusa, a professor of food science of the Iowa State University, studied the correla-
tion between pH levels and pork quality.
Prusa proposes pH testing as a new way to evaluate pork quality. He found that higher pH
products are more tender, juicy and flavourful. On the contrary, acidity causes meat deterio-
ration, discolouration and watery consistency.
According to Prusa pork pH is affected by

- Genetics: Geneticists are looking on pork quality related to pH factor.
Chilling procedure: Lowering the temperature of the carcass rapidly in order to avoid pH to
drop too low before chilling can stabilize it.
618
Stress levels: Stress just before slaughter causes high adrenaline levels, resulting in a really
rapid pH decline due to higher metabolism.
The work of Prusa will influence packers, processors and geneticists taking advantage of the
pH factor. As a quality check, measuring pork pH ensures a carcass had been chilled rapidly
and excessive animal stress before laughter had been avoided.
EMAS
[1298] The EU Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) is a management tool for compa-
nies and other organisations to evaluate, report and improve their environmental performance.
The scheme has been available for participation by companies since 1995 (Council Regulation
(EEC) No 1836/93 of 29 June 1993) and was originally restricted to companies in industrial
sectors.
Participation is voluntary and extends to public or private organisations operating in the Eu-
ropean Union and the European Economic Area (EEA) - Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway.
An increasing number of candidate countries are also implementing the scheme in preparation
for their accession to the EU.
EMAS registration
To receive EMAS registration an organisation must comply with the following steps:
1. conduct an environmental review considering all environmental aspects of the organisa-

tion’s activities, products and services, methods to assess these, its legal and regulatory
framework and existing environmental management practices and procedures.
2. in the light of the results of the review, establish an effective environmental management
system aimed at achieving the organisation’s environmental policy defined by the top
management. The management system needs to set responsibilities, objectives, means,
operational procedures, training needs, monitoring and communication systems.
3. carry out an environmental audit assessing in particular the management system in place
and conformity with the organisation’s policy and programme as well as compliance with
relevant environmental regulatory requirements.
4. provide a statement of its environmental performance which lays down the results achieved
against the environmental objectives and the future steps to be undertaken in order to
continuously improve the organisation’s environmental performance.
The environmental review, EMS, audit procedure and the environmental statement must be
approved by an accredited EMAS verifier and the validated statement needs to be sent to the
EMAS Competent Body for registration and made publicly available before an organisation
can use the EMAS logo.
The EMAS regulation [1299]
Regulation (EC) No 761/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 March 2001
allowing voluntary participation by organisations in a Community eco-management and audit
scheme (EMAS).
The Eco-Management and Audit scheme (EMAS) evaluates and improves the environmen-
tal performance of organisations and the provision of relevant information to the public and
other interested parties by :
(a) the establishment and implementation of environmental management systems by organ-

isations as described in Annex I;
(b) the systematic, objective and periodic evaluation of the performance of such systems as
described in Annex I;
(c) the provision of information on environmental performance and an open dialogue with the
public and other interested parties;
(d) the active involvement of employees in the organisation and appropriate initial and ad-
vanced training that makes active participation in the tasks referred to under (a) possible.
Where they so request, any employee representatives shall also be involved.
Environmental policy: Should be the overall aims and principles of action of an organisation
with respect to the environment including compliance with all relevant regulatory requirements
regarding the environment and also a commitment to continual improvement of environmental
performance; the environmental policy provides the framework for setting and reviewing envi-
ronmental objectives and targets.
Annex I: describes the environmental management system.

Annex II: describes the requirements concerning internal environmental auditing.
Annex III: describes the environmental statement.
The aim of the environmental statement is to provide environmental information to the pub-
lic and other interested parties regarding the environmental impact and performance and the
continual improvement of environmental performance of the organisation. Environmental in-
formation shall be presented in a clear and coherent manner in printed form for those who have
no other means of obtaining this information. Upon its first registration and every three years
thereafter, the organisation is required to make available the information in a consolidated
printed version.
Annex IV: describes the logo, bearing the registration of the organisation.
Annex V: describes the accreditation, supervision and function of the environmental verifiers.
620
Annex VI: describes the environmental aspects

Annex VII: describes the environmental review
Annex VIII: describes the registration information
Recognition of ISO 14001:2004 [1300]

The Commission Regulation (EC) No 196/2006 of 3 February 2006 amends Annex I to Regu-
lation (EC) No 761/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council taking account of the
European Standard EN ISO 14001:2004.
Organisations participating in the eco-management and audit scheme (EMAS) shall implement
the requirements of EN ISO 14001:2004, which are described in Section 4 of the European
Standard (*) and are fully reproduced below:
ISO 14001
[1301] The EMAS EC directive is exclusively applicable to industrial companies , and was
transformed in 1995 into German law.
The ISO 14000 ff

The International Standard Organisation (ISO) developed at that time its ISO 14000 ff stan-
dards which regulates the implementation of environmental management systems and the per-
formance of environmental audits. These standards have a wide scope and are suited for service
companies. There is further integration work necessary for ISO 14000ff to correspond to the
requirements of the EMACS EC directive
European food safety regulation activities in EU

UK FSA Guidance issued on preventing and responding to food incidents [1302]
[1303]
The Food Standards Agency in a press release from 18. April 2007 announces that it has pub-
lished a guidance to help businesses and enforcement authorities to prevent and better respond
to food incidents.
According to the UK Food Standards Agency an incident is defined as any event where, there
are concerns about actual or suspected threats to the safety or quality of food that could require
intervention to protect consumers’ interests. This includes Food and feed where it impacts on
food safety or quality.
The guidance gives step-by-step advice about preventing food incidents, including how to iden-
tify potential hazards. It also gives practical advice about effective incident response from
notification through to post-incident actions.
The guidance is designed to help anyone who is responsible for handling incidents in the food
industry as well as those in local authorities. A summary version has been developed particu-
larly for small businesses. According to FSA the food chain is complex and food incidents are
difficult to eliminate altogether but the Agency hopes that providing clear, easy-to-follow in-
formation will help food businesses to reduce the likelihood of them happening. The FSA notes
that the guidance also aims to improve the handling of incidents by providing easy-to-follow
advice on the steps to follow if an incident does occur. The contents are voluntary in nature
and do not replace to summarise current best practice in incident management.
Get the Factsheet and the Guidance Document: Principles for preventing and responding
to food incidents.
http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/taskforcefactsheet23mar07.pdf
http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/principles23mar07
EC General Food Law Regulation 178/2002 [46]

General principles of food law
• Protects human life and health, the consumers’ interests, the fair food trade, the animal
and plant health and the environment.
• Aims to achieve the free movement in the Community of food and feed.
• Takes into consideration international standards.
Risk analysis:The Food Law is based on risk analysis.
Precautionary principle:In specific circumstances where the possibility of harmful effects

on health is identified but scientific uncertainty persists, provisional risk management measures
necessary to ensure health protection may be adopted. These measures shall be proportionate
and no more restrictive of trade than is required to achieve the health protection.
Protection of consumers’ interests: The Food Law aims at the protection of the inter-
ests of consumers and provides a basis for consumers to make informed choices in relation to
the foods they consume and prevents against:
• Fraudulent or deceptive practices.
• Adulteration of food.
• Other practices which may mislead the consumer.

622
Principles of transparency: Where there are reasonable grounds to suspect that a food or
feed may present a risk for human or animal health Public consultation and public information
public authorities shall take appropriate steps to inform the general public of the nature of
the risk to health, identifying the food or feed, the risk that it may present, and the measures
which are taken.
Confidentiality: Confidential information shall not be divulged to third parties, except for
information which must be made public to protect public health.
The conclusions of the scientific opinions relating to foreseeable health effects shall on no ac-
count be kept confidential.
Rapid alert system: A rapid alert system among the Member States for the notification
of a risk to human health deriving from food or feed is established as a network under the
responsibility of the Commission. The Member States notify the Commission under the rapid
alert system of:
• Measure to restrict the placing on the market, forcing the withdrawal from the market or
recall of food or feed.
• Recommendation or agreement at preventing, limiting or imposing specific conditions on
the placing on the market or the eventual use of food or feed on account of a serious risk
to human health.
• Rejection of a batch, container or cargo of food or feed by a competent authority at a
border post within the European Union on account of a serious risk to human health.
Emergency measures for food and feed of Community origin or imported from a
third country Where it is evident that food or feed originating in the Community or imported
from a third country is likely to constitute a serious risk to human health, animal health or
the environment, the Commission, acting on its own initiative or at the request of a Member
State, acts as follow:
• Suspension of the placing on the market or use of the food or feed of Community origin.
• Suspension of imports of the food or feed in question from a third country.
• Any other appropriate interim measure.
• At most within 10 working days, the measures taken shall be confirmed, amended, revoked
or extended.
General plan for crisis management: The Commission sets up a crisis unit and provides
scientific and technical assistance if necessary. The crisis unit is responsible for collect and
evaluate informations and identify the options to prevent, eliminate or reduce the risk to human
health.
Chapter 16
Ingredients
No-effect-level
[34] One of the most effective argument to play down the danger of cancer is to classify the
presence of a contaminant as not relevant because of the no-effect-level.
According to that theory the reduction of the amount of contaminants leads to a point where
a carcinogenic activity only develops after 100 to 150 years,that is after dying from other causes.
Unfortunately cancer comes up sooner, for the time being 25% of all human beings die of
cancer.
More as 50% of all cases are caused by ecological factors.
The theory of no-effect-level can only be applied on persons who wish not to reproduce himself.
The genes who suffered mutations because of ecological factors should not be passed on to
following generations in order not to pass on the genetic predisposition to cancer.
Carcinogenic activities are often analysed considering an isolated cause or a single agent.
Today there are lots of chemicals with carcinogenic activity boosting the effects in a syner-
gic way. Examples of such synergic activities are:
Nitrosamines with PCB ,benzpyrene BHT and traces of mercury.

The international institute of cancer in Lyon, France has proved that damages on the structure
of chromosomes caused by toxic substances are passed on from generation to generation.
The institute gave small dose of nitrosamines to pregnant mice. Typical tumours were not
only found on the mother but although on following generations who had no contact with ni-
trosamines.
According to professor Schmähl,researcher on cancer in Heidelberg,Germany, there is no dose ,
even being very small , that is free of danger to cause cancer because of the effect of synergic
623
624
addition of the effects.

The fact that a mouse can live with a small dose of carcinogen agents does not prove anything.
The mouse does not smoke,it does not breathe sulphur dioxide,it does not take medicine, it
does not eat ham, smoked salmon or hamburgers. Therefore we have to observe very critically
all additives and all ingredients of our food.
Some additives are described below:
Intensive farming in the European Union: Intensive farming bears the risk of overuse
of antibiotics according the National Consumer Council March 11 1998 in London.
The council blames in the words of his Director Ruth Evans the European Unions common
agricultural policy encouraging intensive farming.
Ruth Evans says:” The Common Agricultural policy is not just wasteful and costly to con-
sumers,it also encourages farming practices which raise serious public health concerns.
Overintensive farming methods led to the BSE/CJD crisis.So long as we reward high output
rather than high quality of food further risks are likely”
The Council enumerates in his report the following areas of concern:
1- Antibiotic: It is being used to treat , prevent and reduce disease and as a growth promoter
in animals. The residues can be toxic and cause hypersensitivity to antibiotics in some humans.
Uncontrolled use of antibiotics increase the resistance of certain bacteria to these therapeu-
tics. Salmonella and Escherichia coli are developing the capacity to resist the medicine which
treats diseases on humans and on animals.
2- Genetic modification : The introduction of selected properties of an organism into

another bears unknown risks which cannot be estimated by risk analysis.
3- Hormones: Hormones are used to promote animal growth.

This may lead to the development of sexual characteristics and certain cancers.
In spite of being forbidden in the European Community many hormones are illegal sold and
used.
4-Nitrates: Nitrates are used to enrich the soil and promote growth to vegetable crops.
High use of nitrates are linked to the cyanosis called ”blue baby Syndrome” and to stomach
cancer.
The maximum nitrate levels in vegetables and water which have been established are sometimes
exceeded.
5-Pesticides: Pesticides are used to protect crops and increase productivity.Exposure to cer-
tain pesticides may weaken the immune system and reduce resistance to cancer.
It has been noted that some pesticides are deposited in higher rates in the interior of fruits and
vegetables as in the skin. Peeling and washing has therefore no effect in reducing the content
of pesticides in food. According to Mrs. Evans the EU should promote the reduction of the use
of antibiotics,pesticides and nitrates and strengthen the regulatory framework of the industry,
which has proved to be inadequate.
In 1988 began in United Kingdom a monitoring of pesticide residues in food.

Since then there were no detectable levels of residues found in around 70% of examined sam-
ples.Only 1% exceeded the maximum residue levels.
Efforts however should be undertaken to achieve further reduction , because there is no-effect-
level.
Red meat consumption and risk of cancer: The government of United Kingdom has
made a statement that people who eat average 90 grams of cooked red meat per day, or around
8 to 10 portions a week need no reduction of red meat consumption.This includes beef, lamb
and pork.
A lower consumption of red meat would probably reduce the risk of colon rectal cancer.
However eating to little meat could cause iron deficiency.
In order to correct wrong behaviour related to food it is recommended to:
• Maintain a healthy body weight.
• Increase the amount and variety of fruits, vegetables and fibers.
• Be cautious about taking high dose of purified vitamin and mineral supplements.They
are not fully free of risks.
All colours which are allowed to be added to foods are included in positive lists. Substances
therein have been tested for their safety and meet specific purity criteria.
European food colours legislation: The Colour Directive 94/36/EC gives the actual per-
mitted food colours. The safety of food colours and other food additives is evaluated by the
Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), an advisory expert committee of the European Commis-
sion, located in Brussels.
The EU Commission Directive 95/45/EC of 26 July 1995 lays down specific purity criteria
concerning colours for use in foodstuffs with amendment Directives 1999/75/EC, 2001/50/EC
and 2004/47/EC.
626
The European Commission regulations are binding to all member countries of the EU, and
have to be implemented into their national laws. Non-EU member states food additives are
regulated by their national authorities.
World Health Organisation:The WHO and the FAO members of the UN have an advisory
committee, the Joint WHO/FAO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), The Eu-
ropean SCF and JEFF A’s toxicological evaluation, an ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) value,
expressed in mg/kg body weight per day, is allocated to the additive, or its use is not recom-
mended.
The E numbers for colour additives range from E100 (curcumin) to E180 (lithorubine BK).
Since a pigment derived from extraction may be differently specified as the same pigment de-
rived from chemical synthesis, it may be characterised by a differentiated E number: beta-
carotene extracts e.g. are listed under E160ai (mixed carotenes), and synthetic beta-carotene
under E 160aii (beta-carotene).
Food additive colours are defined in this regulation as: [1041]

S̈ubstances which add or restore colour in a food, and include natural sources which are nor-
mally not consumed as a foodstuff as such and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient
in food.̈ Thereby, the Colour Directive excludes colouring foodstuffs and food ingredients,
which may be used in the preparation of a final food, from the food additive regulation, such
as tomato juice (lycopene) or red beet juice (betanine) which is added to some foods, colouring
them.
According to the Colour Directive, the legal situation of such pigments changes, when they
are selectively extracted -relative to the nutritive or aromatic constituents -from the original
source material, and (in line with Frame Directive 89/107 /EEC) intentionally added to foods
for the purpose of their colouration. [1042]
Global harmonisation of food coloursThe global trade requires harmonisation of food

regulations on a world-wide basis in order to abolish barriers of trade and to ensure that the
economical and nutritional demands of all nations are considered.
JECFA develops international standards for food additives considering toxicology and elab-
orating purity criteria. These standards are the basis of the standard for food colours of the
General Standard for Food Additives from the Codex Alimentarius. It is not legally binding,
but influences food colour regulations all over the world.
Table 16.1: Natural food colours [1043]

Colour EC No Natural occurrence Pigment

Re/blue E163 Black grapes, blackcurrants, cherries Anthocyanins
elderberries, red cabbage, strawberries
Pink E162 Beetroot Betanin
Red E120 Cochineal Carminik acid
Green E140 Alfafa grass, nettles, parley, spinach Chlorophylls
E141 Chlorophyllins
Carotinoids:
E160a (i) Annatto Mixed carotenes
E160a (ii) Carrots Beta-carotene
Yellow E160b Oranges Bixin, norbixin
Orange E160c Prawns Capsanthin, Capsorubin
Red E160d Red pepper Lycopene
E160e Tomatoes Apocarotenal
E160f Palm fruit Apocarotenal (ethyl ester)
E160b Lutein
E161g Canthaxanthin
Yellow E100 Turmeric Curcumin
Yellow E101 Eggs, milk, yeast
Black E153 Carbonised vegetable material Carbon black
Brown E150a-d Melanoidins (caramel) Melanoidins
B-ficoeritrina natural red colour [1044]
Looking for alternatives to artificial food colours such as sunset yellow, tartrazine and quinoline
yellow Bermejo Ruperto, J. M. Alvarez-Pez and colleagues studied the marine algae Porphyrid-
ium cruentum and its protein B-ficoeritrina.
Phycoerythrin is a pigment of red algae and cyanobacteria. B-phycoerythrin and R-phycocyanin

in native state, were obtained by the authors using an inexpensive and simple process from the
red alga Porphyridium cruentum.
Removable edible paint for candies and dietary supplements [1045] A new form of
coloured coating is being suggested by D. Tyler McQuade and colleagues. The coating is based
on coloured calcium alginate hydrogels being useful in food such as candies and dietary sup-
plements, cosmetic, medicinal, and textile uses and to wherever nontoxic, easily removable
coloured coating is desired.
Tests were made on artificial turf spraying aqueous solutions of gelling agents: One layer of
calcium chloride solution was followed by spraying sodium alginate solution with one per cent
red food colour. The sprayed solutions then combined into a coloured thin film.
628
Gels with different physical properties were obtained varying the concentrations of the gelling
agent. Low concentration of 0.1 moles/l of calcium chloride resulted in a brittle, easily remov-
able film. High concentration of 2.0 moles/l of gelling agent resulted in a film which adhered
well and was difficult to remove.
International Numbering System for Ingredients INS- Number

[1046] Labelling often uses numbers instead of the common names of the ingredients.These
numbers differ from country to country. For international use the Codex Alimentarius pro-
poses an international numbering system which largely uses the same numbers of the European
Commission but without the E
E-Numbers
[33] As the European Market increases in importance throughout the world the E-numbers of
the allowed ingredients are getting important and are used by the Codex Alimentarius for the
International Numbering System INS. Therefore they are listed below with a short comment.:
E-number Ingredient
E100 turmeric
E101 lactoflavin
E101a riboflavin-5-phosphate
E102 tartrazin
E104 Chinolin yellow
E110 yellow orange S
Colorants Are used to improve the colour and the aspect of food being applied intern or
extern on the outer layer to promote appetite, selling.
In sweet products it may fake a high content of fruit,in mayonnaise it suggests a high content
of egg yolk.
Colours are used in candies, soft drinks, puddings, ice creams, liquors,margarine, cheese and
seafood.
E100 Turmeric It is the natural colour of the root of turmeric (Curcuma longa).It is the
traditional ingredient of curry powder.
It may be obtained by synthesis. Its colour is yellow.
E101 Lactoflavin
E101a Phosphate-5-riboflavin
Azo dyes Azo dyes are members of a chemical group comprising the following colours:
E102 tartrazin, E110 yellow-orange S, E122 Azorubine, E123 amaranth, E124 cochineal red red
A, E151 brilliant black BN, E180 Lithol rubine BK, E128 red 2G, E155 brown HT.
Carcinogenic activity of azo colours were found in rats were due to impurities of the colours
used for the test and could not be confirmed further on. Calcium deposits in the renal pelvis
was found but it could not be put in relation to the dosage of the colours.
E102 Tartrazin It is a synthetic substance highly allergenic.His use is restricted and even
forbidden in many European countries, such as Norway, Austria and UK. His colour is yellow.
Synthetic colours such as tartrazin were found in some tests to cause behaviour disturbance in
overactive children. Success of therapy with colours free diet were cited. High number of other
tests could not confirm these results making it controversial. Natural food such as haddock,
strawberries, tomatoes, celery and honey have higher allergy potentials as tartrazin. That is
why tartrazin is still allowed. [557].
POP colour as alternative to tartrazine [559]

The Institute for Agronomy Research (INRA) studies a by-product of the cider industry as a
natural alternative to tartrazine. The new colour is obtained from apples and is called POP
(phloridzine oxidation product)
Cider apples are rich in polyphenols forming colours as well as for the bitter and astringent
avours of ciders.
Phloridzine is a polyphenol which during the production of apple juice and cider is oxidised by
polyphenoloxidase enzyme resulting in the yellow POP colour which has antioxidant properties.
POP remains stable and resistant to the majority of food production processes. It is yel-
low at acidity less than pH 5 and orange at pH 6. It does not stain plastic packaging, unlike
hydrophobic carotenoid pigments.
Synthetic organic colours not azo dyes It is a group with different chemical composition.
E131 patent blue V, E133 brilliant blue FCF, E 142 green S are members of the triarylmethan
group. All other colours have different composition and cannot be grouped under a chemical
terms:
E104 Chinolin yellow, E132 indigotin I E127 erythrosine, Erythrosine bears iodine in its struc-
ture. This iodine is liberated in the body and acts upon the thyroid gland which causes thyroid
tumours on rats but not in other animals. That is why some authors would like to see the
allowance of this colours withdrawn.
630
E104 Chinolin yellow Synthetic substance harmless to rats and mice and dogs.The physi-
ology in humans is unknown.It is forbidden in food in USA.It has yellow colour.
E129 Allura red AC
E154 brown FK
Colorants found in nature: E101 riboflavin, E101a riboflavin 5’-phosphate, E100 cur-
cumin, turmeric oleoresin, E120 carmine, E140 chlorophyll, E141 Chlorophyll-Cu, E163 An-
thocyanin, E162 betanin, red beet juice, 160a beta-carotene, alfa, gama-carotene, E160f beta-
apo-8’-carotenal, E160b Bixin,norbixin, capsanthin, capsorubin, E160d lycopene, E161b lutein
(xanthophyll), and E161g Canthaxanthin.
Curcumin [1026]
Stig Bengmark looking for therapeutic agents which can modulate the inflammatory reaction
, found that curcumin, a component of turmeric, to be non-toxic, to have antioxidant activity,
and to inhibit such mediators of inflammation as NFB, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), lipooxyge-
nase (LOX), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS).
According to Bengmark turmeric, an approved food additive, or its component curcumin, has
shown surprisingly beneficial effects in experimental studies of acute and chronic diseases char-
acterized by an exaggerated inflammatory reaction.
Red beet Juice: When the concentrate of red beet is used as food colour specifications need
to be established. Because nitrate is a component of beet red, it is necessary to ensure that
levels of nitrate do not exceed the specifications, keeping in mind the need to limit the nitrate
content of food produced for infants and young children.
E160a beta-Carotene,alfa Carotene,gamma-Carotene
E160b Bixin, Norbixin,annatto,orleana It is the pigment of the annatto bush. The

pigment is considered to be harmless. His colour is orange.
E160c Capsanthin,Capsorubin
E160d Lycopene It is the pigment of the red tomato, being used as tomato powder. It is
also made synthetically.
E160e beta-Apo-8-carotenal
E160f beta-Apo-8-ethyl ester of carotene acid Is found in vegetables,in fruits, and in

liver. there is also a synthetic production of the pigment. It has yellow colour.
E150a sugar colour
E150b sulfite-sugar colour
E150c ammonium sugar colour
E150d ammonium sulfite-sugar colour
E161 Xanthophyll Natural colour found in many plants.It can also be obtained synthet-
ically. It is harmless.Its colour is orange/red.(It is removed from the positive List of EU al-
lowance.)
E161a Flavoxanthin (It was removed from the positive List of EU allowance.)
E161b Lutein
E161c Kryptoxanthin (It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.)
E161d Rubixanthin (It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.)
E161e Violaxanthin (It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.)
Rhodoxanthin (It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.)
E161g Canthaxanthin It is the pigment used to colour food. It is found in nature as red
colour of the flamingos, salmon which gets its pinkish colour from its shrimp diet, farmed
salmon however gets feed coloured with canthaxanthin in order to have its flesh as pinkish as
salmon in nature.
Broilers are although fed with canthaxanthin in order to give the skin and egg yolks a brighter
yellow colour. The colour of industrial egg yolk used for large food production is standarised
by adding canthaxanthin. It can be obtained by synthesis. It is used in drugs for bronze colour
of the skin to avoid skin cancer by heavy exposure to sun.
A suspected link between canthaxanthin as feed additive and eyesight problems led the Euro-
pean Commission to reduce the allowed levels of the additive from 80 mg canthaxanthin/Kg
632
feed down to a maximum level of 25 mg/Kg feed for salmon, trout and broilers and 8 mg/Kg
feed for laying hens.
A high intake of E161g canthaxanthin produces an accumulation of pigments in the retina,
affecting the sight.
E162 Red beet colour, betanin Natural colour of red beet.
E163 Anthocyanin Natural colour of the skin of red grapes.
E170 calcium carbonate
E171 Titanium dioxide There is very little known about undesired reactions of this sub-
stance.It has white colour.
E172 Iron oxides and hydroxides Their colour vary from yellow,to red,to brown and to
black.
E579 Iron gluconate Undesired reactions are unknown.The colours are yellow , red or black.
E17Aluminium There are no arguments against intake by healthy people. In case of

Alzheimer disease aluminium should be avoided.
E174 Silver
E175 Gold Gold and silver in high dosage are toxic.However there is no danger of poisoning
because of the high price of gold and silver limiting in this way its use.The colour is silvery and
golden.
E180 Rubin BK pigment It is an azo pigment. There is very little known about its
biochemical activity.
E141 Copper chlorophyll complex This substance has green colour and is obtained by
changing the magnesium radical of chlorophyll with copper.It is a risk to patients with syndrome
of Wilson.An increase of the supply of copper is not advisable.
E142 Brilliant green acid It is a synthetic substance being relatively harmless.

E239 Hexamethylene tetramine It is a widely used substance, as medicine against gout

and infections of the urinary tract.It is also a vulcanization accelerator and is used in the chem-
istry of explosives.In food it is a donator of formaldehyde.It was formerly used as preservative
.At the moment it is used only in some kind of cheese.
Natamycin Natamycin(it is also called pimaricin) is an antibiotic used in infections of

mouth,foot and genitals. It is employed in food industry to treat the shell of cheese. Re-
sistance against this antibiotic will soon be established in bacteria coming in contact with
it.His use should therefore be forbidden in food industry
Antioxidants Antioxidants are used to improve the shelf life of food interfering in the reaction
of oxygen with different components of food avoiding their chemical decomposition. They are
used in soups,sauces in powder, chewing gum,dried products of potatoes in margarine, salad
oil and icecream.
Chemical preservatives The chemical preservatives may prolong the shelf life of food re-
tarding the growth of bacteria and moulds.
The use of chemical preservatives enables the careless hygienic conditions by the processing of
food.
Chemical preservatives are used with fish products of all types, fruit juices, soft drinks, pas-
tries, salads, margarine, sauces, vines , dried fruits, citric fruits, bananas, desiccated vegetables,
sugar etc.
E200 Sorbic acid
E202 Potassium sorbate
E203 Calcium sorbate Sorbic acid and his salts are considered as harmless because they
are metabolised in human body like fatty acids.
They may produce adverse taste in food, specially in bread.
E210 Benzoic acid
E211 Sodium benzoate
E212 Potassium benzoate

634
E213 Calcium benzoate The benzoic acid and their salts causes frequent allergy (asthma,
urticaria) Cats are very sensible to benzoic acid. Even a very low concentration of 5 ppm
may be mortal for cats (permitted in food are concentrations of sorbic acid up to 2500 ppm in
herring salads and up to 4000 ppm in salmon products.Avoid to give these foods to your pets).
In combination with sorbic acid and E227 calcium hydrogen sulfit the undesired reactions are
potentiated.
E214 Ethyl-p-hydroxi benzoate
E215 PHB-ethyl ester sodium salt
PHB-propyl ester
E217 PHB-propyl ester
E218 PHB- methyl ester
E219 PHB-methyl ester,sodium salt The esters of PHB cause frequently allergies.They
act as vascular dilating and were indicated as anesthesics for frogs.
His antispastic action exceeds the action of sodium benzoate by one hundred times.
In high dosage they retard the growing of rats.
E220 Sulphur dioxide
E221 Sodium sulphide
E222 Sodium hydrogen sulphite
E223 Sodium metabisulfite
E224 Potassium metabisulfite
E226 Calcium sulphide
E227 Calcium bisulphide

E228 potassium bisulphide . Dioxides and sulphites liberating sulfur dioxide may cause
headache and vomits.This is noted after drinking vine.They destroy vitamin B1 and may pro-
duce asthma attack.Sulphur dioxide is a typical pollution of nature being directly responsible
for the dying of trees and pseudocroup disease.
E230 Biphenyl
E231 Ortophenylphenol
E232 Sodium ortophenyphenol
E233 Thiabendazol Are substances used as antifungal on citric fruitsand promote cancer
of the bladder in animals, being very strong in combination of E232 and E233. Thiabendazol is
used in medicine and also in agriculture as pesticide.It is being frequently used to impregnate
paper used to wrap up fruits. Avoid children playing with this paper or even putting in contact
with the mouth.
E234 Nisin
E235 Natamycin
E236 Formic acid (Not allowed as food ingredient.)
E237 Sodium formate (Not allowed as food ingredient)
E238 Calcium formate (Not allowed as food ingredient) Formic acid and their salts may
be metabolised in the body.Undesired reactions only with high levels.
E242 Dimethyl carbonate
E249 Potassium nitrite
E250 Sodium nitrite
E251 Sodium nitrate
E252 Potassium nitrate

636
E 270 Lactic acid . E270 stands for both (left or right) optical active forms.
E280 Propionic acid
E281 Sodium propionate
E282 Calcium propionate
E283 Potassium propionate Propionic acid is a natural compound of food being found in
very small quantities.It produces cancer on the antestomach of rats.
According to the health authorities it is not significant to human because we do not have
an antestomach.Propionic acid and their salts are used as preservative in bread.
Sorbic acid could become an ideal replacement for calcium propionate as mould inhibitor,
being thus a cost-saving method to keep bread fresh and mould-free for a couple of weeks.
Sorbic acid can not generally be used as a suitable alternative as it destroys yeast. The process
works by coating the sorbic acid within an invisible microfilm of vegetable fat to create a free
flowing powder that can easily be blended with dry ingredients prior to baking.
A controlled release mechanism ensures the sorbic acid is not released from its encapsulate
until the bread is baked past 600 C, after the yeast has finished working.
Preservatives in bread can be avoided as special care during production can achieve a reasonable
shelf life. Cost cutting on cleaning and maintenance of the production line and reheating after
packaging makes the use of preservatives and obscure microencapsulated ingredients attractive.
Bread should be produced as natural as possible.
E284 Boric acid
E285 Sodium tetraborate (borax)
Acidulants, acidity regulators Acidulants and acidity regulators are used to give a sour
taste to food and to act as preservative.Some acidulants act as stabilisers, other help antioxi-
dants or emulsifiers.
Acidity regulators adjust the pH like phosphates and citrates, acids and alkaline substances.
E260 Acetic acid

E261Potassium acetate
E262 Sodium acetate
E263 Calcium acetate Acetic acid(E260) is a harmless preservative. Acetic acid and his
salts (acetates) are synthetically produced from light benzine.
It is important for the production of leaven.The bread made with this leaven is however of
inferior quality
Other ingredients:
E325 Sodium lactate
E326 Potassium lactate
E327 Calcium lactate Lactic acid is obtained from starch under the activity or bacte-
ria.There are two types of lactic acids turning left and turning right.European legislation permits
both form. Small children cannot metabolise the dextrorotatory Form.Its excessive ingestion
may produce excessive blood acid.Food with D- lactic acid should be labelled with an warning.
E290 Carbon dioxide Its harmless and is found normally in air.
E296 Malic acid
E331 Sodium citrate i) Monosodium citrate, ii) disodium citrate, iii) trisodium
citrate During heating procedure for infant formulae or follow-on formulae made from cow’s
milk the surplus of ionised calcium results in denaturation and aggregation of proteins causing
a phase separation of fat and proteins. Sodium or potassium citrate, as well as sodium and
potassium phosphates are therefore used to complex free calcium ions reducing denaturation
and aggregation of formulae containing milk.
The use of sodium and potassium citrate is acceptable up to 2 g/l, either single or in combina-
tion, in infant formulae and follow-on formulae for infants and young children in good health
and in FSMP. Sodium and potassium citrate are permitted in weaning foods at quantum satis
levels for pH adjustment only ( Directive 95/2/EC) and as source of nutrients in infant formula
and follow-on formula for infants and young children in good health (Directive 91/321/EEC).
E335 Sodium tartrate i) monosodium tartrate ii) disodium tartrate

638
E350 Sodium malate
E351 Calcium malate Malic acid is present in many fruits.It exists as two types ( levoro-
tatory form and dextrorotatory form )
Malic acid and its salts (malates) are being produced starting from fumaric acid (E297 )
E297Fumaric acid Fumaric acid can be obtained synthetically.It is also being used in the
production of plastics.
E300 Ascorbic acid
E301 Sodium ascorbate
E302 Calcium ascorbate
E304 Fatty acid esters from ascorbic acid, i) ascorbyl palmitate, II)ascorbyl stearate
E306 Heavy tocopherol bearing extracts
E307 Alpha-tocopherol
E308 Gama-tocopherol
E309 Delta tocopherol
E310 Propyl gallate
E311 Octyl gallate
E312 Dodecyl gallate
E315 Isoascorbic acid
E316 Sodium isoascorbate
E320 Butylhydroxyanisole (BHA)
E321 Butylhydroxytoluene (BHT)

Modified starch According to the European labeling legislation starch modified with en-
zymes or with physical methods are not declared as ”modified”. These ingredients are declared
in the list of ingredients as ”starch”.
Modified starch has its chemical structure changed with inorganic acids.Together with E339
disodium phosphate. E343 dimagnesium phosphate and E 450 orthophosphates modified starch
can cause deposits of calcium in the pelvic region.
Emulsifier Emulsifier are substances which make a mixture of water and oil possible. They
reduce the surface tension between both liquids, so that small droplet of oil may swim in water.
This emulsion is called ”oil in water emulsion”.
When water swims droplets are swimming in oil it is called ”water in oil emulsion”.
In food technology there are many new organoleptic properties caused by emulsions such as
creamy,thickening,foaming. Emulsifiers are used widely in food such as margarine, in bakery in
candies,puddings bred, soups.
Emulsifiers have great biological activity.They should not be employed uncontrolled.There are
very few toxicologic studies about emulsifiers and were all made by their producers.In case of
negative results they were not published.Recent tests have not found adverse activities.It is
however believed that emulsifiers have a role in the development of diseases of intestines and
in allergies.
Emulsifiers modify the surface of the intestine making them permeable to allergens,contaminants
and other additives.
E322 Lecithin Lecithin is extracted from soya beans and colza.Enzymatic hydrolysis is per-
mitted.
E442 Ammonium phosphatides They are obtained from oil of colza treated with ammo-
nium.
E470a Sodium,potassium and calcium salts of fatty acids Fatty acids are natural
elements of fats and oils. Their salts are obtained by treating them with alcaline substances in
order to get soaps.
470b Magnesium salt of edible fatty acids
E471 Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids esterified with organic acids E471 reacts
with tartaric acid,acetic acid or lactic acid.
640
Citric acid ester of mono- and di-glycerides replacing lecithin in chocolate applica-
tions.
Soy lecithin remains the most frequently used ingredient to lower the viscosity of liquid choco-
late masses during processing. non-GM (genetically modified) soy lecithin with a full Identity
Preserved (IP) status is, however, getting rare. Recent developments of new types of citric acid
esters of mono- and diglycerides from castor oil are replacing soy lecithin to overcome the
shortage of GM- free lecithin on the international market
Functional advantages of citric acid ester of mono- and di-glycerides: Dosages of

lecithin higher than 0.4 per cent increase the yield value of the chocolate mass, making it nec-
essary either to add extra cocoa butter or PGPR (Polyglycerol Polyricinoleate E476 obtained
from ricinoleic acid and polyglycerol from canola) to the chocolate.
Citric acid ester of mono- and di-glycerides act also as a wetting agent in instant chocolate
drink powder an has an equivalent effect to soya lecithin when tested in a milk system.
It is also used as an instantising agent for powdered food preparations and instant chocolate
drink powders intended for re-hydration in water or milk.
E475 Polyglycerol ester of fatty acids: Possible name in the list of ingredients is polyg-
lycerol ester.
E477 Propylene glycol ester of fatty acids
E479b Thermally oxidized soybean with mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids
E481 Sodium stearyl-2-lactylate
E482 Calcium stearyl-2-lactylate
E483 Stearyl tartrate
E491 Sorbitan monostearate
E492 Sorbitan tristearate
E493 Sorbitan monolaurate
E494 Sorbitan monooleate

E495 Sorbitan monopalmitate
E330 Citric acid
E331 Sodium citrate
E332 Potassium citrate
E333 Calcium citrate Citric acid is present in many fruits, mainly in Kiwi and lemon.
Citric acid is part of the biological cellular activity.By high levels of citric acid in food, the
intestines are forced to assimilate higher rates of heavy metals and radionuclides.
Citric acid is won from sugar by bacterial activity.
E334 Tartaric acid
E335 Sodium tartrate
E336 Calcium tartrate
E337Sodium and potassium tartrate
E353 Metatartaric acid
E354 Calcium tartrate Tartaric acid is a natural substance obtained from rests of wine
reacting with calcium milk (E526) with potassium tartrate (E336) and finally with sulphuric
acid.Only the harmless levorotatory form form (left turning form) is allowed.
E338 Phosphoric acid
E339 Natrium phosphate i) monosodium phosphate, ii) disodium phosphate, iii)

trisodium phosphate
E340 Potassium phosphate, i) monopotassium phosphate, ii) dipotassium phos-

phate, iii) tripotassium phosphate
E341 Calcium phosphate i) monocalcium phosphate, ii) dicalcium phosphate, iii)

tricalcium phosphate
642
E343 Magnesium orthophosphate Not allowed any more as food ingredient.
E352 Calcium malate i) calcium malate ii) calcium hydrogen malate
E355 Adipic acid
E356 Sodium adipate
E357 Potassium adipate
E363
E380 Triammonium citrate
E385 Calcium disodium metylendiamine tetraacetate
E 400 Alginic acid
E401 Sodium alginate .
E402 Potassium alginate
E403 Ammonium alginate
E404 Calcium alginate
E405 Propylene glycol alginate
E406 Agar-Agar
E407Carrageenan Carrageenan is obtained from red alga Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus)
and is in use as stabiliser or thickening agent and as an encapsulation agent.
New researches and experiments from the University Iowa (USA) with animals rise the suspi-
cion that this ingredient has carcinogenic potential. Low molecular carrageenan was recognised
long time ago as carcinogenic. That is the reason to use only the long chain molecular types
or carrageenan.
Researches in the University of Iowa have shown that carrageenan is broken in small molecules
during processing and during digestion. These small parts can enter the bloodstream.[1027]-
Carrageen is largely sourced from the Philippines and Indonesia.
Thomas Karbowiak and colleagues found that adding high melting point fat to form an emul-
sified film can reduce the transfer of water and enhance moisture barrier properties. This is
important in the development of composite foods where Karbowiaks research can lead to edible
films and coatings applied between the different phases of this food.
Blends of iota-carrageenan hydrocolloid matrix and fat developed by the researchers reduce
the water transfer between compartments of different water activities in the same food. In-
creased shelf-life can thus be obtained.
The authors conclude that carrageenan can be used for application such as encapsulation of
active substances incorporated in biopolymer coatings or films for food packaging.
Degraded carrageen [1028]

Joanne Tobacman reviewing experimental data pertaining to carrageenan’s effects found that
exposure to undegraded as well as to degraded carrageenan was associated with the occurrence
of intestinal ulcerations and neoplasms. This association may be attributed to contamination
of undegraded carrageenan by components of low molecular weight, spontaneous metabolism
of undegraded carrageenan by acid hydrolysis under conditions of normal digestion, or the in-
teractions with intestinal bacteria.
Chemically degraded form of carrageen have lower molecular weight. factors such as bacte-
rial action, stomach acid and food preparation may transform undegraded carrageenan into the
more dangerous degraded type.
The safety of carrageenan has recently been reviewed in 2001 by the Joint FAO/WHO Ex-
pert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The experts on this Committee did not find
evidence to suggest that the levels of carrageenan in foods posed any hazard to health. [1029]
[1030]
During the course of the re-evaluation, the JECFA specifically reviewed the matter of the
potential for gastrointestinal effects from ingestion of carrageenan. This included an evaluation
of the effects of stomach flora on carrageenan, food processing conditions on carrageenan and
the degradation of carrageenan in the stomach. Throughout the course of the re-evaluation, the
JECFA considered genotoxicity studies, metabolism, reproduction and developmental toxicity,
and short term and long-term mammalian feeding studies (including a 7.5 year feeding study
in monkeys).
The JECFA also considered information about the current understanding of the concept of
cell proliferation and promotion of tumors.[1029] [1030]
644
The fact that proliferative effects were seen at 2.6% in the diet is not being considered as
relevant, because the estimated carrageenan consumption is below the threshold concentration
for these effects. Further, the JECFA also noted that at 5% in the diet of rats, carrageenan
did not act as at tumor promotor. Effects seen at exceptionally high levels of exposure to
carrageenan were determined to be caused by altered toxicokinetics. [1029] [1030]
Overall, the JECFA concluded that there was no concern to the continued consumption of
carrageenan. It allows for the use of the additive at the level necessary to achieve the techni-
cal or functional effect in food, also referred to as the level of Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP). The complete report of this review was made publicly available in 2003 and therefore
post dates the review by Dr. Tobacman. [1029] [1030]
E407a Processed Euchema algae
E410 Carob seed Also known as locust bean gum is allowed in follow-on formulae at a
maximum level of 1g/l, and in weaning foods at a maximum level of 10g/kg under Directive
92/2/EC. Locust bean gum is refined from the endosperm of the carob tree Ceratonia siliqua.
It contains tannins. The carbohydrate component is a galactomannan polymer consisting of
linked D-mannose units with side chains of D-galactose. It is used as a stabiliser and thickening
agent.
E412 Guar gum
E413 Tragacanth
E414 Gum arabic Gum arabic, gum acacia

Gum arabic, acacia gum E414 is won from acacia trees in Sudan and Nigeria. Gum arabic is
a complex mixture saccharides and glycoproteins, which gives it one of its most useful prop-
erties: it is perfectly edible. Other substances have replaced it in situations where toxicity is
not an issue, as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic varies widely and make
its reliable performance troublesome. Still, it remains an important ingredient in soft drinks,
syrups, hard gummy candies like gumdrops, and in marshmallows. [1031]
Corn fibre gums replacing acacia gum

Madhav P. Yadav and colleagues, in a study, extracted two different types of corn fiber gum
from the corn kernel pericarp and/or endosperm fiber. The researchers found that the emul-
sifying properties of corn fibre gums, an arabinoxylan (hemicellulose), were better than native
and modified acacia gums and could domestically produced gum with a dependable supply and
consistent quality replacing acacia gums.[1032]
E415 Xanthan
E416 Karaya gum
E417 Tara seed
E418 Gellan
E425 Konjac Konjac is approved by WHO, US Food and Drug Administration and the Eu-
ropean Union with up to one per cent of the final product. It is used for gel strength, viscosity
in confectionery,as dietary fiber,edible films, improves mouthfeel.
It is also called glucomannan being a hydrocolloidal polysaccharide obtained from the tuber of
Amorphophallus Konjac, K.Koch, growing in East Asia. The chain of the molecules of the non-
ionic glucomannan is built mainly of mannose and glucose in a ratio of 1.6 : 1.0 the molecular
weight is between 200,000 and 2,000,000 daltons. There are acetyl groups which are responsible
for water solubility.
There were rumours linking konjac with certain death cases after ingestion of jelly minicups
and fruit gel sweets containing konjac.
E420 Sorbit, ii) sorbit syrup
E421 Mannit
E422 Glycerin
E432 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monolaurat (Polysorbate 20)
E433 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monooleat (Polysorbate 80)
E434 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monopalmitate (Polysorbate 40)
E 435 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monostearate (Polysorbate 60)
E 436 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan tristearate (Polysorbate 65)
E440 Pectine
E444 Sacharoseacetate isobutyrate

646
E445 Glycerinester of root resin
E450 Sodium and potassium orthophosphate: Phosphates which are allowed as food
ingredients: i) disodiumdiphosphate, ii) trisodiumdiphosphate, iii)tetrasidiumdiphosphate, iv)
dipotassiumdiphosphate, v) tetrapotassiumdiphosphate, vi) dicalciumdiphosphate, vii) calci-
umdihydrogendiphosphate.
E451 Triphospohate: Allowed triphosphates are:i) Pentasodium triphosphate, ii) pentapotas-

sium triphosphate.
E452 Polyphosphates: Allowed polyphosphates are: i) sodium polyphosphate, ii) potas-

sium polyphosphate, iii) sodium calcium polyphosphate, iv) calcium polyphosphate.
E460 Cellulose: i) Cellulose microcristaline ii)Cellulose powder.
E461 Methylcellulose
E463 Hydroxymethyl cellulose
E464 Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose
E465 Ethylmethyl cellulose
E466 Carboxymethyl cellulose
E540 Calcium diphosphate: It is not allowed any more.
E541 Sodium aluminum phosphate
E543 Sodium and calcium polyphosphate: Not allowed any more, Phosphates in food
are a great group of substances. They were often commented in the press.They are not as
dangerous as public opinion
According official classifications the calcium ortophosphate ( E341 ) is harmless.Nevertheless
it is being used as insecticide.The activity of phosphates in case of hyperactivity of children is
still unknown.
Polyphosphates can alterate the metabolytic activity in humans.In addition to modified starch
they may cause calcification of the pelvic region in rats.
Polyphosphates intensify the activity of heavy metals making them easier to cross the intestine
wall.
Polyphosphates may contain a lot of impurities.

In Japan a group of children were intoxicated with arsene as impurity of ortophosphate used
in food.
Other impurities are uranium and cadmium. In Europe there are regulated the following max-
imal values in food:
• Fluor 3 mg/Kg
• Lead 50 mg/Kg
• Copper 10 mg/Kg
• Zinc 50 mg/Kg
E551 Silicon dioxide
E552 Calcium silicate
E553a i)Magnesium silicate, ii) Magnesium trisilicate
E553b Talcum
E554 Sodium aluminum silicate
E555 Potassium aluminium silicate
E556 Calcium aluminium silicate
E558 Betonit:Fluor silicic acid
E559 Aluminium silicate (kaolin)
E570 Fatty acids
E574 Gluconic acid Gluconic acid is present in small quantities in honey.It is used as
acidulant in soft drinks and as anticorrosive in tin can of sprays.
E575 Glucono delta-lactone Used in sausages to enhance the action of nitrate in order to
get a red colour.It is used as acid regulator. In low levels it is harmless.
648
E576 Sodium gluconate
E577 Potassium gluconate Potassium gluconate
E578 Calcium gluconate Calcium gluconate
E579 Iron-II gluconate Iron-II gluconate
E585 Iron-II lactate
E471 Mono and diglycerids from edible fatty acids: They are used as emulsifier for
margarine, fine food, and many other products. Moslems and Jews which are looking for halaal
or koscher foods are often exchanging E- Numbers or references of emulsifiers such as E 471
and E472.
The E-Number or their chemical name in the list of ingredients give no information about
the origin of the fatty acids used. Their origin may be vegetable, such as palm oil from the
palm Elaeis guineensis, cocoa oil from Cocos nucifera as well as hydrated oils and fats from soy
beans Soy bean (Glycine maxima), cottonseed oil from Gossipium barbadense and Gossipium
hirsutum.
Mono- and diglycerids E471 may also have their origin from bovine tallow and what is relevant
to moslems and Jews: from lard from pigs. The specifications given by the producer of the
emulsifier must specify the origin as it cannot be seen by the declaration of the list of ingredients.
In each case it must be cleared by the producer.
E472a Acetic esters of mono- and diglycerides of edible fatty acids
E472b Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of edible fatty acids
E472c Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of edible fatty acids
E472d Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of edible fatty acids
E472e Mono- and diacetyl tartaric acid ester of mono- and diglycerides of edible
fatty acids
E472f Mixture of tartaric and acetic acid ester of mono- and diglycerides of edible
fatty acids
E473 Sucrose ester of edible fatty acids

E474 Sucroglyceride
E500 Sodium carbonate It is used in backery,effervescent drinks,as acid regulator in baby

food and cheese.It is harmless for adults. For children it is necessary to consider the amount
of sodium from salt in food which must be added to the sodium of Sodium carbonate.
E501 Potassium carbonate It is being employed in the treatment of cocoa and as an acidity
regulator in sauces like Maggi in addition to chloridric acid.
Potassium carbonate is being employed in the production of raisins. It is being considered as
harmless.
E503 Ammonium carbonate Ammonium carbonate is toxic when eating directly, because
of the amount of ammonium being liberated.As ammonium is removed during heating in a
furnace its use for bakeries is harmless.
E504 Magnesium carbonate It is used in the production of cocoa and drinking wa-
ter,chewing gum and kitchen salt to avoid clotting.
E507 Chloridric acid It is used in the production of sugar from corn starch and as acid
hydrolysis of proteins to obtain Maggi.His use is harmless because no acidity is present in final
products.
E508 Potassium chloride It is used to substitute kitchen salt in case of hipersensibility to

sodium.It is also used in combination with gelling agents.
E509 Calcium chloride It is being used in combination with specific gelling agents. It acts
against the hardness of water in the production of beer.
In the production of cheese calcium chloride is being used in order to get a higher rate of
albumin.
E510 Ammonium chloride It is harmfull.In animals and in humans there were found modi-
fications or bones,modification of the haemogram,alterations of the hypophysis and renal gland.
According to World Health Organisation ammonium chloride produces weight loss in during
pregnancy,vomits, loss of appetite and hiperventilation.
It is being used in special types of candies and in drinking water, a maximum of 0,6 mg
ammoniac/liter had been allowed.(It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.) index-
Sulphuric acid
650
E513 Sulphuric acid It is used in the treatment of drinking water and in the production of
sugar. It is harmless as long the concentration in food is low so that there cannot be caused
acid lesions.
E514 Sodium sulphate, ii) Sodium hydrogen sulfate Sodium sulphate is being used
as strong laxative.In food it adjusts colours in very little concentrations so that it may be
considered as harmless.
E515 Potassium sulphate, ii) Potassium hydrogen sulphate
E517 Ammonium sulphate
E520 Aluminium sulphate
E521 Aluminium sodiumsulphate
E522 Aluminium potassium sulphate
E523 Aluminium ammoniumsulphate
E516 Calcium sulphate It is gypsum, being used to stabilise bread and is used in addition
to thickening agents.It is also used as colour. It is used to treat water for the production of
beer.
E524 Sodium hydroxide It is being used extern in the production of pretzel, in the pro-
duction of cocoa,in treatment of drinking water.
E525 Potassium hydroxide
E526 Calcium hydroxide Calcium milk is being used in the preservation of eggs.
E527 Ammonium hydroxide Ammoniac is permitted to treat cocoa, and drinking water.As
a free substance it is cell toxic.
E528 Magnesium hydroxide
E529 Calcium oxide It is used in treating drinking water. IndexMagnesium oxide

E530 Magnesium oxide
E535 Sodium ferrocyanide
E536 Potassium ferrocyanide
E538 Calcium ferrocyanide (It is removed from the positive list of EU allowance.)
E541 Sodium aluminium phosphate
E900 Dimethyl polysiloxane
E901 Beeswax
E902 Candelilla wax
E903 Carnauba wax
E904 Shellac
E912 Montan ester
E914 Polyethylen waxoxidate
E927 Carbamid
E938 Argon
E939 Helium
E941 Nitrogen
E950 Acesulfame K It is an artificial sweetener. “K” stands for the chemical sign of
potassium,as salt.It is stable at high temperatures.An old nomenclature was acetusulfame.
The European Commission has approved acesulfame K in June 1990 with an ADI (Acceptable
Daily Intake) of 9 milligram/kilogram body weight. This ADI should not be surpassed.
652
E951 Aspartame Aspartame is a low-calorie artificial sweetener which was approved by the
FDA in 1981 and by EU Commission since June 1990.
It is built by two amino acids: Phenylalanine and asparagine acid and methanol which are
linked together to form the new substance aspartame.
In the stomach the aspartame is broken down into methanol and the two amino acids which
are than digested as any other amino acids furnishing 4 Kcal/gram.
Aspartame is considered to be safe with exception in cases of phenylketonuria (PKU) which

is a rare disorder caused by a defective gene which regulates metabolism of the amino acid
phenylalanine. An intermediary toxic metabolite builds up in the blood damaging brains. A
special diet low in phenylalanine must be continued the whole life. Because of that aspartame
must be labelled with: ”contains a source of phenylalanine”, as a warning for patients with
phenylketonuria.
A good information about safety of aspartame is given by www.cancer.org. Please search for
”Aspartame”. Fanatics claim the methanol being released in the body is converted to formic
acid and formaldehyde Thermal decomposition of aspartame is told to origin DKP, a substance
with cancer activity. See at www.dorway.com.
Remember the end of Introduction of www.ourfood.com: ”Be careful not to fall into sec-
tarian thinking-allow always arguments of the other side.” Aspartame was approved by FDA,
EU Commission and other international governmental institutions which are guarantors for a
neutral decision regarding safety of aspartame.
Lack of association between saccharin, aspartame and other sweeteners and the
risk of several common neoplasms.
Studies linking Aspartame with cancer
Animal bladder cancer and saccharin. CSPI input to the NTP’s review of the
artificial sweetener saccharin October 24, 1997 [1033]
Sodium saccharin causes urinary bladder tumors in male rats. While some have argued that
those tumors are irrelevant to humans, such arguments are flawed. While it cannot be proved
that sodium saccharin’s causation of bladder tumors in male rats is relevant to humans, neither
can it be assumed to be irrelevant.
Thus, we urge the NTP on the basis of currently available data to conclude that saccharin
is ”reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen,” because there is ”sufficient” evidence of
carcinogenicity in animals (multiple sites in rats and mice) and ”limited” or ”sufficient” evi-
dence of carcinogenicity in humans (bladder cancer) and not to delist saccharin, at least until
a great deal of further research is conducted.
The Ramazzini Study 2005 [1034]

Lambertini an colleagues demonstrated, that aspartame causes a statistically significant, dose-
related increase in lymphomas and leukaemias in female rats at dose levels very near those to
which humans can be exposed.
The authors say that this could be related to methanol, a metabolite of aspartame, which
is metabolised to formaldehyde and then to formic acid, both in humans and rats.
The authors conclude that the results of the study call for urgent re-examination of permissible
exposure levels of aspartame in both food and beverages, especially to protect children.
Animal studies of the 1970s, linking saccharine to bladder cancer were not reproduced in hu-
mans. Researchers at Ramazzini’s cancer research centre in Italy caused a stir in 2005 by
claiming that their study indicated that aspartame consumption by rats leads to increase in
lymphomas and leukaemias in females at dose levels ”very near those to which humans can be
exposed”
Proof to the contrary: No link of aspartame and cancer
The NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study[1035]

Researchers examined the relationship between aspartame intake and 1,888 lymphomas or
leukemias and 315 malignant brain cancers among the participants of the NIH-AARP Diet and
Health Study from 1995 until 2000. Development of these cancers was not associated with
estimated aspartame consumption, refuting a recent animal study with positive findings for
lymphomas and leukemias and also contradicting claims regarding brain cancer risk.
The NCI Study [1035]

The US National Cancer Institute study found no statistically significant link between aspartame-
containing beverage consumption and leukemias, lymphomas or brain tumors in man or women.
The EFSA Opinion May 2006 [1037]

The European Food Safety Authority issued its opinion last may, that there is no need for a
further safety review of aspartame nor a revision of the acceptable daily intake (40 mg/kg body
weight).
According to Panel the kinetic data in humans indicate that dose levels around the accept-
able daily intake (ADI) (40 mg/kg bw/d), even when taken as a bolus dose, do not lead to
systemic exposure to aspartame. Furthermore, exposure to any of its breakdown products,
including methanol or formaldehyde, is negligible.
The Panel considers that no significant new data have emerged since 2002 on aspects other
654
than carcinogenicity and there is therefore no reason to review the previous SCF opinion on
aspartame. The Panel concludes, on the basis of all the evidence currently available from the
ERF study, other recent studies and previous evaluations that there is no reason to revise the
previously established ADI for aspartame of 40 mg/kg bw.
Network of case-control studies, Dr. Silvano Gallus 2006 [1038]

Dr Silvano Gallus and colleagues considered data from a network of case-controlled studies
conduced in Italy between 1991 and 2004. A significant inverse trend in risk for increasing
categories of total sweeteners was found for breast and ovarian cancer, and a direct one for
laryngeal cancer. The authors concluded that there is a lack of association between saccharin,
aspartame and other sweeteners and the risk of several common neoplasms.
These findings confirm foregoing researches, such as the US National Cancer Institute study
which found no statistically significant link between aspartame-containing beverage consump-
tion and leukemias, lymphomas or brain tumors in man or women.
Aspartame-acesulfame-salt E962 [1039] It is a new sweetener built of acesulfame K which

has substituted the sodium ion from the aspartame creating thus a chemical link between both
sweeteners. This new sweetener is supposed to have handling advantages. It is about to be
approve by the EU Commission.
Sucralose (E955) [1039] It is a new sweetener which is about to be approved by the EU

Commission.It is non-caloric an is 600 times sweeter than sugar. Sucralos (trichlorogalacto-
sucrose) is being made by chlorinating saccharose. The ADI is 15 mg/Kg body weight. It is
resistant to heat and can be used for cooking and backing.
Sucralose: National Institute of Health [1040]
Cheap sucralose copy

Food industry tries to substitute sugar for cheap alternatives and follows a trend towards sugar-
free and low-calorie products. Altern is a low-calorie tabletop sweetener containing sucralose.
It is being blamed of infringing on intellectual property of Tate & Lyle company, which has a
1976 patent on a similar sucralose product branded Splenda.
The patent expired but Tate & Lyle holds on its process patents. Altern product is sold
at a 30% discount and is believed to be a direct copy of Splenda, which it had supplied to a
manufacturing customer who had then sold it to the US retail giant.
E952 Cyclamate and its Na- and Ca- salts It is an artificial non-caloric non-cariogenic
sweetener. Its chemical name is sodium or calcium cyclohexylsulfamate. Cyclamate is about
1/10 sweeter than saccharin and 30 times than sugar. An AID of 11 mg/Kg body weight can
easily exceeded when refreshing drinks are largely consumed in summer. It has no wrong taste
in high concentrations. AID is therefore easily exceeded in kitchen formulations.
Cyclamate is heat resistant and can be used for cooking and backing. Cyclamate is not digested
from most of people, only a small number can do it.
Cyclamate is often used in combination with other sweeteners enhancing each other so that
final taste is sweeter as the sum of the individual sweeteners. 5 mg of saccharin together with
656
50 mg cyclamate are equivalent to 125 mg cyclamate and 12.5 mg saccharin. Cyclamate is also
used in combination with aspartame, sucralose and acesulfame K.
Cyclamate was banned in the United States in 1970 following the result of a test on rats
which developed bladder cancer with very high dose of cyclamate in addition to saccharin. A
current petition to reaprove cyclamate is before the FDA.
Cyclamate and its major metabolites cyclohexylamine are not considered as carcinogenic ac-
cording to numerous animal test failing to confirm the original findings of 1969. Meanwhile
cyclamate is approved in more than 55 countries around the world.
Cyclamate and the EU Directive 2003/115/EC amending Sweeteners Directive

94/35/EC: The Directive 2003/115/EC, taking account of the opinion of the Scientific Com-
mittee on Food on cyclamic acid and its sodium and calcium salts (cyclamate) restricts the
use of cyclamate in water, milk and fruit juice based drinks as well as energy-reduced and
non-added sugar drinks and a range of confectionery products, including sugar-free chewing
gum and breath-freshening sweets.
Formulations with blending of cyclamate and acesulfame are trying to compensate the reduction
of cyclamate.
E954 Saccharin and its Na- and Ca- salts [1009]Saccharin is a artificial sweetener Sac-
charin is 300 times sweeter than sugar. Due to the water solubility the sodium salt is most
frequently used. Saccharin is high temperature and cooking and backing resistant.
Saccharin high dose was charged of causing bladder cancer, this could not be confirmed. In
small amount saccharin is considered to be safe. In some industrial recipes sugar is being sub-
stituted because to bring down cost of ingredients.
Don’t use a higher concentration as 5% to 8% sugar substitution= maximum 0.02% saccharine
in food as a metallic taste will be present in higher concentrations.
All artificial sweeteners reduce their sweetening power when a certain dose is exceeded. The
combination of two sweeteners such as saccharin/acesulfame K or saccharin/cyclamate or cy-
clamate/aspartame increases the sweetening power.In kitchen and in industrial production sac-
charin/cyclamate in relation 1 to 10 is therefore frequently used.
E957 Thaumatin [1009] It is won from the fruit of the west African shrub Ketemfe Thau-
matococcus daniellii. It is a mixture of proteins (a polypeptide chain of 207 amino acids). It is
2000 times sweeter than saccharose.
It is non-cariogenic and has 4.2 Kcal/g and contributes no calories when used in low levels. It
is considered as safe and has no maximum ADI (Allowable Daily Intake). It is not resistant
to heat, therefore not indicated for cooking and backing.Thaumatin can also be produced by
bacteria using genetic engineering.
E959 Neohesperidin DC Neohesperiden DC[1009] It is won from different types of Bromelia

fruits, like pineapple.and grapefruit. It is a sweetening agent with very intensive taste, dihy-
drochalcone C28 H36 O15 , a glycosidic flavonoid. It is also a bitterness suppressor. Blends of
Neohesperidin with polyols, aspartame and acesulfame K and Saccharine are used. It is 1500
times sweeter than saccharose.The ADI of neohesperidin is 5 mg/Kg body weight.
Erythritol [1010] Erythritol is a natural sugar alcohol (a type of sugar substitute). It is a

non-caloric sveetener. It has been approved for use in the United States and throughout much
of the world and in the EU. It was included in the positive list with amendment of the EC
Directive 94/35/EC.
It is 70% as sweet as table sugar and excellent-tasting, yet it is virtually non-caloric, does
not affect blood sugar, does not cause tooth decay, and is absorbed by the body, therefore
unlikely to cause gastric side effects unlike other sugar alcohols. Under U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) labeling requirements, it has a caloric value of 0.2 calories per gram
(95% less than sugar and other carbohydrates), but other countries such as Japaqn label it at
0 calories.
Erythritol has been certified as toothfriendly. The sugar alcohol cannot be metabolized by
oral bacteria, and so does not contribute to tooth decay. Interestingly, erythritol exhibits some,
but not all, of the tendencies to ”starve” harmful bacteria like xylitol does. Unlike xylitol,
erythritol is actually absobed into the bloodstream after consumption but before excretion;
however it is not clear if the effect of starving harmful bacteria occurs systemically at this
stage. [448]
Erythritol occurs naturally in a wide variety of fruits, vegetables and fermented foods. It has
a crystalline appearance, taste and functionality similar to sucrose, yet without the calories.
E967 Xilit
E999 Quillaia extract
E1105 Lysozyme
E1200 Polydextrose
E1201 Polyvinylpyrrolidon
658
E1202 Polyvinylpropylpyrrolidon
Modified starch
E1404 oxidized starch : The name used for the ingredients list is ”modified starch”.
E1410 Monostarch phosphate : The name used for the ingredients list is ”modified
starch”.
E1412 Distarch phosphate : The name used for the ingredients list is ” modified starch”.
Distarch phosphate has been requested for use up to 10g/l (reconstituted dry powders) and
22g/l (liquids) in infant formulae and follow-on formulae for infants and young children in good
health and in FSMPs.
In its 1992 opinion the SCF recommended distarch phosphate should not be permitted in
infant formulae because the Committee would prefer to see direct evidence indicating that in-
fants can tolerate the 2.5% level of modified starches then requested. The current request is
for use up to 2.2%.
A concern was also raised that infants could develop fermentative diarrhoea or modification
of the gut flora. No new information on these aspects have been found. Furthermore, the
Committee is not persuaded there is a need for use of distarch phosphate in instant formulae
generally. The Committee does not consider that the use of distarch phosphate is acceptable in
infant formulae, follow-on formulae for infants and young children in good health and in FSMP.
[1407]
E1413 Phosphated distarch phosphate : The name used for the ingredients list is ”
modified starch”.
E1414 Acetylated distach phosphate : The name used for the ingredients list is ” modified
starch”.
E1420 Acetylated starch The name used for the ingredients list is ” modified starch”.
E1422 Acetylated distarch adipate The name used for the ingredients list is ” modified
starch”.
E1440 Hydroxypropyl starch The name used for the ingredients list is ” modified starch”.
E1442 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate The name used for the ingredients list is ”
modified starch”.
E1450 Starch sodium octenyl succinate The name used for the ingredients list is ”
modified starch”.
E1505 Triethyl citrate
E1518 Glyceryl triacetate
Vitamins Vitamins are essential substances which act in very small quantities.
Under- or oversupply of vitamins bears serious dangers.To avoid misuse in food production
there were limits established by each country.
Germany has a limit for vitamin A of 1000 and for vitamin D 2,5 microgramms/100g food.
As sun incidence and the amount of natural vitamins in different geographical regions through-
out the world vary, each country has its own regulations.
France being nearer to the Equator and having thus a higher sun incidence as Germany has
a limit of vitamin A which is very low.Vitamin D is there not allowed in order to avoid an
oversupply.
The European Union advises not to exceed 1000 mg of complementary vitamin C in a daily
personal feeding.
Other specific legislations exists and should be observed for each vitamin and each kind of food.
Vitamin D status is unsufficient [1408]

According to US surveys the intake of vitamin D is unsufficient. Additional food fortification
as well as dietary and supplement guidance are needed for the general population.
Vitamin D status differs by latitude and race and variation of the sunlight during seasons,
especially the winter month. Individuals with more skin pigmentation are at increased risk of
deficiency. It is synthesised in the body on exposure to sunlight. Food can not supply sufficient
amounts.
To reduce cancer risk, exposure to sunlight or artificial UVR sources should be accompanied by
abundant fruit and vegetables intake and/or antioxidants, not smoking in order to help combat
the free radicals generated from UVR exposure.
Skin pigmentation and Vitamin D deficiency [1409]

According to the study published by Garland, a scientist of the University of California Moores
660
Cancer Centre, the vitamin D status differs by latitude and race, with residents of the north-
eastern United States and individuals with more skin pigmentation being at increased risk of
deficiency.
The increased skin pigmentation of African-Americans reduces their ability to synthesize vita-
min D, turning them more susceptible to breast cancer, colon, prostate and ovarian cancers as
white women.
Vitamin D fortified foods are consumed to reduce the risk of osteoporosis. The cancer risk
reduction may become another important reason for the demand of this vitamin The authors
suggest that efforts to improve vitamin D status, for example by vitamin D supplementation,
could reduce cancer incidence and mortality at low cost, with few or no adverse effects.
Increased intake of Vitamin D3 to 1000 IU/day to lower colorectal cancer risk

[1410]
Overall, individuals with 1000 IU/day oral Vitamin D had 50% lower incidence of colorectal
cancer compared to reference values. Cedric F. Garland urges for a prompt public health ac-
tion to increase intake of Vitamin D3 to 1000 IU/day, and to raise 25-hydroxyvitamin D by
encouraging a modest duration of sunlight exposure.
Sun exposure and prostate cancer risk reduction[1411] [1426]

A study leaded by Esther M. John found that the risk of prostate cancer was reduced by 50
percent in men who had high levels of sun exposure during their lifetimes, compared with men
who had low lifetime levels. The findings of this study support the hypothesis that sun exposure
and vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphisms together play important roles in the aetiology
of prostate cancer.
The best source of vitamin D is from 20-30 minutes sun exposure. Long sun exposure is
discouraged due to the risk of skin cancer. Other authors find 5 to 10 minutes sun exposure
on our face and arms during the summer time sufficient to obtain the required daily amount of
Vitamin D. [1415]
Vitamin D supplementation in winter necessary [1413] [1414] [1415]

Dr Julie Wallace and researchers from the Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Healthtogether
with with colleagues from University College Cork to investigate what level of dietary vitamin
D is needed in winter.
According to Dr. Wallace higher levels of vitamin D fortification and supplementation are
needed. Large population groups are at risk of having not sufficient supply of vitamin D. Foods
which are good sources of vitamin D like oily fish are not consumed regularly. The best source
could be from fortified foods and supplements.
Some authors point out that Asian children suffer insufficient levels of vitamin D with , risk of
osteoporosis.
Vitamin D2 , ergocalciferol is not suitable for supplementation [1416]

Both forms of vitamin D (D2 and D3 ) used in supplementation had been regarded as equivalent
and interchangeable.
However, according to Lisa A Houghton and Reinhold Vieth, ergocalciferol (Vitamin D2 should
not be regarded as a nutrient suitable for supplementation or fortification because it is less
efficient in raising serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, its metabolites have a diminished binding to
vitamin D binding protein in plasma, and a nonphysiologic metabolism and shorter shelf life
compared with cholecalciferol (vitamin D3 ).
Consumer should look at the ingredient list of fortified foods such as margarine, cereals and
probiotics for good cholecalciferol (vitamin DHoughton Vitamin D2).
Low protein diet, soy foods and osteoporosis [1413] [1414] [1415]
Several recent epidemiological studies demonstrate reduced bone density and increased rates of
bone loss in individuals habitually consuming low protein diets.
In short term studies Women’s Health Research at Yale found that a low animal and plant
protein diet caused levels of certain hormones (calcitropic parathyroid hormone (PTH) ) to
rise, which act to stimulate bone breakdown to compensate for the calcium it was not getting
from the diet.
The calcitropic hormones were NcAMP, Midmolecule PTH, Intact PTH and calcitriol.
Replacing all meat and animal proteins with soy foods, the low soy protein diet seemed to
interfere with intestinal calcium absorption to an even greater extent than did the low mixed
source protein diet. Should this be confirmed in ongoing studies, inclusion of additional calcium
when consuming soy foods will prove to be necessary.
Sunscreen-antioxidant reducing melanoma risk [1417]

A novel sunscreen-antioxidant was developed by Damiani and colleagues contains the UVB
absorber, 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate (OMC) combined with the piperidine nitroxide
TEMPOL, which has antioxidant properties. This sunscreen could reduce the risk of melanoma
caused by sun exposure.
Vitamin D hormone to control malignant cell growth [1426]

According to Dr. Anthony Norman of the University of California, Riverside and there are
evidences that vitamin D, when converted into a hormone, promotes the normal growth of cells
and has anticancer properties rising the interest to develop the vitamin D hormone or analogues
662
for use in cancer treatment vitamin D hormone to decrease the proliferation of cells and control
malignant cell growth.
Sunlight exposure of children in the United Arab Emirates [1425]

According to the paediatrician Dr. Tamer Adham the children over eight years old in the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) need 15-20 minutes of exposure to sunlight per day because they
often have a high level of vitamin D deficiency due to lack of exposure to sunlight in this region.
This may be due to clothing habit of the region.
Other authors recommend 2000 IU, equal to the so-called upper safe limit, however, scien-
tists do not recommend taking high doses of the vitamin warning against increased calcium
blood levels and kidney problems.
Vitamin D inhibits the function of tumour involved protease enzymes [1418]

Bo-Ying Bao from the University of Rochester and Taipei Medical University found evidences
that indicate that vitamin D, in the form of the highly active 1 alfa, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3
(1,25-VD) suppresses prostate cancer progression by inhibition of tumour growth and metas-
tasis. Vitamin D acts inhibiting the function of protease enzymes that are involved in tumour
invasion.
These findings support the idea that vitamin D-based therapies might be beneficial in the
management of advanced prostate cancer.
Bo-Ying Bao found that 1,25-Vitamin D decreased matric metalloproteinases (MMP-9) and
cathepsins (CPs), while it also increased the activity of their counterparts, tissue inhibitors
of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and cathepsin inhibitors. 1,25-VD did not suppress MMP-9
expression at the transcriptional level, but reduced its mRNA stability.
Studies reveal hypovitaminosis of vitamin D and call to increase vitamin D in-

take.
Elina Hypponen and Chris Power in a British study found significantly higher concentrations
of vitamin D in persons which used vitamin D supplements or oily fish, but were not signifi-
cantly higher in participants who consumed vitamin Dfortified margarine than in those who did
not. The authors conclude that the prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in the general population
was alarmingly high during the winter and spring, which warrants action at a population level
rather than at a risk group level. [1419]
Julia Knight and colleagues found, in an epidemiological study, that reduced breast cancer
risks were associated with increasing sun exposure cod liver oil use and increasing milk con-
sumption for more than 10 glasses per week from ages 10 to 19 but less in ages 20 to 29, and
no evidence was found for ages 45 to 54. The authors conclude that vitamin D could help to
prevent breath cancer in early life, particularly during breast development, but found reduced
and even no such effect in higher ages. [1420]
Evidences for a better survival of patients with non-small-cell lung cancer due to vitamin
D were reported by Wei Zhou and colleagues (2007). The researchers investigated the results of
circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels on overall survival (OS) and recurrence-free
survival (RFS) in early-stage nonsmall-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).
For the joint effects of 25(OH)D level and vitamin D intake, the combined high 25(OH)D
levels and high vitamin D intake were associated with better survival than the combined low
25(OH)D levels and low vitamin D intake.. Similar effects of 25(OH)D levels and vitamin D
intake were observed for RFS. The authors concluded that vitamin D may be associated with
improved survival of patients with early-stage NSCLC. [1421]
Evaluation of most relations of health and disease that involve vitamin D leads to the con-
clusion that a desirable 25(OH)D concentration is >75 nmol/L (30 nanog/mL). [1422] [1423]
Supplemental intake of 400 IU vitamin D/d has only a modest effect on blood concentra-
tions of 25(OH)D, raising them by 7-12 nmol/L, depending on the starting point. To raise
25(OH)D from 50 to 80 nmol/L requires an additional intake of about 1700 IU vitamin D/d.
The most advantageous serum concentrations of 25(OH)D begin at 75 nmol/L (30 ng/mL),
and the best are between 90 and 100 nmol/L (36-40 ng/mL).
In most persons, these concentrations could not be reached with the current recommenda-
tion of the Institute of Medicine of intakes are 200 IU/d from birth through age 50 years, 400
IU for those aged 51-70 years, and 600 IU for those aged >70 years.
Bischoff-Ferrari and colleagues suggest therefore in 2006 that an intake for all adults of >1000
IU (40 microg) vitamin D (cholecalciferol)/d is needed to bring vitamin D concentrations in no
less than 50% of the population up to 75 nmol/L. The authors stress that the implications of
higher doses for the entire adult population should be addressed in future studies. [1422]
Based on these facts Reihold Veight an colleagues call for international agencies such as the
Food and Nutrition Board and the European Commission’s Health and Consumer Protection
Directorate-General to reassess as a matter of high priority their dietary recommendations for
vitamin D, because the formal nationwide advice from health agencies needs to be changed.
[1424]
664
Flavours,flavour enhancer These ingredients give taste,hide off flavour and permit stan-
dardisation of the taste of food.
They increase the value of the food bearing however the danger of excessive consume.
Aroma According to labelling rules of the European Community aromes can be included in
the label without mentioning their origin. Artificial aromes and synthetic aromes are found
under this class.Natural aromes are more valuable as artificial ones.They are more complex
having therefore a better taste.The composition of synthetic flavours is more simple in their
composition as natural ones. The taste is therefore not so specific.
Natural aromes are extracts of of spices such as vanilla and orange peeling.
Aroma, identical with natural aromas are synthetic origin.They have identical chemical struc-
ture of natural aromas.
Artificial aromas are of synthetical origin.They are not found in nature, for example: ethyl
vanillin, methyl cumarine,resorcine dimethyl ether.
Smoke flavourings:
Normal good brand smoke food flavourings are safe. All smoke flavourings are being assessed
according to EU Regulation 2065/2003 to see if they are suitable for human consumption. They
will only be allowed for use in food if they are shown to be safe and are not a risk to health.
The Regulation 2065/2003EC states: ” Because smoke flavourings are produced from smoke
which is subjected to fractionation and purification processes, the use of smoke flavourings is
generally considered to be of less health concern than the traditional smoking process.
Several international regulations cover smoke flavourings because of the concern about PAHs
(Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons).
Summary of the Regulation EC 2065/2003: [1427] The chemical composition of smoke

depends among other things on the type of wood used, the method used for developing smoke,
the water content of the wood and the temperature and oxygen concentration during smoke
generation. Smoked foods in general give rise to health concerns, especially with respect to the
presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
The production of smoke flavourings starts with the condensation of smoke. The condensed
smoke is normally separated by physical processes into a water-based primary smoke conden-
sate, a water-insoluble high-density tar phase and a water-insoluble oily phase. The water-
insoluble oily phase is a by-product and unsuitable for the production of smoke flavourings.
The primary smoke condensates and fractions of the water-insoluble high density tar phase, the
”primary tar fractions”, are purified to remove components of smoke which are most harmful
to human health. They may then be suitable for use as smoke flavouring.
Smoke is generated from wood which has not been treated with chemical substances dur-
ing six month preceding felling. Herbs, spices, wigs of juniper and twigs, needles and cones
of picea may be added if they are free of residues or chemical treatment. The source material
is subjected to controlled burning, dry distillation or treatment with superheated steam in a
controlled oxygen environment with a maximum temperature of 6000.
The smoke is condensed. Water and/or solvents may be added to achieve phase separation.
Physical processes may be used for isolation, fractionation and/or purification to obtain the
following phases:
Water-based ”primary smoke condensate”: It contains mainly carboxylic acids, car-

bonylic and phenolic compounds, having a maximum content of:
benzo(a)pyrene 10µg/kg
benz(a)antracene 20µg/kg
”Water-insoluble high-density tar phase: This fraction precipitates during the separa-
tion phase and cannot be used as such for the production of smoke flavourings but only after
appropriate physical processing to obtain fractions from this water-insoluble tar phase which
are low in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, already defined as ”primary tar fraction” having
a maximum content of:
benzo(a)pyrene 10µg/kg
benz(a)antracene 20µg/kg
”Water-insoluble oily phase”: If no phase separation has occurred during or after the con-
densation, the smoke condensate obtained must be regarded as a water-insoluble high-density
tar phase, and must be processed by appropriate physical processing to obtain primary tar
fractions which stay within the specified limits.
Contamination of foods with PAHs can happen by environmental PAHs that are present in
air (by deposition), soil (by transfer) or water (by deposition or transfer), and during process-
ing and cooking. The major contributors to PAH intake in the average diet are oils and fats,
cereals, fruits and vegetables.
The waxy surface of vegetables and fruits can concentrate low molecular mass PAH through
surface adsorption and particle-bound high-molecular-mass PAH can contaminate the surface
666
due to atmospheric fallout.
Flavour enhancer Flavour enhancer intensify flavour of food.Persons which are sensible to
glutaminic acid may experience the ”Chinese restaurant syndrome”.There were related pressure
on brainsides, headache,stiffness of neck[30].
On rats flavour enhancer cause alterations of reproduction and retarded learning.

Flavour enhancer potentiate voracity.
Flavour enhancer in human metabolism are transformed in uric acid which is undesired. An-
imals like rats do not form uric acid from flavour enhancers because they metabolise them as
alantoine. Toxicological tests on rats are therefore irrelevant. Glutaminic acid is part of the
proteins of our body. However there is a capital difference between glutaminic acid bound in a
sequence of proteins and glutaminic acid or their salts being obtained synthetically. Glutaminic
acid of the protein sequence is not free.
It is liberated during digestion and reaches the bloodstream slowly. Flavour enhancer are
already free and reach the bloodstream immediately in great amount and may cause the above
mentioned syndrome.[29]
People with the characteristic symptom should ask for food without glutamate.
Industry should reduce glutamate in their formulas and try to avoid completely its use in dry
soups,dry sauces and an infinity of other product which are on market. Industry should return
to natural ingredients avoiding synthetic other products. In doing so there is also a benefit
on marketing because the products from natural resource have great acceptance by consumers.
Please read the list of ingredients on the label, carefully, especially those of dry soups and dried
sauces because they have a great amount of salts of glutamic acid.
E620 Glutamic acid
E621 Sodium glutamate Glutamate has a neurotransmitter function in the physiology of

nervous cells.[31]
The neural function was used to promote selling of Intelligence Drugs to improve marks at
school
Unfortunately there was no such benefit.
E622 Potassium glutamate
E623 Calcium glutamate
E624 Monoammonium glutamate

E625 Magnesium glutamate
E626 Guanylic acid
E627 Sodium guanylate
E628 Potassium guanylate
E629 Calcium guanylate
E630 Inosinic acid Inosinic acid
E631 Disodium inosinate
E632 Dipotassium inosinate
E633 Calcium inosinate Calcium inosinate
E634 Calcium 5ŕibonucleotid Calcium 5ŕibonucleotid
E635 Disodium 5ŕibonucleotid Disodium 5ŕibonucleotid
E640 Glycine and salts Glycine
Ethylmaltol It is used as flavour enhancer in sweet product mainly together with artificial
sweetener s.It is used in chocolate, cakes and desserts.There is doubt about ethylmaltol being
responsible for talasemia (a rare anaemia).
E239 Hexamethylentetramin It is a widely used substance. as medicine against gout and

infections of the urinary tract.It is also a vulcanisation accelerator and is used in the chemistry
of explosives.In food it is a donator of formaldehyd and is used to to improve the optical
appearance of food.At the moment it is used only in some kind of cheese.
Natamycin It is an antibiotic used in infections of mouth,foot and genitals.It is employed

in food industry to treat the shell of cheese. Resistance against this antibiotic will soon be
established in bacteria coming in contact with it.His use should therefore forbidden in food
industry
668
Antioxidants Antioxidants are used to improve the shelf life of food interfering in the reaction
of oxygen with different components of food avoiding their chemical decomposition. They are
used in soups,sauces in powder,chewing gum,dried products of potatoes margarineoil, icecream.
There are two main antioxidants classes: [141]
• Enzymatic Antioxidants: The most important enzymatic antioxidants are superoxide

dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase. which are inherent to cell biochemistry
and cannot be supplied by intake of food and supplements.
• Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants: Vitamins E and C, and b -carotene are supplied by

intake of food and supplements.
Vitamins as dietary supplements There are many dietary supplements being sold at
supermarkets.The prices differ enormously.The amount of vitamins are almost the same and
cannot justify the difference of price between the products.
Some products have minerals and other trace elements varying from product to product.Their
benefit should be analysed considering the local nutritional habits.
It is is very difficult to establish general rules concerning the amount of daily supplements to be
taken because of different nutritional habits. To explain these problems the case of selenium,
potassium, magnesium and vitamin A is here cited:
• Selenium is an essential part in the building of glutathione peroxidase. An undersupply

of selenium causes diseases. An oversupply of selenium causes on his turn serious harm.
As fish and meat bears much selenium and vegetables very little of it a well balanced
nutrition is important. Vegetarians should therefore consider to take selenium as dietary
supplement.[142]
• Potassium and magnesiumstabilises heart rhythmic disturbaces. Both minerals should be

supplemented up to 50% from the normal daily intake of 2-3 grams for potassium and
200-350 milligramme for magnesium. People with this kind of disorder need therefore
supplementation of these minerals. Normal people can supply the minerals out of a
balanced nutrition.[143]
• Vitamin A is important for the north and the south of the globe because of having less
sun incidence. People living near the equator don’t have to bother supplementing with
vitamin A. Because of high incidence of sunlight boosting biological synthesis of vitamin
A of the body in these countries one fears an hypervitaminosis of vitamin A. Therefore
regulations in these countries forbid adding vitamin A to food.
The table below gives some information about the usual products on the German market:
Table 16.2: Dietary supplements,composition of one tablet
Ingredients Centrum Multibionta Multivitamin Krüger Hermes Multivit

Vitamin A 800µg - - -
Provitamin A - - - 2 mg
Vitamin E 10 mg 12 mg 10 mg 12 mg
Vitamin C 60 mg 300 mg 60 mg 75 mg
Vitamin K1 30µg - - -
Vitamin B1 1,4 mg 1,3 mg 1,4 mg 1,6 mg
Vitamin B12 1 µg 3 µg 1 3 µg
Vitamin D 5 µg - - -
Biotin 150 µg 30 µg 0,15 mg 30 µg
Folic acid 200 µg 150 µg 200 µg 160 µg
Nicotinamid - 18 mg 18 mg -
Niacin 18 mg - - 20 mg
Pantothenate 6 mg 8 mg 6,0 mg 6,5 mg
Calcium 162 mg - - 100 mg
Phosphate 125 mg - - -
Iron 4 mg - - -
Magnesium 100 mg - - -
Iodine 100 µg - - -
Potassium 40 mg - - -
Chloride 36,3 mg - - -
Copper 1 mg - - -
Manganese 1 mg - - -
Chromium 25 µg - - -
Molybdenum 25 µg - - -
Selenium 25 µg - - 10 µg
Silicium 2 µg - - -
Zinc - - - 2 mg
Food supplements should have a ratio of half as much magnesium as calcium. A daily in-
take of 1.200 mg calcium needs 600 mg of magnesium[145].
670
Provitamin A Carotene Provitamin A can be modified by the body to vitamin A.This

happens only to the extent of need. Therefore one says provitamin A to be a safe source of
vitamin A bearing no danger of overfeeding.
Vitamin B1 Hipervitaminosis of vitamin B1 may lead to nervousness and headache.
Vitamin B2 There is no maximum limit for vitamin B2.Even in high dose there are no
undesired reactions.
Vitamin B6 Accentuated hipervitaminosis of vitamin B6 causes alterations of the mobil-

ity,numbness and psychical alterations.Alterations similar to contergan in neonates were also
observed.
The UK Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food recommend not to exceed 10 mg per day.
A sufficient supply of vitamin B6 is guaranteed with consumption of meat,fish,eggs, and some
vegetables. Some food supplements contain up to 100 mg.The Committee tries to organise a
voluntary producer limit of vitamin B6 in food supplements and include more informations on
label.The commission is concerned about possible damage of the nervous system in case of high
dose.
Vitamin B12 There are no major problems noted by excessive consumption of vitamin B12.
A predisposition to thrombosis is possible.
Niacin Niacin is a global denomination of nicotinic acid and her acid amid denominated as
nicotinamide, also called niacinamide.Both vitamins have same properties.
Nicotinamide is important to the transport of electrons in cells and is engaged in the following
reactions:
• Anaerobic glicolysis
• In the cycle of cancer (oxidative phosphorilation)
• In the synthesis of fatty acids.
Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide can be assimilated directly or are created by hydrolysis of
coenzyme. Adenine is transformed in NAD(P) in the liver. NAD(P) stands for Nicotinamide-
AdenineDinucleotide-Phosphate.
To synthesises NAD in human cells 60 mg of tryptophane corresponding to 1 mg equivalents
of nicotinamide are necessary.For this reason the unit ” niacin equivalent ” was created.
1 niacin equivalent = 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophane

Niacin is not deposited. Poisonings resulting from excessive addition of niacin to food are
documented.Symptoms are ictericia, failures of liver, icteric skin with burning flushes. Toxic
reactions were not noted after daily intake of 3 to 6 grams of nicotinic acid trying to inhibit
the production of hepatic VLDL causing parallel dilatation of the peripheric vascular system
producing the red flush which disappears after some days.
Nicotinamide does not produce flush and does not reduce cholesterol. It is therefore that
nicotinamide is being used in treatment of insufficiency of niacin, using dose between 50 to 250
mg/day.
Sources of niacin Niacin is present mainly in animal food (meat)as coenzymes.

Absorption of Niacin from meat is near 100%.The amount of niacin in plants is very low.
In cereals niacin is being found in the aleurone coat (external coat of the grain). Niacin is lost
during polishing of grains to obtain white flour.
In cereal niacin is bound as a complex in macromolecules niacitine, therefore only 30% of veg-
etable niacin can be assimilated.
Triptophane is sometimes much higher as free niacin, therefore the equivalent of niacin is
being used. In vivo conversion of triptophane in niacin depends on coexistence of vitamin B6.
Table 16.3: Niacin in food, according to DGE

Food mg niacin in 100 g
Meat 5 to 11
Fish 3 to 4
Sardine 9,7
Tuna 8,5
Mackerel 7,5
Milk 0,09
Butter 0,03
Cheese 1,2
Black bread 3,3
White bread 0,9
Lentil 2
Soya meal 2,2
Sunflower seed 4
Yeast, dry 45
Yeast, fresh 17
672
Fruits 0,65
Vegetables 0,6 to 2,0
Coffee, ground 13,7
Table 16.4: Daily intake of niacin in mg/day ,recommended by DGE
Group babies children men women

Under 4 month 5
From 4 to 12 month 6
From 1 to 4 years 9
Over 4 and under 7 years 12
From 7 to under 10 years 13
From 10 to 13 years 15 14
From 13 to under 15 years 20 16
From 15 to under 19 years 20 16
From 19 years and up 18 15
Pregnant 17
During lactation 20
Transglutaminase [380] Transglutaminase is an enzyme which polymerizes proteins with

the result of a network like structures. This effect is used in the production of meat, sausages,
cheese, yogurt and related products, ice creams and production of gelatin improving consistency
and cream character of the products.Ice structuring proteins[381]
Ice-structuring proteins (ISPs) in edible plants and fish that need to protect themselves against
freeze damage. ISPs have potential applications in a number of areas including cryopreservation
and frozen foods manufacture.
ISP type III HPLC 12 being of particular interest. No evidence of a genotoxic potential or
notable subchronic toxicity were found by T. Hall-Manning during a safety evaluation of ice-
structuring protein (ISP) type III HPLC 12.[382]
Anti-freeze protein, also called ”ice structuring proteins” (ISPs) found in Ocean Pout (Marcro-
zoarces americanus) has been approved for use as ice structuring proteins in ice cream improving
flavour and texture of the product using less sugar and fat. It is obtained from the fermenta-
tion of a genetically modified food grade yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). This affects a huge
market of dairy ice cream, milk ice, water ice, fruit ice, sorbets, frozen deserts and any similar
products.
Professor Malcolm Hooper from Sunderland University, Professor Joe Cummins from the Uni-
versity of Western Ontario in Canada, and Dr Mae-Wan Ho, director of the Institute of Science
in Society are against EU approval of ISP alleging that it could cause serious allergies. They
say Unilever tests with people allergic to cod, not to ocean pout were insignificant.
AFP claims that their antifreeze proteins type III are all purified from their natural sources
cold ocean teleost fish.
Enzymes
[383] Enzymes play an increasingly important role in food production, and can be used as
alternatives to chemicals in improving the texture, appearance, nutritional value and flavour
of food, as well as helping in certain food production processes (e.g. helping bread to rise).
Currently food enzymes used as processing aids are not covered by EU legislation. Member
States’ legislation on food enzymes differs significantly, which can lead to problems for the
internal market and an unclear situation for the EU consumer.
Historically, food enzymes were considered to be non-toxic. However, the food enzyme in-
dustry is continually striving to develop improved technology resulting in the development of
food enzymes which became through the years more complex and sophisticated. There could
be some potential hazards arising from their chemical nature and source such as allergenic-
ity, activity-related toxicity, residual microbiological activity, and chemical toxicity. Therefore
safety evaluation of all food enzymes, including those produced by genetically modified micro-
organisms (GMOs), is essential in order to ensure consumer safety.
Existing provisions in the area of enzymes

Directive 95/2/EC on food additives other than colours and sweeteners allows for the use of
two enzymes as food additives: E1103 Invertase and E1105 Lysozyme.In addition, Council Di-
rective 2001/112/EC relating to fruit juices and certain similar products intended for human
consumption, Council Directive 83/417/EEC relating to certain lactoproteins (caseins and ca-
seinates) intended for human consumption and Council Regulation (EC) No 1493/1999 on the
common organisation of the market in wine, regulate the use of certain food enzymes in these
specific foods.
Under the new proposed legislation, harmonised EU rules would be laid down for the evalua-
tion, approval and control of enzymes used in food. The draft Regulation foresees the way to
draw up an initial positive list of enzymes.
The proposal also includes requirements for the labelling of food enzymes other than those
used as processing aids. Food enzymes with a technological function in the final food will have
to be labelled as ingredients with their function (e.g. stabiliser) and name.
674
Labelling of enzymes [383]

In most cases food enzymes will be used as processing aids i.e. will be present in food in the
form of a residue, if at all and will have no technological effect on the finished product. Taking
into account that all food enzymes will be assessed for their safety, it is proposed that food
enzymes which are used as processing aids are exempted from labelling.
Food enzymes used to exert a technological function in the final food, will be labelled with
their function (e.g. stabiliser etc) and specific name.
Ezyme Commission number (EC number) [384]

The Enzyme Commission number (EC number) is a numerical classification scheme for en-
zymes, based on the chemical reactions they catalyze. As a system of enzyme nomenclature,
every EC number is associated with a recommended name for the respective enzyme.
Every enzyme code consists of the letters ”EC” followed by four numbers separated by pe-
riods. Those numbers represent a progressively finer classification of the enzyme. For example,
the enzyme tripeptide aminopeptidase has the code ”EC 3.4.11.4”, whose components indicate
the following groups of enzymes: EC 3 enzymes are hydrolases (enzymes that use water to break
up some other molecule), EC 3.4 are hydrolases that act on peptide bonds, EC 3.4.11 enzymes
are only those hydrolases that cleave off the amino-terminal amino acid from a polypeptide,
and EC 3.4.11.4 are those that cleave off the amino-terminal end from a tripeptide.
Strictly speaking, EC numbers do not specify enzymes, but enzyme-catalyzed reactions. If

different enzymes (for instance from different organisms) catalyze the same reaction, then they
receive the same EC number.
Table 16.5: EC numbers

Group Reaction catalyzed Typical Trivial
reactions names
EC 1 To catalyse oxidation/reduction AH + B –A+ Dehydrogenase,
Oxyreductases reactions; transfer of H and O atoms BH (reduced) oxidase
or electrons from one substance A + O – AO
to another (oxidized)
EC 2 Transfer of a functional group from one AB + C – A + Transaminase,
Transferases substance to another. The group may BC Kinase

be methyl-, acyl-, amino- or phospate
group.
EC 3 Formation of two products from a AB + H2 O – Lipase, amylase,
Hydrolases substrate by hydrolyses AOH + BH peptidase
EC 4 Non-hydrolytic addition or removal of RCOCOOH –
Lyases groups from subnstrates. C-C, C-N, C-O RCOH + CO2
or C-S bonds may be cleaved
EC 5 Intramolecule rearrangement, i.e. AB – BA Isomerase,
Isomerases isomerization changes within a single mutase
molecule
EC 6 Join together two molecules by X + Y + ATP –¿ Synthetase
Ligases sythesis of new C-O, C-S, C-N or C-C XY + ADP + Pi
bonds withg simultaneous breakdown of
ATP
UniProt
[385]
UniProt is the universal protein database, a central repository of protein data created by com-
bining Swiss-Prot, TrEMBL and PIR. This makes it the world’s most comprehensive resource
on protein information. The UniProt Consortium is comprised of the European Bioinformatics
Institute (EBI), the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB), and the Protein Information Re-
source (PIR). UniProt identifiers uniquely specify a protein by its amino acid sequence.
EBI, located at the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus in Hinxton, UK, hosts a large resource
of bioinformatics databases and services.
SIB, located in Geneva, Switzerland, maintains the ExPASy (Exprt Protein Analysis System)
servers that are a central resource for proteomics tools and databases.
PIR, hosted by the National Biomedical Researche Foundation (NBRF) at the Georgetown
University Medical Center in Washington, DC, USA, is the oldest protein sequence database,
Margaret Dayhoff’s Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure.
In 2002, EBI, SIB, and PIR joined forces as the UniProt Consortium.
Combination of food additives and interference with development of nervous cells:

The effects of food colouring brilliant blue (E133) combined with monosodium glutamate (MSG;
676
E621) and colouring quinoline yellow (E951) combined with the sweetener aspartame (E951)
were tested at the University of Liverpool. This combination presented neurotoxic effects.
The combination of brilliant blue and MSG could inhibit cell growth up to four times more
than the additives on their own, while for quinoline yellow and aspartame the figure rises to
seven. The research has been supported by Organix Brands.
Inhibition of neurite outgrowth was found at concentrations of additives theoretically achiev-

able in plasma by ingestion of processed foods like sweets and snacks they are typically present
in combinations and are foods which are consumed by children whose nervous system is still
developing. [386]
In response to the study, UK regulatory body Food Standards Agency said that the safety
of all additives is kept under review. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) had been
asked to review food additives currently permitted within the EU in order to determine whether
full re-evaluation is required. [401]
The authors of the Liverpool study call upon the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
to look upon the combined effects of the mentioned substances. Some researches concerning
mixtures of substances are already being undertaken by FSA funding research on the effects of
two groups of colour additives on the behaviour children is expected to report in 2007.
Sodium benzoate as source of benzene in soft drinks

Benzene is listed as a poisonous chemical shown to increase the risk of leukaemia and other
cancers. Drinking water limits range from 10 parts per billion (World Health Organisation),
5ppb in the US and one part per billion in the EU. Some soft drinks contain up to five times
this limit of benzene. The FDA assured benzene did not present an immediate health risk at
the levels found to date in drinks.
Interaction among sodium benzoate and other ingredients [405]

Mike Redman the National Soft Drink Association (NSDA) in a meeting of the FDA in 1990
suggests that benzene formation occurs as an interaction among ingredients in the product for
example, sodium Benzoate, ascorbic acid and FD&C yellow Nr. 5 under certain conditions
might produce benzene.
Other interaction between sodium benzoate and other additives:

Other chemicals such as erythorbic acid, EDTA, oxygen and sweeteners like high fructose corn
syrup influence benzene formation in the presence of benzoic acid.
Sweeteners are thought to inhibit the reaction, as the problem seems most noticeable in diet
drinks. EDTA appears to inhibit the reaction also, possibly by complexing metal ions that
could act as catalysts.
Companies added Calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate (” EDTA”) in the US to
reduce benzene formation. The FDA, however noted that calcium disodium EDTA is not an
approved food additive for non-carbonated soft drinks. [402]
Erythorbic acid may lead to benzene formation in much the same fashion as ascorbic acid.
• Removal of oxygen by CO2 or N2 may inhibit benzene formation.
• Solutions containing sodium benzoate and citric acid also form benzene although perhaps
not as readily as those with ascorbic acid.
• Benzene does not form in mineral acid pH adjusted sodium benzoate solutions subjected
to heat and light.
• Benzene has also been observed to form after exposure to light for 24 hrs in ascorbic acid
solutions of benzoic acid anhydride, acetophenone, and benzaldehyde.
• There is some data to suggest that benzene may form from a contaminate in sodium
benzoate.
Sodium benzoate and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are still used together in a wide range of soft
drinks and flavoured waters across the world. They can react together to cause benzene for-
mation.
Ascorbic acid initially reacts with metals, such as iron or copper, found in the water to create
free radical. These hydroxyl radicals break down Sodium benzoate into benzoic acid and ben-
zene.
Reactivity of Ascorbic acid in presence of ions of copper and iron has been studied by Hans
Steinhart et col. in 1993. [403]
Photolytic degradation of sodium benzoate (E211) in flavoured mineral water

The State of Florida Laboratories found traces of benzene in Koala Springs flavoured mineral
water. There is speculation that the benzene traces originated from the sodium benzoate by
way of photolytic degradation. [405]
Benzene in foods without added benzoates

The combination of sodium or potassium benzoate with ascorbic acid was shown to produce
low levels (ng/g) of benzene in fruit-flavoured soft drinks. The presence of benzene was also
reported in butter, eggs, meat, and certain fruits; levels of these findings ranged from 0.5 ng/g
678
in butter to 500-1900 ng/g in eggs.

Slightly higher levels were present in some foods and beverages containing both ascorbic acid
and sodium benzoate. [406]
Soft drinks, juices, beers, and waters from processed vegetables were analysed for trihalomethanes
(THMs), benzene, and toluene. The THMs, which include chloroform, bromodichloromethane,
dibromochloromethane, and bromoform, are reaction by-products of water disinfection by chlo-
rination.
In this study benzene residues were found typically ¡5 ng/g, except for 7 and 9 ng/g in 2
foods, compared to other contaminants: Toluene residues were typically ¡3 ng/g except for 23,
29, and 75 ng/g in 3 canned foods and chloroform was none detected to 94 ng/g in the 44 foods
analysed. [404]
Industry tests on soft drinks found that temperatures of 300 C and exposure to UV light for
several hours were enough to more than triple benzene residues in some drinks.
America’s soft drinks industry association said hot warehouses and cars parked in direct sun-
light are examples of when soft drinks would be exposed to even higher temperatures as that.
Benzene formation may also occur in dietary supplements, such as liquid aloe vera and vi-
tamin formulations, and other acidic liquid food products, such as lemon juice where sodium
benzoate and ascorbic acid are present.
How to avoid benzene in food

Producers should use predictive testing to simulate storage under UV and heat up to 50o C to
survey their products for benzene.
The consumer should carefully read the list of ingredients. When sodium benzoate is listed
in soft drinks and other acidified foods do not buy it.
Food regulations worldwide should demand sodium benzoate to be taken out of juices, soft
drink and other acidified food formulas. Technology does not need sodium benzoate in drinks
as modern heat sterilization and aseptic filling techniques make the use of this preservative
unnecessary.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [407]

VOCs are a group of low molecular weight aliphatic and aromatic compounds with low boiling
points. Sources of VOCs include solvents, dry cleaning compounds, degreasers, paints, chemical
intermediates, and assorted industrial products. They are also products of combustion and the
chlorination of drinking water. Additionally, VOCs can come from the process of microwaving
foods. Some VOCs are even allowed as indirect food additives from components of commercial
packaging.
FDA study, published in 2003 a study of Fleming-Jones and Robert E. Smith. Volatile or-
ganic compounds (VOCs), such as benzene, were found in at least one sample of all foods
tested, although no single compound was found in each of the foods. Benzene levels ranged
from 1 to 190 ppb,
Benzene is a human carcinogen and neurotoxin. Other VOCs reported to be human neuro-
toxins include 1,1,1- trichloroethane, styrene, toluene, trichloroethylene, and xylene. However,
the doses needed to cause neurotoxicity are far greater than those detected in foods in the study
of Fleming-Jones. [408] [409] [410]
The amounts needed to cause these toxicities are much higher than those found in foods in
this study. For all toxicities except carcinogenesis, a threshold approach is often used, which
sets acceptable daily intake levels. However, it is sometimes stated that a nonthreshold ap-
proach is used for potential carcinogens and that a single molecular adduct can initiate the
multistep process of carcinogenesis. [411]
FDA concluded from data derived from the FDA’s Total Diet Study that the American food
supply is comparatively safe. Although there is some oral exposure to VOCs, they are usually
inhaled at much higher doses through cigarette smoke, gasoline fumes, and industrial pollution.
ICBA Benzene Guidance [412]

The International Council of Beverages Associations (ICBA) is a non-governmental organiza-
tion representing the interests of the worldwide beverage industry.
Today, as the beverage industry continues to grow and expand, the International Council
of Beverages Associations (ICBA) is renewing its commitment to provide guidance on pre-
venting/minimizing benzene formation. This guidance will be made available to all beverage
companies worldwide.
http://www.britishsoftdrinks.com/htm/sv/PDFs/IBCA%20final%20220606.pdf#search=%22ICBA%2
German assessment of benzene in foods [413] The Federal Institute for Risk Assess-
ment has issued an expert opinion on whether benzene may be formed in beverages from the
food additive benzoic acid in the presence of ascorbic acid.
It is advisable to minimise and/or avoid the intake of benzene as far as possible. This is
the standard practice for substances which are to be considered as carcinogens and germ cell
mutagens.
680
However, further chemical-analytical data are needed in order to assess the possible risk from
simultaneous use of benzoic acid and ascorbic acid in foods. If it turned out that the simulta-
neous use of benzoic acid and ascorbic acid in foods makes a significant contribution to total
benzene intake, it may be necessary to check whether the authorisation framework for a simul-
taneous use of benzoic acid and ascorbic acid in foods would have to be changed.
Brilliant blue: Its name is brilliant blue E133 and is currently banned in the majority of
EU countries. However , it is used in the UK in sweets, confectionery, dessert, ices, in some
soft drinks, baked goods and tinned processed peas.
Uses and restrictions: FD&C Blue No. 1 may be safely used for colouring foods (including
dietary supplements) generally in amounts consistent with good manufacturing practice ex-
cept. [387] Quinoleine Yellow: Quinoline Yellow is absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract
to only a small extent in rats and dogs, and most of an orally administered dose is excreted
unchanged. No adverse effects of treatment were seen in the two-generation long-term study in
mice. In particular there was no observed effect on thyroid function or histopathology and no
evidence of carcinogenicity.
Quinoline yellow is banned in foods in Australia, the US and Norway. In UK it is used in
sweets, smoked haddock, confectionery and pickles.
Evaluation
Level causing no toxicological effects: Mouse: 1% of the diet, equal to 1.500 mg/kg/
Estimate of an acceptable daily intake for man: 0-10 mg/kg bw.
The committee noted that there are two quinoline yellows, one of which is about 30% methy-
lated and the other non-methylated, and considered that data from both compounds could be
used for toxicological evaluation of either of the quinoline yellows for food additive use.[388]
Monosodium glutamate: Monosodium glutamate is banned in baby food in the UK, but is
used in a variety of crisps and snacks which are consumed by children. Parents should watch
the ingredient list carefully in order to avoid to give products with these ingredients to children
under 5 years.
Natural cure for meats

[389] Traditional curing methods using nitrite or nitrate are being substituted by new products
for the sake of a natural label. There are consumers which try to avoid nitrite cured meat
because of health concerns.
Curing as food preservation [397]

In food preparation, curing refers to various preservation and flavouring processes, especially
of meat and fish by the addition of a combination of salt, sugar and either nitrate or nitrite.
Many curing processes also involve smoking.
Nitrite curing retards rancidity, stabilises flavour, and establishes the characteristic pink colour
of cured meat.
Salt inhibits the growth of microorganism which cause spoilage by drawing water out of mi-
crobial cells through osmosis. As the unwanted bacterial population decreases, other beneficial
bacteria, primarily of the Lactobacillus genus, come to the fore and generate an acidic environ-
ment (around 4.5 pH).
The sugar included in the cure is used as food by the lactobacilli; generally dextrose is pre-
ferred over sucrose, or table sugar, because it seems to be more thoroughly consumed by the
bacteria. This process is in fact a form of fermentation and, in addition to reducing further the
ability of the spoilage bacteria to grow, accounts for the tangy flavour of some cured products.
Concentrations of salt up to 20% are required to kill most species of bacteria.
Smoking adds chemicals to the surface of an item which affect the ability of bacteria to grow,
inhibit oxidation (and thus rancidity), and improve flavour.
Nitrates and nitrites not only help kill bacteria, but also produce a characteristic flavour,
and give meat an appealing pink or red color. Nitrate (NO3 ), in the form of either sodium
nitrate or potassium nitrate is used as a source for nitrite (NO2 ). The nitrite further breaks
down in the meat into nitric oxide (NO), which then binds to the iron atom in the center of
mioglobins heme group, preventing oxidation.
Commercially Curing salt containing small amounts of sodium nitrite or sodium nitrate is
used in the preserving and curing of meats, and in sausage making. The nitrate component
inhibits the growth of bacteria, specifically botulism, and helps preserve the color of cured
meat.
The presence of nitrates and nitrites in food is controversial due to the development of ni-
trosamines when the food, primarily bacon, is cooked at high temperatures. The nitrate and
nitrite compounds themselves are not harmful, however, and are among the antioxidants found
in fresh vegetables. [398]
The usage of either compound is carefully regulated in the production of cured products; in the
United States, their concentration in finished products is limited to 200 ppm, and is usually
found to be below. Finally, they are irreplaceable in the prevention of botulinum poisoning
from consumption of dry-cured sausages.
Nitrite replacement for cured meats [399]

682
Chr. Hansen has developed a new natural cure for manufacturers as a nitrite replacement for
cured meats. No synthetic nitrates or nitrites are added, labelling of nitrite or nitrate can
be avoided. The product can be labelled as ’uncured’ in accordance with USDA 9CFR317.17
labelling regulations [389]. Naturally occurring nitrates are converted by the culture to nitrite
which then accounts for the curing of the meat.
According to papers of Chr. Hansen various strains are used. Lactobacillus sakei BJ-33 was
approved by the Danish authorities for bioprotective use. The bacteria multiplies at chill tem-
peratures as low as 20 C/350 F and suppresses the spoilage flora of indigenous lactic acid bacteria
and Brochothrix thermosphacta. The inhibitory effect possessed by the strain is due to compe-
tition since the ability to produce bacteriocins has not been detected. It is used in combination
with a strain of Staphylococcus xylosus.
Other strains used by Chr Hansen are Leuconostoc carnosum 4010 (formerly named Lc-1043).
Another strain used is B-LC-20 which is an adjunct culture that is added on top of the existing
starter culture without changing the sausage recipe or the sausage processing procedure for the
reduction of Listeria in fermented dried sausage.
Code of Federal Regulations 9CFR317.17[389] With respect to sections 1(n) (7), (9),
and (12) of the Act and Sec. 317.2, any substance mixed with another substance to cure a
product must be identified in the ingredients statement on the label of such product. For ex-
ample, curing mixtures composed of such ingredients as water, salt, sugar, sodium phosphate,
sodium nitrate, and sodium nitrite or other permitted substances which are added to any prod-
uct, must be identified on the label of the product by listing each such ingredient in accordance
with the provisions of Sec. 317.2.
(b) Any product, such as bacon and pepperoni, which is required to be labeled by a com-
mon or usual name or descriptive name in accordance with Sec. 317.2(c)(1) and to which
nitrate or nitrite is permitted or required to be added may be prepared without nitrate or
nitrite and labeled with such common or usual name or descriptive name when immediately
preceded with the term ”Uncured” as part of the product name in the same size and style of
lettering as the product name, provided that the product is found by the Administrator to
be similar in size, flavour, consistency, and general appearance to such product as commonly
prepared with nitrate or nitrite, or both.
(c)(1) Products described in paragraph (b) of this section or Sec. 319.2 of this subchapter,
which contain no nitrate or nitrite shall bear the statement “No Nitrate or Nitrite Added.”
This statement shall be adjacent to the product name in lettering of easily readable style and
at least one-half the size of the product name.
(2) Products described in paragraph (b) of this section and Sec. 319.2 of this subchapter shall
bear, adjacent to the product name in lettering of easily readable style and at least one-half the
size of the product name, the statement “Not Preserved–Keep Refrigerated Below 40 deg.F.
At All Times” unless they have been thermally processed to Fo 3 or more; they have been fer-
mented or pickled to pH of 4.6 or less; or they have been dried to a water activity of 0.92 or less.
(3) Products described in paragraph (b) of this section and Sec. 319.2 of this subchapter
shall not be subject to the labeling requirements of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section if
they contain an amount of salt sufficient to achieve a brine concentration of 10 percent or more.
Feed ingredients
A betaine in chemistry is any neutral chemical compound with a positively charged cationic
functional group such as ammonium ion or phosphonium ion and with a negatively charged
functional group such as a carboxyl group. Historically the term was reserved for trimethyl-
glycine only. [390]
Betaine is found in high concentrations in sugar beet, improving consistency of pig and poultry
performance improving the structure of the animals intestine, increasing gut tensile strength
and the absorptive area for nutrients, which helps to maintain growth, feed conversion and
profitability in the absence of antibiotic growth promoters.
Betaine (trimethylglycine) functions very closely with choline, folic acid, vitamin B12 and
methionine. Betaine is necessary in the biochemistry of carnitine and serves to protect the
kidneys from damage. [391]
Barak proposed in 1983 that betaine may serve as an important methylating agent when nor-
mal methylating pathways are impaired by ethanol ingestion, drugs or nutritional imbalances.
Furthermore, betaine may prove to have therapeutic application in cases of altered folate, vi-
tamin B12 or methionine metabolism. [392]
Glycine betaine (betaine hydrochloride) used as feeding attractant was found to have a positive
effect on the growth and feed conversion of juveniles of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (deMan).
Weight gain, feed intake and food conversion ratio (FCR) were higher in prawn fed glycine
betaine-added diets compared with the control feed in a study made by Dr Nathan Felix. [393]
Betaine is used in animal feeds as a source of essential methyl groups and as an osmoregu-
lant. Its osmotic function is useful in maintaining gut wall integrity. Feeding betaine could
compensate the removal of antibiotic growth promoters. Reduced control of Clostridium per-
fringens in birds could be countert with betaine which improves the hydration and integrity of
the gut wall. [394]
684
Betaine decays in the liver forming methionine. Dietary methionine is spared. saving feeding
costs Feeding betaine saves methionine and choline costs Betaine also functions as osmoregu-
lator. Betaine in feed or water can help reduce dehydration by facilitating water retention in
the body in case of heat stress. [395]
Advances in genetics and feed ingredients such as betaine from sugar beets and enzymes have
reduce feed costs and generate a higher percentage of lean meat.
Thickening agents from Algae [396]

Carrageenans extracted from red algae and alginates from brown algae are already being used
as stabilisers and thickening agents.
Albert Mihranyan and colleagues from Uppsala University in Sweden studied the properties
of alpha - cellulose of the green algae Cladophora sp. They found that Cladophora cellulose
powder could be a useful alternative to commercially available dispersible cellulose grades when
very low quantities of stabilizing agents are required.
Chapter 17
Food Supplements
A food supplement is, typically, a nutrient added to a foodstuff which would otherwise not
contain that nutrient. In general, the term is restricted to those additives which are deemed to
be positive for health, growth or well-being. [1061]
Food supplements are regulated in the EU by the Directive 2002/46/EC of the European
Parliament of 10 June 2002 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to
food supplements.[1062]
Medicinal products: Medicinal Products for human use are defined by Directive 2001/83/EC
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 November 2001 on the Community code
relating to medicinal products for human use and are a distinct category of products separated
from food supplements.
The food supplements directive states that there is an increasing number of products mar-
keted in the Community as foods containing concentrated sources of nutrients and presented
for supplementing the intake of those nutrients from the normal diet.
An adequate and varied diet could, under normal circumstances, provide all necessary nu-
trients for normal development and maintenance of a healthy life in quantities which meet
those established and recommended by generally acceptable scientific data.
However, surveys show that this ideal situation is not being achieved for all nutrients and
by all groups of the population across the Community.
Consumers, because of their particular lifestyles or for other reasons, may choose to supplement
their intake of some nutrients through food supplements.
Antioxidants in dietary supplements Many dietary supplements are labelled as antioxi-

dants. The price vary from product to product. Sometimes it possible to bye a cheap products
685
686
which have the same activities as expensive products. Co-enzyme Q10 can be added using sheep
products.
Table 17.1: Dietary supplements
Ingredient Oxano Anti-Age tetesept Multi - Raucher Recommended

per capsule A-Z in one vitamine Vitamine for
Health+ Merz Spencer Pharma Abtei***
Fitness Food Aldenhoven
Vitamin A mcrg 275,2 343,7 800 850 - Cell growth,skin

Beta-carotin mg - - 900 - - Vitamin A builde
Vitamin C mg 225 29,5 60 75 112,5 Bones, connective
Vitamin E mg 36 152 10 12 18 Cell, metabolism
Vitamin B1 mg - - 1,40 1,40 - Muscle,metabolism
Vitamin B2 mg - - 1,60 1,70 2,6 Skin, metabolism
Vitamin B6 mg - - 1,60 1,80 - proteins,metaboli
Vitamin B12 mcrg - - 1,00 3,00 - Cell, metabolism
Vitamin D3 mcrg - - 5,00 5,00 - Bone
Vitamin K1 mcrg - - 80 - - Antihemorrhage
Pantothenic
acid mg - - 6,00 6,00 - Skin, metabolism
Folic acid mcrg - - 200 150 - Cell
Niacinamide mg - - 18 18 - Cell energy
Biotin mcrg - - 150 100 - Skin, hair, nail
Calcium mg - 3 200 200 - Bone, tooth
Chloride mg - - 36,4 - -
Chromium mcrg - - 60 - 60 Metabolism of car
l-Cisteine mg - - 9 - -
Iron mg - - 6 5 - Oxygen transport
Potassium mg - - 60 - -
Copper mg - - 1 1 - Cell physiology
Magnesium mg - - 120 150 - Muscle
Manganese mg - - 1,2 1,0 - Cell physiology,en
Molybdenum mcrg - - 80 80 - Enzyme activity
Phosphorus mg - - 103 - -
Selenium mcrg - - 25 30 - Cell activity, prot
Silicon mg - - 2 - -
Zinc mg 5 2,25 9,5 5 - Cell physiol
Iodine mcrg - - - 100 - Thyroid gla
Fluoride mcrg - - - 250 - Dental enam
Co-enzyme Q10 mg 10 0,25 - - - Cell physiol
Anthocyane* mg 50 - - - - Cell physiol
Bioflavonoids** mg - - 5 - 12 Cell physiol
Borage oil mg - 407 - - - Omega-6-fa
Linseed oil mg - 45 - - - Omega-3-fa
Price per
capsule EUR 0.50 0.18 0.14 0.04 0.30
Ingredient Oxano Anti-Age tetesept Multi - Raucher Recommen

per capsule A-Z in one vitamine Vitamine for
Health+ Merz Spencer Pharma Abtei***
Fitness Food Aldenhoven
* from red grapes
** from citrus
***Vitamines for smoker
Oxano and Anti-Age
Oxano and Anti-Age are produced by Merz. Both are developed to avoid or even reverse dam-
age caused by free radicals thus acting as anti-ageing agent. Dr. Müller-Wohlfahrt has created
the ”Formula” for both products. In his book ”How to protect your health”[1060] he explains
his strategy to fight free radicals in an attempt to reduce the risk of cancer and early ageing.
He suggests :
1.- Drink daily milk to supply calcium in prevention of late osteosporosis.
2.- Eat one banana for the meal between. It is rich in vitamins, minerals and new energy
3.- Eat dried fruits. They are good antioxidants and combat free radicals.
4.- For supper: Eat sliced fruits such as tomatoes and vegetables.
If these conditions cannot be maintained dietary supplements should be taken such as Ox-
ano.
Oxano is supposed to act against jetset symptoms, fast food reactions, heavy smoking and par-
ties. Dr. Müller-Wohlfahrt believes that people which think about dietary supplements takes
care about healthy nutrition, does some sport, reduces smoking and moderates his profession.
The president of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Sportmedizin und Prävention (German Society
for Sportmedicine and Prevention) Prof Hans Hermann Dickhuth however does not agree with
Dr. Müller-Wohlfahrt. According to Prof Dickhuth the antioxidants are not been proved yet
by scientific researches to have any positive activity. [1063]
Five times a day there should be fruits and vegetables on the menu.
688
Despite critics related to the activity of antioxidants the number of evidences speaking for good
biochemical activities of antioxidants are growing from day to day. Linus Pauling with his book
dated from 1970 was a pioneer of these ideas. [1064]
Telesept and Multivitamine

Both products are example of sheep products which can replace the much costlier Oxano or
even Anti-Age. As seen on the table the Composition of the sheep products has a wider range
of ingredients.Co-enzyme Q10 and bioflavonoids can be supplied by additional products.
Nanosilimagna, nanoparticle claims controversy [1067] The report Panorama of the

German TV station NDR declared in their program of 09.03.2006 that the product claim for
Nanosilimagna having a higher absoption of calcium due to its nano structure was deceiving.
The manufacturer of this product is Neosino Nanotechnologies which backs its claims on af-
firmations of a wellknown sport physician Dr. Hans-Wilhelm Mller-Wohlfahrt, doctor of the
kickers of FC Bayern Munich and the German football team A strong controversy about the
product arose and the German magazine Spiegel looked behind the story. Professor Markus
Antonietti, Nano-researcher of the Max-Planck-Institute in Potsdam, Germany,said that con-
sumer could get the same effect taking a low priced ( less than 1 Euro) supplement instead of
using the 50 Euro nano product.
NANOSILIMAGNA PROJECT Report of a Project performed for Spiegel On-

line [1066] The Heaney-Study: Neosino Nanotechnologies Deutschland Vertriebs-GmbH,
Griesheim, Germany, markets in Germany a nutritional supplement containing calcium, sili-
con, and magnesium (Nanosilimagna), in which the elements concerned are said to be in the
form of nano particles, and for which the manufacturer claiming a absorbability superior to
that of other physical forms of the same elemental nutrients.
The news website Spiegel Online challenged the claims by the manufacturer of Nanosilimagna.
Subsequently Spiegel Online asked the Osteoporosis Research Center (ORC) of Creighton Uni-
versity, Omaha, Nebraska, USA, to address the question of absorption of calcium and magne-
sium from Nanosilimagna with a specific study in 12 volunteers. As a comparator supplement,
a widely used and inexpensive effervescent tablet from a German supermarket was used.
The rises in urine calcium and magnesium and the excretion of creatinine and sodium were
measured during the trial. The former was to permit adjustment for possibly large variations
in salt intake or salt loss on the day(s) preceding any given test.
The data generated in this study provide no evidence either for greater absorption or for faster
absorption of the calcium in Nanosilimagna than from the effervescent calcium sources. By
contrast, Nanosilimagna was clearly inferior to the effervescent tablet in magnesium absorp-
tion. At no time point did the magnesium excretion differ significantly from zero, a finding
compatible with a conclusion of essentially zero bioavailability for the magnesium component
of Nanosilimagna.
Because of the imprecision inherent in the urine excretion method, as well as the small sample
size, it is not possible to exclude some small difference in absorbability of calcium from the two
sources (in one direction or the other). Nevertheless there is no hint of significant superiority
of Nanosilimagna in the data generated by this study.

significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo. Relaxed elbow angle and muscle

necrosis factor-, and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.
ities.
response.
690
Raucher Vitamine (Vitamines for smokers)

Is an example of special products which are developed for special needs. For smokers vitamin
A and provitamin A are in this case not allowed.
Diabetes and carotenoids

Although obesity and physical inactivity are known to be major risk factors for type 2 diabetes,
recent evidence suggests that oxidative stress may contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 di-
abetes by increasing insulin resistance or impairing insulin secretion
A Finnish study [1071] by Jukka Montonen and colleagues investigated dietary vitamin E, four
tocopherols, four tocotrienols, vitamin C, and six carotenoids for their ability to predict type
2 diabetes. Vitamin E intake was significantly associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes.
Intakes of alfa-tocopherol, gama-tocopherol, delta-tocopherol, and beta-tocotrienol were in-

versely related to a risk of type 2 diabetes. Among single carotenoids, -cryptoxanthin intake
was significantly associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. According to the authors
of the study development of type 2 diabetes may be reduced by the intake of antioxidants in
the diet. No association was evident between intake of vitamin C and type 2-diabetes risk.
The carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin, found in citrus fruits had been studied. Lycopene of toma-
toes and other red fruits vegetables, used as an ingredient in both functional foods and dietary
supplements was not include in the study. A study from Lu Wang and colleagues from the
Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston found little evidence for an association between di-
etary intake of lycopene or lycopene-containing foods and the risk of type-2 diabetes and does
not protect against the risk of type-2 diabetes. [1072]
Serum carotenoids alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein/zeaxanthin are in-

versely associated with type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose metabolism, beta carotene being
the most active carotenoid. No significant activity was found in relation to lycopene in the
study of Terry Coyne and colleagues. [1073]
The development of insulin resistance in mammals with elevated expression of an antioxidant

enzyme were reported in an article of McClung JP and colleagues in Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences. They suggest that increased glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1) activity
may interfere with insulin function by overquenching intracellular reactive oxygen species re-
quired for insulin sensitizing. This leads to the assumption too many antioxidants in the diet
could actually increase the risk of diabetes. [1074]
Vitamin B10 (PABA) necessary for proper feather formation in chicks

Briggs and colleagues reported in 1943 that chicks required two water-soluble vitamins desig-
nated as vitamin B10 , necessary for proper feather formation, and vitamin B11 , required for
growth. These vitamins were shown to be distinct from ”folic acid” as measured by Strepto-
coccus lactis R and Lacto bacillus casei. [1075]
Methods for the purification of vitamins B10 and B11 from solubilized liver were described
by Briggs in 1945, differentiating them from substances with high folic acid activity. Such
substances were found to have growth, feathering, and haemoglobin activity when fed alone to
chicks at relatively high levels. Briggs suggests, therefore, the existence of another unknown
factor necessary to maintain normal haemoglobin formation. [1076]
FDA regulation for PABA as growth promotion and feed efficiency for Feed: [1077]
PABA, together with microbicides is recognized by FDA as growth promotion and feed effi-
ciency for feed for chickens and swine, using not less than 0.1 percent para-aminobenzoic acid
or the sodium or potassium salt or para-aminobenzoic acid by weight of feed.
The usual dose of PABA for humans is between 30 to 100 mg. three times a day, 50 mg
being mostly indicated. Natural source of PABA: Bran, eggs, kidney, liver, molasses, wheat
germ, brewer’s yeast, whole grains, yogurt, mushrooms, and spinach. In humans,PABA is
biosynthesized by intestinal bacteria.
PABA promoting thyroid carcinogenesis in rats initiated with N-bis(2-hydroxypropyl)

nitrosamine [1078]
Hasamura and colleagues (2005) found that PABA exerts promotion/progression effects on
rat thyroid carcinogenesis as a result of hypothyroidism followed by negative-feedback via the
thyroid-pituitary axis.
Carcinogenesis of PABA in sunscreen formulation) [1080]

In the past, PABA has been widely used as UV filter in sunscreen formulations. However,
it has been determined that it increases the formation of a particular DNA defect in human
cells, thus increasing the risk of skin cancer in people who lack the mechanisms to repair these
cellular defects [1079]. Currently, safer and more effective derivatives of PABA, such as octyl
dimethyl PABA.
Gasparro and colleagues (1998) in a review of sunscreen safety and efficacy concluded that
sunscreen ingredients or products do not pose a human health concern. [1081]
Cinnamon extract and diabetes mellitus 2 [1082]

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassiae) bark used as spice is now being studied by B. Mang and
colleagues for its effect of on glycated haemoglobin A1c HbA1c , fasting plasma glucose, total
692
cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triacylglycerol

concentrations in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2.
Previous studies [?] had found that cinnamon have a positive effect on the glycaemic con-
trol and the lipid profile in these patients.
The scientists conclude that aqueous cinnamon extract has a moderate effect in reducing fasting
plasma glucose concentrations in diabetic patients with poor glycaemic control.
The aqueous extract is with methylhydroxychalcone polymer as active substances, is nearly

free of allergic oil present in powder of cinnamon is therefore safe for allergic patients.
Cinnamon extract reducing oxidative stress [1083]

Dr. Anne-Marie Roussand colleagues presented the results of a researcher on a group of 24 pa-
tients with impaired fasting glucose levels at the 47th annual meeting of the American College
of Nutrition in 2006.
In this study Malondialdehyde (MDA) was chosen as an indicator of oxidative stress.

Plasma antioxidant levels were measured by ferric-reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) and
plasma SH (thiols). were both significantly increased, After 12 weeks of 500 gram cinnamon
extract supplementation there was a reduction of malondialdehyde.
The authors found a reduction in blood glucose levels, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol and total
cholesterol. All the participants had type-2 diabetes. Cinnamon extract in this study, caused
an increase of plasma antioxidant levels. According to Dr. Richard Anderson the active com-
pounds found in cinnamon extract may be helpful in reducing the risk of these diseases by
providing cells protection from harmful oxidation and may reduce risk of metabolic syndrome
which causes central obesity, hypertension, and unstable glucose and insulin metabolism.
Whole cinnamon and aqueous Extracts Ameliorate Sucrose-Induced Blood Pres-

sure Elevations in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats [1084]
Dr Anderson and colleagues report that cinnamon and a cinnamon extract could reduce blood
pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats, according to a study of 2006.
Diabetes Care: Cinnamon Improves Glucose and Lipids of People With Type 2
Diabetes [1085]
Alam Khan and colleagues found that 1g of cinnamon per day reduced blood glucose levels,
as well as triglycerides, LLD cholesterol, and total cholesterol in a small group of people with
type-2 diabetes. The authors suggest that the inclusion of cinnamon in the diet of people with
type 2 diabetes will reduce risk factors associated with diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.
Cinnamon Supplementation Does Not Improve Glycemic Control in Postmenopausal

Type 2 Diabetes Patients [1086]
Vanschoonbeek and colleagues concluded that cinnamon supplementation (1.5 g/d) does not
improve whole-body insulin sensitivity or oral glucose tolerance and does not modulate blood
lipid profile in postmenopausal patients with type 2 diabetes. The authors call for more re-
search on the proposed health benefits of cinnamon supplementation, until then no health
claims should be made.
Toxicity concerns of cinnamon [1087]

Coumarin is a flavouring which is found in higher concentrations in the types of cinnamon
grouped together under the name ”cassia cinnamon”. Relatively small amounts of coumarin
can already damage the liver of particularly sensitive individuals. However, this is not perma-
nent damage. Isolated coumarin may not be added to foods.
Synthetic coumarin is used in cosmetics. It smells of fresh hay. Coumarin is also used for
medicinal purposes to treat oedemas. Isolated coumarin may not be added to foods.
A rough distinction can be made between two types of cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon only
contains low levels of coumarin which are safe from the risk assessment perspective. By con-
trast, cassia cinnamon contains high levels of coumarin and large amounts of this cinnamon
should not, therefore, be eaten.
It is almost impossible for consumers to distinguish between Ceylon cinnamon and Cassia
cinnamon. If coumarin-containing plant parts like cinnamon are used for flavouring, then the
amount of coumarin is limited to 2 milligrams per kilogram food according to the Flavourings
Ordinance.
Food manufacturers and importers are responsible for ensuring compliance with maximum
levels. BfR has assessed the potential health risk from coumarin in foods. It believes there is
a risk of liver damage in particularly sensitive individuals. BfR has, therefore, established a
tolerable daily intake (TDI). This amount can be consumed over a lifetime without posing a
risk to health. The TDI is 0.1 milligram coumarin per kilogram body weight and day. This
also applies to particularly sensitive individuals. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
decided on the same value in its coumarin assessment.
Cassia gum as gelling agent and thickener in foods [1088]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) says that cassia gum as gelling agent and thick-
ener in foods is not of safety concern.
Cassia gum is the flour from the purified endosperm of seeds from Cassia tora and Cassia
obtusifolia.
694
Cassia gum is intended to be used ice cream and frozen milk desserts certain baked goods
soup mixes, sauces and selected oil-free salad dressings, yoghurt, sausages, corned beef, and
canned poultry meats at levels up to 1.5 g/kg and in all other applications at levels up to 2.5
g/kg.
Galactomannans are recognised as components of dietary fibre and are resistant to digestive
enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract.
According to EFSA it is expected that cassia gum is excreted unchanged. Fermentation of

cassia gum by gut microflora may occur to a small extent. However, the Panel notes that
any hydrolysed material would represent oligo- or monosaccharides that can be expected to be
absorbed and metabolised in normal biochemical pathways.
Long-term carcinogenicity studies on cassia gum were not available. Other related galactoman-
nan gums, including locust (carob) bean, guar gum and tara gum were not carcinogenic when
fed to mice and rats. Given that cassia gum is not genotoxic, and that many other related
galactomannan gums are not carcinogenic, the Panel does not consider long-term carcinogenic-
ity studies essential for the safety assessment of cassia gum.
According to the EFSA panel the presence of seeds of Cassia occidentalis for the prepara-
tion of cassia gum should be less than 0.1 % selected by colour and shape.
Conclusion: Given these results from the toxicological studies, the very low absorption of
cassia gum and the fact that, if hydrolysed at all, cassia gum would be degraded to compounds
that will enter normal metabolic pathways, the EFSA Panel concludes that the use of cassia
gum complying with the newly defined specifications as an additive for the proposed food uses
is not of safety concern.
Cassia occidentalis: Cassia occidentalis (Syn.: Senna occidentalis) has been found by Tasaka
to be toxic to heart and liver leading to death in rabbits and muscle necrosis in pigs by Tim.
[1089] [1090]
Cassia occidentalis is suggested to have antibiotic activity, immunostimulant actions, liver pro-
tective and detoxification actions, antimutagenic actions, laxative actions, anti-inflamatory and
anti-spasmotic actions, antimalarial and antiparasitic actions. [1091]
Beta glucan
Beta Glucan is primarily cultured extract of Baker’s Yeast cell wall. It is used as an immunos-
timulant. Beta glucans are sugar molecules (polysaccharides).
Polysaccharides or polysaccharide-protein complexes are considered as multi-cytokine inducers

that are able to induce gene expression of various immunomodulatory cytokines and cytokine
receptors.
Some interesting studies focus on investigation of the relationship between their structure and
antitumor activity, elucidation of their antitumor mechanism at the molecular level, and im-
provement of their various biological activities by chemical modifications. [1092]
In Japan, extracts containing various types of Beta glucan have been used to successfully
assist in treating cancer patients for the last 20 years. See Aoki, T. Chapter 4, Lentinan. In:
Modulation Agents and their Mechanism. Richard L. Fenichel (Ed), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
York and Basel, pp 63-77 (1984). [1093]
The two primary uses of beta-glucan are to enhance the immune system and to lower blood
cholesterol levels. Numerous experimental studies in test tubes and animals have shown beta-
glucan to activate white blood cells. [1094], [1095]
Garlic and garlic supplements without effect on hipercholesterolemia [1533] [1534]

Garlic (Allium sativum) and wild garlic (Allium ursinum)are used since long for treatment of
cardiovascular and infectious diseases as antioxidant and also because of anticancer properties.
Garlic supplements are therefore promoted as cholesterol-lowering agents. Crushing garlic pro-
motes the formation of allicin which is told to be responsible for the activity of garlic.
Gardner et al. evaluated the effect of raw garlic and two commonly used garlic supplements on
cholesterol concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia.
The researchers found no statistically significant effects of garlic on blood lipids.
They conclude that none of the forms of garlic used in this study, including raw garlic, when
given at an approximate dose of a 4-g clove per day, 6 d/wk for 6 months, had statistically
or clinically significant effects on LDL (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), HDL (high-density
lipoprotein cholesterol), triglyceride levels, or total cholesterol-high-density lipoprotein choles-
terol ratio in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia.
According to this study physicians can advice patients with moderately elevated LDL choles-
terol concentrations that garlic supplements or dietary garlic in reasonable doses are unlikely
to produce lipid benefits.
The authors, however, stress the fact that this trial should not be generalized to other popula-
tions or health effects. Garlic might lower LDL in specific subpopulations, such as those with
higher LDL concentrations, or may have other beneficial health effects.
696
Concentrated oat beta-glucan, a soluble fibre as new supplement for cholesterol

reduction. [1535]
Joanne Slavin and colleagues studied soluble fibre such as a concentrated oat beta-glucan on
its effects on cardiovascular disease endpoints in human subjects.
Fermentability: In this study the fermentability of concentrated oat beta-glucan with inulin
and guar gum in a model intestinal fermentation system was compared. It has been reported
that fermentation products like propionate and acetate may suppress cholesterol synthesis and
contribute to cholesterol lowering. All three were found to produced similar concentrations of
short chain fatty acids and acetate, however, the oat beta-glucan was found to produce the
highest concentrations of butyrate at 4, 8, and 12 hours, after which inulin produced the most.
he authors found in their study that six grams concentrated oat beta-glucan per day for six
weeks significantly reduced total and LDL cholesterol in subjects with elevated cholesterol.
No significant changes were observed in HDL cholesterol, glucose, insulin, homocysteine or C-
reactive protein (CRP) as a result of the beta-glucan intervention. This oat beta-glucan was
fermentable, producing higher amounts of butyrate than other fibers.
The authors concluded that a practical dose of oat beta-glucan can significantly lower serum
lipids in a high-risk population and may improve colon health. The authors also stress the
fact that concentrated oat beta-glucan is suitable as a ”stand-alone” supplement for cholesterol
reduction, it can also be used as a food ingredient to increase fibre content of food.
Weight reduction ingrediets [1536]

Ephedra sinica (Ma huang) contains ephedrin. The FDA banned the use of Ephedra and di-
etary supplements containing ephedrin ( an alcaloid) as an unreasonable risk of illness or injury
in April 2004.
Some species in the Ephedra genus have no alkaloid content and are therefore essentially inert;
however, the most commonly used species, Ephedra sinica, has a total alkaloid content of 13%
by dry weight. Ephedrine constitutes 4090% of the alkaloid content, with the remainder con-
sisting of pseudoephedrine and the demethylated forms of each compound.
In February 2007 FDA reaffirmed the ban of Ephedra products saying that no dosage of dietary
supplements containing ephedrine alkaloids is safe and the sale of these products in the United
States is illegal and subject to FDA enforcement action. [1537]
Ingredients for weight loss with unproved effectiveness are guarana, yerba mate, ginseg, guar
gum, psylium,lichorice, algae, apple cider vinegar and others. The only way to get rid of some
extra pounds is to reduce intake of calories and to increase energy expediture such as sport.
Pros and cons related to supplements
The vitamin E study [1538] : A 10 per cent increased risk of mortality for people taking
400 International Units per day of vitamin E were reported by Miller and colleagues in 2005.
A meta-analysis of 19 randomized, controlled trials involving more than 135 000 participants
found that high-dosage vitamin E supplementation (400 IU/d for at least 1 year) increased
all-cause mortality. The effects of lower-dosage supplementation were unclear. Tnhe authors
concluded that high vitamin E supplementation should be avoided.
This study has been highly criticised and discredited as flawed
The Bjelakovie meta-analysis 2007 [1539]: Goran Bjelakovic and colleagues report re-
sults of a systematic literature review to assess the effects of beta carotene, vitamins A and E,
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and selenium on all-cause mortality among participants in primary
and secondary disease prevention trials.
Bjelakovic and colleages excluded studies which did not match the criteria of his meta-analysis.
Only 68 randomised trials were included in the meta-analysis, comprising beta-carotene doses
ranging from 1.2 to 50 milligrams, vitamin A from 1333 to 200 000 International Units (RDI
5000 IU, Upper Safe Limit 10,000 IU), vitamin C from 60 to 2000 mg (RDI 60 mg, UL 2000
mg), vitamin E from 10 to 5000 IU (RDI 30 IU, UL 900 IU), and selenium from 20 to 200
micrograms (RDI 65 micrograms, UL 450 micrograms).
The authors found that beta carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E, taken singly or combined
with other antioxidant supplements, were associated with increased all-cause mortality. The
authors conclude that treatment with beta carotene, vitamin A, and vitamin E may increase
mortality. The potential roles of vitamin C and selenium on mortality need further study.
The authors say that although oxidative stress has a hypothesized role in the pathogenesis
of many chronic diseases, it may be the consequence of pathological conditions. By eliminating
free radicals from our organism, we interfere with some essential defensive mechanisms.
Critics on the Bjelakovie meta-analysis

Meir Stampfer, a professor of nutrition and epidemiology at the Harvard School of Public Health
points out that the studies reviewed were too different to be able to pool them together.
Andrew Shao, vice president of the US-based Council for Responsible Nutrition said that the
combined studies were far too diverse and different in terms of dosage, duration, study pop-
ulation and nutrients tested that the results of the analysis were compromised. According to
Dr. Shao most of the trials included in the meta-analysis tested for secondary prevention in
diseased populations, instead of primary prevention studies in healthy populations. Combining
secondary prevention and primary prevention trials and then making conclusions for the entire
698
population is an unsound scientific approach
Slimming ingredients, an unserious category?
Chitosan can be used in water processing engineering as a part of a filtration process. Chitosan
causes the fine sediment particles to bind together and is subsequently removed with the sedi-
ment during sand filtration. Chitosan also removes phosphorus, heavy minerals, and oils from
the water. [1540]
Chitosan is also useful in other filtration situations, is used to clarify wine, mead and beer,
improves flocculation, and removes yeast cells, fruit particles, and other detritus that cause
hazy wine.
Chitosan is supposed to have the capability of attracting fat from the digestive system and
expelling it from the body so that users can, it is claimed, lose weight without eating less.
However, some scientific research suggests that these claims are likely without substance. [1540]
With the unavailability of specific research studies to support the claims made on chitosan
as a revolutionary weight loss supplements, one must be careful on what is fact and what is
speculation. [1540]
Chitosan reduces cholesterol and body weigt gain [1541] Dr. Shahdat Hossain and
colleagues from Jahangirnagar University, studyed the effects of chitosan extracted from lo-
cally sourced shrimps Macrobracium rosenbergii using sequential decalcification, deproteina-
tion, deacetylation and the acid-extraction of chitin.on bodyweight, plasma lipid profile, fatty
acid composition, liver lipid peroxide levels and plasma levels of glutamate pyruvate transami-
nase.
The authors found that dietary supplementation of chitosan decreases the atherogenic lipid
profiles of both NC and HC rats and reduces the bodyweight gain of HC rats.
Adequate anti-oxidants should be added to chitosan-enriched supplements in order to min-

imize the degree of oxidative stress to the liver. Further studies should clear whether the
benefits of chitosan noted in rats are also translated into humans.
International Conference on Innovations and Trends in Weight Loss and Weight

Management [1542] At the First International Conference on Innovations and Trends in
Weight Loss and Weight Management held in March 2007 in Berlin Dr. Jorg Gruenwald re-
viewed the European market of slimming ingredients and stated that the science supporting
chitosan’s benefits was limited. He Is a leading European expert in the field of botanicals and
natural products.
According to an overview by Dr. Gruenwald, the slimming ingredients market can be divided
into five groups based on the mechanisms of action:
• Boosting fat burning/ thermogenesis
• Inhibiting protein breakdown
• Suppressing appetite/ boosting satiety (feeling of fullness)
• Blocking fat absorption
• Regulating mood
According to Dr. Gruenwald supplements with weight reduction claims with various levels
of supporting scientific evidence are green tea polyphenols, CLA, Hoodia gordonii, DHEA,
hydroxy-methylbutyrate (a metabolit of leucine), and chromium picolinate, leading down to
ingredients with only limited available data, like L-carnitinewith only limited available data,
like L-carnitine, calcium and chitosan.
The conference called for industry to make more effort with academia and clinical trials to
obtain credibility.
Chitosan supplementation and fecal fat excretion [1543] Chitosan-based supplements

are sold as fat trappers and fat magnets. Matthew Gades and Judith Stern quantified the in
vivo effect of a chitosan product on fat absorption. In this study the authors concluded that
the fat trapping claims associated with chitosan are unsubstantiated with no significant effect
on energy balance.
Chitosan supplementation and fat absorption [1544] Chitosan is a primary ingredient

in dietary weight-loss supplements. Its claimed activity is the binding and trapping of dietary
fat, leading to fat excretion and weight loss without caloric restriction. Gades and Stern (2005)
tested the fat-trapping capacity of a chitosan product in men and women.
The author conclude that the fat trapped was clinically insignificant. The product fails to
meet claims.
700
Weight loss supplements [1545] According to Judith S. Stern there are not any supple-
ments that cause substantial weight loss. Consumer rely on testimonials, and they erroneously
assume that supplements are safe because they believe the federal government would not allow
unsafe products on the market.
Unfortunately, the federal government has limited power and money to stop the marketing
of such supplements. According to the Dietary Supplement Act (DSHEA) of 1994, supplement
manufacturers are not required to perform premarketing safety evaluations of their products.
DSHEA leaves it to the federal government to prove that a specific supplement is not safe. The
FDA and FTC simply do not have the budget to do that job.
In April 2004, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) made an effort in ensuring public
safety by sending warning letters to 16 dietary supplement distributors for making false and
misleading claims for weight-loss products promoted over the Internet. [1546]
Minimal effect of chitosan on body weight [1547] Ni Mhurchu and colleagues, in a re-
view of studies related to chitosan, come to the conclusion that there is some evidence that
chitosan is more effective than placebo in the short-term treatment of overweight and obesity.
However, many trials to date have been of poor quality and results have been variable. Results
obtained from high quality trials indicate that the effect of chitosan on body weight is minimal
and unlikely to be of clinical significance.
Adequate anti-oxidants should be added to chitosan-enriched supplements in order to mini-

mize the degree of oxidative stress to the liver. Further studies are certainly needed to clarify
these aspects of chitosanand wether the benefits of chitosan noted in rats are also translated
into humans.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) as food supplement

Some substances can create a supplementation of food such as the Conjugated Linoleic Acid
(CLA)[422]. It is a group of natural geometrical and position isomers of linoleic acid. The most
important of these fatty acids is produced by bacterial fermentation in the digestive system of
ruminants, being found in milk and meat of these animals.
It is called rumenic acid(cis 9, trans 11, octadien acid)
The bacterium which isomerates the linoleic acid to CLA is Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens.
The conjugated linoleic acids are told to improve the resistance to carcinogenic diseases and
to reduce the body fat. The natural amount of CLA in milk and meat is to small to induce
anticarcinogenic and anti fat activities. CLA enriched oil is commercially available and can be
used to supplement foods such as margarine, chococream, backery products and dairy products.
Claims of CLA acids are:

1. Anticarcinogenic: This action was observed on mice.
2. Antiaterogenic: This action is not well known. Further studies are necessary.
3. Anabolic effect: Rumenic acid seems to reduce the body fat increasing at the same time
the fat-free body mass (lean body mass). Muscle tissue and bone mass increases.It is why
Conjugated Linoleic Acids are found in the formula of some anabolic preparations.
4. Activity on the immunological system: The immunoglobulinesIgA, IgG and IgM are
increased and EgE reduced. This reduces the the risk of allergy
5. Antidiabetic: An antidiabetic activity of the CLA acids was found in rats.
6. Antithrombotic: The CLA acid group has a strong antithrombotic activity, contrary to
linoleic acid which increases thrombotic.
CLA is present in milk, milk derivates, meat and its derivates of ruminants.
Table 17.2: Amount of CLA in Foods according to Fritsche and Steinhart[494]
Food CLA (rumenic acid)

in total fatty acids
Milk and derivates 0,86%

Meat and derivates 0,6%
Cakes and cookies 0,32%
Fish 0,05%
Chocolate 0,14%
Margarine, edible
oil,fats and chips <0,01%
The amount of CLA in milk and derivates can easily increased up to 500 times giving animal
feed enriched with linolein acid such as sunflower oil, about 50 g/kg dry feed[495]. Chemical
synthesis is very difficult.
Biological activity of lactobazillus, Candida antarctica have been tried to produce CLA, with
minor success. Promising is the way of animal feed enriched with linoleic acid. Milk, its
derivates and meat of ruminants being fed with such animal feed is a natural biological way to
increase CLA as functional food.
Antidiabetic effects of CLA mediated via anti-inflamatory effects in adipose tis-

sue[496]
Helen M. Roche and colleagues investigated whether dietary fatty acids could attenuate the
702
proinflammatory insulin-resistant state in obese adipose tissue which may be the source of in-
sulin desensitizing proinflammatory molecules that predispose to insulin resistance.
The authors found that c9,t11-Conjugated Linoleic Acid inhibited tumor necrosis factor-alfa-
induced downregulation of insulin receptor substrate 1 and GLUT4 mRNA expression and pro-
moted insulin-stimulated glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes compared with linoleic acid.
The authors suggest that altering fatty acid composition may attenuate the proinflammatory
state in adipose tissue that predisposes to obesity-induced insulin resistance.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), a review [497]

Conjugated linoleic acid was proposed as supplement improving body composition, cancer pre-
vention, diabetes, high cholesterol. It also has been promoted as a fat burning supplement.
According to Emory Healthcare, however, there is little evidence that it works, and growing
evidence that CLA might actually worsen blood sugar control in people who are overweight.
The typical dosage of CLA ranges from 3 to 5 g daily even very small amounts of a toxic
contaminant can quickly add up if low quality of CLA is used, warns Emory Healthcare.
Conjugated linoleic acid production in gut [543]

Devillard and colleagues (2007) found that the human gram-positive intestinal Roseburia spp.species
were among the most active bacteria metabolizing linoleic acid (cis-9,cis-12-18:2) and vaccenic
acid (trans-11-18:1) or a 10-hydroxy-18:1, which are precursors of conjugated linoleic acid.
Voevodin and colleaugues (2005) in a meta-analysis found only minimal benefits, whether
for weight or body composition, the evidence being more negative than positive in relation to
weight loss supplement. [544]
CLA does NOT appear to be a useful supplement for people with diabetes, and might in
fact contribute to diabetes in overweight people. CLA might decrease insulin sensitivity, creat-
ing a pre-diabetic state. [549] [550] [551]. However, Syvertsen and colleagues did not find any
harmful effect. [552]
Emory Healthcare advices at present individuals with diabetes or at risk for it not to use CLA
except under physician supervision. [497]
One study found that CLA impairs endothelial function, suggesting that it might increase
cardiovascular risk. [553]
A small double-blind trial found weak evidence that CLA might be useful for high choles-
terol. [547]
Some animal and test tubes suggesting that CLA might help prevent cancer are based on
animal and test tube researches, evidence is preliminary and inconsistent. [545] [546]
One study failed to find that CLA can enhance immune function. [548]
CLA and nursing mothers

Concerns have also been raised regarding use of CLA by nursing mothers. A study found that
CLA reduces the fat content of human breast milk. [554]
Since infants depend on the fat in breast milk to provide adequate calories and on certain
fats to aid proper growth and development, it is probably prudent for nursing mothers to avoid
CLA supplements. [497]
Maximum safe dosages of CLA for young children, pregnant women, or those with severe liver
or kidney disease have not been determined. [497]
Memory Supplements without solid scientific support
According to a review [498]of the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), there is no
solid science indicating that any of the major ingredients of dietary supplements help protect
or improve memory.
Antioxidants Antioxidants are common ingredients in memory supplements, particularly

lipoic acid and the Asian plant bacopa. The single study of lipoic acid’s effect on cognition
found that it didn’t help HIV patients with dementia. Of three Australian studies of bacopa, one
found that 23 adolescents scored higher on memory tests but two bigger studies of middle-aged
and older people found no effect.
Vitamin E Kang and colleages found in a study published in 2006, that long-term use of vi-
tamin E supplements did not provide cognitive benefits among generally healthy older women.
[499]
No reduction of vascular diseases with antioxidants The Heart Protection Study Col-
laborative Group 2002, made a study with 20536 UK adults with coronary disease, other
occlusive arterial disease, or diabetes. The Group wanted study the suggestion that increased
intake of various antioxidant vitamins reduces the incidence rates of vascular disease, cancer,
and other adverse outcomes. The patients received antioxidant vitamin supplementation (600
mg vitamin E, 250 mg vitamin C, and 20 mg -carotene daily) This suplementation did not
produce any significant reductions in the 5-year mortality from, or incidence of, any type of
vascular disease, cancer, or other major outcome. [500]
704
Neurotransmitters [501] Neurotransmitters relay signals from one nerve cell to another. A
building block of one such neurotransmitter involved in memory is choline. However, studies
show that in supplement form choline doesn’t even reach the brain. No study has found DMAE,
a building block of choline, to be helpful for memory, and several tests have found it not to
be useful for Huntington’s or Alzheimer’s patients. B vitamins are included in some products
because they can lower levels of homocysteine in blood, and high levels of homocysteine are
linked to poor cognition. One Dutch study found that folic acid helped more than a placebo
in folate-deficient volunteers, but grain-based foods in the U.S. are already fortified with folic
acid (the Dutch study looked at folate-deficient volunteers.) Seventeen of the 18 other studies
showed no effect of B vitamins on memory.
Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo biloba helps increase blood flow, and is included in many memory
formulas, yet studies are inconclusive at best. The most recent tests showed ginkgo takers
scored better on just one of 14 tests of brain function-a result that may be due to chance.
Bacopa Stough and colleagues (2001) suggest that B. monniera may improve higher order
cognitive processes that are critically dependent on the input of information from our environ-
ment such as learning and memory. [501]
Extracts of Ginkgo biloba and Bacopa monniera have been shown to produce positive effects on
cognitive function in healthy subjects, being antioxidant properties and cholinergic modulation
the main cause. However, Nathan and colleagues (2004) found that extracts of Ginkgo biloba
and Bacopa monniera had no cognitive enhancing effects in healthy subjects. [502]
The results show a significant effect of the Brahmi on a test for the retention of new infor-
mation, but the rate of learning was unaffected, suggesting that Brahmi decreases the rate of
forgetting of newly acquired information. Tasks assessing attention, verbal and visual short-
term memory and the retrieval of pre-experimental knowledge were unaffected. Questionnaire
measures of everyday memory function and anxiety levels were also unaffected. [503]
Bacopa monnieri failed to improve mental function in studies. This type of inconsistency
suggests that the limited benefits seen in some studies were due to chance. [504]
Choline Choline is widespread in the foods we eat. The average diet provides about 500 to
1,000 mg of choline per day. 2,4 Lecithin, a fatty constituent in foods, is a major source of
choline; it is comprised mostly of a type of choline called phosphatidylcholine (PC).
For some people, adequate choline supplies cannot be maintained by other nutrients, and must
be obtained independently through diet or supplements. Choline and folate share methylation
pathways. Robert and colleagues 1999 in a study found that choline is utilized as a methyl
donor when folate intake is low, and the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine is insufficient to main-
tain choline status when intakes of folate and choline are low. The authors call for a dietary
choline of > 250 mg/d to maintain plasma choline and phosphatidylcholine when folate intake
is low. [505]
Huperzine A, a cholinesterase inhibitor, is derived from the Chinese herb Huperzia serrata.
According to Dana Belongia of Georgetown University in Washington, products based on hu-
perzine A have never been tested on memory or other brain functions in healthy adults, and
there have been no controlled clinical trials outside China assessing its toxicity and efficacy.
[498]
DMAE There are no studies looking at DMAE’s impact on memory or powers of concentra-
tion in healthy adults. DMAE has failed nearly every test concerning neurological diseases like
Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s chorea. [498]
Phosphatidylserine (PS) According to FDA very limited and preliminary scientific re-
search suggests that phosphatidylserine may reduce the risk of dementia and the risk of cogni-
tive dysfunction in the elderly. FDA concludes that there is little scientific evidence supporting
these claims. [507]
Lipoic acid According to study of Dana Consortium, treatment of HIV patients with thioctic
acid, also known as alpha-lipoic acid did not improve cognitive function. According to this study
thioctic acid has no benefit. [506]
Folic acid According to Durga and colleagues low folate and raised homocysteine concentra-
tions in blood are associated with poor cognitive performance in the general population. The
authors found, as part of the Dutch FACIT trial that folic acid supplementation for 3 years
significantly improved domains of cognitive function that tend to decline with age. [508]
Martha Morris of the Rush Institute for Healthy Aging in Chicago says that this study is
not relevant to people in USA because US grain supply is fortified with folate whereas Eu-
ropean supply is not, and the Dutch volunteers lacked folate at the beginning of the trial.
[498]
Ginkgo biloba Kennedy and colleagues 2007 assessed the effects of a low dose of GBE
alone and complexed with the soy-derived phospholipids such as phosphatidylserine and phos-
phatidylcholine to enhances the bio-availability.
No improved performance was found with 120 mg of GBE alone. Enhancement following
GBE complexed with phosphatidylcholine resulted in modest cognitive enhancement, but GBE
706
complexed with phosphatidylserine resulted in significantly increased speed of memory task

performance. The authors conclude that complexation with phosphatidylserine appears to po-
tentiate the cognitive effects associated with a low dose of GBE and call for further research.
[509]
Vinpocetine Vinpocetine is a semi-synthetic derivative of vincamine. Vincamine is an al-

kaloid derived from the plant Vinca minor L. Vinpocetine, as well as vincamine, are used in
Europe, Japan and Mexico as pharmaceutical agents for the treatment of cerebrovascular and
cognitive disorders, and in the United States it is marketed as a dietary supplement as cognition
enhancer. [510]
Another study concerning the vinca alkaloid called vinconate was published in 1997 suggesting
the alkaloid as possible cognition enhancer.[511] However, Schardt says that only preliminary
studies exist dated 15 years ago, asessing vinpocetine for treatment of stroke or Alzheimer’s
disease. [498]
According to a study published in 1989 fifteen Alzheimer’s patients were treated with vinpoce-
tine in a trial during a one-year period. Vinpocetine failed to improve cognition on psychometric
testing or overall functioning. The authors concluded that vinpocetine is ineffective in improv-
ing cognitive deficits and does not slow the rate of decline in individuals with Alzheimer’s
disease. [512]
n-3 PUFAs and depressed mood According to Appleton and colleagues 2006 trial evidence
that examines the effects of n-3 PUFAs on depressed mood is limited and present considerable
heterogeneity. The evidence available provides little support for the use of n-3 PUFAs to
improve depressed mood. [513]
The controversity of fibre and colorectal cancer

The legend of dietary fibre [514]
The British surgeon Denis Burkit, working in an hospital in Uganda, developed the theory
that Dietary fibre could reduce the colorectal cancer risk and other diseases, because Africans
consumed more fruit and vegetables as found in western diet. As a tribute to his outstanding
contributions in the fields of medicine, nutrition and health the Kellogg Company of Great
Britain Limited initiated the Denis Burkitt Study Awards in 1994.
In an article in Zeit Wissen 5, 2006 Eva-Maria Schnurr looks at the evolution of the the-
ory of dietary fibre and colorectal cancer. In the 80s bran was added to cereals, yoghurt and
even beverages in the hope to reduce risk of colorectal cancer. This theory is not being main-
tained any more by many scientists. According to the article from Eva-Maria Schnurr the
English scientist Burkit, developing the initial theory of fibre to reduce colorectal cancer did
not consider the age of the people he considered for his work, most of them died so early that
no cancer could show up. [515]
Doubts about the theory came up due to the findings of a series of researches on this mat-
ter:
Wheat Bran fibre Trial [516]

Alberts and colleagues 2000 found in the Wheat Bran fibre Trial that a dietary supplement of
wheat-bran fibre (of 13,5 g fibre in two to three cups of cereal per day) does not protect against
recurrent colorectal adenomas.
Polyp Prevention Trial [517]

According to their authors, the Polyp Prevention Trial provided no evidence that adopting a
low-fat, high-fibre fruit- and vegetable-enriched eating plan reduces the incidence of colorectal
cancer.
The position of the National Institutes of Health related to dietary fibre [518]
The National Institutes of Health in a release comments the findings of the Wheat Bran Fibre
Trial and the Polyp Prevention Trial:
”The results provided no evidence that the particular dietary interventions employed (i.e., a
low-fat, high-fibre, high-fruit and -vegetable eating plan or a high-fibre cereal supplement) in
the particular population studied (individuals who had had one or more polyps removed at
colonoscopy) were effective in preventing the recurrence of polyps. However, overall evidence
suggests that a low-fat, high-fruit and - vegetable, high-fibre diet has benefit in reducing the
risk of many chronic diseases - heart disease, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, and others. This
trial specifically looked at the effect of diet on the growth of new colorectal polyps in people
who had already had a polyp removed. A healthy diet does not replace the need for people
with a history of polyps to have regular checkups. ”
Wheat-bran fibre does not protect against colorectal adenomas [520]

Jacobs and colleagues 2006 assessed the epidemiologic evidence that cereal fibre protects against
colorectal cancer is equivocal, with a supplementation of 13.5 g per day of wheat-bran fibre
to reduce the rate of recurrence of colorectal adenomas. The authors found that a dietary
supplement of wheat-bran fibre does not protect against recurrent colorectal adenomas.
The Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) found no link between reduction of colorec-
tal cancer and high fruit, vegetables and whole grain intake [520]
The clinical trials of the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) were designed to test the effects of
postmenopausal hormone therapy, diet modification, and calcium and vitamin D supplements
on heart disease, fractures, and breast and colorectal cancer.
708
The WHI trial also reported no link between a diet low in fat, and high in fruit, vegeta-
bles and whole-grain intake. This study was restricted to women and appears to agree with
the results from Arizona.
The Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) found no link between supplementation of

calcium and vitamin D and reduction of colorectal cancer [521]
Higher intake of calcium and vitamin D has been associated with a reduced risk of colorec-
tal cancer in epidemiologic studies and polyp recurrence in polyp-prevention trials. However,
randomized-trial evidence that calcium with vitamin D supplementation is beneficial in the
primary prevention of colorectal cancer is lacking.
However, the authors conclude that daily supplementation of calcium with vitamin D for seven
years had no effect on the incidence of colorectal cancer among postmenopausal women. The
long latency associated with the development of colorectal cancer, along with the seven-year
duration of the trial, may have contributed to this null finding. Ongoing follow-up will assess
the longer-term effect of this intervention.
Vitamin D3 and calcium supplementation reduces all-cancer risk in women [522]

Joan M. Lappe and colleagues in a study of supplementation of 1,400-1,500 mg calcium and
1,100 IU vitamin D3 over 4 years the calcium/vitamin D3 group experienced a 60 per cent
decrease in their cancer risk compared to the group taking placebos, but did not change signif-
icantly for the group receiving only calcium.
The authors concluded that mproving calcium and vitamin D nutritional status substantially
reduces all-cancer risk in postmenopausal women.
Wheat Bran fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention combined suggest benefit of fibre
for men, but not women [523]
Elisabeth Jacobs and colleagues 2006 combined the Wheat Bran fibre Trial and the Polyp Pre-
vention Trial, Both studies separately presented no link between dietary fibre and the risk of
colon cancer, but pooled together a benefit of fibre was noted for men, but not women.
According to Jacobs the conflicting results from other studies can be explained by the dif-
ference in benefits between the sexes.
Warning about too much fibre intake [524]

According to Goodlad the benefits of fibre have been attributed to its binding to bile acids
but fibre can also bind various other harmful materials. Vegetable fibre has several times more
galactose than cereal fibre and this high galactose content will inhibit binding of mitogenic
galactose binding lectins, such as peanut agglutinin, which has been shown to stimulate cell
proliferation in the human colon. Goodlad concludes that fermentable fibre and resistant starch
can give origin to colorectal adenomes.
Increases in tumour in rats following supplementation with fibre-like substrates such as re-
sistant starch have also been reported. Williamson and colleagues 1999 conclude that it is
possible that any increased risk posed by resistant starch is restricted to carriers of germline
mutations in APC (adenomatous polyposis (Apc) gene). [526] [527]
Another theory says that soluble fibre and excessive cereal fibre are being added to probi-
otic and functional foods as well as drinks by the producers trying to profit from a new wave
toward high fibre foods. This may lead to a negative health effect as excessive fibre may lead to
gas which can drive bacteria back to the small intestine where they may cause erosion of the gut.
Goodlad reinforces the advice that fibre is still an important aspect of a diet and in the diet
fibre should come from fibre-rich food such as fruits and vegetables and less so from cereals, to
have a balanced diet and everything in moderation,and that exercise and avoiding obesity is
important.
The Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hos-

pital and Harvard Medical School Report 1999 [525]
Fuchs and colleagues 1999 found no association between the intake of dietary fibre itself and
the risk of colorectal cancer. The researchers measured the contributions of dietary fibre from
cereals, fruits, and vegetables.
Only fruit fibre was associated with an appreciable but not significant reduction in risk. In
contrast, greater consumption of vegetable fibre was associated with a small increase in the risk
of colorectal cancer.
Nurses’ Health Studie found no link between Fibre and colon cancer [528]
Nurses’ Health Studie in USA observed 76 947 nurses starting in 1976 over 16 years. And the
Nurses’ Healt Study II started in 1989 could not find a link between dietary fibre and colorectal
cancer.
Limitations of Studies [529]

The validity of the results were questioned on account of the poor compliance with the dietary
intervention in the WHI trial. Limitations of the wheat bran Fibre and the polyp prevention
trial had a follow- up period of only two to four years, ting into consideration that the latency
period of the cancer is between 10 and 20 years. Another limitation with this new-pooled
analysis is the use of polyps, as a marker for actual cancer.
710
Total dietary fibre does not protect against colorectal cancer , but whole grain does
[530]
In 2007 Schatzkin and colleagues found in a large prospective cohort study, that total dietary
fibre intake was not associated with colorectal cancer risk, whereas whole-grain consumption
was associated with a modest reduced risk.The association with whole grain was stronger for
rectal than for colon cancer.
Dietary fibre and Risk of Colorectal Cancer in the Japan Collaborative Cohort
Study [531]
Wakai and colleagues 2007 found no differences in the strength of associations with the risk
between water-soluble and insoluble dietary fibre. For food sources of fibre, bean fibre intake
was somewhat inversely correlated with colorectal cancer risk.
This might point to the findings that soluble fibres from fruit and vegetable have shown to
be protective towards colorectal cancer and insoluble cereal fibre tends to increase the risk of
cancer in humans.
The authors concluded that dietary fibre my be protective against colorectal cancer, mainly
against colon cancer, however, the role of dietary fibre in the prevention of colorectal can-
cer seems to remain inconsistent, and further investigations in various populations are being
suggested by the authors.
The weak point of the Women’s Health Initiative [532]

Martinez and Jacobs in an editorial in 2007 point out that most prospective studies of colorectal
cancer and calcium intake suggests a threshold effect in that risk reduction is seen at intakes
of approximately 6001000 mg/day, with no further protection beyond these levels.
These findings might explain the null effects observed in the Women’s Health Initiative, in
which women received a total calcium intake of approximately 2150 mg/day, levels that, based
on the prospective data, are consistent with no effect. Martinez and Jacobs rise again the
question of whether calcium supplementation could protect individuals with low or moderately
low baseline intakes of calcium.
Matinez and Jacobs also note that according to Grau and colleagues 2007 [533] the protec-
tive effect of calcium supplementation for colorectal adenoma recurrence extends as long as
5 years after cessation of supplementation and that this effect is slightly stronger than that
observed during the intervention phase.
Influence of the colorectal cancer behavioural risk factors of individuals [534] In-
dividuals who were not adherent to screening reported having a greater number of risk factors
than adherent individuals. Risk factors were considered in this study to be low physical activ-
ity, low fruit and vegetable intake, and low intake of multivitamins. The authors conclude that
there is a need to develop interventions to modify the colorectal cancer behavioural risk factors
that are common among screening-adherent and nonadherent individuals.
The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study
[534] The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study, found a
very strong association between a high fibre intake and a reduction in the instance of colorectal
cancer. People who ate more than 35 g of fibre a day had a 40 per cent reduced risk than those
who consumed only 15 g. Colon cancer aetiology:
- The hypothesis that a diet high in fibre reduces colorectal cancer risk has been corrobo-
rated in the EPIC study. Our findings were published in parallel with the results from the
PLCO cohort of the NIH-NCI. In that study, a similar protective effect of fibre on colorectal
cancer polyps was observed. Together, these results indicate that fibre is protective both for
the development of adenomatous polyps and for their malignant transformation.
- The hypotheses that consumption of red and processed meat increases colorectal cancer risk
while intake of fish decreases risk is strongly supported by the EPIC results.
- The combination of these four dietary factors (i.e. fibre, fish, red and processed meats)
plays a major role in colorectal cancer aetiology in addition to alcohol intake, obesity and low
physical activity.
Summary of Scientific Activity on Colon Cancer in the EPIC Study [534]

Lancet 2003, Bingham and colleagues found an inverse relation of dietary fibre with colorectal
cancer incidence with the greatest protective effect in the left colon, and least in the rectum.
No food source of fibre is significantly more protective than others.
Bingham and colleagues 2004 confirmed the above findings after adjustment for folate and
with a longer follow-up. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004, Jenab et al: Higher nut and
seed intake is not significantly associated to the risk of colorectal, colon, and rectal cancers in
men but did show an inverse association with colon cancer in women.)
The marketing of fibre: Dietary fibre components such as pectins, gums, cellulose and
others, used as functional ingredients by the food industry are being used in marketing strategy
to claim high fibre benefits.
Dietary fibre from cocoa suitable for low-calorie, high-fibre foodes preparations
[535]
712
Elena Lecumberri and colleagues 2007 studied the composition and dietary fibre obtained from
cocoa bean hus, a waste product from cocoa. This product contained 60.54% of total dry mat-
ter as dietary fibre, where 80% of these are insoluble fibre and 10 % are soluble dietary fibre
and polyphenolic compounds (1.32% soluble polyphenols and 4.46% condensed tannins) The
glucose retardation index of cocoa fibre were similar to other natural commercial insoluble fibres.
Dietary guidelines recommend a minimum daily intake of dietary fibre (DF) of 25 g (equivalent
to 12.5 g dietary fibre per 1000 calories consumed), dietary fibre components like pectins, gums,
cellulose and others have been used as functional ingredients.
The authors conclude that the antioxidant capacity of this fibre-rich cocoa powder and its
physico-chemical properties render it a suitable product to be used in the preparation of low-
calorie, high-fibre foods like chocolate cookies, chocolate cakes, dietetic chocolate supplements,
etc. where the colour and flavour of this cocoa fibre might be advantageous.
The ACS Nutrition and Physical Activity Guidelines represent the most current
scientific evidence related to dietary and activity patterns and cancer risk [536]
The consumer is made insecure by conflicting results of studies such as those commented above.
Adherence to ACS Guidelines may clear the actual situation and provides a pattern to be fol-
lowed. According to Kushi and colleagues 2006 the American Cancer Society (ACS) Nutrition
and Physical Activity Guidelines are consistent with guidelines from the American Heart As-
sociation and the American Diabetes Association for the prevention of coronary heart disease
and diabetes, as well as for general health promotion, as defined by the Department of Health
and Human Services’ 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans.
The ACS Guidelines include recommendations for individual choices regarding diet and physi-
cal activity patterns, but Kushi stresses that those choices occur within a community context
that either facilitates or interferes with healthy behaviours.
The authors recommendation are therefore to develop a supportive social environment for in-
dividuals to choose healthy behaviours.
Supplements with vitamin B may be harmful [537]

It is known that folate deficiency induces DNA breaks and may alter cellular capacity for mu-
tation and epigenetic methylation.
However, Schernhammer and colleagues 2007 found that supplements did not reduce the risk
of cancer. B vitamins from multivitamin pills increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer by
139 per cent.
The mechanism of the different effect from vitamin from supplements and the effect of vi-
tamins absorbed from food is unknown.
The authors suggest that the growth of a dormant tumor may be stimulated by folate and
other similar vitamins, especially in case if a person with chronic shortage of these nutrients
in his diet suddenly starts taking multivitamins in an effort to become healthy. Similar results
have been found studying oestrogen-rich soy. Women eating soy all life long reduced the risk
of breast cancer, but those who suddenly started to eat soy did increase the risk.
In this study nonusers of multivitamins were found to have a modest inverse trend between
folate, PLP, and B12 and pancreatic cancer risk. This has not been observed among people
using multivitamin supplement and among those who obtain these factors exclusively through
dietary sources, there may be an inverse relation between vitamin B and the risk.
The author’s advice is to maintain a normal weight and eat fruit and vegetables to avoid
pancreatic cancer. Liver, wholegrain cereals, dairy products and green vegetables are good
sources of B vitamins.
Folic acid increases the risk of some types of tumours [538]
Bernard Cole and colleagues 2007 found in a study that folate, when administered as folic
acid for up to six years, does not decrease the risk of adenoma formation in the large intestine
among individuals with previously removed adenomas. Another study by Schernhammer and
colleagues 2007 (See www.ourfoo-news.com 03.06.2007: Supplements with vitamin B may be
harmful) came to similar conclusion in relation to pancreatic cancer. [539]
In the study of Cole participants were randomly assigned to receive 1 mg/day of folic acid
or placebo and to receive aspirin or placebo and were then examined three and six or eight
years later. The researchers concluded that folic acid at 1 mg/d does not reduce colorectal
adenoma risk. Further research is needed to investigate the possibility that folic acid supple-
mentation might increase the risk of colorectal neoplasia.
Cornelia Ulrich and John Potter in an editorial said that folic acid promoted growth of carcino-
genic lesions and calls of health professionals to rely carefully on multiagent chemoprevention
and not to forget diet. [540]
The study of Schernhammer and the study of Cole may be a warning for excessive consumption
of supplementation of the vitamin B group. Both studies call for more studies.
Mandatory fortification of certain foods with folic acid in the US and Canada were intro-
duced in 1998 to reduce the incidence of pregnancies affected by neural tube defects.
714
Andrew Shao US dietary supplements industry association, the Council for Responsible Nutri-
tion (CRN) says that the benefits of folic acid are well-documented, particularly in the area of
reducing the risk of neural tube birth defect. There is also promising scientific evidence for folic
acid in reducing the risk of congenital cardiovascular defects, stroke and Alzheimer’s disease.
[541]
Bioavailability and food safety of L pidolic acid salts [542]

According to the Scientific Panel AFC of the European Food Safety Authority, the bioavail-
ability of calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and zinc are absorbed from their L-pidolic acid
salts is comparable to that from other water-soluble and dissociable salts permitted to be used
in food supplements and foods intended for particular nutritional uses.
The use of calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium and zinc L-pidolic acid salts as source of these
minerals for nutritional purposes to food supplements is of no safety concern at the maximum
use levels of L-pidolic acid of 3 g/day.
Chapter 18
Hygienemonitoring
To achieve safety on regard of disease agents and to secure shelf-life are the central concern of
hygiene of every food processing.
Continuous training of the people which are engaged with handling and processing of food is
vital importance. To guarantee safe foods it is necessary to control the raw material which
is being used. Check the processing, the packaging, the end product and last but not least
necessary to keep samples of all charges until expiring date.
Example of wood as bacterial contamination is demonstrated by a splinter of wood cultivated
on plate count agar: Hygiene mon-

itoring tries to avoid the contamination caused by raw materials, not sterile packagings, the
influence of the environment and wrong behavior of the staff. Hygienemonitoring is a part of
the HACCP Program which was introduced in the European community by law
The hygiene may be supervised by :
715
716
• Traditional methods such as contact cultures of surfaces of utensils and parts of ma-
chines,and culture of swabs of places to be difficultly reached,final results taking 2 to 3
days.
• quick methods based upon ATP-Bioluminescence final results taking about 2 minutes
ATP-Bioluminescence
ATP-Bioluminescence is used to supervise cleaning in food industries and other industries where
perfect cleaning is necessary.
ATP finds also increased use in special methods of detection and counting of bacteria.
Hygienemanagement in food industry

In the production of food quick methods are important to check the quality of cleaning.
During the cleaning of utensils and machines it is important to remove from the surfaces as
much organic material as possible
• to insure a later disinfection and to avoid protein failure and
• to withdraw organic material for further growth of bacteria.

The ATP-luminescence measures the ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate) from animal and from
vegetable cells as well as living or dead bacteria. It shows in this manner how much impurities
have been left after cleaning.
Principle of the ATP-bioluminescence-method:

The ATP taken up with a swab from approximately 100 cm2 of the surface to be tested is
put together with a luciferin/luciferase system of commercially available kits. There is light
emitted which is proportional to the amount of ATP being present. This light is measured with
a luminometer as ”Relative Light Units RLU” .
The light being emitted during this method is proportional to the amount of ATP being present
on the surface to be examined.
In order to achieve a better supervision of the hygiene it is advisable to use both system: The
ATP luminescence method showing how much residues are left after cleaning, and the normal
method of contact cultures telling what kind of bacteria are present,
As the ATP-method gives the total amount of organic material left, it is necessary to determine
for every place how much residues are still being considered as ”good”, and ”bad”.
To determine the maximum RLU being accepted for these two points proceed as following:
Measure for about 1 week the RLU of all relevant places of the production line and list the
results for each place and note as:
• Good cleaning: Sum total of RLU measured during one week divided by the number
measures for each place.
• Bad cleaning: 2 times the ”Good Cleaning” point.
In order to determine the standard of hygiene which can be obtained during normal production
proceed as follow:
Determine the RLU after ”normal” cleaning.
Continue the cleaning by hand using different detergents and determine the RLU after ”rigor-
ous cleaning”. This is considered as being the best achievable cleaning.
The best reference data are those values of ”normal cleaning”which are as close as possible to
the values of ”rigorous cleaning”.
After one to two month repeat the determination of the reference points ”good” and ”bad”. It
is very likely that these points will be reduced because cleaning is growing better as a result of
the continuous supervision.
The checks may be ”horizontal” being made on the same specific critical places of all ma-
chines.
It is good to change from time to time to ”vertical” checks from isolated machines checking all
their parts.
DNA based pathogen detection system from Lumora [148]

The food safety diagnostics company Lumora developes a detection system which identifies
and measures food borne pathogens such as Salmonella, E. coli O157 and Listeria by means
of a version of a luciferase gene. Specific bacteria in contact with this gene emit light which
is identified by a sensor. In this way the precise amount of contamination can be determined
within hours. The system will be available soon.
The system may also detect small quantities of genetic modified material in foods and may
enhance the traceability of ingredients.
Hygienic training of the staff The Hygiene rule 93/43/EWG demands also for a training
of the staff. To train your staff show the bacterial count made on Plate count Agar Base. Bad
cleaning and disinfection resulting in food spoilage : innumerous bacteria on the surface of a
table. Good cleaning and disinfection gives low bacterial count of the surface of the table. On
Plate Count Agar Base there are no colonies grown. A good shelf life of food is the result.
Cleaning with CO2 in food industry [149] The main concern of cleaning in food industry
is:
718
• Remove the coatings of rest of product and dirt.

• Reduce the number of bacteria an the surface of machines and utensils, preparing the
field for a following disinfection.
Cleaning must be made very carefully. It is expensive, produces great amount of waste-water,
chlorine and other disinfectants.
Cleaning with pellets of carbon dioxide can be an alternative to conventional cleaning methods.
CO2 pellets are mixed with an air jet and directed against the surface to be cleaned under high
pressure at about 20 bar.
The reduction of the surface temperature due to sublimation of the carbon dioxide hardens
the layers to be removed and cracks are formed. The undesired material starts to peel off. An
abrasive action takes place.
The cracks formed on the surface of product layers due to very low temperatures allows carbon
dioxide pellets to get under and between the undesired material. As the pellets sublimate they
enlarge their volume about 700 times removing thus foreign material like organic rest, dirt and
bacteria.
The DIL (Deutsches Institut fr Lebensmitteltechnik) has tested this technique with good results
in cleaning and reduction of the number of surface bacteria.
Cleaning and disinfection, Standard method (According Codex Alimentarius) Good

hygiene includes the following steps
• Cleaning of building, of tools and equipment and the transportation system. Important
is the complete removal of food rests and garbage from the rooms where production takes
place.
• Disinfection using an appropriate disinfectant. Sometimes the cleaning step is combined
with the disinfection. This is efficient because organic material inhibits the disinfection
agents or built a protective layer around microorganism.
• The cleaning and disinfection method before being included in the daily work should be
discussed and authorized by:
Veterinary authorities in charge
Production management
Engineering management and
Supplier of cleaning and disinfection agents.
• The cleaning and disinfection method should be written and be available to the personal
engaged in the daily work and to the production management.
Cleaning instructions should include the handling of cleaning equipment such as disinfec-
tion of scrub brushes an buckets.
• The production management should continuously supervise cleaning and disinfection in

order to make sure the work is being done according instructions observing the prescribed
intervals.
• All persons engaged in cleaning and disinfection should be instructed regarding the cau-
tion in handling chemicals such as:
Alkaline solutions should not be put together with acid solutions.
Hypochlorite solutions should not be put together with acid solutions because chlorine
gas can be generated.
All chemical containers must be labeled so that everyone can know its content. They
must be kept separate from food and packing material.
Handling strong concentrated chemicals the use of gloves, safety goggles and protective
clothes are necessary.
• Good cleaning and disinfection results: a low bacterial count is found at the surface of
the equipment:
• Bad cleaning and disinfection results: a high bacterial count is found at the surface of
the equipment:
720
Cleaning methods Cleaning methods should remove the main part of food and other ma-
terials from the surfaces with could or hot water.
Cleaning agents should remove strongly adherent rests.
Clear water should wash the cleaning agents away.
Abrasive substances or acid solutions should not interfere with surface.
Cleaning can be made by
• hand using brushes,
• Cleaning in place (CIP method): This method is being used in large scale to clean pipe
systems, tanks and machines without disassemble them.The system must be appropriated
for CIP cleaning.
The Flow of water and cleaning solutions should be over 1,5 meter per second having
flushing character.
• Flushing with low pressure using much water: This method uses much water under 6,8
bar (100 psi) pressure and great amount with chemicals.
• Flushing with high pressure and little water:
High pressure up to 68 bar (1.000 psi) is used.
• Foam cleaning:
The cleaning agents are integrated in the foam sticking on the surfaces to be cleaned for
about 15 to 20 minutes. They are then washed away. Openly accessible surfaces can
easily be cleaned and disinfected with foaming and disinfecting cycles.
• Wash machines:
Small parts, buckets an other utensils can be washed and disinfected
• Cleaning agents There may be necessary to use heat in order to get good cleaning results.
Sometimes cold solutions are sufficient.
Mineral salts may deposit scale. Small amount of scale can be detected with ultraviolet
light.
After all cleaning agents have been washed away disinfection can follow.
Disinfection Disinfection are the methods to reduce the number of bacteria living on the
surfaces. Disinfection can be made using:
Heat The most common way of disinfection is to rise the temperature of the surfaces to a
minimum of 700 C (1600 F).
The surfaces to be disinfected should be clean having no rests of product left, otherwise protein
would coagulate building insoluble layers.
Disinfection with hot water IndexHot water as disinfectant This method is widely used.
Machines and parts to be disinfected are immersed in hot water at 800 C (1760F) for at least
two minutes.
Water to rinse off disinfectants in mechanical dish washers should have this temperature.
Steam as disinfectant Steam can be used to disinfect tanks, pipes and other parts which
are not easily reached.
Steam must be applied long enough to heat up the surfaces to temperatures which can kill
bacteria. Steam can be unsuitable for machines and systems containing plastic materials or
gaskets which are destroyed by high temperatures. Steam kills bacteria even when they are
located behind gaskets. Chemical disinfectants does have the same property as seen from the
disinfection using steam.
Steam disinfection can give origin to condensing water which can collect in in pipes and tank
drain giving chance to bacteria to grow. Therefore it is important to repeat steam disinfection
after a standstill for more then one day.
Chemical disinfection Chemical disinfectants are reduced in their activity in presence of

dirt and other residues of food. Disinfectants are useless when the amount of residues are to
high. Therefore disinfection should always be preceded by a cleaning procedure. High temper-
atures increases the activity of chemical disinfectants.There is however a limit of temperature
for every disinfectant. The technical informations of the suppliers of the chemical must be ob-
served. Iodophores give iodine free which can corrode metal, so as chlorine producing corrosion
coming from hot hypochlorite solution. All chemical disinfectants need time to kill bacteria.
This time differs from one disinfectant to another according to the technical informations.
The concentration of the disinfection solutions must be made according to the informations of
722
the supplier. They should not be mixed with cleaning agents or other disinfectants because of
loss of activity. The most important chemical disinfectants are:
Chlorine and their compounds Chlorine and products on basis of Chlorine such as hypochlorite-
compounds are the best chemical disinfectants.
Commercial products have 100 to 120 gram chlorine per liter being active against a great num-
ber of bacteria. They have low prices compared with other chemical disinfectants.
Working solutions should have 200 to 250 mg of active chlorine/Kg.
Chlorine disinfection is being substituted by other disinfectants because of environment. Chlo-
rine reacts with organic residues forming AOX compounds. . Chlorine produces corrosions and
turns inactive in presence of residues of food and dirt.
Whey permeate as alternative to chlorine solutions for preserving fresh-cut veg-

etables [150] A chlorine 120 ppm (pH 8) solution is widely used in the washing treatmen as
sanitizing agent prolonging the shelf-life of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. The use of chlorine
in food processing plants is being reduced due to the possible formation of carcinogenic chlori-
nated compounds in water.
In a study leaded by Anabelen Martin-Diana whey permeate solution was used as antimicro-
bial agent to control total bacteria counts during washing step of fresh cut vegetables as an
alternative to chlorine.
The whey permeate from Glanbia, Ireland was used in the following solutions:
• 0.5% (pH 3.84)
• 1.5% (pH 3.53)
• 3% (pH 3.45)
Fresh-cut lettuce and carrot packages stored at 40 C were monitored over 10 days. Whey per-
meate at 3% resulted in equivalent or better microbial load reduction than chlorine. Although
lower concentration of whey permeate produced minor initial reduction, microbial counts at
the end of the storage of 10 days at 100 were below the recommended levels (108CFU/g) for
safety of fresh-cut vegetables.
According to the researchers the anti-microbial activity is most likely due to the pH of the
wash solutions, or the presence of bio-active peptides.
These results suggest that whey permeate could be a promising alternative to chlorine for
sanitizing fresh-cut vegetables.
Iodophore Iodophores may be used in combination with acid cleaning agents. They need a
short time of contact with the surfaces, killing a broad spectrum of bacteria.
Working solutions should have a concentration of 25 to 50 milligram/liter of active iodine using
a pH ¡ 4. iodophores are inactivated in presence of food residues and dirt. They have yellow
color when active iodine is still present. Loss of color indicates the loss of activity.
They can be corrosive, being necessary to flush away the iodophores with clean water.
Ammonium quarternairy-compounds Theses substance have good cleaning activity and

have low corrosive activity. They are not toxic. Their taste is bitter. These compounds tend
to settle on the surfaces, therefore it is important to rinse with clear water carefully after
disinfection. They should be used in 200 to 1200 milligrams per liter solution. Using hard
water high concentrations must be used. They should not be used together with soaps and
anionic cleaning agents. Their activity against Gram negative bacteria are smaller as found by
chlorine.
Surfactants (amphotheric surface active substances) Surfactants are old disinfection

agents being made out of active agents with cleaning and bactericide activity. They are low
toxic, tasteless and have little corrosive activity.Organic rests inactivate surfactants.
Strong acids and basic agents Strong acids and basic reacting agents have cleaning and
disinfectant activities.
They can easily contaminate food. They should be handled with great care.
Control of the activity of cleaning The control of the cleaning and disinfection activity
of the system being used should be made using bacteriological methods described above.
Improving CIP technology

[151] Efforts of reduction of environmentally harmful and cost-intensive resources for CIP-
cleaning installations include per acetic acid sensor systems, chlorine-dioxide disinfection.
Chlorine-dioxide disinfecting procedures [151] Chlorine-dioxide disinfecting procedures

are designed for drinking water disinfection, removal of odour and taste substances (phenols,
algae, algae decomposition products), and reduction of organo-chlorine formations (AOX)
Chlorine-dioxide is used for the purification of water in CIP-installations, usage water, cooling
water and waste water, in fillers, process water, and in washing maschines.
Per acetic acid [151]

Per acetic acid is being used in CIP processes for disinfection. Its spectrum includes bacteria,
724
yeasts, algae and viruses, breaking down to oxygen and traces of acetic acid. No rinsing of the
plant is therefore necessary.
Origin of Contamination of food with pathogen bacteria

is originated by:
1. Contaminated raw material e.g. water, meat, cereals.
2. Handling e.g.unclean devices, bacteria bearing surfaces of machines etc.
3. Environment e.g. dust, unclean rooms, polluted air from air conditioning systems.
4. Personal e.g.sick persons handling food. To avoid contamination wash hands before start-
ing work, after visiting toilet and before starting with a new work. Disinfection solution
should be used after washing. There are lots of bacteria on fingers as shown by fingerprints
on nutrient media:
Clean room technology Clean room technology is being used in the microelectronic, micro
optics, in hospitals, pharmaceutical industry, cosmetic industry, research laboratories and many
other branches.
To guarantee a clean environment of a room the air must be filtered. Today air filters are
available which can filter particles 0,12 micro m. Clean air, correct temperature humidity and
pressurization of the room are fundamental parts of clean room technology.
The outlets of the air system should be located over the places where handling takes place,
such as:
Cutting machines,
Can openers,
Mixer,
Bowl-choppers.
In this way processing heat,from staff contaminated air and microorganism which may multiply
in standing air or humidity are driven away by the sterile air flow of the air conditioning system.
To avoid not filtered air to get into the clean room through doors and other outlets it important
to create a pressure high enough to overcome atmospheric variations. Laminar airflow is often
used to achieve safety at doors.
The airflow should be always against the staff and never from the staff to the product which
is being handled as contamination of living beings is unavoidable. This type of clean room is
called island solution and is much cheaper as what is being described for clean rooms in VDI-
guideline 2083 or US-FS 209 E for the RR-class demanding the filtration of particles down to
0,5micro m. In food processing the aim is to avoid bacterial contamination. As these microor-
ganisms are generally linked to particles between 0,12 and 100 micro m. The filter should be
from the class 14 and better.
One important factor of a product contamination is the staff which produces particles down to
0,5 micro m.
Moist of the contamination results from breathing, talking, coughing and movements.
Microorganism isolated from the skin,nose, mouth and bowl are Staphylococcus aureus, Es-
cherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans and Enterobacteriaceae like Salmonella
and Shigella. People with clinical signs like boils and suppurating wounds, diarrhea and strong
cough should report this to the management and be released from working with unpacked food
or send home for medication.
The personal which works in a clean room must b e dressed with special headdress to avoid
bacteria from hairs to contaminate air. An overall should cover all the part of the body, shoes
should be changed before entering the clean room. There should be a flood gate entering the
clean room.in front of this flood gate there should be a device to clean shoes, gloves. This outfit
should be changed daily.
In the clean room personal belongings are not allowed. Eat and drink in the clean room is not
allowed. Private food and drink should not be taken into the clean room.
A high motivation of the staff is necessary. This can only be achieved when the environment
of the clean room has been put in accordance to hygienic rules like the disposal of trash, tiled
walls and floor, machines and other devices made of stainless steel without rusty parts.
Corrigendum to Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 of the European Parliament

EU regulation No 853/2004, part of the package of hygiene laws that came into effect on 1
January, provides a legal basis to permit the use of a substance other than potable water to
remove surface contamination from products of animal origin. Previously, such a legal basis
did not exist in the bloc’s legislation for red meat and for poultry meat. [152]
Microorganisms as indicators of on-farm hygiene practices [157]

726
On-farm hygiene related to the cow’s udder and teats, the milking equipment or the storage
tank influence quality and quantity of bacteria in freshmilk. Bacterial mastitis can also lead to
poor raw milk quality.
Total viable counts (TVCs) are do not always giving a true measure of on-farm hygiene during
milking. Hutchison and colleagues compared total viable counts, Escherichia coli, coliforms,
Bacillus spp., Bifidobacteria spp., and Pseudomonas spp. with results of dairy farm hygiene
audits. They investigated the possible reasons for the low correlations between on-farm hygiene
and bacterial indicator counts in raw milk.
The authors concluded that despite some problems, total viable count was best suited as indica-
tor of on-farm hygiene. There were no other marker bacteria with higher correlation with audits.
Somatic cell count reflect any possible mastitis in the herd.
Health rules for milk in Europe [158] The Council Directive 92/46/EEC of 16 June 1992
lays down the health rules for the production and placing on the market of raw milk, heat-
treated milk and milk-based products
RABIT (Rapid Automated Bacterial Impedance Technique) [159] [160]
Impedance microbiology is a rapid method for both quantitative and qualitative studies with
bacteria, yeasts and moulds. Unlike the standard plate methods which only measure microbial
activity at a single point in time, RABIT monitors real time activity and thereby produces two
significant benefits. Results are determined in a significantly shorter time frame compared to
conventional microbiology.
Impedance can be simply defined as the resistance to flow of an alternating current as it

passes through a conducting material. When two metal electrodes are immersed in a conduc-
tive medium the test system behaves as a resistor and capacitor in series.
Microbial metabolism usually results in an increase in both conductance and capacitance caus-
ing a decrease in impedance and a consequent increase in admittance, it is the admittance
which is plotted against time by the RABIT system.
Bacteria metabolise the nutrients of the media, producing a change of conductivity and re-
sistance. When a bacteria arrive a concentration of log 5/ml it will cause a change of these
parameters.A large initial population of bacteria will make the time to make this change will be
shorter than a food with less concentration of bacteria. In the same food system, the number
of the initial population of the food can be estimated by the detection time.
Chapter 19
Radioactivity and food
Radioactivity is the property of atomic nucleus to change spontaneously to another nucleus by

itself, without the influence from outside, releasing energy in form of particles and/or electro-
magnetic rays.
The parent nucleus is called the emitting nucleus which changes its atomic number and becomes
the nucleus of a different element being called daughter nucleus or decay product.
Mass number of an atom is the sum of neutrons and proton. It is given as a small number
high up in front of the symbol of the element.
Atomic number is the sum of protons of an atom. It is given as a small number down in
front of the symbol of the element.
Every atom has a central, positively charged nucleus made of protons and neutrons. Nuclei are
unaffected by chemical reactions. Protons and neutrons are collectively referred to as nucleons
Isotopes: Two atoms which have the same number of protons but different numbers of neu-
trons are called isotopes of each other. Isotopes have identical chemical properties and cannot
be separated by chemical methods. The isotopes of hydrogen are:
1
Hydrogen (1 H)
2
Deuterium (1 D)
3
Tritium (1 T )
The particles of the nucleus are held together by one of the four fundamental forces:
Strong interaction, also called nuclear force. This force is very strong.
Electromagnetic force.
Weak interaction.
Gravitational force.
Atomic warfare and atomic bomb tests in Nevada, Bikini and Soviet Union are responsible
for high levels of strontium 90 fall out which caused high levels of strontium 90 in Brazil nuts
growing in the rain forest of the Amazon region.
Nuclear energy is an important part of electrical power supply.It was considered to be clean
energy.The disaster of Harrisburg and Tschernobyl have demonstrated the danger of nuclear
727
728
power stations. The fallout from Tschernobyl made the killing and disposal of Norwegian rein-
deer.
Rising radioactivity of the Arctic region and its food chain is a product of uncontrolled nuclear
handling.
The disposal of radioactive trash is unsolved problem for future generations. The end store in
the salt mine of Gorleben in Germany is unsafe.
History of radioactivity 1895 Roentgen rays (X rays) were discovered by Röntgen.

1896 Radioactivity was discovered by H.Becquerel working with uranium at the Ecole Poly-
technique in Paris.
1898 Discovery of radioactivity of thorium by C.G. Schmidt at the same time with Madame
Marya Curie. In the same year Madame Curie isolated from pitchblende (uraninite) polonium
and radium.
1899 Discovery of actinium by Debierne, collaborator of Madame Curie. Actinium is a very
rare element.
1934 The first artificial atomic nucleus was created by J. and Irène Joliot.
This discovery opened the way to further studies in modern particle accelerators.
1963 FDA approves the use of irradiation in food to control insects in wheat and wheat flour.
Another application of irradiation which was approved by the FDA was the inhibition of sprout-
ing of potatoes.
1980 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) and the World Health Organization (WHO)concluded that the irradiation of food up
to a maximum dose of 10 kilo Grays is considered to be safe .
1983 FDA approves the irradiation of spices and seasonings.
1985 FDA approves irradiation of pork to control trichina.
1990 FDA approves the irradiation of packaged fresh or frozen unheated poultry.
1992 FDA based on a review data and information concluded that irradiated food is safe and
nutritionally adequate. 1997 FDA approves the irradiation of red meats.
Different types of rays Electron beams

X rays: Radiation was used in many ways as X rays in medical use and industrial purposes.
Radiation of uranium:Radiation of uranium includes alfa- beta- and gama rays.
Alfa rays are positive charged particles of helium nuclei(two protons and two neutrons). Alfa
rays are heavy and are stopped by a piece of paper. They are therefore not interesting for tech-
nological irradiation of food. Alpha particles are the most energetic form of radiation produced
by radioactive decay. As they are charged and move relatively slowly ( 6% of the velocity
of light], they produce high ionization, loosing their energy over a short distance producing
considerably ionization.
An alfa decay of a nucleus takes place when the nucleus loses four nucleons, two of them are
protons. Uranium 238 decays by alfa-emission to thorium 234.
The mass number decreases by 4.
The atomic number decreases by 2.
Beta rays are negative charged very fast electrons with near light velocity.Beta particles are
emitted by nuclei which have to many neutrons to be stable. One neutron changes then into a
proton and an electron which is emitted as beta particle.
The mass number does not change.
The atomic number increases by 1.
Beta rays are used for irradiation of food because of their high penetration.
The radioactivity of carbon can be use to date archaeological samples.
As an example suppose that an archaeological sample has an activity of 7,5 disintegrations per
minute, and that an equal mass of carbon from a living plant has an activity on 15 disinte-
grations per minute. The activity of the sample is one half that of the present day level and
therefore its age is equal to the half-life of C 14. The sample is therefore 5.730 years old.
Gama rays are electromagnetic waves which are very short and bear high energy. In compar-
ison with alfa and beta particles they produce very little ionization and are very penetrating
Radiation of cobalt-60: Irradiation of food is practiced most frequently with cobalt-60 as
radiation source with emission of gama and beta.
The technology of the future will probably be the irradiation with X-rays which penetrate the
food more effectively than gama rays of cobalt 60 does. X-rays can be switched off when the
rays are not needed.
Cancer cells can be destroyed by gama-radiation from cobalt 60.
Irradiation of food Irradiation of food can prolong shelf-life, reduce spoilage, reduce the
menace of pathogens, delay ripening of fruits and vegetables avoiding the sprouting of potatoes
[660].
The acceptance of irradiated food is very low because safe foods can be produced without radi-
ation. The problems of Salmonella in poultry must be handled by monitoring the poultry feed,
by hygienic measures of poultry stables and last but not least hygienic measures in kitchen.
It is not known if radiolytic products and free radicals which are created by irradiation are
harmless or toxic and essential nutrients such as vitamin E are reduced by radiation. Foods
with high fat content such as oily fish and some dairy products , develop off-odors even with
low dosis. Other technologies of food processing may cause more damage to the food as radia-
tion does. The problem of the disposal of useless cobalt-60 units still unsolved. Germany has
decided to exit atomic energy programs in order to reduce radiation garbage.
730
Irradiation detection tests Lipids from not cooked foods under ionising rays form a cyclic
compound 2-alkyl-cyclobutone. Hydrocarbons of irradiated lipid-rich foods can also be de-
tected.
Damage of the DNA caused by radiation may also be detected on unheated foods.
Cell membrane damage may cause changes of the physical properties of irradiated foods such as:
electrical impedance, viscosity, electrical potential, electron spin resonance (ESR) and thermal
and nearinfraread analysis as well as thermoluminescence. Minerals trapp in their crystals free
radicals originated by irradiation. These crystals are responsible for theroluminescence which
can be used for the detection of irradiation of vegetables, fruits, grains and spices because all
contain minerals. The same phenomena takes place in bone bearing foods where ESR may be
used to detect irradiated food such as chicken with bones.
Boneless chicken, liquid egg nd certain fruits are analysed by mass spectrometric detection of
2-alkylcyclobutanones after gaschromatgraphic separation.
Low body exposure to radiation Low fractionated body exposure to radiation can acti-
vate immunological resistance. This is being used in tumor therapy. That is why short rest in
certain radioactive caves are being used in the treatment of some sanitariums and mineral water
with low radioactivity is being sold in Brazil. High dosis of radioactivity are responsible for a
decrease of immunity because of the reduction of lymphocytes causing an increase of infections
and cancer risk [663].
Natural radioactive exposure Radon:Radon and its decay products which are present
trapped air in rooms can be reduced with fresh air[662].
Radon endangers lung. Air pollution from coal power plant:All minerals have a low nat-
ural radioactivity, so does coal. As it is being burned the radioactive part concentrates in the
ash and through exhaust gases it comes to the atmosphere and causes fallout of isotopes of
uranium, polonium and lead.
Air travel:Cosmic radiation is very high. The atmosphere is a natural shiel against this radia-
tion. Air traffic at high altitude is exposed to increased radiation because of a thin atmosphere
leading to 5 microSievert/hour (0,5 millirem/hour). This is very important for aircraft crews
who are due to their profession exposed to this radiation.
Phosphate fertilizer:Phosphate fertilizer are being utilized in great amount in modern agri-
culture. As phosphate fertilizer contain radioactive parts increase the natural exposure of people
engaged in storage an handling including an increase of radiation of fertilized plants. This leads
to an exposure of 40 millirem/year[664]. Mineral water Drinking 60 liters of mineral water
in a year leads to 300 millirem/year.
Cigarette smoke Tobacco has lead-210 and Polonium 210 as natural isotopes. Smoking dur-
ing 25 years leads to an exposure of 20 000 millirem.
Life has been always submitted to natural radiation. A low level of radioactivity can cause
small damage to DNA. The body can repair this by itself. It triggers th immune system. As
the radioactive contamination caused by civilization rises, it becomes dangerous because of
deposition in bones and organs concentrates radioactive material. The only way out of this
dilemma is to reduce growing industrialization, reduce traffic, is to return to small ecological
limited populations and to be satisfied with a normal life avoiding the destruction of earth.
Half-life period of radioactive material The half-life period is the time in which half of
a certain amount of radioactive material will decay.
An element with 1600 years as half-life period has after 1600 years half of its material still
active. After another 1600 years half of this amount is still active, one-fourth of the initial
amount from 3200 years ago. It takes another 1600 to reduce it to one-eighth of the initial
amount of 4800 years ago.
Some examples demonstrate the necessity to handle radioactivity with great care as radioactive
garbage will remain as burden for thousands of generations to come:
Element Half-life
238
Uranium-238 (92 U) 4 510 000 000 years
235
Uranium-235 (92 U) 704 000 000 years
234
Uranium-234 (92 U) 247 000 years
226
Radium-226 (88 Ra) 1 600 years
222
Radon-222 (86 Rn) 3,82 days
214
Polonium-214 (84 P o) 1.6 X 10 seconds
−4
218
Polonium-218 (84 P o) 3.05 minutes
Radiation hazards The extend of the harm caused to cells by radiation depends on the
nature of the rays, the part of the body exposed to radiation and the dose received.
Nature of rays: Alfa- particles are absorbed in the dead surface layers of the skin and are
therefore not dangerous. If the source however is taken into the body through food, water or
dust. Alfa rays can cause great damage.
Radiation dose: Radiation doses the energy absorbed by a unit of mass. It is measured in
gray (GY) units ( 1 Joule is absorbed by 1 Kg mass). 1 GY = 1 Jkg old writings used 1 Gy =
100 rad
Unified atomic mass unit ( u )
1 u = 1.660 X 10−27 kg
1 u = 931 MeV
Relative biological effectiveness ( RBE-Values) In order to take account of the different

biological effects of the different radiations it is useful to define the effective dose as :
Effective dose = Radiation dose X RBE
732
The RBE values are given below:
Radiation RBE
X rays 1
Beta, gama and X 1
High Speed neutrons 10
Alpha rays 20
Measuring radiation dosage [?] There is a relationship between radiation dose and its
effect on the body. Radiation dosing can be thought of as an amount of energy absorbed by
the body.
The rad: The rad is a unit of absorbed radiaton dose defined in terms of the energy actually de-
posited in the tissue. One rad is an absorbed dose of 0.01 joules of energy per kilogram of tissue.
RBE:To accurately assess the risk of radiation, the absorbed dose energy in rad is multi-
plied by the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of the radiation to get the biological dose
equivalent in rems. The RBE is a ”quality factor,” often denoted by the letter Q, which assesses
the damage to tissue caused by a particular type and energy of radiation.
For alpha particles, Q may be as high as 20, so that one rad of alpha radiation is equivalent
to 20 rem. The Q of neutron radiation depends on their energy. However, for beta particles,
x-rays, and gamma rays, Q is taken as one, so that the rad and rem are equivalent for those
radiation sources
The jungle of units The effective dose is labeled as Sievert (Sv)

An old unit for effective dose had been the rem (röntgen equivalent man)
1 rem = 1 rad times RBE
1 Millirem ( mrem ) = 0.001 Sievert
1 Sv = 100 rem
The unit of the activity of radioactive material is Becquerel (Bq): 1 Bq = 1 decay/second.
The old unit of activity replaced by Bq, is Curie (Ci):
1 Ci = 3,7 X 1010 decays/second = 3,7 X 1010 Bq.
Energy dose: The rays of radiation have an interaction with the mass of the body which
is being irradiated. This is called energy dose. The unit is Gray (Gy) , which means that 1
joule is absorbed by 1 kg of body.
1 Gray (Gy) = 1 J/Kg
The old unit of energy dose was Rad (Radiation absorbed dose)RadRadiation absorbed dose 1
Gray (Gy) = 100 Rad
The mass-energy relation of Einstein According to the theory of relativity mass is equiv-
alent to energy in accordance to:
E = mc2 where c is the speed of light (3 X 108 m )s−1
Mass-energy during an atomic fission: When 1 kg of uranium-235 undergoes fission the

energy released is 80 000 000 000 000 J corresponding to a decrease in mass of 0,9 gram. This
is a significant loss of mass and can be measured.
Mass-energy during a chemical reaction: Chemical reactions release relatively small
amounts of energy and the decrease in mass is to small to be measured.
When 1 kg of petrol is burned the energy released is only 50 000 000 J corresponding to a
decrease in mass of only 0,000 005 500 gram. This is to small to be measured and is omitted
in chemical stoichiometry.
Natural exposures Cosmic radiation:

The atmosphere protects against cosmic radiation. As the air gets thinner, radiation rises.
Free protons as primary rays from outer space collide with the upper layers of the terrestrial
atmosphere reacting with other particles. This causes a mixture of rays, like mesons which
passes meter of concrete and weak rays such as electrons,positrons and gama rays.
Some examples demonstrate the growing exposition to radiation resulting growing air traffic.
Passengers and crew of airlines are submitted to considerable high cosmic radiation. To spare
fuel air traffic takes place at 10 000 o 20 000 meters over sea level:
Altitude(meters) Cosmic radiation (mrem/year)

sea level 30
1 500 60
3 000 140
4 000 200
Air traffic 0,5 mrem/flight hour

(4 320 mrem/year)
A crew member with 80 flight-hours per month is exposed to 480 mrem/year, this is twelve
times the exposure of a profession at sea level Exposition to radon: The lung of inhabitants
in cold climates are exposed to radiation of radon which emanates from soil and concentrates
in poor change of air. This may lead to an exposition of the air tract and lungs of:
exposition to radon = 400 to 1 300 mrem/year

220
The radiation of radon (86 Rn) is significant because it consists of alfa particles which cause
great damage to surface cells. The volume of air which passes the lungs is very high. Intake of
radon is therefore relevant. Keep rooms well aerated to get rid of radon.
734
Artificial radioactivity Radioactive nuclides which do not occur in nature can be produced
by bombarding natural occurring nuclides inside a nuclear reactor with atomic particles such
as neutrons.
Nuclear reactor Nuclear reactors try to provide electric energy with the claim of clean
energy. Today Germany tries to get rid of the atomic industry as it proved to be unsafe and
there is no solution for the disposal of nuclear waste.
Nuclear fission is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei with release of
energy because the binding energy per nucleon of the fission products is greater than that of
the parents.
235
A classic example of fission is the bombardment of uranium-235 (92 U) by slow neutrons and
236
the formation of 92 U which is unstable and undergoes fission.
235 1 236 141 92 1
92
U + (0 n)-¿ 92 U -¿ 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n + energy
Nuclear reaction make use of controlled fission reactions to provide energy. The atom bomb
makes use of an uncontrolled fission reaction.
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two light nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus and energy.
A classic example of nuclear fusion is the fusion of two deuterium nuclei to produce helium 3.
2 2 3 1
1
H + 1 H -¿2 He + 0 n + energy
This is the source of energy of the sun.
The high pressure and high temperature which is necessary to overcome the mutual electrostatic
repulsion in the hydrogen bomb is provided by an atom bomb.
The thermal reactor
Uranium-236 being bombarded by neutrons undergoes a fission and releases about 2,5 neutrons
which can bombard other uranium-236 atoms turning to a chain reaction.
235 238
In natural uranium only about 1 atom is a 92 U atom. All other atoms are 92 U which can
235
only be fissioned with very fast neutrons. To produce fission of 92 U atom slow neutrons are
235 238
necessary. Therefore the neutrons released by 92 U atom are to slow to cause fission of 92 U atom
235
and to fast for a 92 U atoms. Therefore they must be slowed down by moderators ( graphite,
water or heavy water D2 .). According to the material of the moderator the reactors are called:
Graphite-moderated reactor: Control rods of boron coated steel are used to keep the rate
of production of neutrons to the requiredrods level by capturing the necessary proportion before
they can initiate fission.
The produced energy is removed with a coolant such as carbon dioxide or water though the
reactor, passing through an heat exchanger producing steam to drive turbines.
Cycle of the fuel rods of nuclear power plants Uranium is being won from ore in 99,3%
U-238 and 0,7% U-235. This mixture is tranformed in gas as Uranium hexa fluorid (UF6 ) in the
special enrich plant. The amunt of U-235 is risen to 3,5% which is necessary for the function
of light water reactors. Here the Uranium is formed to rods which arre then forwarded to the
nuclear power plants.
The fuel rods once exhauted are stored until the separation of Uranium and Plutonium and
other materials can take place. Waste of recycling is stored being protected by a glas layer.
Uranium-238 and ammunition in warfare Uranium-238 is a waste of the production of

fuel cells for nuclear power plants. As waste it is forwarded to the arms industry which uses it
for hard core projectiles, mines and grenades.
Depleted uranium-238 (DU) projectiles were used to bust tanks in the desert of Kuwait and
Iraq. From the 24.2.1991 to the 28.2.1991 around 315.000 kg of radioactive uranium fired
against Sadams soldiers are now scattered all over the region.
Later, in the war against Milosewich in Kosovo almost the same amount of depleted uranium-
238 was used and is still distributed all over the territory. This material is highly radioactive
with a half-life of 4,5 billions of years.
All efforts should be done to avoid a growing contamination of nature as there alternatives to
uranium (density=18,7 Kg/dm3 with traces of plutonium which can be replaced by tungsten
(density=19,3 Kg/dm3 ).
20 years after Chernobyl [667]

The accident of Chernobyl in 1986 is still responsible for sheep at the farms in Cumbria, Scot-
land and Wales in April 2006 to still contain levels radioactivity above safety limits. Their
meat is not allowed to enter the food chain.
The particular chemical and physical properties of the peaty soil types of these regions makes
the radiocaesium-137 to pass from soil to grass, accumulating in sheep.
The levels of radioactivity have fallen in some of the affected areas but a number of farms
are still under restriction and will not have their restrictions lifted in the near future.
According to FEPA only sheep that have less than the maximum limit of 1,000 becquerels
per kilogram of radiocaesium are allowed to enter the food chain.
Undeclared irradiated supplements[668] Dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable sea-
sonings are the only foods that may be irradiated inside and outside Member States of the EU
and sold freely within the EU.
Imported irradiated food must comply with EU labelling and documentation rules. They must
have been irradiated at a facility approved by the European Commission. There are only few
approved facilities outside the EU: three in South Africa, one in Turkey and one in Switzerland.
736
Testing food supplements the FSA found in 2003 that 50 per cent of food supplements in the UK
had been irradiated or contain an irradiated ingredient, but are not labelled as such.Publication
of the results was deferred until 2006 pending enforcement action by local authorities.
The Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) found that 25 per centre of dried noodle products
contained ingredients that had been irradiated. They had not been labelled as such.
The US, South Africa, the Netherlands, Thailand and France, followed by about 50 adopted
irradiation technology and use it on 60 products.
Currently regulations on food irradiation in the European Union:
• EU: Directive 1999/2/EC establishes a framework for controlling irradiated foods, their
labelling and importation. Directive 1999/3 establishes an initial positive list of foods
which may be irradiated and traded freely between member states, which includes only
dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings.
• Belgium, France, the Netherlands and the UK allow other foods to be irradiated.
• Denmark, Germany and Luxembourg remain opposed to irradiation.
• UK allow 7 categories of foods to be irradiated.
WHO Technical Report on Irradiation of Food:

A World Health Organisation scientific report in 1999 found that irradiation posed no risk to
human health:
Overall chemical change, as reflected either in the formation of a stable compound or the loss
of a particular constituent, is quantifiable and relatively minor, requiring sensitive techniques
to discern that a product had been irradiated.
In summary, the macronutrients - proteins, fats and carbohydrates - are not significantly altered
in terms of nutrient value and digestibility by irradiation treatment. Among the micronutrients,
some of the vitamins are susceptible to irradiation to an extent very much dependent upon the
composition of the food and on processing and storage conditions.
From a nutritional viewpoint, irradiated foods are substantially equivalent or superior to ther-
mally sterilized foods.
On the basis of the extensive scientific evidence reviewed, the report concludes that food irra-
diated to any dose appropriate to achieve the intended technological objective is both safe to
consume and nutritionally adequate.
The experts further conclude that no upper dose limit need be imposed, and that irradiated
foods are deemed wholesome throughout the technologically useful dose range from below 10
kGy to envisioned doses above 10 kGy.” [669]
Irradiated foods in EU [670]

The irradiation of dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings is authorised in the
EU (Directive 1999/3/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 February 1999
on the establishment of a Community list of food and food ingredients treated with ionising
radiation In addition, 6 Member States have notified that they maintain national authorisations
for certain foods in accordance with Article 4(4) of Directive 1999/2/EC.
Under Article 6 of Directive 1999/2/EC, any irradiated food or any irradiated food ingredient
of a compound food must be labelled with the words ”irradiated” or ”treated with ionising
radiation”.
Approved food irradiation facilities in EU Belgium: IBA Mediris S.A. Irradiating

shrimps, frog legs, herbs, frozen vegetables, cheese, eggs, poultry/game, meat, fish, dried fruit,
starch, plasma, prepared dishes, total 5,8 Tons in 2004
Czech Republic: Dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings, egg white, total
460 tons in 2004.
Germany: In 2004 there were four approved irradiation facilities in Germany:

• Gamma Service Produktbestrahlung GmbH, Radeberg irradiating dried vegetables, herbs
and seasonings, other foodstuffs ( guarana seeds), Total of 342 Tons in 2004.
• Beta-Gama Service GMBH&Co.KG, Whiel, irradiating granulated slippery jack mushrom,

plant raw materials (parsley, dill, cilantro), powdered spinach powdered celery, horse
radish, parsley. Total of 24 Tons in 2004. Total of 429 Ton in 2004.
• Isotron Deutschland GmbH, Allershausen irradiating seasonings, herbs total 429 Tons in
2004.
• Gama-Service GMBH&Co KG, Bruchsal. No food products were irradiated in the facility
in 20034
Spain: There were two facilities approved for the irradiation of food. No information concern-
ing activities in 2004 were given.
France: There were seven facilities approved for irradiation of food. In 2004 the following
738
foods were irradiated: Herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings, frozen herbs, dried vegetables
and fruits, gum arabic, casein, caseinates, mechanically recovered poultry meat, offal of poultry,
frozen frog legs, shrimps, total of 1.800 Tonns.
Hungary: In 2004 there was one facility. No informations were given.
Italy: In Italy here was one facilty. No information was given.
The Netherlands: There were two facilities. One in Ede and one in Etten-Leur. Irradi-
ated foods in 2004 were: Spices and herbs, dehydrated vegetables, poultry meat (frozen) frog
parts, egg white (cooled), Foods intended for export to third countries. Total in 2004 4 768 Tons.
Poland: There were two approved facilities:
• Institute of Nuclear Chemistry and technology, Warsaw, irradiated were spices, Herbs,
dehydrated vegetables, and dried mushrooms, total in 2004 of 680 Tons.
• Institute of Applied Radiation Chemistry Technical university of Lodz. Spices in 2004

total of 47,8 Tons.
The United Kingdom: It has one facility approved. No food was irradiated in 2004.
Labelling
The Neatherlands reports that a total of 430 samples had been taken in the marketplace and
analysed for irradiation. Of these 430 samples, 45 dietary supplements and spices proved to be
irradiated. Only 2 of the irradiated samples were correctly labelled as such. No indication of
the origin of the positive samples was given.
The information submitted shows that during 2004, 3,9% of samples were irradiated and not
correctly labelled.
The infringements are unevenly distributed over product categories. Products imported from
Asia, especially Asian-type noodles and dried prepared noodles, are particularly concerned.
In addition, it should be noted that in 2004, there were no facilities in Asia approved by the
European Community.
Differences between Member States regarding the results of controls could partly be explained
by the choice of the samples and the performance of the analytical methods used. No reports
from 2005 and 2006 are available.
740
Chapter 20
Moulds and yeasts
Moulds Moulds cause spoilage of food and fodder. Some strains produce mycotoxines such
as ochratoxin in coffee and in cocoa which spreads out over the entire chocolate market.
They cause off flavor in food and destroy paper, wood, drugs, cosmetics etc. Moulds can cause
allergies and infections.
Mouldy coffee in Trieste

In August 2006 great amount of Robusta coffee were found to be mouldy in Triest warehouse.
The beans in Trieste are thought to have been damaged by excess moisture on transport. Bags
of coffee are dumped if they contain more than five mouldy beans or 10 partially mouldy beans
per 500g.
Allergies
Allergies caused by moulds however are not so frequent as they seem to be. The most important
sources of allergies are:
• Dogs,cats and other pets as 70% of all allergy cases.

Get rid of dogs and cats and you have solved 70% of your problems.
• House dust, furniture, mites
• Pollen, grass
• Trees and shrubs
• Food with chemical preservatives, lactose, albumen, milk, eggs
• Odorous substances
• Moulds as last item of the list of allergenic sources.
741
742
To avoid mould allergy don’t get in contact with cheese like Roquefort , Camembert or Brie
cheese.
Keep perishable food always refrigerated to reduce mould growth.
Don’t keep restover of fruits and vegetables in the kitchen. Keep it outside of the house.
Keep away from garbage [208].
Allergies
Allergies can be a serious threat to life and can end as anaphylatic shock. The allergens in
foods represent a hazard for those who suffer from allergies, that is why the most important
ones are cited here:
Allergens:
• Cereals containing gluten ( i.e. wheat, rye, barley, oats, spelt, kamut or their hybridised
strains) and products thereof.) (Coeliac disease)
• Crustaceans and products thereof.
• Eggs and products thereof.
• Fish and products thereof.
• Peanuts and products thereof.
• Soybeans and products thereof.
• Milk and products thereof (including lactose).
• Nuts i. e. Almond (Amygdalus communis L.), Hazelnut (Corylus avellana), Walnut

(Juglans regia), Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), Pecan nut (Carya illinoiesis (Wan-
genh.) K. Koch), Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), Pistachio nut (Pistacia vera), Macadamia
nut and Queensland nut (Macadamia ternifolia) and products thereof.
• Celery and products thereof.
• Mustard and products thereof: Mustard protein allergic individuals may react to the
protein content of the mustard oil. Individuals sensitised to and by the skin sensitising
component allyl isothiocyanate may react to oil in the absence of mustard proteins.
• Sesame seeds and products thereof.
• Sulphur dioxide and sulphites at concentrations of more than 10 mg/kg or 10 mg/litre

expressed as SO2.
Preservatives: A small part of humans suffer fron allergy to preservatives. Labels like ”Free
of preservatives” must be true as some persons suffer heavy allergic responds to some preser-
vatives. To avoid recourses due to cross over ” No preservatives added” is being now labeled.
This, however, does not solve the problem of allergic reactions.
Culture media for moulds and yeasts

Moulds and yeasts spoil foods. It is therefore important to control raw materials and finished.
A useful medium is the Yeast Chloranphenicol dextrose Agar. Moulds grow as large colonies
and are easily identified. Yeasts grow as small colonies, Both types of microorganism can grow
with beautiful colors.
Moulds can be phytopathogen and can cause serious damage to agriculture.

Moulds have also a good side. They produce antibiotica like Penicillin, Cephalosporin and
Griseofulvin and many substances in industrial scale such as citric acid, succinic acid, glu-
curonic acid, and malic acid. Moulds can also be used in the production of polymer such as
Pullulan. They are used to produce beta-carotene, enzymes such as amylase glucoamylase, Pro-
tease, Lipase, pectinase, cellulase, lactase, catalase some types of cheese, sausages, fermentation
of certain food such as soya, rice and corn. Examples of pathogen moulds:
• Aspergillus candidus:
It has slow growth. It produces infections. Citrinin is formed. A. candidus grows down
to a pH of 2.1 and aw 0,75.
• Aspergillus fischerianus:
A.fischerianus can survive 100o C for over 60 minutes !
• Aspergillus flavus:
Aspergillus flavus causes broncopulmonary allergy. It grows up to 42 to 45o C. It pro-
duces aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, sterigmatocystin and other mycotoxins. The toxins
are present in peanuts and their products, pistachio nuts and Brazil nuts.In cereals from
warm regions (corn,wheat rice)
Several brands of dried figs with origin from Turkey and Greece have high amount of
aflatoxin B1,B2, G1 and G2. The aflatoxins which are found on these samples are lo-
cated in the interior of the fruits. As spoiled figs are detected under UV light as they
are packed, only the fruits with mould contamination from inside are not removed and
are often eaten despite a high level up to 900 microgram/Kg of aflatoxin B1. (Only 2
microgram are allowed). Bad hygienic condition during harvest, drying, transport of figs
and weather conditions such as high humidity and high temperatures are the cause of
744
rising mould spoilage. Consumer should look inside the figs and discard those which are
dark. [680]
• Detection of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus:

Detection of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus For the detection of A. flavus
and A parasiticus the use of AFPA (Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus Agar). Incubation
at 30o C during 42-48 hours (not longer).
Reading of the plate: A. flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. nomius grow leaving orange-
yellow color under the colony.
Aspergillus niger can produce yellow but not orange color under the colony.
• Aspergillus fumigatus:
Grows rapidly. It is present in flower pots, compost, garbage and cereals It grows at a
minimum of 10-12o grows best at 37-43oC and as maximum 52-55oC. Conids may survive
60 minutes at 80oC and 10 minutes at 85oC.
Aspergillus fumigatus is the most pathogen Aspergillus. It may act as secondary pathogen
but also as primary agent.
It does not attack the skin, but it causes severe infections of ear, of synus and the respi-
ratory tract (lungs)
The temperature optimum of growth is 50o C, but it also grows at 50o C. Its spores are
very small. It causes allergies an produces fumigatin
• Aspergillus glaucus :
Its growth is quick,it is worldwide spread in nature.
It is xerotolerant spoiling food with low water content such as oat flakes and dried fruits,
food with high amount of sugar such as jam, syrups and sweets, meat products with low
water content, such as ham, in cereals ,in breads and pastries.In East Asia Aspergillus
glaucus is used for the fermentation of soy and fish products.
• Aspergillus nidulans:
It grows rapidly from 6o C to 48o C and aw-0,80. It is pathogenic and builds Sterigmato-
cystin
It is present in cereals, breads and pastries an wet leather.
• Aspergillus niger :
Black, rapid growing colonies is infectious, allergenic and produces the mycotoxin koji
acid .
It is present in soil, dust, on cereals and fruits. It is strong lipolytic.
It spoils food such as cereals, breads and pastries, meat products, fats, nuts, raisins and
onions. It can spoil material such as paper, leather,plastics and paint. In biotechnology
Aspergillu niger is used for the production of organic acids and enzymes.
• Aspergillus ochraceus:
Slow growing, produces ochratoxin A.
It is present in cereal storehouse, bread, pistachio, salami and ham.
Ochratoxin: Ochratoxin is a mycotoxin which was first described in 1965 starting from
cultures of Aspergillus ochraceus. It stays for long time in blood stream. It is toxic for
kidneys being responsible for kidney diseases in pigs from Norway.
• Aspergillus oryzae:
Rapid growing from 7o C to 47o C. It is used for fermentation of many East Asia foods.
• Aspergillus penicilloides:
Very slow growth, pathogenic. It can grow at aw- 0.75. It is present in cereal storehouse.
It grows on cereals and meat products with low content of water.
• Aspergillus tamarii:
Rapid growing even at aw 0.78.
• Aspergillus terreus:
It is infectious and produces citrinin and patulin.
It is present in cereals and corn,leather and paper.
• Aspergillus versicolor:
It is pathogenic and produces Sterigmatocystin It grows by aw 0.75 and is present on
cereals, corn,nuts, rice and meat products.
• Aspergillus wentii:
It is present on salami, ham, barley, leather and nuts.
• Fusarium culmorum
• Fusarium oxysporum
• Microsporum gypseum
• Penicillium aurantiogriseum:
Grows from -4o C to 35o C producing patulin,Penicillin and nephotoxic mycotoxins.
It is present on damp or wet cereals.It can create heat up to 64o C.
Fusarium bacteria grow at CZID (Czapek Iprodione Dichloran Agar)
• Penicillium brevicompactum:
Allergenic,growing from 12oC to 30oC
746
• Penicillium camemberti:
Produces mycotoxins cyclopiazon acid, toxic concentrations are not built during the pro-
duction of camembert cheese.
• Penicillium chrysogenum:
Allergenic, produces ochratoxin A, patulin and penicillin.
It grows from -4o C up to 33o C
it is found in soil and in cereal storehouses, on bread, meat products, very often on leather,
fruit juices, nuts and damp stored books.
• Penicillium expansum:
Spoils stored fruits such as apples and decaying plants. It produces citrinin and patulin.In
juices there is a rapid decay of taste due to production of acetoinand diacetyl. Active
enzymes such as proteases,cellulases, lipases, amylases are build, spoiling leather and
other materials.
Grows from -6o C up to 35o C
• Penicillium glabrum:
It is frequent and produces various toxins
• Penicillium hirsutum:
Grows on onions and horseradish.
• Penicillium italicum:
It grows with a pH 1.6 up to 9.8 and from -3o C up to 34oC. It is very frequent on citric
fruits and all kind of food.
• Penicillium roquefortii:
Produces roquefortine A and B, patulin, festuclavine,emerofortine, cyclopiazon acid and
others. Cultures of P.roquefortii sold for the production of cheese do not form cancerogenic
substances.
It is present in refrigerators, on fat, cereals, sliced bread and juices.
• Penicillium verrucosum:
Produces ochratoxin A, citrinin and penicillin.
It is present on cereals, peanuts and vegetables.
Penicillium verrucosum grows on DRYS (Dichloran rosebengal yeast extract sucrose agar
at 20o C for 7 to 8 days and produces under the colonies a violet color.
On DRYS there also can grow Penicillium aurantiogriseum and Penicillium viridicatum
producing xanthomegnin and Viomellein
• Stachybotrys chartarum
• Thrichophyton mentagrophytes
• Trichothecium roseum
• Extreme xerophylic moulds:

Extreme xerophylic moulds like Xeromyces bisporum, moulds of the Eremascus genus and
Erotium halophilicum grow on Malt extract agar+50% Glucose (MY50G) incubating at
25o C for 1 to 3 weeks. A small pice of the sample is placed on the medium.
Malt extract agar+70% glucose fructose (MY70GF) The medium contains 35% Glucose
and 35% fructose. Incubation at 25o C for 4 weeks. Eroticum spp. shows black conids
under a stereo microscope.
• Heat-resistant moulds
Heat-resistant moulds which can produce spoilage are Byssochlamys spp, Talaromyces
spp, Neosartorya spp and Eupenicillium in fruit juices , concentrated products and jams.
Neosartorya fischeri has D88o C= 1,4 min, z= 5,6o C
Culture of heat-resistant moulds[433] Adjust the samples at 35o Brix and pH 3,5-
4,0.
Heat two 50 ml portions of the sample in water bath 30 minutes at 80o C, cool down
quickly. Add double concentrated malt extract agar to the portions and distribute it in
Petri plates. Incubate at 30oC for 30 days. Readings should be made weekly. If bacteria
may be present add 100 mg/l chloramphenicol.
Colonies of Penicillium and Aspergillus growing on the plates come from a contamination
during handling of the samples as they can not resist heating up to 80o C.
Table 20.1: Special moulds and their importance

Gliocladium species Destroys paper, may be present in fuel.
Isaria species Pathogen to insects.
Paecilomyces species grows very quickly, infectious.

Produces mycotoxines such as patulin and Byssochlamin acid
in fruit and juices.The ascospores resist
Temperatures up to 85o C during 30 minutes
96o, the plant must be dismantled
to get rid of Paecilomyces.
Scopulariopsis brevicaulis grows quickly,sometimes pathogenic.

pH optimum 9 - 10,grows in tilsit cheese and camembert cheese
748
and meat and derivates
Trichoderma species Produces trichothecenes and T-2-toxin

grows at pH 2.5 up to 9.5 and can
grow on sour food, is found an corn, rice and wheat.
Verticillium species pathogenic for plants.
• Botrytis cinerea: Spoils fruits on trees.
• Chrysonilia sitophila: Produces contamination in laboratories. Often associated with

baker’s asthma
• Mucorales:
Mucorales have a rapid growth within 2 days. The best growing temperature is 37 to
41−oC.
It produces gas even under vacuum.Mucorales have a broad variety of enzymes such as:
-alfa-amylase,glucoamylase and cellulase.
-Pectinase
-Protease
-Lipase
-Esterase
Important genus of Mucorales are:
-Mucor
-Rhizopus
-Absidia
-Phycomyces
• There are many types of Candida,some important genius are cited below:
• Candida albicans: Can produce gastrointestinal infections.

• Candida glabrata
• Candida krusei: It is less pathogenic as C.albicans.
• Candida catenulata
• Candida colliculosa
• Candida dattila
• Candida famata
• Candida guillermondii
• Candida inconspicua
• Candida Kephyr,also named Candida pseudotropicalis.
• Candida lipolytica
• Candida norvegiensis
• Candida pelliculosa
• Candida rugosa
• Candida sake
• Candida tropilalis
• Candida utilis
Selective culture of Candida albicans

The selective culture of Candida albicans uses Merck Fluoroplate Candida -Agar (1.11011) .
It is a modified SABOURAUD with the addition of fluorogene substrate (MUGal) which can
be hydrolysed by the enzyme Galactosaminidase resulting a fluorescent compound. 99% of
Candida albicans bear this enzyme. Incubate at 37o C for 2-3 days. Read the plates under UV
light. All fluorescent colonies are Candida albicans.
Candida albicans ID: Another selective and chromogenic medium for identification of Can-
dida albicans is the albicans ID medium bio Mérieux Nr.43 121 citealbicans
Table 20.2: albicans ID medium

Ingredient Amount for 1.000 ml
bio-Thione 2,00 g
Yeast extract 6,00 g
750
Monopotassium phosphate 0,5 g

Dipotassium phosphate 0,5 g
Chromogen substrate (hexosamine) 0,05 g
ADA butter 0,6 g
Gentamicin sulfate 0,10 g
Chloranphenicol 0,05
Agar 14,00 g
pH 6.6
Albicans ID is a medium to isolate yeasts and immediately identify Candida. Colonies of Can-
dida albicans grow as blue colonies on Albicans ID medium due to hydrolysis of hexosaminidase
chromogen substrate. The two antibiotic which are present in albicans ID inhibit the bacterial
flora. The buffer system of the medium facilitates the growth of yeasts and optimizes the en-
zyme reaction.
Albicans ID medium is used to detect yeasts by direct inoculation of pathological specimens
(buccal, vaginal, rectal swabs,feces, scales, pus, urine. It should also be suitable to control food),
Reading of the culture is made after incubation at 30 to 37o C for 24 to 48 hours. The colonies
have a round, smooth,slightly domed shape, with a clearly defined border, and blue coloration.
This coloration does not diffuse into the medium and turns from pale to dark blue depending
on the incubation time.The size of the colonies is 0.5 to 1.5 mm.
Other yeast species have a creamy-white color and the size is 0.25 to 2 mm. A complete bio-
chemical identification should be carried out if required.
Albicans ID medium must always be stored and incubated in the dark.
Some strains of yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Cryptococcus neoformansgive

small colonies and require an incubation of more than 48 hours.
A small percentage of Candida tropicalis strains give blue colonies within 48 hours.
Certain strains of Trichosporon cutaneum can give cotton-like bluey-green colonies, which can
be easily differentiated from Candida albicans colonies.
More attention should be payed to Candida albicans on bacteriological control of food as this
yeast can cause diseases of the intestinal tract.
The Fluoroplate Candida-Agar contains chloranphenicol and gentamycine to inhibit accompa-
nying bacteria.
The isolation can be made directly from faecis or vaginal samples.
Moulds attack human when there is a lesion such as burns, frost, injuries, immuno insufficiency,
serious diseases such as tumor, diabetes, leucosis, transplantations, use of immunosupresives,
therapy with antibiotic.
Growing conditions Molds can grow at a wide rage of temperature:
Table 20.3: Mesophylic moulds

Growth of mycelium Temperature
optimum growth of mycelium 25-30oC
maximum growth of mycelium 30-400C
As example Penicillium optimum 20-25oC
As example Aspergillus optimum 25-35oC
Table 20.4: Thermotolerant moulds

Minimum growth of mycelium 00 C
optimum growth of mycelium 30-400C
maximum growth of mycelium 500 C
As example Mucorales optimum 30-410C
Some moulds may grow under 00 C ,
such as Chladosporium growing at -60C.
Table 20.5: Thermophile moulds

Minimum growth of mycelium 250 C
optimum growth of mycelium 35-450C
maximum growth of mycelium 55-600C
As example Rhizomucor pusillus
Temperatures for best production of toxins differ often from growth optimum
Spores and sclerotias can survive high temperatures.
Only molds which can grow at 370 C can cause a systemic mycose.
Table 20.6: pH and growth of moulds

pH-optimum 4.5 - 6.5
pH-maximum in the majority 8.0
Exceptions are 9.8 - 10.5 such as:
752
Aspergillus niger,
Penicillium italicum,
Aspergillus flavus.
pH-minimum for growth of moulds 2.0 and below
Table 20.7: Oxygen and growth of moulds

Moulds are aerobic They grow however also as microaerobic.
Many Mucorales can produce fermentation.
Increasing CO2 reduces
growth of many moulds.
At the same time reducing oxygen
stops completely growth of molds on fruits.
Culture and microscopy of moulds The morphology of colonies vary with the culture
media employed, age of the culture, the species and the temperature of incubation.
Preparations for microscopy should be made with 50% alcohol because moulds are not water
soluble. Don’t use very old colonies because only spores are present.
Black moulds Black moulds have their color due to melanin in their mycelium.
They are UV-resistant and very frequent in the environment. They destroy materials and spoil
food. They are potential allergens.
Determination of yeasts and moulds

Optimal media for the determination of yeasts and moulds
Wort agar and Malt extract agar
Selective media
DRBC (Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloramphenicol-agar): . This culture medium is suit-

able for fresh food with high water activity. It contains 25 ml/l Rosebengal and 2 mg/l Dichlo-
ran. Culture on surface and incubation at 25o for 5 days.
DG 18 (Dichloran 18% glycerol agar): This medium is suitable for xerophile moulds
from cereals, nuts, flour and spices.
OGY (Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract agar: This medium is suitable for de-
termination of yeasts and moulds simultaneously.
Table 20.8: Culture media for yeasts and moulds, according Baumgart
Fresh moulds DRBC on surface

food yeasts TGY pourplate
MEA, OGY
yeasts and DRBC
moulds
Nuts,cereals yeasts and DRBC on surface

moulds
Fruit juice yeasts TGY, MEA, OGY pourplate
Concentrated xerophile MY50G pourplate

fruits yeasts
Dried food yeasts and DG18 on surface

moulds
dried fruits yeasts MY50G on surface

and chocolate molds
xerophile
All samples aflatoxins AFPA

on surface or pourplate
All samples Ochratoxin DRYS on surface or

pourplate
DRBC= Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloranphenicol-Agar
TGY= Tryptone glucose yeast extract agar
MEA= Maltextract-agar
OGY= Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract agar
MY50G = Malt extract agar, 50% glucose
DG18= Dichloran, 18% Glycerol
AFPA= Aspergillus flavus parasiticus agar
DRYS= Dichloran rosebengal yeast extract saccharose agar
Contamination of cereals with Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum

According to a definition of the food regulation of the EU cereal grains are to be classifies as
754
unusable when :
Mycotoxines are present.
The value of the grains is reduced because of bacterial activity.
There are changes of smell and color
Bacterial count is high
Tolerated by EU regulation are 0,5% of grains with black Fusarium contamination.
Trichotecene
Zearalenon Zearalenon is a mycotoxin which can be present in animal feed and can cause
be found in muscles and organs of animals with destination as human food.
Citrinin
Patulin Patulin is frequently produced by Penicillium expansum on fruit juices when steril-
ization is using spoiled fruits.
Very important for the production of juices is to select rotten and mouldy fruits on the trans-
portation belt, use fresh and not contaminated water, a brush station for some kind of fruits.
extreme care should done to keep all machines and the surroundings always clean to avoid the
growths of bacteria and moulds. Be always aware that the bacteria and moulds can be killed
by sterilization, the poisons such as patulin however are not inactivated by heat.Quality and
safety of food depend on careful handling through the whole production process.
Pasteurization of fruit juicesshould be done at 60 to 90o C, orange juice at 85 to 90o C for sev-
eral minutes. Enzymes such pectin esterase are also inactivated during this procedure. Yeasts
which can spoil wrong treated juices are Candida, Cryptococcus, Hanseniaspora, Rhodotorula
and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Common moulds on fruit juices are Geotrichum, Mucor, Penicil-
lium and Phialophora.
Fruits as raw ware for juice industry should have not more than 2 X 106 yeasts and not more
than 2X 105 moulds/g otherwise alcohol and toxic products are formed.[570]. Talaromyces tra-
chyspermus, Talaromyces flavus and Neosartorya fischeri are moulds which may develop heat
resistant organisms an may spoil juices during storage.
In storage tanks dripping water from condensation may dissolve the juice at that point making
it possible for moulds and yeasts to grow.
Green colonies may be the result of growth of Penicillium expansum, black colonies of As-
pergillus niger. One percent of N2 of the atmosphere of storage tanks may be useful to avoid
growing of moulds.
Bottles and other packaging materials should have less than 1 mikroorganism/cm2 .
Layer yeasts such as Candida boidinii,Candida intermedia, Candida parapsilosis and Debary-
omyces hansenii produce a slimy yeast skin.
Measures to reduce the risk of contamination of juices with yeasts and moulds Use
good raw material, not spoiled, with low bacterial count.
Look out for proper cleaning and disinfection of the equipment.
Avoid underheat of the juice.
Use 2% of N2 or CO2 in the atmosphere of storage tanks.
Cool storage tanks down to 2o C.
Avoid dripping of condensation water in storage tanks.
Use bacterial filter on air inlet of tanks.
Ryegrass staggers: [777][778] Feed grass such as lolium (Lollium perenne which grows in
North America and Australia also called ”English ryegrass” and festuca (such as Festuca ovina)
may have a symbiotic community with a mould which rises the vitality of the gras, reducing
drought damage and resistance to various pests.
The mould may produce under certain weather conditions alkaloids such as lolitrem B which
may have an adverse effect on the cattle.This toxicosis is called ”ryegrass staggers” and is
common in North America and in New Zealand and in some cases also in Europe.
Moulds and bacteria found in spices Spices grow in tropics and subtropics and are there-
fore submitted to ideal temperatures and humidity conditions for the growth of bacteria and
moulds.
Lactic acid bacteria against Fusarium mycotoxins[779]

According to Biotechnology Ireland the study of specific lactic acid bacteria (LAB) may help
to reduce Fusarium mycotoxins and ochratoxinin in grain production. New legislative require-
ments for the reduction of mycotoxin content in cereal-based products demand for alternative
methods to prevent mould growth.
Scientists at the University College Cork are screening food grade la Yeasts [780]
For practical purposes, yeasts may be defined as unicellular fungi in which assexual reproduc-
tion occurs mainly by budding. Budding was defined by von Arx 1979, as a type of conidiation
and the buds are blastoconidia. Yeasts are characterized, classified and identified traditionally
by morphological, physiological, and biochemical criteria
Yeasts area phylogenetically diverse group of fungi. Their sexual states (teleomorphs) can
be classified among two major fungal classes, the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes.
756
A classification should also consider genetic similarities and differences. The application of
molecular biology has already made a large impact on the systematics of yeasts.
Yeasts are generally unicellular, some may, however, develop hyphae or pseudohyphae. True
hyphaelack constriction at the cross walls, pseudohyphae cells are formed by budding and elon-
gation. [781]
Yeast-like organis: Buds arising from true hiphae. Hyphae may separate into arthoconi-
dia. Both filamentous forms are collectively called yeast-like organism.
Growth temperature: Most yeasts do not groiw under 0 o C, psychrophilic can grow at
temperature which go down to -7o C. Freezing and subsequent thawing can cause loss of viabil-
ity. Lethality is reduced when cells are rapidly frozen and rapidly thawed. The degradation of
membrane phospholipids and cell water permeability may cause the death to yeast cells sub-
jected to freezing and thawing. [782] [783]
Candida albicans: Yeasts are mainly known to have impact on food spoilage, formation
of haze, sediment and off-flavour in carbonated drinks and juices, as well as bulging cans and
exploding bottles. There are, however, some yeasts which are pathogen to humans such as
Candida albicans.
Candida albicans can be diagnosed by the formation of germ tubes and clamydospores. Candida
albicans can be found in foods such as soft drinks, must, wine and others. Candida tropicalis
is also present on food and should be diferentiated from Candida albicans.
Differentiation of Candida albicans and Candida tropicalis

Yeast sucrose maltose
Candida albicans - +
Candida tropicalis + +
Molecular biology and Classification

Studies on DNA base composition, nuclear DNA homology, and sequences of ribosomal RNA
are used to elucidate the degree of relatedness and evolutionary relationship of yeasts. These
methods, however cannot be easily applied in routine identification procedures, therefore, the
classification of yeasts is still primarily based on characteristics of sexual reproduction.
The species Saccharomyces cerevisiae, for instance, described by Hansen in 1888, suffered im-
portant changes and in 1985 , 1987 and 1989 Vaughan-Martini and Kurtzman separated the
genus Saccharomyces in four genra: S. cerevisiae, S bayanus and S. pastorianus which are used
in industrial fermenting. A fourth genus S. paradoxus has no relation to alcoholic fermentation.
[784] [785] [786] [787]
Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Is the leavening of bread and the fermenter of alkoholic bev-
erages. Saccharomyces cerevisiae has one or more genes coding for alfa-glucosidase and maltose
permease.
Chalky bread
Yeasts and yeast-like organisms may develop white spots in the crumb, which is called chalky
bread. According to Spicher (1986), envolved in chalky bread are Endomycopsis fibuliger,
Pichia burtonii, Zygosaccharomyces bailii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii,
Pichia membranaefaciens and Candida parapsilosis. [788] [789]
Spoilage of soft drinks Spoilage of carbonated soft drinks are most frequently being caused
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pastorianus. Contamination most often results
from incorrect sanitation of processing line which includes, holding tanks, proportioning pumps
and bottle washers. Gas production may be very heavy leading to the explosion of the bottle.
[790] [791]
Wine, Beer and distilled spirits
Crushed grapes which stand on the start of the production line of wine contain species like
Hanseniaspora uvarum, Candida stellata, Issathenkia orientalis, Metschnikowia pulcherrima
and Pichia anomala. [792] [793]
According to Fleet a definite succession of yeasts takes place during the fermentation under the
influence of growing alcohol. The non-Saccharomyces species die off with an increase of ethanol
content. These yeasts are more tolerant to alcohol at lower fermentation temperatures [794]
The population of yeasts in the fermentation phase depends on the variations in the ecosystem
of different vineyards. Hanseniaspora uvarum in Middle-Europe, Japan and California whereas
Hanseniaspora osmophila in warmer regions like Italy, Israel or Southern US. Dominate the
early fermentation. [795]
According to Martini Kloeckera apiculata initiates fermentation and is followed by Saccha-

romyces cerevisiae. [796] As ethanol concentration rises between 2 to 6% wild yeasts die and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae dominates till the fermentation is complete. Inoculating strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae at the beginning of the fermentation does not change this sequence.
[797]
After the fermentation any further yeast activity harms the quality of the product. Yeasts are
therefore removed by racking, filtration and other cellar. Dekkera species, Saccharomycodes
ludwiglii may impair flavour of bulk wine. Candida vini, Candida zeylanoides, Candida rugosa,
Issatchenkia orientalis, and Pichia membranaefaciens are responsible for spoilage of wine in
tanks and in wooden barrels. They are film-forming species. [798] [799]
758
Spoilage of bottled wines: Bottled wines, according to Minarik, are often spoiled by Zy-
gosaccharomyces bailii (considered as the main cause of spoilage), Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Candida rugosa, Pichia membranaefaciens and Candida vini. Activity of these yeasts cause
cloudy appearance, sediment and poor flavour. [800]
Beer Lager beer is fermented by Saccharomyces pastorianus. This strain is a bottom fer-
menter and produces alfa-galactosidase, hydrolysing melibiose and raffinose. The fructose part
of the raffinose molecule is fermented. The yeasts flocculate and settle on the bottom of the
fermenter. Fermentation takes place only up to 340 C. Ale beer is being produced with Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae which is unable to ferment melibiose and only the fructose part of the
raffinose molecule is fermented. It tends less to flocculate than S. pastorianus. Fermentation
of sugars takes place up to 380C. [801]
Silage:Silage is an important part of animal feed in northern regions. It is a product of a

lactic acid fermentation. Yeasts may cause alcoholic fermentation. According to Engel, the
most frequent yeasts which may spoil silage are Pichia fermentans, Issatchenkia orientalis, Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae and Geotrichium candidum [802] [803]. These yeasts assimilate lactic
and acetic acid, resulting in silage spoilage if exposed to oxygen of air.
Fermentation of cocoa beans:Yeasts, together with lactic acid bacteria present the tradi-
tional cocoa fermentation process for removing the mucilaginous pulp around the seed. Sanches
found the following species of yeasts to be involved in this process: Hanseniaspora uvarum, Sac-
charomyces cerevisiae, Pichia membranaefaciens, Pichia fermentans and Issatchenkia orientalis.[804]
Yeasts identification methods [805]

Various systems of identification of food-borne yeasts have been developed. Deak compared
three yeast identification methods:
The Simplified Identification Method (SIM) (identifying 91% of the samples correctly), the
commercial kits, the Analytab API 20X (86% correct identification) and the BioMerieux Vitek
Yeast ID 32C strips(76% correct identifications).
Discrepant test reactions and errors in the database had caused the false identifications. Whereas,
the accuracy of individual test were high with discrepant results of 1,6%, 2,5% and 1,7% respec-
tively. Deak notes, therefore, that with a supplement of a few tests, the described commercial
kits can be easily applied to the SIM database.
Other commercial systems for the identification of food-borne yeasts are Minitek, AutoMicro-
bic, ATB 32 ID YeastIdent.
Based on foregoing experiences Deak suggests a revised SIM version which includes 99 of the
most common food-borne yeasts, and 30 tests are applied. In the SIM key, great reliance is
given to sugar and nitrogen assimilation tests. As the keys uses tests in which yeasts give
85% to 100% unequivocal responses, a certain probability exists that the results do not fit the
identification scheme. The author stresses therefore that species identification should never be
based only on those features included in the keys.
DNA identification
A technique revealing restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) have been used in
taxonomic evaluation of yeasts. It is based on the activity of restriction enzymes which gener-
ate numerous fragments of variable length, resulting in characteristic banding patterns. Degré
found that DNA fingerprinting, using RFLP found it to be the most reliable method to identify
brewers yeast strains. [806]
Casey, however, using RFLP, could not differentiate ale from bakers yeasts and concluded that
RLFP pattern not to be suitable as an universal method to identify different strains within the
same yeast species. [807].
Electrophoretic Kariotyping
Electrophoretic Kariotyping determines the chromosomal number and size which can be achieved
by electrophoretic separation of whole chromosomes in agarose gel.
Török used whole chromosomes from yeasts as templates for probe preparation to distinguish
between closely related yeast species. [808] [809]
DNA Probes and PCR Amplifications

The PCR technique and specific probes are promising as reliable and rapid molecular methods
for the identification of yeasts.
Protein Elektrophoresis
Soluble protein electrophoresis using polyacrylamide gel, sometimes with sodium dodecyl sul-
fate was used by Bruneau and Giunet to identify medical important yeasts. [810]
Degré, however, found contradictory results using this technique depending on growth con-
ditions. Degré concluded that the reproducibility of protein and fatty acids patterns requires
rigidly standardized methods. [806]
Fatty acid Analysis

It uses gaschromatography of cellular volatile fatty acids. A commercial identification system
of fatty acids from yeasts has been developed by MIDI. [811]
Augustyn, however, using the fatty acid analysis technique, could not differentiate between
760
Saccharomyces cerevisia, Saccharomyces bayanus and Saccharomyces pastorianus, important

for the beer and wine brewery. [812]
Rozes found that the method has potentials for distinguishing fermenting wine yeasts from
spoilage yeasts. [813]
Humanised yeast cells [814] [815]

In 2000 Tillman U. Gerngross co-founded GlycoFi, Inc., base in Lebanon, It is a company
pioneering the ”humanization” of yeast and fungal protein expression systems.
Professor Gerngross research examines both the macroscopic and the microscopic scale of
biotechnology.
Protein-based therapies have to be manufactured by living cells, which are genetically engi-
neered to produce a given protein of interest often requiring the attachment of sugar structures
(glycosylation). This could only be performed in mammalian cells.
Human glycosylation can now take place within a yeast cells of Pichia pastoris, eliminating the
need for mammalian cells. The new technique reduces the risk of contamination by pathogens
and infectious agents.
According to Stephen Hamilton from GlycoFi, humanizing the glycosylation in yeast required
the silencing of four yeast genes and the introduction of over 14 heterologous genes.
With this engineered yeast some glycoproteins were produced such as erythropoietin, used
to treat anemia, and other glycoproteins such as antibodies with improved anti-cancer proper-
ties.
The study details the genetic engineering of the yeast to secrete human glycoproteins with
fully complex, terminally sialyated N-glycans.
The authors conclude that the ability to generate human glycoproteins with homogeneous
N-glycan structures in a fungal host is a step toward producing therapeutic glycoproteins and
could become a tool for elucidating the structure-function relation of glycoproteins.
According to Y. Ma and colleagues, Pichia pastoris is already being used to elaborate the
human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) early-region 1A (E1A) proteins which have strong tumor-
suppressive activities in human tumor cells. The authors stress that the E1A protein overcame
the limitations of gene therapy and may be a useful therapeutic agent for some malignant
tumors. [816]
Identification of yeasts
[819] Identification can be performed either phenotypically usind fermentation reactions of sug-
ars or growth on carbon and nitrogen sources or other compounds. These characteristics can
vary, depending the physiological state of the cell. Molecular biology techniques are indepen-
dent of the state of the cell as they analyse the genome of the cell.
The nucleotide sequences of the domains D1 and D2 located at the 5’ end of gene 26S (Kurtz-
man and Robnett, 1998) and PCR amplification of ribosomal DNA regions and restriction of
the gene 5.8S rRNA gene and the adjacent intergenic regions ITS1 and ITS2 are the molecular
methods commonly used for the identification of yeasts (Fernandez-Espinar et al.,2006). These
techniques are more reproducible and faster that the conventional methods based on physio-
logical and morphological characteristics. [821]
Yeasts patogenic for human [820] The principal yeasts pathogenic for humans are Can-
dida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans which cause a range of mucocutaneous, cutaneous,
respiratory, central nervous, systemic and organ infections.. Usually, healthy, immunocompe-
tent individuals are not at risk of such infections. Generally, individuals with weakened health
and immune function are at greatest risk, and include cancer and AIDS patients, hospitalised
patients and patients who are administered immunosuppressive drugs, broad-spectrum bacte-
rial antibiotics and radio- and chemotherapies.
This includes species that are frequently found in food such as Candida krusei/orientalis, P.
anomala, Kluy. marxianus, S. cerevisiae and various Rhodotorula.
EFSA Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS) of Yeasts [820]
Candida The genus Candida comprises 163 species, of which around 60 species are present in
food. Only a small number of Candida are used in food processing, as biocontrol agents such
as C. glabrata is used to control filamentous fungi in plants.
The list of species that are commonly used in the food industry include: C. zelanoydes, which
contributes to the flavour and texture during the maturation of cheese and in the production of
fermented milks (kefir and koumiss), C. milleri for flavour and rheology in sourdough breads,
C. tropicalis, C. parapsilopsis produces skin lesions and C. pelliculosa, which occur in the wet
fermentation of coffee, C. etchellsii and C. versatilis, which contribute to the flavour of soy
sauce, C. rugosa, which is involved in cocoa fermentations, C. utilis (=P. haidinii) and C. mal-
tosa, which are used for biomass production from carbohydrate and hydrocarbon substrates
respectively, C. oleophila and C. sake, which are commercialised for use as fungal biocontrol
agents.
762
Pathogenic Candida spp. The principal human pathogenic yeasts are species of Candida,
such as C. albicans, C. glabrata , both as most frequent pathogenic yeasts. C. guilliermondii, C.
krusei, C. lusitaniae, C. parasilopsis, C. tropicalis produces deep seated micoses, C. viswanathiin
and new emerging pathogen is C. dubliniensis.
The Candida genus is not suitable for QPS status, as more species are today considered as
emergent pathogens.
Debaryomyces The genus Debaryomyces comprises 15 species. Many representatives can

be isolated from natural habitats such as air, soil, pollen, tree exudates, plants, fruits, insects,
and faeces and gut of vertebrates.
Nine of these Debaryomyces species: D. carsonii, D. etchellsii, D. hansenii, D. maramus, D.

melissophilus, D. polymorphus, D. pseudopolymorphus, D. robertsiae and D. vanrijiae, have
been found in a variety of processed foods; such as fruit juices and soft drinks, wine, beer, sug-
ary products, bakery products, dairy products and meat or processed meats. The presence of
Debaryomyces species in foods usually has no detrimental effects and in some cases is beneficial
to the food.
Some Debaryomyces species are important in the ripening of fermented food products such as
cheese and meat products. Where D. hansenii is used in the ripening of cheeses they metabolise
lactic acid, raising the pH to allow the growth of proteolytic bacteria, and the yeast exhibits
lipolytic activity that contributes to the development of cheese aromas. Proteolytic and lipoly-
tic activities of D. hansenii have been described in the curing of ham and ripening of sausages
and their presence in salami influences the red coloration and improves the quality of the prod-
uct.
Nevertheless, excessive growth of Debaryomyces species may cause undesirable sensory changes
due to the formation of off-odours and off-flavours. These species have also been found as
frequent contaminants of spoiled yoghurts, ice creams, fish, shellfish, etc.
Very often, fungi have got two forms : the sexual form (teleomorph) is considered as per-
fect while the asexual form (anamorph) is considered as imperfect form. The Fungi imperfecti
are only known by their asexual form (Conidia). [822]
The main species of Debaryomyces used in food processing is D. hansenii, the anamorph form
of which is Candida famata. C. famata has been repeatedly associated with catheter-related
bloodstream infections, and occasionally with infections of the central nervous system. The
reservoir of C. famata is not known but there is a possibility that nosocomial infections can
occur via air contamination (Wagner et al., 2005).
No studies on antifungal susceptibility of Debaryomyces are available. It is proposed to grant

D. hansenii QPS status.
Hanseniaspora The species are most frequently isolated from soil, fruits and plant exudates,
grapes and processed fruit. Hanseniaspora uvarum is important in the first phase of grape
fermentation and play a role in the production of certain flavours beneficial for the quality of
wine and cider. Little is known regarding the other species.H. uvarum is proposed for QPS
status.
Kluyveromyces There are six species present in this genus.The most important are K. lactis
and K. marxianus (anamorph C. kefyr) for their capacity to ferment lactose. This microorgan-
ism can be isolated from milk products and is used as a starter to set up the medium for cheese
and kefir production. Kluyveromyces marxianus and K. lactis are associated with smear-ripened
cheeses and contribute to the aromas that cheeses develop. These species are considered to be
generally regarded as safe organisms and have been approved as a food additive.
Kluyveromyces is used in animal feeds in Europe as a probiotic and is apparently safe (re-
viewed in Anadon et al., 2006).
Candida kefyr, the anamorph of K. marxianus, has occasionally been involved in opportunistic
infections in immunocompromised persons. However, considering the history of apparent safe
use and the rarity of infections in humans, there are no safety concerns. It is proposed to grant
K. lactis and K. marxianus QPS status.
Pichia Yeasts of the genus Pichia are widely distributed; they can be found in natural habi-
tats, such as soil, freshwater, tree exudates, insects, plants and fruits, and also as contaminants
in a variety of foods and beverages. Some Pichia species contribute desired effects in the early
stages of wine fermentation, several types of brines, and different types of cheeses; while others
have been described as human pathogens (Bakir et al., 2004; Otag et al., 2005).
Pichia currently contains 91 species with 30 being related to food production and processing,
the majority of them are spoilage organisms. The genus contains the species previously encom-
passed in the genus Hansenula, which is reported to be one of the safest microorganisms; it is
used by the WHO for the development of vaccines and as a producer organism such as phytases.
The main species are P. anomala (previously Hansenula anomala) and P. angusta (previously
Hansenula polymorpha). P. anomala is also used for the fermentation of bakery products, while
P. roqueforti is used as a post-harvest biocontrol agent for wheat and barley, or for food appli-
cation in olive fermentations.
764
Some species of Pichia are used for feed (source of proteins) and production of glucan for
feed. It is proposed that P. angusta and P. anomala have QPS status.
Saccharomyces These species are strongly fermentative, and are commonly isolated from
soil, fruits, foods and beverages. S. cerevisiae, S. pastorianus and S. bayanus are widely used
for making bread and in the production of beer, wine, distilled beverages and fuel alcohol. S.
cerevisiae occurs on fruit, in processed fruits, dairy products and plays a role in the fermenta-
tion of kefir, coffee, cocoa, and the production of traditional fermented products. S. cerevisiae
and S. bayanus cause spoilage of soft drinks.
In one review, cases of Saccharomyces invasive infection were presented (Enache-Angoulvant

and Hennequin, 2005). Predisposing factors were similar to those of invasive candidosis, with
intravascular and antibiotic therapy being the most frequent. Blood was the most frequent
site of isolation. S. cerevisiae (subtype S. boulardii) accounted for 51.3% of fungaemias and
was exclusively isolated from blood. Special caution should be taken regarding the use of S.
cerevisiae (subtype S. boulardii) preparations (Fleet and Roostita, 2006). There are number
of recent reports and reviews regarding the safety of S. cerevisiae (subtype S. boulardii). The
authors concluded that probiotics should be used cautiously in certain high-risk populations.
A review of the current literature reinforces the view that fungaemia and sepsis are rare com-
plications of the administration of S. cerevisiae (subtype S. boulardii) in immunocompromised
patients but confirms that the most important risk factor for S. cerevisiae fungaemia is the use
of probiotics (Herbrecht and Nivoix, 2005; Munoz et al., 2005).
This raises the question of the risk-benefit ratio of these agents in critically ill or immuno-
compromised patients who are likely to develop an infection after exposure to high amounts
of a microorganism with a low virulence. The authors concluded that S. cerevisiae (subtype
S. boulardii) should certainly be contraindicated for patients of fragile health, as well as for
patients with a central venous catheter in place. It is recommended that a specific protocol
concerning the use of probiotics needs to be formulated.
It is possible to propose some species of the genus for QPS status with the following qual-
ification: ”provided the proposed species does not grow at 42o C and is not filamentous” S.
bayanus, S. cerevisiae and S. pastorianus (syn of S. carlsbergensis) are proposed for QPS status
with the above qualification.
Schizosaccharomyces Three species are included in this genus, Sch. japonicus, Sch. oc-
tosporus and Sch. Pombe, living on fruits and fruit juices, wines, tequila fermentation and
high sugar concentration. They are strong fermenters of sugars and have been used for the
production of ethanol.
The species Sch. pombe is used as a phytase producer for animal feed; minimum safety pre-
cautions should be taken for the handling and storage. No infection issues have been reported.
Sch. pombe is proposed for QPS status.
Xanthophyllomyces Phaffia rhodozyma ferments D-glucose and occurs in slime fluxes of

deciduous trees. The anamorph Phaffia rhodozyma and the teleomorph Xanthophyllomyces
dendrorhous forms are known.
The yeast is used to synthesize the carotenoid astaxanthin (3,3-dihydroxy-, -carotene-4,4-dione),

a dietary source for aquaculture and poultry industries, including salmonids, lobsters and the
egg yolks of chickens and quail. Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is proposed for QPS status.
Fungal DNA and galactomannan and glucan antigens as screening of high-risc pa-
tients [823]
Accordingt to Jones and McLintock (2003) reduction of the mortality of invasive fungal infec-
tion could depend on the development of rapid, sensitive diagnostic methods such as serological
and molecular techniques, assessing the utility of these methods and consider their role in man-
agement strategies.
The authors propose the detection of fungal DNA and antigens such as galactomannan and
glucan which have been prospectively evaluated in the clinical setting in early diagnosis of in-
vasive fungal infection of high-risk patients.
The sensitivity and specificity of the assays depends on patient selection, clinical application
of the test, and release and circulation of galactomannan and fungal DNA.
The authors conclude that it is essential these tests to be incorporated into management strate-
gies and call for further clinical trials.
Invasive aspergillosis and galactomannan test [824]

According to Gonzalo Bearman the invasive aspergillosis is acquired by inhalation of airborne
conidia by susceptible host. Its incidence is 5 out of 100,000 people and can develop:
Pulmonary aspergillosis(most common), CNS aspergillosis, sinonasalaspergillosis, osteomyelitis
endophthalmitis, endocarditis, renal abscesses, cutaneous.
Definitive diagnosis requires the demonstration of tissue invasion, and positive culture from
766
biopsy specimen. Invasive tissue biopsy is often impossible due the debilitated state of the
patient. Less or non-invasive tests that may suggest the diagnosis.are isolation of Aspergillus
from sputum and testing for galactomannans. Serologic Aspergillusprecipitin assays are rarely
elevated in IA.
Testing for Galactomannans [824]

Galactomannan is a component of the fungal cell wall and an exoantigen of Aspergillus.
PlateliaTM AspergillusEIA[?] was approved by the FDA in 2003 and detects galactomannan in
serum. In the dataset evaluated by FDA, the overall sensitivity and specificity of the method
were 80.7% and 89.2%, respectively. However, Bearmann found that significant test variability
has been reported post marketing which show a sensitivity 29-100% and specificity >85% .
The test performance is likely affected by: in vivo characteristics of galactomannan secretion
of Aspergillus the patient population, and other factors.
Antigenic cross reactivity with other fungi such as Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium digi-
tatum, and Paecilomyces variotii may result in false positive testing.
Conclusion Bearman concludes that the use and interpretation of PlateliaTM Aspergillu-
sEIA may be of some, yet limited, value in the diagnosis of IA in high risk patients.
Chapter 21
Organic food
Introduction
With the introduction of new seeds of wheat and rice, as well as the use of fertilizers, pesticides
and irrigation Dr. Norman Borlaug started the ”Green Revolution” in 1950. The Nobel Peace
Price was awarded to him in 1970 for averting famine in India and Pakistan in the 1960s.
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides rose the world grain production from 1950 to 1992 by 170
%,using only one percent more land.
Another important step in agrarian technology is the development of new strains of wheat
that can grow on pastures with a high aluminum content in Brazil, slowing down the cutting
of the rain forest.
Despite the protests of environmentalists, Borlaug brought high-yield agriculture to Africa,

which still depends on slash-and-burn subsistence farming. Due to his efforts, Ethiopia recorded
the greatest harvest of major crops in its history during the 1995-96 season with a 32 percent
increase in production and a 15 percent increase in average yield over the previous season.
Despite the benefits of the green revolution other systems are being developed. No system
alone can be the answer to the problems feeding the world: All of them allow positive results
which can complement one another.
Table 21.1: Green Revolution

1950 1992 Growth
Grains, million tons 692 1900 174%
Population billions 2.2 5.6 154%
Cropland billion acres 1.70 1.73 1.7%
767
768
Table 21.2: Crop yields of organic and conventional products in Germany 1995
Product Conventional Organic
breeding breeding
Milk/cow/year 4886 litres 4044 litres
Wheat/dt/ha 61 dt/ha 38 dt/ha
Organic food Organic food production in large scale started in Europe in 1993 with the
subventions of the governments trying to shift from chemical based to a natural agriculture.
Austria and Swiss have about 10%f their area covered with organic fields. France plans to
change 20% of the direct paid agrarian funds in ecological developing programs.
Organic crop yields

The crop yields of organic farms are much lower as obtained by conventional farming. This
means, the prices of these products are higher than conventional prices The difference varies
from 20 to 100%. A problem is the low acceptance of the organic products because of their
price. As supermarkets started to sell these products, a higher output was possible, resulting
in a small price reduction.
Due to the BSE scandal, organic farmers are getting better support from government.
Global agriculture leads to a soybean-corn-beef agriculture, producing increasingly processed
foods, fast foods and standard foods with higher yields, which are cheaper and less labor in-
tensive.
The demand from consumers for organically produced agricultural products and foodstuffs
is increasing; whereas a new market for agricultural products is thus being created with a higher
market price as for conventional products because the way in which they are produced involves
less intensive use of land.
Unfortunately a great group of consumer buy organic foods only because of their own health.
Comparing prices, the positive impact on environment, ecology and conservation of the coun-
tryside are not taken into consideration.
Organics in USA, regulations: According to Ronnie Cummins, writing for The Pro-
gressive Populisat The USDA is caught in a familiar predicament given the agency’s dual role.
On the one hand it is set up ostensibly to protect consumers by ensuring a safe food supply
and guarantee the economic livelihood of America’s farmers, the majority of whom continue
to operate small and medium-sized farms. On the other hand, USDA also sees as its role to
promote the industrialization and globalization of American agriculture which means working
closely with large agribusiness, chemical, and biotechnology corporations. The natural food
industry, with its small stores, small family farms, and discriminating consumers, has begun to
pose a direct threat to the market share of large-scale agribusiness. [?]
US regulation [?]
National Organics Standards Board (NOSB)composed of industry representatives, farmers, en-
vironmentalists and food processors. The NOSB, established by the Organic Foods Production
Act in 1990, made recommendations to the USDA that explicitly banned genetically engineered
foods, irradiation, farming with sewage sludge, and intensive confinement factory farm type an-
imal husbandry practices.
Organic Foods Production Standards regulates the certification of organic producers.
USDA’s National Organic Program (NOP), authorized under the Organic Foods Production
Act of 1990 regulates organic foods in USA
European regulation: [?]

To create a framework of Community rules on production, labelling and inspection of organic
farming, the Council Regulation No 2092/91 EWG on organic production of agricultural prod-
ucts, and the No 207/93 EWG were adopted.
Organic farming involving varied cultivation practices and limited use of non-synthetic fertil-
izers are specified in these regulations. Conditions for the use of certain non-synthetic products
are there laid down. Specific provisions are made, aiming to avoid the presence of certain
residues of synthetic chemicals from sources other than agriculture (environmental contamina-
tion).
Organic production methods entail significant restrictions on the use of fertilizers and pes-
ticides which may have detrimental effects on the environment or result in the presence of
residues in agricultural produce. Ingredients for processed organic foods are specified in the
regulation.
Organic food is produced by farmers who emphasize the use of renewable resources and the
conservation of soil and water to enhance environmental quality for future generations. Or-
ganic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products come from animals that are given no antibiotics
or growth hormones.
Organic food is produced without using most conventional pesticides; fertilizers made with
synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge; bioengineering; or ionizing radiation.
The demand from consumers for organically produced agricultural products and foodstuffs
is increasing; whereas a new market for agricultural products is thus being created with a higher
market price as for conventional products because the way in which they are produced involves
770
less intensive use of land.
Unfortunately a great group of consumer buy organic foods only because of their own health.
Comparing prices, the positive impact on environment, ecology and conservation of the coun-
tryside are not taken into consideration.
Organic crop yields

The crop yields of organic farms are much lower as obtained by conventional farming. This
means, the prices of these products are higher than conventional prices The difference varies
from 20 to 100 percent.
A problem is the low acceptance of the organic products because of their price. As super-
markets started to sell these products, a higher output was possible, resulting in a small price
reduction.
Organic Food in Europe

In 1991 the Council created with Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 the first ever Com-
munity framework for organic farming and food production.
Organic food production in large scale started 1993 in Europe with the subventions of the
governments trying to shift from chemical based to a natural agriculture. Austria and Swiss
have about 10% of their area covered with organic fields. France plans to change 20% of the
direct paid agrarian funds in ecological developing programs.
In 2001, the Council under Swedish Presidency,invited the Commission to propose a European
Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming (EAP). The Commission adopted the Communi-
cation on the EAP in June 2004.
Organic production [?]
Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that com-
bines best environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, preservation of natural resources,
application of high animal welfare standards and production in line with the preference of cer-
tain consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes.
The organic production method thus plays a dual societal role, where it on the one hand
provides for a specific market responding to a consumer demand for organic products, and on
the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the environment and
animal welfare, as well as to rural development.
The essential requirements defining organic production and labelling of organic products are
laid down by the principles and production rules formulated in this proposal.
The Proposal on Organic Food

The proposal covers all organic products.
ExceptionsThe preparation and sale to the final consumer of meals in large scale kitchens;
for example in restaurants, hotels, hospitals and canteens, or in bars and coffee shops are not
covered by the Proposal.
The EU logo should continue to be available on all products that comply with the Regula-
tion, including for all imported products.
GMO’s: Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and products produced from or by GMOs
are incompatible with the concept of organic production and consumers’ perception of organic
products. They should therefore not be deliberately used in organic farming or in the process-
ing of organic products. The Proposal prohibits the use of the term ’organic’ for GMO labelled
products.
At least 95 percent of the final product must be organic for it to be labelled as such. Al-
though products containing GMOs may not be labelled as organic, there is an exception for
those with up to 0.9 percent GMO content from accidental contamination.
Organic farming
Organic farming should primarily rely on renewable resources within locally organised agricul-
tural systems. In order to minimise the use of non-renewable resources, wastes of plant and
animal origin should be recycled to return nutrients to the land and for energy production.
Organic plant production should contribute to maintaining and enhancing soil fertility as well
as to preventing soil erosion. Plants should preferably be fed through the soil eco-system and
not through soluble fertilisers added to the soil.
The essential elements of the organic plant production management system are soil fertility
management, choice of species and varieties, multi-annual crop rotation, recycling organic ma-
terials and cultivation techniques. Additional fertilisers, soil conditioners and plant protection
772
products should only be used if they are compatible with the objectives and principles of or-
ganic production.
Controls
With regard to controls, Regulation (EC) No 882/2004 of the European Parliament and of the
Council on official food and feed controls (OFFC) entered into application on 1 January 2006
covering organic farming.
Organic Logos: Organic foods may bear the organic logo for their individual member state.
Under the new regulation it will be compulsory for them to also carry either the EU logo, which
has existed for a number of years, or to wording ’EU organic’.
The regulations COM(2005) 671 final 2005/0278 (CNS) 2005/0279 (CNS) will come into force
for EU member states in January 2009. For imports, for which there are presently no rules,
they will be effective from January 2007. Such imports must comply with EU standards or
come with equivalent guarantees from their country of origin.
Principles applicable to all organic production

• The use of living organisms and mechanical production methods shall be preferred to the
use of synthetic materials.
• Natural substances shall be used in preference to chemically synthesised substances, which

may be used only where natural substances are not commercially available.
• GMOs and products produced from or by GMOs may not be used, with the exception of
veterinary medicinal products.
• Rules of organic production shall be adapted to local conditions, stages of development

and specific husbandry practices, while maintaining the common concept of organic pro-
duction.
Principles applicable to organic farming

• Farming shall maintain and enhance soil fertility, prevent and combat soil erosion, and
minimise pollution.
• Farming shall aim at producing products of high quality instead of maximising production.
• The use of non-renewable resources and off-farm inputs shall be minimized;
• Wastes and by-products of plant and animal origin shall be recycled as input in plant and
livestock production and for energy production.
• Production decisions shall take account of the local or regional ecological balance.
• Plants shall be primarily fed through the soil ecosystem.
• Maintenance of animal and plant health shall be based on preventative techniques includ-
ing selection of appropriate breeds and varieties.
• Feed for livestock shall come primarily from the holding where the animals are kept or
shall be produced in cooperation with other organic farms in the same region.
• The highest level of animal welfare shall be observed.
• Products of organic livestock production shall come from animals that since birth or
hatching and throughout their life have been raised on organic holdings.
• Breeds shall be chosen favouring slow growing strains and having regard to the capacity
of animals to adapt to local conditions, their vitality and their resistance to disease or
health problems.
• Organic livestock feed shall be composed essentially of agricultural ingredients from or-
ganic farming and of natural non-agricultural substances.
• Husbandry practices which enhance the immune system and strengthen the natural de-
fence against diseases shall be used.
• Aquaculture production shall minimise the negative effect on the aquatic environment.
• Feed used in aquaculture shall be from sustainable fisheries or composed essentially of

agricultural ingredients from organic farming and of natural non-agricultural substances.
• Polyploid animals may not be used.
Production of processed organic feed and food

• Organic food and feed shall be produced essentially from agricultural ingredients which
shall be organic, except where an organic ingredient is not commercially available.
• Additives and processing aids shall be used to a minimum extent and only in case of
essential technological need.
• Ionising radiation may not be used.

774
General farm production rules

Where not all of a farm is used for organic production, the holding may be split up into clearly
separated units which are not all managed under organic production. In this case, adequate
records to show the separation must be kept.
Farmers are required not to use GMOs or products produced from GMOs. Where farmers
use products purchased from third parties to produce organic food or feedstuffs, they shall
require the vendor to confirm that the products supplied have not been produced by GMOs.
Plant production rules

Organic plant production should comply with the following rules:
• Organic plant production shall be based on tillage and cultivation practices that maintain
or increase soil organic matter, enhance soil stability and soil biodiversity, and prevent
soil compaction and soil erosion.
• Fertility and biological activity of the soil shall be maintained and increased by multi-
annual crop rotation including green manure, application of manure and organic material
from organic farms.
• Fertilisers and soil conditioners compatible with the objectives and principles of organic
production may be used if they have been approved:
• Mineral nitrogen fertilisers shall not be used.
• All plant production techniques used shall prevent or minimise any contribution to con-
tamination of the environment.
• Prevention of damage caused by pests, diseases and weeds shall rely primarily on the
choice of species and varieties, crop rotation and cultivation techniques.
• In the case of threat to a crop, plant protection products compatible with the objectives
and principles of organic production may be used if they have been approved.
• The use of any approved synthetic substances shall be subject to conditions and limits as
regards the crops that they can be applied to, the application method, the dosage, the
time limits for use and the contact with crop.
• Only organically produced seed and propagating material may be used. To this end,
the mother plant in the case of seeds and the parent plant in the case of vegetative
propagating material shall have been produced in accordance with the rules laid down in
this Regulation for at least one generation, or, in the case of perennial crops, two growing
seasons.
• The collection of edible plants and parts thereof, growing naturally in natural areas,
forests and agricultural areas, is considered an organic production method provided that:
• Those areas have not, for a period of three years before the collection, received treatments
with not approved products.
• The collection does not affect the stability of the natural habitat or the maintenance of
the species in the collection area.
Livestock production rules

Livestock production should complie with the following rules: With regard to husbandry prac-
tices and housing conditions:
• Personnel keeping animals shall possess the necessary knowledge and competence as re-
gards the health and the welfare needs of the animals.
• Husbandry practices, including stocking densities, and housing conditions shall ensure
that developmental, physiological and ethological needs of animals are met.
• The livestock shall have permanent access to a free-range area, preferably pasture, when-
ever weather conditions and the state of the ground allow this.
• The number of livestock shall be limited with a view to minimising overgrazing, poaching
of soil, erosion, or pollution caused by animals or by the spreading of their manure.
• Organic livestock shall be kept separate or readily separable from other livestock.
• Tethering or isolation of livestock shall be prohibited, unless for individual animals for a
limited period of time and justified for safety, welfare or veterinary reasons.
• Duration of transport of livestock to slaughterhouses shall be minimised.
• Any suffering, including mutilation, shall be kept to a minimum.
• Apiaries must be placed in areas which ensure nectar and pollen sources consisting essen-
tially of organically produced crops and/or spontaneous vegetation and must keep enough
distance from sources leading to contamination of products from bee-keeping.
• Hives and materials used in bee-keeping must be made of natural materials.

776
• The destruction of bees in the combs as a method associated with the harvesting of
bee-keeping products is prohibited.
With regard to breeding:
• Reproduction shall not be induced by hormone treatment, unless in order to treat repro-
duction disorders.
• Cloning and embryo transfer shall not be used.
• An appropriate choice of breed shall contribute to the prevention of any suffering and to
avoiding the need for mutilation of animals.
With regard to feed:
• Livestock shall be fed with organic feed, which may include proportions of feed from
farm units which are in conversion to organic farming, that meet the animal’s nutritional
requirements at the various stages of its development.
• Animals shall have permanent access to pasture or roughage.
• Feed additives may be used only if they have been approved.
• Growth promoters and synthetic amino-acids may not be used.
• Suckling mammals shall be fed with natural, preferably maternal, milk.
With regard to disease prevention and veterinary treatment:
• Disease prevention shall be based on breed and strain selection, husbandry management
practices, high quality feed and exercise, appropriate stocking density and adequate and
appropriate housing maintained in hygienic conditions.
• Disease outbreaks shall be treated immediately to avoid suffering to the animal. Al-
lopathic products including antibiotics may be used where necessary, when the use of
phytotherapeutic, homeopathic and other products is inappropriate.
Production rules for feed

Production of organic feed shall be kept separate from production of non organic feed.
Organic feed materials, and/or feed materials from production in conversion, shall not enter
simultaneously with the same feed materials produced by non organic means into the compo-
sition of the organic feed product.
Hexane and other organic solvents may not be used.
Feed manufacturers are required not to use GMOs or products produced from GMOs where
they should have knowledge of their presence due to information on any label accompanying
the product or from other accompanying documents.
Where feed manufacturers use ingredients and additives purchased from third parties to pro-
duce feedstuffs for organic livestock, they shall require the vendor to confirm that the products
supplied have not been produced by GMOs.
General rules on the production of processed food

The following criteria shall apply to the composition of organic processed food:
• At least 95%, by weight, of the ingredients of agricultural origin of the product shall be
organic.
• Ingredients of non-agricultural origin and processing aids may be used only if they have
been approved.
• Non-organic agricultural ingredients may be used only if they have been approved.
Label and advertising claims

The terms listed in in Annex I of the Proposal, such as organic, ecologico, ökologisch, biologisch,
their derivatives or diminutives, alone or combined, may be used throughout the Community
and in any Community language for the labelling and advertising of a product which is pro-
duced and controlled, or imported, in accordance with this Regulation.
These terms may not be used for a product which bears a label indicating that it contains
GMOs, consists of GMOs or is produced from GMOs.
General claims that a particular set of private or national organic standards is stricter, more
organic or otherwise superior to the rules laid down in this Regulation, or to any other set of
organic standards, may not be used on labels or in advertising.
However, indications referring to specific elements of the production method used for a cer-
tain product may only be used on labels or in advertising on condition that they are true
statements of fact and otherwise in conformity with the general labelling requirements set out
in Directive 2000/13/EC.
778
Certification
The competent authority and the approved control bodies may grant certificates, including the
right to use their marks of conformity with organic standards, to operators which are subject
to the control system.
Imports from third countries

A product imported from a third country may be placed on the Community market labelled
as organic where it complies with standards equivalent to those applied to organic production
in the Community, or is in accordance with the internationally recognised standards set out in
the Codex Alimentarius guidelines.
Aquaculture
As regards to aquaculture the proposal achieves one of the actions of the Commission Commu-
nication to the Council and the European Parliament of 2002 on the sustainable development
of European aquaculture, namely ”harmonisation of the rules on organic aquaculture under
Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91”.
International harmonization of organic food - Codex Alimentarius [?]

The Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Pro-
duced Foods provide the requirements of production, the labelling and claims for organic foods.
These guidelines are at this stage a first step into official international harmonization of the
requirements for organic products in terms of production and marketing standards, inspection
arrangements and labelling requirements.
Main subjects of the organic foods Codex guidelines

The main subjects of these guidelines are:
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances
agroecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity.
Apart from a small portion of agricultural commodities marketed directly from the farm to
consumers, most products find their way to consumers via established trade channels. To min-
imize deceptive practices in the market place, specific measures are necessary to ensure that
trade and processing enterprises can be audited effectively. Therefore, the regulation of a pro-
cess, rather than a final product, demands responsible action by all involved parties.
Import requirements of organic products should be based on the principles of equivalency and
transparency as set out in the Principles for Food Import and Export Inspection and Certifi-
cation.
Labelling of organic products

Organic products should be labelled in accordance with the Codex General Standard for the
Labelling of Prepackaged Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985, Rev 1-1991) [818] in addition to Guide-
lines for the Production, Processing, Marketing and Labelling of Organically Produced Foods
2005 (GL 32 - 1999, Rev. 1 - 2001) [?]
Rules of production and preparation
Permitted substance lists
Inspection
According to the Codex Alimentarius Guidelines for Organic Foods inspection measures are
necessary across the whole of the food chain to verify product labelled according to the guide-
lines conforms to internationally agreed practices.
Access by the inspection body to all written and/or documentary records and to the establish-
ment under the inspection scheme is essential. The operator under an inspection should also
give access to the competent or designated authority and provide any necessary information
for third party audit purposes.
Rules of production and preparation of organic products according to the Codex:Organic

products should be stored and transported according to the requirements defined in the guide-
lines.
Plant and plant products: Special principles defined in the guidelines should have been
applied on the parcels, farm or farm units during a conversion period of at least two years
before sowing, or in the case of perennial crops other than grassland, at least three years before
the first harvest of products labelled as organic.
Livestock and livestock products:Where livestock for organic production are maintained,
they should be an integral part of the organic farm unit and should be raised and held according
to these guidelines.
Compliance periods for livestock: Once the land has reached organic status and livestock
from a non-organic source is introduced, and if the products are to be sold as organic, such live-
stock must be reared according to these Guidelines for at least the following compliance periods:
Bovine and equine
• Meat products: 12 months and at least 75% of their life span in the organic management
780
system.
• Calves for meat production: 6 months when brought in as soon as they are weaned
and less than 6 months old.
• Milk products: 90 days during the implementation period established by the competent
authority, after that, six months.
Ovine and caprine
• Meat products: six months.
• Milk products: 90 days during the implementation period established by the competent
authority, after that, six months.
Porcine
• Meat products: Six months.
Poultry/laying hens
• Meat products: whole of life span as determined by the competent authority.
• Eggs: six weeks.

Nutrition
All livestock systems should provide the optimum level of 100% of the diet from feedstuffs
produced to the requirements of these guidelines.
For an implementation period to be set by the competent authority, livestock products will
maintain their organic status providing feed, consisting of at least 85% for ruminants and 80%
for non-ruminants and calculated on a dry matter basis, is from organic sources produced in
compliance with these Guidelines.
Specific criteria for feedstuffs, nutritional elements, additives and Processing Aids are defined
in the guidelines.
Livestock husbandry, transport and slughter: Maintenance of livestock should be guided

by an attitude of care, responsibility and respect for living creatures.
Beekeeping and bee products: Bee keeping is an important activity that contributes to the
enhancement of the environment, agriculture and forestry production through the pollination
action of bees. The treatment and management of hives should respect the principles of organic
farming.
Collection areas must be large enough to provide adequate and sufficient nutrition and ac-
cess to water.The sources of natural nectar, honeydew and pollen shall consist essentially of
organically produced plants and/or spontaneous (wild) vegetation.
Handling, storage, transportation, processing and packaging

The integrity of the organic product must be maintained throughout the processing phase.
This is achieved by the use of techniques appropriate to the specifics of the ingredients with
careful processing methods limiting refining and the use of additives and processing aids. Ion-
izing radiation should not be used on organic products for the purpose of pest control, food
preservation, elimination of pathogens or sanitation.
Pest managementFor pest management and control the following measures, in order of pref-
erence, should be used:
Preventative methods, such as disruption and elimination of habitat and access to facilities by
pest organisms, should be the primary methodology of pest management.
If preventative methods are inadequate, the first choice for pest control should be mechani-
cal/physical and biological methods.
If mechanical/physical and biological methods are inadequate for pest control, pesticidal sub-
stances listet in these guidelines (or other substances allowed for use by a competent authority)
may be used.
Global situation of organic farming

Organic food in Africa: SEKEM, an Egyptian organic agriculture company, won the Right
Livelihood Award in 2003. Uganda, is the first country that has reached 1 percent of agricul-
tural land to be certified organic.
Dr. Thomas van Elsen speaking about Biologic-dynamical farming and landscape states: ”Eco-
logical - also known as biologic - dynamical managing alone is no guaranty for a manifold land-
scape” New strategies concerning farming are necessary.
USA
USDA’s National Organic Program (NOP), authorized under the Organic Foods Production
Act of 1990 regulates organic foods in USA. [817]
The US National Organic Program presents a domestic and a foreign list of the USDA Ac-
credited Certifying Agents (ACAs), application for certification, applications for cost sharing
782
programmes for organic crops and livestock producers.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) will accredit State, private, and foreign organiza-
tions or persons to become ”certifying agents”. Certifying agents will certify that production
and handling practices meet the national standards
The US Certification
Operations or portions of operations that produce or handle agricultural products that are in-
tended to be sold, labelled, or represented as ”100 percent organic,” ”organic,” or ”made with
organic ingredients” or food group(s).
Excepted from certification are:

Farms and handling operations that sell less than $5,000 a year in organic agricultural products.
Although exempt from certification, these producers and handlers must abide by the national
standards for organic products and may label their products as organic. Handlers, including
final retailers, that do not process or repackage products.
Handlers that only handle products with less than 70 percent organic ingredients. A han-
dling operation or portion of an operation that is a retail food establishment that processes or
prepares, on the premises of the establishment, raw and ready-to-eat food labelled organic.
A handling operation that chooses to use the word organic only on the information panel.
A handling operation that handles products that are packaged or otherwise enclosed in a con-
tainer prior to being received by the operation and remain in the same package.
NOP Standards (7 CFR Part 205)

[825] Summary: NOP Standards became effective in 2002. It will facilitate domestic and
international marketing of fresh and processed food that is organically produced and assure
consumers that such products meet consistent, uniform standards.
This program establishes national standards for the production and handling of organically
produced products, including a National List of substances approved for and prohibited from
use in organic production and handling.
It establishes an accreditation program for State officials and private persons who want to
be accredited as certifying agents. It includes requirements for labeling products as organic
and containing organic ingredients. It provides rules for importation of organic agricultural
products with equivalent organic program requirements.
Allowed and Prohibited Substances

A certified operation must only use allowed substances, methods, and ingredients for the pro-
duction and handling of agricultural products that are sold, labeled, or represented as 100
percent organic, organic, or made with... for these products to be in compliance with the Act
and the NOP regulations. Use of ionizing radiation, sewage sludge, and excluded methods are
prohibited in the production and handling of organic agricultural products.
The National List (7 CFR 205.600-606) as published in the regulations is the official source
for decisions concerning approved and prohibited materials for organic operations. No other
citation is allowed. The OMRI Generic Materials List (GML) is therefore not to be applied for
any decisions concerning organic foods certification. [826]
Table 21.3: Labelling Consumer Product Packages [817]
Labelling principle display Information Ingredient Other package

category panel panel statement panels
”100 percent ”100 percent ”100 percent If multiingredient ”100 percent
Organic” organic (optional) organic product, identify organic”
Entirely whole, (optional) each ingredient as (optional)
organic: USDA seal and Certifying agent ”organic” (optional)
whole, raw or certifying agent name (required) USDA seal and
processed seal(s) (optional) business/internet certifying agent
product) address tele nr. seal(s) (optional)
(optional)
”organic” ”Organic” plus ”X% organic” Identify organic ”X% organic”
(95% or more product name) (optional) ingredients as (optional)
organic (optional) ”organic” (required
ingredients) ”X% organic” Certifying agent if other organic USDA seal and
(optional) name(required) labelling is shown certifying agent
USDA seal and business/internet seal(s) (optional)
certifying agents address tele nr.
seal(s) (optional) 8optional9
”Made with ”made with organic ”X% organic Identify organic ”made with
organic (ingredients or ingredients” ingredients as organic
ingredients” food group(s) (optional) ”organic (required” (ingredients or
(70 to 95% (optional) if other organic food group(s)
784
organic Certifying agent labelling is shown) (optional)

ingredients) address tele nr. Certifying agent
Certifying agent (optional) seal of final
seal of final Prohibited: product handler
product handler USDA seal (optional)
(optional) Prohibited:
Prohibited: USDA seal
seal USDA
Less-than 70% Prohibited: ”X% organic” Identify organic Prohibited:
organic Any reference (optional) ingredients as USDA seal and
ingredients to organic ”organic” (optional) certifying agent
content of
product
Prohibited: Prohibited: (required if % seal
USDA seal USDA seal organic is
and certifying and certifying displayed)
agent seal agent seal
Other special food systems with organic claims
AGöL and IFOAM: These systems are regulated by rules which have been established by
their own organization. The principles of organic agriculture was first described in 8 lectures
held by Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and was also based on Goethe and his recognition of nature.
Demeter farmers deal with their farms as a unique living organism. They call this kind of
farming ”biodinamic”.
The organizations which follow these principles are united under the cover of AGÖL , an
agricultural cooperative bringing together all the Organic inspection bodies. It was founded in
Germany in 1988, through the initiative of Demeter.
The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
[827] The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) embraces

worldwide all organic federations, whose goal is the worldwide adoption of ecologically, so-
cially and economically sound systems based on the principles of Organic Agriculture. The
Movement was founded in 1972 and is an independent global non-profit organization.
The IFOAM Principles of Organic Agriculture

[828] In its Principles the IFOAM defines agriculture as one of humankind’s most basic activi-
ties because all people need to nourish themselves daily. History, culture and community values
are embedded in agriculture. The Principles apply to agriculture in the broadest sense and is
concerned with the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape
the legacy of future generations.
The Principles of Organic Agriculture serve to inspire the organic movement in its full di-
versity and are presented with a vision of their world-wide adoption.
Organic agriculture is based on:
• The principle of health
• The principle of ecology
• The principle of fairness
• The principle of care
Each principle is articulated through a statement followed by an explanation. The principles

are to be used as a whole. They are composed as ethical principles to inspire action.
Principle of health
Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and
planet as one and indivisible. This principle points out that the health of individuals and
communities cannot be separated from the health of ecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy
crops that foster the health of animals and people.
Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of ill-
ness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. Immunity,
resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health.
The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is

to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to
human beings. In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious
food that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it should avoid
the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health
effects.
Principle of ecology
786
Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them,
emulate them and help sustain them.
This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that pro-
duction is to be based on ecological processes, and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are
achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment. For example, in the case
of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for fish and marine organ-
isms, the aquatic environment.
Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances
in nature. These cycles are universal but their operation is site-specific. Organic management
must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by
reuse, recycling and efficient management of materials and energy in order to maintain and
improve environmental quality and conserve resources.
Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems,
establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity. Those who
produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and benefit the common
environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.
Principle of fairness
Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the com-
mon environment and life opportunities
Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both
among people and in their relations to other living beings.
This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human
relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties - farmers, workers,
processors, distributors, traders and consumers. Organic agriculture should provide everyone
involved with a good quality of life, and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty.
It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food and other products.
This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of
life that accord with their physiology, natural behaviour and well-being.
Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should
be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust for future
generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are open and
equitable and account for real environmental and social costs.
Principle of care
Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect
the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.
Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external
demands and conditions. Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and in-
crease productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being.
Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed. Given the
incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken.
This principle states that precaution and responsibility are the key concerns in management,
development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that
organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, scientific knowledge alone
is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and indigenous
knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time. Organic agriculture should prevent significant
risks by adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic
engineering.
Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be affected, through trans-
parent and participatory processes.
Other special food systems with organic claims

AGL and IFOAM: These systems are regulated by rules which have been established by their
own organization. The principles of organic agriculture was first described in 8 lectures held
by Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and was also based on Goetheand his recognition of nature.
Demeter farmers: [829] Demeter farmers deal with their farms as a unique living organism.
They call their farming biodinamic.
The organizations which follow these principles are united under the cover of AGL (Arbeits-
gemeinschaft kologischer Landbau) (Working group for organic farming) , an agricultural co-
operative bringing together all the Organic inspection bodies. It was founded in Germany in
1988, through the initiative of Demeter. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM) embraces worldwide all organic federations, whose goal is the worldwide
adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems based on the principles of
Organic Agriculture.
Diversification and periodic crop changes are the basis of organic farming. It tries to con-
trol weeds, to provide soil nutrients and guarantee soil fertility. Synthetic pesticides are not
788
used. Useful antagonists of pest are supported keeping pests under control. Genetic modified
plants and seeds are not allowed. Landscape conservation such as planting bushes to avoid
wind erosion and provide breeding places for birds are part of these regulations. Changing
from conventional to organic farming takes two to three years.
Demeter is a member of the AGL. It is the only ecological association that has built up a
network of individual certification organisations world-wide. In 1997 Demeter-International
was founded for closer co-operation in the legal, economic and spiritual spheres. Presently
Demeter International has 18 members from Demeter organisations from Europe, America,
Africa and New Zealand. Thus Demeter-International represents around 3.000 Demeter pro-
ducers in nearly 40 countries.
Greek mythology: The name of the organization comes from the goddess of grain and fertility
in ancient Greek, Demeter. The Greeks, like most ancient cultures, relied upon agriculture for
their sustenance. As the patron deity of agriculture her association with grain also translated
into a close relationship with human fertility. There are, consequently, many myths dealing
with Demeter in her capacity as a fertility goddess.
Homeric Hymn to Demeter, in which the story of the goddess and the abduction of her daughter
Persephone and the consequent anger of Demeter is told. The Hymn also alludes to aspects of
the mystery cult referred to as the Eleusinian Mysteries.
The goddess Demeter was known as Ceres in Roman mythology.
History of the organization
1927 First co-operative was formed to market Bio-Dynamic produce.

1928 At the Sierra Madre, Mexico start the first Bio-Dynamic Coffee Plantation.
1939 In New Zealand the ’Bio-Dynamic Association’ was founded.
1941 All Demeter-Organisations and the monthly magazine ”Demeter” are forbidden in Ger-
many through the NSDAP.
1946 The ’Experimental Circle for Bio-Dynamic farming methods’ restarts the movement.
1963 Maria Thun comprehensive work on the cosmic influences upon plants and the sowing
calendar”The Star Calendar”.
1994 Demeter Standards for Food Processing.
The first Doctorate on a Bio-Dynamic theme (The rhythms of the moon) is written by Dr. Hart-
mut Spiess, a fellow worker at the Institute for Bio-Dynamic Research. Demeter is restructured
in accordance with the threefold social order, and this, together with the importance of regional
impulses, becomes the main focus of the work.
Further AGL organisations

Bioland, organic biologic agriculture

Biokreis Ostbayern
Naturland
ANOG (Arbeitsgemeinschaft fr Naturnahen Obst-, Gemse und Feldfruchtanbau e.V.
ECO VIN (Bundesverband kologisher Weinbau (BW)
Ga e.V. ( Had its roots in the former DDR)
kosiegel
AGL regulation for organic animal farming

The farmer does not see the animal as a mean of production, but he considers it as a component
of the cycle soil-plant-animal-human.
Dairy cattle: Dairy cattle and calves must have access to pasture in summer or access to
the open air all the year round. To tie up young and fattening stock all the year round is
not allowed. Access to the open air has to be available ever where possible. Sleeping stalls
are to be spread with straw (or other organic litter). Farming is limited to two cows per hectare.
Poultry: Caged systems are prohibited for poultry. In ground managed systems at least
one third of the floor area is to be available as scratching area. Open-air runs are required for
young birds and laying hens. Other poultry are to have access to an outside run, waterfowl
also having access to open water.
Feeds: Feeds must be appropriate to the class of animal, its age and its physiological needs,
with care also being given to provide sufficient mineral nutrition. The necessary minerals and
trace elements should be of natural origin as far as possible (herbs, leaf forage etc.). Fodder
produced on the farm forms the basis of animal nutrition. At least 50% of the feed for each ani-
mal type respectively, must originate on the farm or in co-operation with another Demeter farm.
Hormones are not allowed. Antibiotics, sulphonamide drugs, coccidiostats, synthetic com-
pounds from organic chemistry and pharmaceuticals are not permitted as additives to feed.
Isolated amino acids, growth promoters, production enhancers (feed antibiotics and enhancers)
and synthetic chemical feed additives (except vitamins) are not allowed.
Labelling of organics:
The Regulation 2092/91 EWG regulates standards for the production and the control of or-
ganics. These standards are intended to protect farmers and consumers from misleading use of
”Bio” and ”Organics”. They should only be used if at least 95% of ingredients are organic.
790
The regulation defines also a clear difference between organic foods and conventional ones.
All regulations refer to vegetable origin. Organic animal breeding is not mentioned in the reg-
ulation 2092/91 EWG.
Very detailed description of organic breeding of meat producing animals are found in ”Demeter
Production standards” and ”International Demeter Processing Standards” which were imple-
mented by all international members and the AGÖL members Germany by the 1st January
2003.
The general rules of the AGÖL are tighter than the regulations of the European Organic regula-
tion which permits a registration as organic of a part of the farm. The rule of AGÖL , does not.
Specific terms: Terms such as integrated, controlled, environment sustainable, ecologically

friendly do not mean they are conform to the organic regulations from the EU or AGÖL. These
are pseudo organic products.
Global situation of organic farming

[830] Organic food in Africa: SEKEM, an Egyptian organic agriculture company, won the Right
Livelihood Award in 2003. Uganda, is the first country that has reached 1 percent of agricul-
tural land to be certified organic.
Dr. Thomas van Elsen (University of Kassel, Faculty of Ecological Agriculture Sciences,
Department of Organic Farming and Cropping Systems Witzenhausen, Germany) speaking
about Biologic-dynamical farming and landscape states: ”Ecological - also known as biologic-
dynamical managing alone is no guaranty for a manifold landscape. New strategies concerning
farming are necessary.”
Table 21.4: Global situation

Land Percent
of total land area
under organic
2001 management
Switzerland 9.0
Austria 8.6
Italy 6.8
Sweden 5.8
Czech Republic 3.9
UK 3.3
Uganda 1.0
USA 0.3
Source:Economic Research
Service USDA AIB-780 [830]
On behalf of the organic ideas, centres have been created to develop organic agriculture, farm-
ing an manifold landscapes, beekeeping and nature conservation.
Social economic environment

Sustainable agriculture can only succeed if environment, social interests and global affairs are
treated in a holistic way.
Social economic environmental research is done by Dr. C. Krotscheck or Prof. Dr. M. Nar-
odoslawsky at the Institute of Chemical Engineering, Graz, University of Technology dealing
with the sustainable development of two partners: ecosphere and sociosphere. The Node of
Social Economic Environmental Research in Austria has collected encompassing information
about the current state and direction of Austrian research efforts in this highly dynamic area.
Alternative Diets
Acceptance of organic food is strongly bounded to dietary believes of the consumers. Some
knowledge in this field is necessary to understand the different ways they are going.
A variety of alternative diets are offered for treating cancer, cardiovascular disease, and food
allergies. Virtually all of these interventions focus on freshly prepared vegetables, fruits, whole
grains, and legumes.
Food allergy and intolerance are being studied as contributing factors in rheumatoid arthritis.
Other benefits attributed to alternate dietary lifestyles include a greater resistance to illness
and improved control for hyperactive children.
792
Most diets include variations of the vegetarian, macrobiotic, and cultural diets of Asian and
Mediterranean nations. Studies report a significant lowering of risk factors for heart disease
and certain forms of cancer in these groups. Although few controlled studies of traditional diets
exist, such as those originally consumed by Native American Indians, diseases such as diabetes
and cancer were not a problem for these populations until their diets became more Westernized.
Vegetarian and vegan diets

Many people choose these diets to improve their health or to decrease the risk of chronic dis-
eases, Others are concerned about the presence of antibiotics, hormones, pesticide residues or
disease-causing agents (as with mad cow disease) that may be present in meat.
Some vegetarians object to inhumane practices of modern-day animal farming, so their rea-
sons for being vegetarian are largely ethical
Some vegetarians believe that humans are not physiologically suited to meat eating; humans
have more in common with herbivorous animals than with carnivorous animals in terms of the
structure and function of the digestive tract.
Some people choose vegetarianism in an attempt to live more simply and economically, and in
closer harmony with nature.
Others go vegetarian due to concerns about world hunger and the environment, because large-
scale production of animal foods uses land that could otherwise be used to grow plant-based
foods, and is a major cause of deforestation and soil erosion worldwide.
- It takes 7 kilograms of grain to produce a kilogram of beef,

- 4 for a kilogram of pork.
- over a third of the world’s annual 640 million tons grain harvest is to fatten animals.
Vegetarians are healthier than people who eat meat. In some cases, vegans have better health
than lacto-ovo vegetarians. The vegetarians were less likely to be obese, or to have high blood
pressure, diabetes, arthritis or colon cancer. They were also less likely to die from heart disease.
Many factors in vegetarian diets contribute to the better health of vegetarians.
Difference between vegetarian diet and meat-eaters: Vegetarians consume more fiber as do
meat-eaters, consume more antioxidants and phytochemicals such as isoflavones, much less sat-
urated fat and cholesterol. Vegetarians do not consume heme iron, a type of iron found in meat
that may increase the risk of heart disease and cancer.
Possible deficiencies
Balanced protein and calcium - Soy foods and dairy products prevent any deficiency.
Vitamin B12 - Vitamin B12-fortified foods or taking vitamin supplements on a daily basis
prevents a deficiency.
Iron and iodine for strict veganes- iodized salt, fruits(0,1-0,7mg iron/100 g), vegetables
(1-1,5), dried bean (7), nuts (4-8), grain products such as bread (1-5), and fortified breakfast
cereals, in addition to vitamin C to improve absorption of iron.
People who live in cloudy, smoggy, or northern areas, and people who do not leave their
residences, need foods fortified with vitamin D. Vegetarians who do not consume milk should
be sure to get 20 to 30 minutes of sun exposure every day since this promotes the synthesis of
vitamin D in the body.
Macrobiotics
[831] Macrobiotics is based mainly on consumption of soup, unpolished brown rice or other
whole grain dish and cooked vegetables.
Macrobiotic cooking prefers to add salt to a level which is comfortable for everyone, but not
more. In this way, there is always some salt in meals, but not excessive amounts. For those
who desire more salt, they can obtain this by adding Macrobiotic condiments like goma-sio,
tekka, tamari-kombu, tsukemono (pickled vegetables).
Testing macrobiotics: Macrobiotics offers a cup of cooked, unpolished brown rice seasoned
only with sun-evaporated salt and goma-sio, miso soup with vegetables and seaweed, simply-
cooked and lightly salted garden vegetables, and a small cup of unsweetened, un-dyed, 3-year-
old, roasted twig tea. All that is asked to chew each mouthful of food at least 50 times before
swallowing, and to try this for at least 10 (ten) days, and forsake other forms of nourishment
during that time.
The difference to other diets

Liquid intake: Drinking only when thirsty. When one switches to a Macrobiotic diet com-
posed of largely vegetable-based foods that are inherently balanced, the need to dilute and
re-distribute excesses and deficiencies in blood chemistry is naturally reduced dramatically.
Adding Salt to Food during Meals: Macrobiotics addresses the individualized need for added
salt by including goma-sio (sesame salt) or other condiment on the table, but not plain salt.
Macrobiotic cooking prefers to add salt to a level which is comfortable for everyone, but not
more.
For those who desire more salt, they can obtain this by adding Macrobiotic condiments like
794
goma-sio, tekka, tamari-kombu, tsukemono (pickled vegetables) etc. Modern dietary thinking
for the most part downplays the value of salt in the human diet, and even considers it harmful
and a cause of high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney disorders and other complications.
This is due to the fact that refined salt can harm cells and organs because it lacks buffering
trace minerals. Unrefined rock or sea salt contains trace minerals so important to buffer and
assist body functions.
Macrobiotics teaches to drink tea plain:This is because tea is usually served at the end of
a meal, and is not to be considered a dessert beverage, but a balanced way to end a meal. Also,
the Macrobiotic way is a journey away from a way of eating that bombards the senses with
exaggerated levels of sweetness, saltiness, spiciness and sourness in foods and beverages back
to an appreciation of life’s simplicity and subtlety.
The following are basic concepts of the Macrobiotic Way of Eating:

Consume organically and locally-grown foods in season as they become available, or foods that
will store without artificial preservation or refrigeration. Alternatively, eat foods grown in the
same latitude. Consume cooked whole grains primarily, and recipes made from whole grains;
secondarily in quantity, cooked vegetables, adjusting proportions and preparation methods ac-
cording to activity, climate and seasonal fluctuations of temperature and humidity.
Use solar-evaporated sea water salts in preparation of foods, as well as traditionally-aged miso
and shoyu, umeboshi and seaweeds. Drink undyed, 3-year old roasted twig tea (kukicha) as
preferred beverage.
Use unrefined, cold-pressed seed oils sparingly, made from organically-grown seeds, like sesame,
corn, safflower, sunflower, flaxseed, etc.
Use roasted seeds and nuts, fruit, salads and fish occasionally as desired, in smaller quanti-
ties, as provided in season.
Use beans and bean products frequently, as primary sources of protein, along with whole grain
and vegetable dishes.
Avoid all foods and beverages containing refined sweeteners, chemical dyes, synthetic flavorings
or seasonings, refined oils, chemical preservatives, or made from foods grown with chemical in-
secticides, herbicides, fungicides, chemical fertilizers, or produced by bio-engineering or grown
under green house conditions.
Avoid foods grown in, and shipped from, warmer latitudes.
Avoid ”soft” (carbonated, sweetened) beverages, canned goods, alcoholic beverages, artificial
sweeteners or products containing these ingredients.
Chew each mouthful thoroughly before swallowing.
Water for agriculture

All form of diets depend on farming and farming depends on water management. It is impor-
tant to find a solution to diminish the impact of droughts erosion and environmental changes.
The University of Chile (UCH) is charged with developing and disseminating knowledge about
the nature and resolution of these problems. It is undertaking the multidisciplinary Program
of Arid Lands
Chile and the State of Arizona face similar problems and issues in dealing with arid lands
and the environment.
Examples include:
Rapidly increasing population pressure, which threatens agricultural sustainability. Problems
with water availability, allocation, distribution, and quality.
Increasing soil erosion owing to inadequate agricultural practices.
Pollution of air, soil, and water as a result of industrial (mining and emerging agroindus-
try), agricultural, and urban exploitation of basic resources
Growing concern among the human population about the feasibility of maintaining and en-
hancing environment quality, a precondition for sustainable agricultural development.
Biosaline Agriculture Center (BAC) in Dubai is focusing its initial efforts on countries of the
Arabian Peninsula. This choice is dictated by the urgent need to address water use and quality
issues in this region, whose renewable water resources per person are less than 3% of the global
average. The Middle East region (defined here as the North African countries from Mauritania,
through the countries of the Fertile Crescent, the Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and the former Soviet republics in Central Asia) covers 14% of the total area of
the world and is home to 10% of its population, yet has only 2% of the world’s renewable water
resources.
Renewable water resources per inhabitant are among the lowest in the world at an average
of 1577 m3/ person per year, compared with the global average of 7000 m3. Sixteen of the 29
countries in the region have internal renewable water resources of less than 500 m3/person per
796
year. Saline and brackish water resources are far more abundant than fresh water and little
used at present. Bringing these resources into sustainable productive use will offer opportuni-
ties to increase food.
Water management is therefore of main interest in a global world. Some systmes are un-
der trial to improve agriculture in arid zones.
Environmental development
Several movements are engaged in environmental development: Earth Council, best known
from its program National Councils for Sustainable Development (NCSDs) supported by the
United Nations Development Program with activities in:
Burkina Faso National Council for Environmental Management
Costa Rica National Council for Sustainable Development
Dominican Republic National Follow-up Commission
Mexico National Consultative Council for Sustainable Development
Philippines Philippine Council for Sustainable Development
Uganda National Environment Management Authority
Working under the premise that changes are not brought about by governments alone, the
Earth Council set out after Rio to support and empower people in building a more secure,
equitable and sustainable future (Agenda 21).
To bring more coherence and cooperation among the 140 major conventions relevant to the
environment, and the 30 regional fishery bodies, consideration should be given to the establish-
ment of the Inter-agency Coordination. This would cause:
Avoiding duplication of effort.

Identifying gaps in research.
Identifying opportunities for collaboration.
Promoting synergy through combined resources.
Earth Council sees the issue of enhancing ”synergies” between environmental conventions at
the national level as central to their core objective of sustainability.
”Sustainability” includes not only addressing economic and financial issues, but also environ-
mental and social development issues. Sustainability means also the integration of all ecological,
economical, social, political, cultural and spiritual aspects.
Burkina Faso:
The conservation of the biological diversity (priority domain of the Agreement on Biological
Diversity), in a Sahelian country as Burkina Faso, cannot be conceived separately from a coher-
ent program to fight desertification (Agreement on Combating Desertification). Also, fighting
against desertification in an arid or semi-arid zone cannot be conceived without a sound water
management policy (Ramsar Convention). The water resources are themselves dependent upon
the climactic risks (Agreement on the Climactic Changes).
Recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population dis-
tribution, and the economy, overgrazing, soil degradation, deforestation.
Mexico:
Recommendations on ecological management and planning of land resources and climatic
change with 35 items were established. The main obstacle that the CCDSs faces in Mex-
ico is that the local authorities identify the CCDS as groups of environmentalists, exclusively.
Therefore their analytical work about the relationships between the government,legislative,
non-governmental, business, social and academic actors, is not considered by the local author-
ities.
Scarcity of hazardous waste disposal facilities; rural to urban migration; natural fresh water
resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and of poor quality in center and extreme
southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation;
widespread erosion; desertification; deteriorating agricultural lands; serious air and water pol-
lution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border; land subsidence in
Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater depletion.
Philippines:
Uncontrolled deforestation in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in Manila;
increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds.
Agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous

Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate
Change-Kyoto Protocol
These two variables also cause a negative chain of reactions in the social and natural fab-
ric of Philippine life - tenurial problems, denudation of eco-system and watershed areas, soil
erosion, siltation, and the breakdown in food chain checks and balances. Concrete manifesta-
tions of these problems are reflected in the following indicators:
1. Forest cover on the Philippines has been reduced from more than 50% to less than 24%
798
over a 40-years period (1948-1987)

2. Only about 5% of the country’s coral reefs remain in excellent condition.
3. 30%-50% of the sea grass beds in the last 50 years have been lost.
4. 80% of the mangrove areas in the last 75 years have been lost.
5. It is estimated that about 50% of national parks are no longer biologically important.
Thailand:
Air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from organic and factory wastes; defor-
estation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by illegal hunting.
Uganda:
Uganda is well endowed with good climate due to a variety of factors such as its equatorial
location, high elevation and the presence of numerous lakes, rivers, wetlands and mountains.
This partly explains the high diversity of plants and animals and the scenic beauty of the coun-
try that is rivaled by few countries in the world. However, this beautiful landscape is rapidly
deteriorating due to a growing population, which is putting more pressure on land for food pro-
duction and other socio-economic development activities.Draining of wetlands for agricultural
use, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria is the
result of nature exploit.
The Importance of biodiversity for Uganda is linked with tourism.
Other Agricultural Systems

Modern conventional and organic agricultural methods should be assessed in terms of sustain-
ability. Precision Farming.
A project of the Office of Technology Assessment at the German Parliament (TAB) has started
on 1.1.2004. Precision farming is based on the combination of satellite-supported navigation
systems (e.g. GPS - Global Positioning System), geographical information systems (GIS), com-
puterised control of agricultural machinery, and corresponding software for farm management.
In other words, this represents modern applications of information and control technology, com-
bined with optimisation of arable farming.
Only large farms will benefit with reduction in inputs of production factors (fertiliser, pes-
ticides/plant protection agents). Achieving positive ecological effects depends on a range of
factors, e.g. the level of production inputs, potential location-specific hazards, and the gen-
eral trend in production intensity. Biotechnology-especially genetic modification-represents an
important technology option for meeting the long-term food needs of developing countries.
However, this technology must be used within a policy framework that recognizes the impor-
tance of managing the health, environmental, and socioeconomic risks associated with it.
Conservation agriculture Introduction: Growing world population and a rapid destruc-

tion of nature resources make it necessary to look upon alternative systems with sustainable
character. One of these system is the conservation agriculture.
It is a method which tries to improve soil humidity and soil conditions. It is based on no
soil inversion and reduction or total elimination of mechanical soil disturbance, except to inject
seeds or plants into the soil by direct drilling techniques (Zero-Tillage,No-Tillage or No-Till).
Zero-tillage is an agricultural concept that conserves soil fertility, improves the availability
of soil moisture, and increases the soil’s biological resources.
Zero-tillage is often used to express all measures which are part of the conservation agriculture,
such as maintenance at all times of a complete soil cover consisting of cover crops and/or crop
residues and crop rotations to enhance environment and to avoid pests and diseases.
Position of FAO: FAO promotes vigorously conservation agriculture.
Plowing experiment at the ARS Research Unit in Coshocton, Ohio:Over the past four decades,
no-till has done more to reduce soil erosion on more acres than any other single conservation
practice. It improves soil structure and increases infiltration. Several years without tillage are
needed to maximize these benefits.
Plowing a field once ( such as to reduce slug infestations ) causes hardly any carbon loss
from the plow layer. It may take 3 to 5 consecutive years of plowing before significant losses
show up. But even a year of tillage greatly damages soil structure, which increases erosion and
impairs water infiltration and soil health.
According to Loyd Owens, in order to conserve carbon, farmers should choose a practice with
a focus on how erosive it is, rather than on how much carbon it leaves in the soil.
Conservation Agriculture in Europe: The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF)

brings together eleven national associations which promote among Europe’s farmers the soil
management ”best practice” aspects of conservation agriculture. With member associations in
Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland and
the United Kingdom, ECAF represents the interests of the majority of the European Union’s
cropped farmland.
ECAF was constituted in Brussels on 14th January 1999, as a non-profit making association,
subjected to the Belgium laws. It was conceived to encourage any issue focused on maintaining
800
the agrarian soil and its biodiversity in the context of sustainable agriculture.
Elements of conservation agriculture

No-Tillage: Instead of burning crop residues after the harvest, or ploughing biomass into the
ground, everything is left in place, as soil cover. At the start of the next cropping season, the
field is not ploughed at all - instead, special equipment is used to drill the seeds directly into
the soil.
Besides reducing mineralization, erosion and water loss, the surface cover inhibits the ger-
mination of weeds, protects soil microorganisms and helps build up organic matter.
Less time and labour spent on land preparation, lower fuel consumption and less air pollu-
tion, reduced need for chemical inputs, and increasing yields and farm income.
Soil cover: At all time the soil should be covered with cover-crops or crop residues. Herbi-
cides used: Weeds are controlled by desiccant herbicides applied pre-planting. Further weed
control is made with post-emergent herbicide of normal used in conventional agriculture.
Crop rotation: Conservation Agriculture also requires careful planning of crop rotations, new
approaches to weed control and pest management, and a range of other ”precision farming”
skills. Conservation Agriculture is being adopted by increasing numbers of farmers on about
58 million ha of farm land, mainly in North and South America, but also in Southern Africa
and South Asia. Farmers like it because it gives them a means of conserving, improving and
making more efficient use of their natural resources,
Conservation Agriculture may require the application of herbicides where there is heavy weed
infestation. During the transition phase from conventional to conservation agriculture, certain
soil-borne pests or pathogens might create new problems due to the change in the biological
equilibrium. But once the CA environment has stabilized, it tends to be more manageable and
productive than conventional agriculture. So far there has been no pest problem that could
not be overcome in Conservation agriculture.
Table 21.5: Conservation Agriculture and organic farming

Differences Conservation Organic
Agriculture Agriculture
Herbicides Desiccant herbicides used No chemical herbicides used
Fertilizers Chemical fertilizers are used Only organic fertilizers used
Tillage No cultivation of soil Intensive soil ploughing

IPM works on the principles of Based on a biological balance
Integrated Pest Management
Herbicides and fertlilizers: Conservation Agriculture doesn’t prohibit the use of chemi-
cal inputs, herbicides are an important component in this system, particularly in the transition
phase. until a new balance in the weed population is achieved. Farm chemicals, including fertil-
izer, are applied very carefully. In general, conservation agriculture farmers use fewer chemical
inputs than comparable conventional farmers and, over the years, quantities of chemical inputs
tend to decline.
Tillage: The adoption of CA is in contrast with the notion in force for thousands of years
that soil must be cultivated before sowing or planting.
Conservation agriculture works on the principles of Integrated Pest Management in view of

the importance of soil life in the system. Without the use of IPM practices, the build up of soil
biota would not be possible.
Monocropping: under zero-tillage is possible, but not recommended, because - just as in

conventional farming - it creates pest problems. The system has also been adapted for vegeta-
bles, root crops, grain crops as sugar cane. Potatoes, beets, cassava, fruit and vines can also
be grown using CA techniques.
So far the only areas where the concept has not been successfully adapted are arid areas with
extreme water shortages and low production of organic matter.
The Gulf region, however, would benefit of this system using plastic foils instead of organic
matters to cover the fields. Changing later to traditional CA.
Conservation agriculture adapted to Gulf region would reduce significantly water evaporation.
Excessive irrigation would be avoided and progressive salinity of the soil could be retarded.
This system is broadly used in heavy cropping of cucumber in Germany with best results in
last drought periods.
Livestock can be fully integrated into conservation agriculture, by exploiting the recycling of
nutrients. This reduces the environmental problems caused by concentrated, intensive livestock
production. The farmer can introduce forage crops into the crop rotation, thus broadening it
and reducing pest problems.
Forage crops can often be used as dual-purpose crops for fodder and soil cover. However,
802
conflicts between the use of organic matter to feed the animals or to cover the soil has to be
resolved, particularly in arid areas with low production of biomass.
Conservation Agriculture is being accepted in tropical climates such as Latin America, rather
than in temperate climates like Europe. Generally, pressure from environmental indicators are
not yet taken seriously enough. ECAF (European Conservation Agriculture Federation)
Conservation Agriculture has great potential in sub-Saharan Africa because it can control
erosion, gives more stable yields and reduces labour. In the South Asian rice-wheat area, there
have been 50% increases in net benefits through the direct seeding of wheat in the rice crop or
stubble, compared with conventional tillage before seeding.
Consevation Agriculture requires management skills and equipment that might not be avail-
able, especially to small-scale farmers, technical and financial support is needed.
To get started with cnservation agriculture, the minimum a farmer needs, is a zero tillage
planter. Buying one without knowing the system or even having seen it, is a risk that few
farmers are prepared to take and poor populations will never succeed in getting one.
Dissemination of the concept of Conservatory Agriculture in Latin America, has turned out
a major success. Africa, Central Asia and the Indo-Ganges Plains are now on target.
Zero-tillage
Special seeding equipment should be used. During tillage elimination herbicides will be neces-
sary. Specialized drills to get the seeding in the earth are necessary. Straw and chaff must be
well spread across the width of the swath at harvest.
Table 21.6: Zero Tillage

Land 1999-2000 Hectares
USA 19,760,000
Brazil 13,470,000
Australia 8,640,000
Canada 4,080,000
Mexico 800.000
Bolivia 200.000
Chile 96.000
Colombia 70.000
Uruguay 50.000
Venezuela 50.000
Government farm programs and market conditions are sometimes against good crop rotation
practices. Disease, weed and insect control must be kept in mind. Diseases are a major concern
and must be handled with by rotation and other management practices.
The ideal crop rotation alternates between cereal crops and oilseeds or legumes from one year
to the next. For example, a wheat canola barley flax rotation allows to avoid disease carryover
from one crop to the next. It allows the control of volunteer plants from the previous crop and
the control of weeds which might not have been controlled by herbicides used the year before.
The yearly switch from cereals to broadleaf crops makes it possible to break the cycle of insects
and diseases attacking a crop grown continuously on the same field.
Residue of wheat contains survival structures for many pathogens such as tan spot fungus,
septoria leaf and glume blotch fungi, scab or head blight. Zero-tillage increases risks of diseases
because the fungal structures are not incorporated into the soil where microbes degrade straw
and destroy the disease organism. Alternating cereal/broadleaf rotation will help to get this
under control.
Decades of Zero Tillage
In the 40s - The chemical 2.4 D released to farmers.

In the 50s - Grammoxone synthesis (UK: 1955).
In the 60s - Grammoxone released to farmers in 1961.
In Brazil: late 60s and early 70s.
The 70s ZT started in Paraná. Machinery development. Release of modern herbicides be-
ginning with glyphosate purpose-built herbicides). ZT in the decade was more expensive than
CT. In the 80s - Cover crops and crop rotations, weed control mechanization introduced. Better
understanding of ZT system. Direct costs turned equal to conventional tillage (late 80s) First
university chair in Zero Tillage (Paraná).
In the 90s - Cover crops for Cerrado were introduced.
EMBRAPA and ”Friends of the Land” clubs started project of Water Resources Research
and extension courses on ZT increasing interest by Universities.
804
The wet/dry tropical savannah region, known as the Cerrado, covers approx. 204 million
hectares in tropical Brazil. Its development is regarded by Dr. Norman Borlaug - the winner
of the Nobel Peace Prize for his plant breeding work that founded the Green Revolution - as
the world’s most important agricultural expansion
zone of the 20th century. But that development depends mainly on soil improvements. The ar-
eas of pastures, annual crops, permanent crops and forestry is not less than 47 million hectares.
The recent and rapid adoption of Zero Tillage in this region has been phenomenal.
Zero-Tillage in Brazil:
It began with the implementation of Zero Tillage by one farmer in 1972 on less than 500
hectares. By 1980 about 200,000 hectares were recorded, mainly in the subtropical conditions
of the State of Paraná. Since then - mostly within the last 9 years - the growth in area has
been exponential, with now over 9,000,000 hectares in the country as a whole, about two-thirds
of which to date have been in the southerly States of Paraná, Sta. Catarina, Rio Grande do
Sul, and Mato Grosso do Sul. Most of the other one third of the area under ZT has developed
in the subhumid tropical region of the Cerrado, from almost nothing in 1990 to about about
3,000,000 hectares to date.
The methodology has recently begun to spread also into the humid tropical Amazon region,
where positive initial results are reported from the States of Mato Grosso, Rondonia, Roraima,
Acre, Amapá and Pará. Indications are that spread continues very rapidly in all areas. The
technology thus works in Brazil, both agronomically and economically, in a range of diverse
soil/climate conditions.
It is notable that the expansion of ZT has most effectively been by farmer-to-farmer spread
Brazil-wide, particularly through the affiliated network of ’Friends of the Land Clubs’ and State
Extension services of Brazil’s southern States and Mato Grosso do Sul. It includes the land of
small farmers with manual planters or animal-drawn implements up to large mechanised units
of 5,000 hectares or more.
The following benefits are recorded to have flowed from zero-tillage farming, both individu-
als and wider society:
- Conservation of bio-diversity in soil, terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora;

- Sustainable high yield levels, resulting in lessened pressure to open new land;
- Heightened environmental awareness among farmers;
- Winter feed, and shelter for fauna;
- Economies of 10-20% in use of water in irrigation;
- Undecomposed crop residues acting as a carbon sink, estimated as fixing about 1 tonne of
carbon per hectare;
- Fossil fuel use reduced by 40-70- Enhanced food security through greater resistance to drought
effects;
- Reduction of erosion losses by around 90%, with many consequential benefits:
-Significantly less silting of surface waters including reservoirs for hydroelectricity and irri-
gation;
-Virtual elimination of pollution of these waters by soil-applied agricultural chemicals;
-More groundwater recharge, and less flooding:
”Zero Tillage is the only macro-economic solution which can respond to the conflicting demands
of more food at lower prices while ensuring sustainability - in fact land quality is continually
increasing under ZT.” (Landers, 1999).
Zero-tillage and environment

Here again the modification of environment due to extreme application of manure and other
animal wastes of heavy breeding can be compared with the problems created by sugar cane in
the sugar-cane belt with with the spread of Cholera epidemics.
Zero-tillage could be an instrument to diminish the impact an the environment from heavy
breeding populations.
Zero-tillage, a hope for the Amazon region

There are many millions of hectares of degraded pastures in the Amazon and Cerrado regions.
ZT technology now exists to turn these pastures into productive cropland, which would reduce
the pressure to open new lands for crop production. Especially relevant is the potential to
rotate these crop areas with highly productive pastures, allowing absorption of herd growth
without the need to form new pastures on newly cleared land. This potential is so great that
even a total ban on clearing would not have a significant impact on agricultural production for
many years. It should be possible to promote a policy of incentives to this end, supported by
international funding.
The incentives would have to be adequate to cover extraction of old stumps and leveling of
irregularities caused by erosion so that the reclamation of these old cleared areas would become
significantly more profitable than clearing new land.
Diseases and pests

End-of-season leaf diseases in late-planted maize (especially Phaeospheria and some new ones
for which there is no resistance);
- In the Dourados municipality of Mato Grosso do Sul, the ZT Club reported a reversion
of 50% of area to CT because of the chestnut soil beetle. This pest is extremely erratic in its
appearance and can be controlled by insecticide at planting.
- Control of persistent weeds where herbicide control is very expensive.
806
A more diverse rotation is the solution to these ills.
Some strategies and concepts that could be examined are :

- Legume-enriched fallows or grass/legume mixtures for weed control, biomass generation, and
nitrogen accumulation, taking advantage of sporadic rains; these could be selectively grazed as
protein banks in an emergency;
- Legal provisions in rental agreements to give sharecroppers or tenants the use of their land
all year round without the obligation of having to allow the landowner’s cattle to graze in the
dry season, and with the provision for a fallow period, all within a fenced area;
- Large paddock grazing of livestock with management of native species for maximum re-
generation and fodder production; for example Stylosanhtes humilis is native in the region and
responds with heavy seed set under zero grazing in this period;
- A rotation where a long fallow generates high-lignin and durable residues for a short crop
sequence; A total ban on burning; (Villagers in Madagascar passed a local law forbidding the
burning of the savannah because they had learnt to cut and carry this material for mulching
annual crops under Zero Tillage; in the Northeast of Brazil, this no-burning strategy is already
customary since fire destroys the fodder for the landlords’ cattle!)
The mulch cover of Zero Tillage and Conservation Agriculture in semi-arid areas would im-
prove the soil water balance and promote higher yields, while the greater infiltration capacity
would ensure more rainfall stored in the soil profile when the heavy rains, which do occasionally
occur in semi-arid areas, would run off under Conventional Tillage.
Sri Lanka, the price of conventional farming

The Polonnaruwa district, in the North Central Province, is one of the best areas in Sri Lanka
for crops. It has a favourable climate and good soil, backed by a network of irrigation canals
providing a regular supply of water. But 30 of its small farmers committed suicide in 1995.
They struggled in vain to get the minimum needed to keep their heads above water. They
had borrowed heavily to buy chemicals and fertilizers and hire tractors and were now unable
to pay back the debts. Modern agricultural methods have eroded fertile land in Sri Lanka,
marginalized poor farmers, indigenous farming knowledge was lost in the name of scientific
progress. Local food varieties and farming systems, adapted to environmental conditions had
been abandoned
Alternative systems must be reintroduced in the areas where conventional agriculture has not
been successful.
Harmony with the environment

G. K. Upawansa, is rediscovering and promoting indigenous farming systems in Nawalapitiya,
some 40 kilometres from Kandy.
Rice is the staple food of Sri Lankans. Nearly 80 per cent of the population live in rural
areas and paddy (rough rice) is the main peasant crop. [836]
Reduced yelds of less than one and half tons per acre, compared with normal three tons of
conventional paddy rice cultivation in Shi Lankla are seen by
G. K. Upawansa to be caused by indiscriminate agro chemical application and the effects of
soil erosion caused by inappropriate land preparation techniques responsible for low yelds. He
shows alternatives to further disruption of agriculture and new techniques for small peasants.
[835] Working together with a group of non-governmental organizations in Sri Lanka, Upawansa
developed an alternative process of agriculture. the basis of rural subsistence.This consists of:
Table 21.7: Green Revolution

Items Conventional agriculture Chemical-Free Farming-
Organic farming in Sri
Lanka
Intensive tillage Slowly degrades farmland Minimal tillage is beneficial

to farmland
Chemical ferlizers Kill microbes in soil Natural resources and

affecting ability to fix atmosphere nitrogen.
nitrogen.
Pesticides Destroy insects and Natural predators of crop

animals which maintain a pests build up.
check on pests. Wipe out
insect predators.
Resistance to pesticides
develops.
Weed control Keeps the land free of Weeds harbour predators of

weeds as they compete crop pests and enrich and
with crops for nutrients conserve the soil.
and harbour pests.
808
Trees Remove trees to allow more Removal of trees harms soil

sunlight. fertility.
Religious beliefs and With monetary values. In During the planting and
values times of need, farmers harvesting of crops, some people
now have nothing to hold perform religious practices to invoke
on to. the blessings and protection
of the Gods.
Important psychological
effects in case of a bad crop.
The farmer can find
solace in religious practice,
which would sustain his
commitment
Cropping Mono cropping Mixed cropping
The simple rules of the system:
- Cropping according to the needs of communities and local methods of cultivation.

- Composting farm waste and organic matters.
- Plant extracts used as biological pesticides and natural predators as pest control.
- Local weather patterns and climatic rhythms should determine cropping pattern.
- Minimal tillage using village implements like country ploughs which only loosens but never
turns the soil.
- Mixed cropping.
Reintroduce cultural and religious practices when harvesting and planting crops.
Several considerations must be kept in mind:

1- Some degraded resources can be restored or rehabilitated and every effort must be made to
do this wherever feasible.
2- Degraded or depleted natural resources may be partly substituted by man-made or alterna-
tive ones.
3- Techniques to avoid degradation exist which could be developed if efforts are accelerated.
4- Such institutions as land rights and the security or management of common resources can
be organized or improved to greatly enhance incentives and opportunities for conservation.
5- Price incentives and regulations can be used to reduce pressure on natural resources.
6- Decentralization of resource management combined with local-level decision-making and im-
plementation should be encouraged as environmental problems are often location-specific and
need local and traditional knowledge, together with new and modern technology, if they are to
be solved successfully.
There are indications that about one-fifth of the world’s land area is degraded to some ex-
tent, though this should be considered only as a preliminary estimate, since the data are rather
weak both on the extent of land degradation and on its effect on productivity and sustainability.
But it is widely agreed that losses in crop productivity due to degradation are significant
and widespread in rangelands and hilly and dryland areas. And between 0.3 and 1.5 million
hectares of irrigated land are lost each year through waterlogging and salinization.
Sustainable agriculture
The concept of sustainable agriculture is a relatively recent response to the decline in the qual-
ity of the natural resource base associated with modern agriculture. It has its roots in the
value that reflecst a state of empowerment, of ecological and social responsibilities and of one’s
ability to take effective action.
It involves management procedures that work with the natural process to conserve resources,
promote agroecosystem self regulation and minimize waste and environmental impact while
maintaining or enhancing profitability of the production system.
Agroecosystem
The prevalent philosophy is that pests, nutrient deficiencies or other factors are the cause of low
productivity, as opposed to the view that pests or nutrients only become limiting if conditions
in the agroecosystem are not in equilibrium.
For this reason, there still prevails a narrow view that specific causes affect productivity, and
overcoming the limiting factor via new technologies, continues to be the main goal. This view
has diverted agriculturists from realizing that limiting factors only represent symptoms of a
more systemic disease inherent to unbalances within the agroecosystem and from an appreci-
ation of the context and complexity of agroecological processes thus underestimating the root
causes of agricultural limitations (Altieri et al. 1993).
810
Principles of Agroecosystem
Agroecology goes beyond a one-dimensional view of agroecosystems - their genetics, agron-
omy, edaphology, and so on,- to embrace an understanding of ecological and social levels of
co-evolution, structure and function.
Instead of focusing on one particular component of the agroecosystem, agroecology emphasizes

the interrelatedness of all agroecosystem components and the complex dynamics of ecological
processes. Agroecosystems are communities of plants and animals interacting with their phys-
ical and chemical environments that have been modified by people to produce food, fibre, fuel
and other products for human consumption and processing.
The design of such systems is based on the application of the following ecological principles:
1. Enhance recycling of biomass and optimizing nutrient availability and balancing nutrient
flow.
2. Securing favorable soil conditions for plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter
and enhancing soil biotic activity.
3. Minimizing losses due to flows of solar radiation, air and water by way of microclimate
management, water harvesting and soil management through increased soil cover.
4. Species and genetic diversification of the agroecosystem in time and space.
5. Enhance beneficial biological interactions and synergisms among agrobiodiversity compo-
nents thus resulting in the promotion of key ecological processes and services.
Strategies of Agroecosystem
Various strategies to restore agricultural diversity in time and space include crop rotations,
cover crops, intercropping, crop/livestock mixtures, and so on, which exhibit the following eco-
logical features:
1. Crop Rotations. Temporal diversity incorporated into cropping systems, providing crop nu-
trients and breaking the life cycles of several insect pests, diseases, and weed life cycles (Sumner
1982).
2. Polycultures. Complex cropping systems in which tow or more crop species are planted
within sufficient spatial proximity to result in competition or complementation, thus enhancing
yields (Francis 1986, Vandermeer 1989).
3. Agroforestry Systems. An agricultural system where trees are grown together with annual
crops and/or animals, resulting in enhanced complementary relations between components in-
creasing multiple use of the agroecosystem (Nair 1982).
4. Cover Crops. The use of pure or mixed stands of legumes or other annual plant species under
fruit trees for the purpose of improving soil fertility, enhancing biological control of pests, and
modifying the orchard microclimate (Finch and Sharp 1976).
5. Animal integration in agroecosystems aids in achieving high biomass output and optimal
recycling (Pearson and Ison 1987).
Campylobacter in organic poultry

Tom Humphrey, Professor of Food Safety at Bristol University was engaged in a government-
fonded survey ob bacteria in poultry in November 2003. Free-range and organic chickens were
found twice as likely as battery hens to be contaminated with the food-poisoning bacteria
Campylobacter.
The strains of Campylobacter collected have not yet been identified so it is impossible to know
whether the organic chickens tested contained strains of Campylobacter capable of causing food
poisoning,
According to Richard Young from the Soil Association the lower use of antibiotics in organic
poultry farms will make it less likely that such strains are resistant to antibiotics.
These findings were also confirmed in November 2003 by Swiss researches. Chickens raised
in an animal-friendly way are more healthy, so they need less treatment with antibiotics and
so their Campylobacter are less resistant to antibiotics. But the other side of the story is that
these chickens go outside more often, so they are in more contact with wild birds, which is
the reservoir of Campylobacter. In the US, 90 per cent of Campylobacter strains isolated from
poultry meat had resistance to at least one, and 45 per cent to at least two antibiotics, com-
mented the researchers.
Worries over antibiotic resistant bacteria led the EU, in 1999, to ban the use of four antibiotics
as growth promoters in chickens. The US Food and Drugs administration (FDA) followed their
lead in late 2000 by banning the use of a particular class of antibiotics called fluorquinolones
in poultry farming.
Resistance to ciprofloxacin, tetracycline and erythromycin - the most important antibiotics

for treating Campylobacter infection in humans are developing.
Conclusion
Increase of fertilizer fail to increase yields accordingly:It seems that the old formula of combin-
ing more and more fertilizer with ever higher-yielding varieties to expand the grain harvest is
no longer working very well.
The future of global food will relay on a conventional farming implementing new findings
of pest control in the developed world. The food supply in the third world will depend on local
systems which uses knowledge of ancestry specifically suited for the local need.
812
The green revolution will hardly succeed in taking foot in arid and poverish regions because
there are no funds to pay for pesticides and fertilizers. Systems like the no-chemicals agri-
culture from Upawanza should be strongly supported as a sustainable agriculture with local
importance.
Organic agriculture and nitrogen fertilizer [832]

Research made by Sasha B. Kramer and colleagues at the Stanford University found that fer-
tilising apple trees with synthetic chemicals produced more adverse environmental effects than
feeding them with organic manure or alfalfa. They claim that the increase use of nitrogen-based
fertilizer to cause a substantial nitrogen pollution and ecological damage.
Harold A. Mooney, Professor of Environmental Biology at Stanford, co-author of the study,

says that the use of organic versus chemical fertilizers can play a role in reducing these adverse
effects.
The PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences)study was conducted in an apple
orchard in central Washington. Three different groups of trees had been raised, one with con-
ventional synthetic fertilizers, one grown organically, and a third group by integrated farming
combining organic and conventional agricultural techniques.
The authors come to the conclusion that conventional agriculture has made tremendous im-
provements in crop yield but at large costs to the environment, an organic farming cannot
provide for all of our food needs, but it is certainly one important tool for use in our striving
for sustainable agricultural systems.
Falling nutritional quality of vegetables from conventional agriculture [833]

Dr David Thomas from the SEER (Sustainable Ecological Earth Regeneration) Centre, backed
organic agriculture as he made a comparison of government tables published in 1940, and again
in 2002 suggesting that modern farming practices have led to nutrient-poor food. According
to Dr. Thomas the data of these tables show that the nutritional quality of vegetables has
significantly fallen over the last few decades.
As an outcome of this study Dr. Thomas says that food manufacturers need to promote not
just good looking, wonderful tasting and great smelling food, but also nutrient-rich food. He
says that iron content in meat and milk, as well as minerals like magnesium and copper which
are essential for enzyme functioning had dropped significantly.
David Pimentel comparing statistics on soil erosion calls on the fact that soil from land areas is
being lost faster than it is renewed. Erosion is fast in China and India. Pimentel suggests that
demineralisation of the soil could be stopped using cover crops when the land is not in use. [834]
Pesticides and changes to the diets of animals has altered their body fat composition, omega-3
has declined but omega-6 has increased. Together with a general lack of vitamins and minerals
these changes can lead to depression, concentration and memory problems.
Mental Health and nutrition.[837]

The Mental Health Foundation Sustain: The alliance for better food and farming say that there
is growing evidence that diet plays an important contributory role in specific mental health
problems including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), depression, schizophre-
nia and Alzheimer’s disease.
According to the Foundation a generally healthy diet, as recommended for the physical health
of the body - containing the necessary range of micro- and macronutrients and minimising the
consumption of unhealthy nutrients, and no single nutrient can assure good brain development.
[838]
Omega-3 fatty acids may interfere with the development of Alzheimer Disease
[839]
Yvonne Freund-Levi and colleagues found in a study published in the Archives of Neurology
, that the administration of omega-3 fatty acid in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer
disease did not delay the rate of cognitive decline. However, positive effects were observed in a
small group of patients with very mild Alzheimer disease.
The authors cannot explain how omega-3 fatty acids may interfere with the development of
Alzheimer’s disease, but suggest that the benefits in the very mild forms of the disease may be
linked to the fish oil’s anti-inflammatory effects.
However, when the disease is clinically apparent, the neurological tissue damage is too ad-
vanced to be attenuated by anti-inflammatory effects of the omega-3 fatty acids. The authors
cite a critical period of two years or more before the onset of dementia to be critical for the
anti-inflammatory effects of the omega-3 fatty acids.
This calls for an increase of omega-3 fatty acid intake from dietary or supplemental sources.
Mediterranean diet may reduce the risk of development of Alzheimer Disease[848]

Dr Nikolaos Scarmeas and colleagues studied the diet of Alzheimer disease patients. They
found that those in the top third of scores for consumption of the Mediterranean diet, had 68%
lower odds of having AD than those in the bottom one third. Subjects in the middle third,
had 53% lower odds of getting AD. The authors suggest that the diet’s AD protective effects
may be related to its antioxidant or anti-inflammatory effects and to a positive effect on blood
814
vessel health.
Curry spice tumeric may reduce the risk of development of Alzheimer Disease
[849]
Milan Fiala and colleagues studyed the activity of curcuminoids from curry spice turmeric. The
authors found that curcuminoids could help the body’s immune system clear away plaques com-
posed of beta-amyloid deposits. Macrophages from Alzheimer disease patients were exposed
in vitro to curcuminoids, improving the ingestion of amiloid deposits. Macrophages o younger
patients in an early stage of the disease were benefiting the most.
The authors suggest that immunomodulation of the innate immune system by curcuminoids
might be a safe approach to immune clearance of amyloidosis in Alsheimer disease brain.
Pomegranate juice and reduction of risk of Azheimer disease[850]

In a study conducted by R. E. Hartman the high content of polyphenols of pomegranate juice
reduced the deposition of amyloid beta deposition in brains of rats. The author calls for further
studies whether pomegranate Juice can protect against Alzheimer disease in humans.
Ellagic acid in pomegranates

The highest levels of ellagic acid are found in raspberries, strawberries, and pomegranates.
Extracts from red raspberry leaves or seeds, pomegranates, or other sources are said to contain
high levels of ellagic acid, and are available as dietary supplements in capsule, powder, or liq-
uid forms. The best dose of these preparations is not known. Because they are sold as dietary
supplements (as opposed to drugs), companies that sell them do not have to prove they are
effective, or even safe, as long as they don’t claim they can prevent, treat, or cure a specific
disease. [851]
Ellagic acid is not the most significant of the polyphenol content of pomegranade, but was
proposed to be used as indicator of the concentration of pomegranate in juices, other probiotic
foods and dietary supplements. A test procedure for ellagic acid has been developed. [852]
Recover of natural antioxidants of industrial fruit and vegetable waste

[855] Looking for an alternative to synthetic preservatives such as like BHA and BHT Wieland
Peschel and colleagues analysed waste products from processing of fruit and vegetables of the
juice and canning industry as well of the remains from harvesting from fruits and vegetables.
Extraction yield, total phenolic content, and antioxidants with the highest activity, economic
justification and phenolic content were found in this study in apple, pear, tomato, golden rod
and artichoke.
The best yields were obtained with polar solvents like water and methanol. Supercritical fluid
extraction was also used in this screening.
This study demonstrates the possibility of recovering high amounts of phenolics with antiox-
idant properties from fruit and vegetable residuals not only for food as preservative but also
cosmetic applications.
Golden rod and artichoke had high radical scavenging. The apple extract yield was higher
and had high efficiency in two of the antioxidant tests.
Efficiency of golden rod, artichoke and apple extract was lower compared with commercial
BHT. Golden rod extract and the apple extracts were more efficient in the DPPH free radical
scavenging test than BHT.
Omega-3 fatty acids in Alpine cheese [853]

Hauwith and colleagues compared the fatty acid composition of Alpine cheese and cheese of
other origin. Fresh alpine grass contains high amounts of alfa linoleic acid (ALA) and may
influence the levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the cheese of milk from cows with alpine grass
feeding compared with cheese from silage and concentrate feeding. The authors found that
the Emmental reached 40% of the ALA content compared with alpine cheese, and surprisingly,
cheese from linseed-supplemented cows contained only 49% of that of the alpine cheese. They
concluded that cheese made of milk from cows grazed on alpine pastures had a more favourable
fatty acid profile than all other cheese types. Alpine cheese may be a relevant source of ALA
and other cardioprotective fatty acids.
Comparison of the fatty acid composition of organic and conventional milk[854]

Ellis and colleagues compared the fatty acid composition of organic and conventional milk.
They identified a number of factors other than farming system which affected milk fatty acid
content including month of year, herd average milk yield, breed type, use of a total mixed
ration, and access to fresh grazing.
The authors concluded that organic dairy farms in the United Kingdom produce milk with
a higher polyunsaturated fatty acids content, particularly n-3 fatty acids, throughout the year,
stressing that knowledge of the effects of season, access to fresh grazing, or use of specific silage
types could be used by producers to enhance the content of beneficial FA in milk.
Reduction of copper as fungicide in organic agriculture

The downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) is a fungus which was brought from America to
Europe in 1878 spreading quickly through wine yards. Apple orchards are now menaced by
Venturia inaequalis causing scab in cool, rainy conditions in the spring. Early leaf loss reduces
the vitality of the trees and spots on apples render them difficult to sell.
816
Organic growers in Europe use copper, sulphur and lime sulphur. Copper will be banned
turning it necessary to search for a replacement.
REPCO: Replacement of copper fungicides in organic production of grapevine and

apple in Europe
[856] [858]
Replacement of Copper Fungicides in Organic Production of Grapevine and Apple in Eu-

rope The objective of REPCO is to replace copper fungicides in organic agriculture by new
measures. Up to 38 kg had been permitted for organic agriculture. The Council Regulation
(EEC) 2092/91, Annex II demands a gradual reduction of copper with start in 2007 to protect
environment
Knowledge and material of the REPCO project will be exchanged with ongoing projects on
potato late blight control in organically grown potato.
Yucca extract preventive effect on scab in apples [859]

Yucca extract was found to have preventive and curative effect on scab in apples by researchers
of Wageningen University and Research Centre (Netherlands). The researchers, participating
with the REPCO program, point out that the extract prevents the fungus from budding, avoid-
ing an infection of the plant. The curative effect lasts one day the plant is infected. A patented
product will be placed on market.
No genetic pressure by organic copper replacement [860]

Cesare Gessler analysing the genetic code of Plasmopara viticola found that no variant of the
fungus could develop resistance and to pass it on. The authors of the study say that there is no
genetic pressure by organic replacement because the fungus is attacked from various sides and
cannot find a way to counter. In one case treated plants developed resistance to the infection.,
The authors say that synthetic fungicides attack the fungus from one side, therefore resistance
can develop.
Citrus-extract comparable to copperoxychlorid treatment against scab [857]

Collar and Pfeifer in 2003 found that mixtures of Quillaja-saponine and sulphur reduced effec-
tively apple scab incidence, but rain stability of citrus-extract and Quillaja-saponine showed a
lower efficacy against scab after 5 mm rain. They suggest mixtures of Citrus-extract with the
adhesives GREEMAX and BIOPLUSS to be comparable to copperoxychloride corresponding
to 400 g elementary copper per ha.
Vinasse as an alternative to copper fungicides citeWageningen vinasse [862] [863]

According to researchers at Wagendingen University and Research Centre the application of
vinasse can reduce the formation of apple scab ascospores by more than 95 per cent and
stimulates leaf degradation during winter. Vinasse is a fermented waste product of the sugar
processing industry and is seen as an alternative to copper.
Food and ecology

About 6% of the population of Germany are vegetarians. They want to avoid to harm animals,
to avoid food waist as animal feed and last, but not least to reduce greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide emanating from animal breeding. FAO environmental
scientist calculated the CO2 - equivalence of the different types of nutrition:
The global animal population produce approximately one fifth of greenhouse gases resulting
from the activities of mankind. FAO stresses that this is more than the emission of global
traffic. CO2 emission results from burning forests to prepare land for pastures and feed crops.
Dung and liquid manure produce nitrous oxide. Ruminants such as cattle and sheep emit
methane. Mechanized agriculture of rape and soy produce more CO2 . Approximately 6 kilos
of vegetable protein are necessary to produce one kilo animal protein.
Lacto-vegetarian nutrition:The Cornell University (Ithaca, USA) found in a study, that

the production of one kilo milk protein needs 14 kilocalories of fossile energy, this is the same
amount needed for the production of one kilo porc. The German Freiburger Öko Institute
writes that 8 litres milk are necessary to produce 1 kilo cheese. [864]
The CO2 - equivalence of the production of 1 kilo, cheese, meat, egg and yoghurt
Product Emission of
CO2 equivalece
Cheese 8 kilo
Meat 6 kilo
Egg 2 kilo
yoghurt 1 kilo
Soy and feed:According to Jörg Michael Greef from the German from the Bundesforschungsanstalt
für Landwirtscaft. The world production of soy is 220 million tons. Germany imports 40 million
tons. Three million tons are used for the production of edible oil and other applications. The
main core of 37 millions tons are transformed in animal feed. [865]
Soy farms built monocultures in USA, Argentina and Brazil, where they invade the tropi-
818
cal forest and savannahs. Centralised animal breeding, depending on soy are an environmental
false step. Smaller units, depending on local feed are ecology friendly and create jobs.
Palmoil: According to the Environmental Program of the United Nations UNEP, 83% of
palm oil comes from Indonesia and Malaysia. The consumption of Palm oil increase , because
it is used as food as well as biofuel. Great plantations destroy the tropic forests of Indonesia
and Malaysia. [866]
Kurt-Jürgen Hülsbergen, expert in ecology, says that we need animals, because their manure
is an important fertilizer which replaces mineral fertilizers which demand enormous amount of
energy in their production. Hülsbergen says that regenerative farming should consider not to
have more than one cow or seven pigs on one hectare. This lets nature assimilate manure. [867]
To protect environment and the global climate the consumer should look for products from
their region to avoid transportation over long distances. There is no need to avoid meat, eggs
or dairy products, as long as they come from regenerative biologic farms.
Higher levels of ascorbic acid, minerals and antioxidant activity in organic kiwi
fruit than in conventional fruits may be due to less pesticides in organic fields [868]
Maria Amodio and colleagues write that all the main mineral constituents were more con-
centrated in organic kiwifruits, which also had higher levels of ascorbic acid and total phenol
content, resulting in a higher antioxidant activity. Sugars and organic acids composition was
not affected by the production system.
The authors believe that the difference between the content of total phenols in plants may
be due to the fact that conventional growing practices utilize levels of pesticides that can result
in a disruption of phenolic metabolites in the plant, that have a protective role in plant defense
mechanisms.
Better cheese with corn silage feed milk than from fresh pasture milk [869]
Hurtaud and colleauges compared the milk from dairy cows secreting small milk fat globules (
3.44 millimicra) with that of cows with large milk fat globules (4.53 millimicra) and looked at
the effect of pasture feed and soybean meal feed.
Small (SMFG)and large milk fat globules (LMFG) secreting cows

The SMFG dairy cows produced higher yields of milk, protein, and calcium, their milk had
lower fat and protein contents a higher concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids and a
lower concentration of short-chain fatty acids, and a higher C18:1/C18:0 ratio which suggests
a higher fatty acid elongation and desaturation. than LMFG cows.
The authors suggest that higher calcium of this milk improves cheese despite lower yield be-
cause of reduced protein content.
Fresh pasture Feed and corn silage feed

The authors compared fresh pasture supplemented with cereal concentrate against corn silage
treatment supplemented with soybean meal.
The fresh pasture feed led to an increase in milk and protein yields lower milk fat yield, to
a decrease in milk fat globule size and an increase in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
fatty acid contents, decreased protein content, lower calcium mineralization of casein micelles,
turning the milk less suitable for cheese production.
The authors found no correlation between the cows, based on milk fat globule size and diet.
The authors suggest milk fat quality improvement based on milk fat globule size, and compo-
sition.
Open Skies deal between EU and US, a rabbit punch to environment

The EU hails the new deal saying that the agreement opens the possibility of an additional 26
million extra passengers on transatlantic flights over a period of 5 years. This compares with
current annual traffic of just under 50 million. At the end of the fifth year, this will mean that
the market will be 34% higher with the agreement than without the agreement. The cargo
market would see growth of between 1 and 2 percent, which is highly significant given the size
of the market globally (with the European and American industry accounting for 70% of the
global fleet). [870]
The sad truth

A single flight across the Atlantic can guzzle about 60,000 litres - more fuel than an average
motorist uses in 50 years of driving - generating around 140 tonnes of carbon dioxide, along with
750 kilograms of Nitrogen Oxides Emissions. The net result is that pollution from high-flying
jets is up to four times as damaging as the same amount released from chimneys and exhaust
pipes at ground level. [871]
All politicians should work together to permit air traffic only to those presenting a satisfactory
evidence of extreme necessity of this voyage. Instead of reducing harmful air traffic politicians
like Chancellor Angela Merkel, George W. Bush and Tony Blair, support an increase of climate
pollution.
Not enough nutritional evidence to recommend organic foods over other foods
[872]
According to ClaireWilliamson 2007 writing in an article in the Journal of the Science of Food
820
and Agriculture there are limited data claiming that organic foods are more nutritious than
conventionally produced foods.
In this review no overall differences in nutritional profiles for food grown conventionally or
organically were reported. Only few exceptions were found, such as organic potatoes and leafy
organic vegetables which were richer sources of vitamin C than their conventionally grown veg-
etables.
No differences were found in nutrients of main concern in dairy products such as calcium,
zinc, vitamin B2 or vitamin B12. Only in milk less sought after nutrients like linoleic acids ,
vitamin E, beta- carotene and poyunsaturated fatty acids were found higher in organic milk.
However these items are sourced from other foods.
The world market of certified organic foods is growing rapidly. Behind the marketing ef-
forts of retailers international exporters a huge interest of the international business groups is
flourishing. Transportation over long distances and even air freight is being considered by the
certification boards. [873]
Avoiding pollution of the environment with pesticides and chemical fertilisers, using crop ro-
tation and good animal husbandry to control pests and diseases are the basics of a sustainable
method of agriculture. The primary goal is the protection of the environment. A side-product
is the food which is harvested in such environment.
Buying organics grown far away you are doing the best for your supermarket corporation but
its not better for your health or the environment than choosing cheaper conventional produces.
If you want to go organics look for small organic farmers, small organic stores which have
their ware supplied by surrounding farms, and look for weekly markets of your town.
Ingredients: Organic products of the shelves of your supermarket often do not differ from
conventional ones such as organic fruit yoghurt. It has the same addition of 10 per cent of
sugar-glucose syrup increasing the risc of obesity and diabetes.
Organics is a philosophy of cohabitation of mankind and nature. On the other hand supermar-
ket shelf ware organics is a genial marketing effort to boost business, the contact with the roots
of organics are blurred.
Soil Association Standards dept: Airfreight consultation [873]

From: Karl Heinz Wilm
Muelenweg 5
26419 Schortens
Germany
author@ourfood.com
To: Soil Association Standards dept.

South Plaza,
Bristol
BS1 3NX
Subject: Airfreight consultation Shortens, 05.06.2007

Dear Sirs!
I appeal to you to stay firm in banning airfreight from organics. Allowing airfreight destroys
the foundation of the organic movement, adapting it to the supermarket logistics. This will
undermine the confidence of the consumer on the producers and make certification watery.
Organic eyewash
Here are some of your arguments and my comment:
-Isolated initiatives like Tesco and Mark & Spencer: These initiatives are bound to specific
produces and are not part of an all round organic label. Only clear commitment to guidelines
bringing all products and all producers in one boat.
- Air freight has the highest global warming potential of any form of transport: It is op-
posed to the deepest principles of organic philosophy. Opening the door for niche products, the
whole organic segment will be questionable.
- Air freight enables producers in some of the poorest regions of the world to supply high
value fresh fruit and vegetables to Europe.: This is not true, as the poorest have no access
to the high technical logistic of air traffic. Only the Australian lobby, specialised on air traf-
fic to USA is interested to sell their surplus to Europe, after a sudden wave of US own produces.
- Empty shelves: Worse than empty shelves is the loss of confidence of the consumer. Air-
freighting organics is a scandal.
Your Questions
1- If no ban of air freight is possible the declaration ”Transported by Air” in close proximity
to the word ORGANIC should be compulsory.
2- But, a ban is indispensable.
822
3- The next certification renewal should withdraw the approval of the product.
You are doing a good job, and stay firm to the principles of the organic movement
Best regards
Karl Heinz Wilm
www.ourfod-news.com
International Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food Security [874]

The UN’s FAO held a conference in Rome last week on Organic Agriculture and Food Security,
in partnership with the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)
Rome, 03 - 05 May 2007.The transcription of the documents presented at the Conference are
available at : http://www.fao.org/organicag/ofs/docs en.htm
Summary of outcomes of the Conference [875]

FAO underlines in a paper, Organic Agriculture and Food Security, presented at an Interna-
tional Conference on Organic Agriculture and Food Security.
The paper identifies the strengths and weaknesses of organic agriculture with regards to its
contribution to food security, analyses attributes of organic supply chains against the Right
to Food framework and proposes policy and research actions for improving the performance of
organic agriculture at the national, international and institutional levels.
”The strongest feature of organic agriculture is its reliance on fossil-fuel independent and
locally-available production assets; working with natural processes increases cost-effectiveness
and resilience of agro-ecosystems to climatic stress,” the paper says.
”By managing biodiversity in time (rotations) and space (mixed cropping), organic farmers
use their labour and environmental services to intensify production in a sustainable way. Or-
ganic agriculture also breaks the vicious circle of indebtedness for agricultural inputs which
causes an alarming rate of farmers’ suicides.”
The paper recognizes that ”most certified organic food production in developing countries
goes to export” and adds that ”when certified cash crops are linked with agro-ecological im-
provements and accrued income for poor farmers, this leads to improved food self-reliance and
revitalization of small holder agriculture.”
Knowledge and labour intensive [875]

The paper underlines that some requirements should be met when converting to organic agri-
culture, mainly agro-ecological knowledge and labour availability. ”Organic management is a
knowledge-based approach requiring understanding of agro-ecological processes and it remains
a constraint where labour is scarce, such as in populations decimated by HIV/AIDS.”
However, labour requirements on organic farms, and the better return on labour, provide
employment opportunities where this resource is most abundant, thus safeguarding rural liveli-
hoods, according to FAO expert Nadia Scialabba.
The paper also quotes recent models of a global food supply grown organically which indi-
cate that organic agriculture could produce enough food on a global per capita basis for the
current world population.
”These models suggest that organic agriculture has the potential to secure a global food supply,
just as conventional agriculture is today, but with reduced environmental impact,” according
to FAO.
The paper calls on governments to ”allocate resources for organic agriculture and to integrate
its objectives and actions within their national agricultural development and poverty reduction
strategies, with particular emphasis on the needs of vulnerable groups.”
It also insists on investment in human resource development and skill training in organic agri-
culture as part of sustainable development strategies.
The report from the conference will be presented to the 33rd committee on World Food Security.
IFOAM expects this will result in FAO policy chances that favour organic agriculture.
Definition of organic agriculture [876]

According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission and all existing national regulations, ”organic
agriculture is a holistic production management system that avoids use of synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides and genetically modified organisms, minimizes pollution of air, soil and water, and
optimizes the health and productivity of interdependent communities of plants, animals and
people.”
Links: Important links to Organic Agriculture at FAO FAO websites of interest to organic
agriculture and database.
http://www.fao.org/organicag/frame9-e.htm
Pre-storage treatment reduces scald losses on organic apple [877] Low-oxygen at-
mosphere for seven days at 20oC prior to cold storage extends shelf life of organic fruit and
vegetable according to Edna Pesis. Only 10% of apples were lost due to scald after 8 month of
cold storage.
824
Pesis says that ware which had not been pre-storage treated was completely lost under the
same condition. According to the article of Pesis published in the Journal of the Science of
Food and Agriculture and reported on in Chemistry & Industry, storage of avocados, tomatoes
and other organic produce may profit from this technique.
Conventional produce can be treated with chemicals, but no artificial chemicals are used for
organics during processing. Treatment of organic apples with a solution of the antioxidant
diphenylamine (DPA) is being used for years to reduce scald. This treatment may now be
substituted by the none-chemical pre-storage treatment of Pesis.
Chapter 22
Vegetarianism
Nutrition authorities say that a properly planned vegan diet presents no significant nutritional
problems. Supplementation is, however, highly recommended. [1387]
There are several nutrients vegans should pay attention to. These include vitamin B12, iron
and iodine: deficiencies in these are more likely following a vegan diet, and deficiencies of these
have potentially serious consequences, including anemia, pernicious anemia, cretinism and hy-
perthyroidism.
Guidance on food labelling for vegans and vegetarians [1390]

The Food Standards Agency (FSA) issued the guidance on food labelling for vegans and vege-
tarians in 2006. These terms had not been defined by UK food labelling regulations. The FSA
guidance was therefore welcomed by consumers and food industry. FSA definitions are:
Vegetarian
”The term ’vegetarian’ should not be applied to foods that are, or are made from, or with, the
aid of products derived from animals that have died, have been slaughtered, or animals that
die as a result of being eaten. ’Animals’ means farmed, wild or domestic animals, including for
example, livestock poultry, game, fish, shellfish, crustacea, amphibians, tunicates, echinoderms,
molluscs and insects.”
Vegan
”The term ’vegan’ should not be applied to foods that are, or are made from, or with, the aid
of animals or animal products (including products from living animals).”
Reasons of veganism [1390]

According to the UK FSA there are various reasons for people choosing vegetarian or vegan
diets. Many prefer not to consume food that results from the slaughter of animals, or from
animal products.
825
826
Others are concerned particularly about ethical methods of farming, transport, and slaughter.
An individual’s choice to be vegetarian or vegan may be based entirely on religious grounds.
Some people are allergic or intolerant to particular animal products. Personal choice may be
based on a combination of these factors.
The motives for individuals choosing a vegetarian or vegan diet are important, because they
determine what particular foods or food ingredients are deemed to be acceptable.
Small intakes of foods of animal origin associated with chronic degenerative dis-
eases [1388]
Campbell and colleagues found that rural China diets are substantially richer in foods of plant
origin when compared with diets consumed in the more industrialized, Western societies.
The scientists came to the conclusion that chronic degenerative diseases are prevented by an ag-
gregate effect of nutrients and nutrient-intake amounts that are commonly supplied by foods of
plant origin, and that even small intakes of foods of animal origin are associated with significant
increases in plasma cholesterol concentrations, which are associated, in turn, with significant
increases in chronic degenerative disease mortality rates.
Nutrition transition toward animal foods implications in China [1389]

B. M. Popkin and S. Du used China as a case study and found large shifts in the composition of
diets and obesity across the developing world noting that these changes are accelerating. The
authors point out that in developing countries the prevalence of obesity is greater than that of
undernutrition and concerns related to intake of saturated fat and energy imbalance must be
considered more seriously by the agriculture sector which is focused on livestock promotion.
They come to the conclusion that although linkages between animal source foods intake and
obesity cannot be established as clearly as they are for high animal source foods intakes, heart
disease and cancer, the potential adverse health effects linked with an increased animal source
foods intake should no longer be ignored.
Animal origin may not be shown by the list of ingredients [1390]

The animal origin of some ingredients may not be apparent from their names. For example,
some additives may be carried on a gelatin base and therefore not be suitable for inclusion in
a vegetarian or vegan diet. Food labelled as vegan or vegetarian may become contaminated
during preparation, for example, outlets where deep fried food is cooked in oil that is used for
both meat and non-meat products. This will not be apparent from the ingredients list.
General EU rules already prohibit misleading labelling (Article 2 of Directive 2000/13/EC

and Article 16 of EC Regulation 178/2002. However, there are no specific rules at EU level on
vegetarian or vegan labelling, and this subject is not currently under discussion at EU level.
Labelling food as suitable for vegetarian or vegans is entirely voluntary. However it does
provide useful information to consumers and Government would not wish to discourage it.
Legislation, including sanctions, is already in place to protect consumers against misleading

labelling. Current enforcement activities involve industry inspections of labels to ensure they
are not misleading. The advice set out in the proposed Guidance provide an interpretation of
what should be considered as a minimum standard when labelling food as ’suitable for vege-
tarians’ or ’suitable for vegans’ (or other similar claims).
Childhood intelligence and being a vegetarian [1529] [1532]

According to Marcus Richards evidence increasingly suggests that intelligence is associated with
health and survival, and intelligence could mediate the impact of adverse circumstances (such
as overcrowding), influence the acquisition of factors that protect health, and reflect underlying
biological mechanisms that regulate health.
IQ has nothing to do with vegetarianism [1530]

Ramakant Sharma does not agree with the study. He says that vegetarianism has nothing to do
with IQ. He claims that 60% of the population of India is vegetarian, even so this population is
not more intelligent than the western counterparts who eat meat. The incidence of Indian CAD
is 7 times higher than the western population. Sharma says that vegetarianism is a cultural
phenomenon and it should be looked as that only.
Sharma concludes that ”vegetarian food is healthy” is a misconception. Probably, food has
nothing to do with disease except malnutrition and deficiencies.
Food and ecology

About 6% of the population of Germany are vegetarians. They want to avoid to harm animals,
to avoid food waist as animal feed and last, but not least to reduce greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide emanating from animal breeding. FAO environmental
scientist calculated the CO2 - equivalence of the different types of nutrition:
The global animal population produce approximately one fifth of greenhouse gases resulting
from the activities of mankind. FAO stresses that this is more than the emission of global
traffic. CO2 emission results from burning forests to prepare land for pastures and feed crops.
Dung and liquid manure produce nitrous oxide. Ruminants such as cattle and sheep emit
methane. Mechanized agriculture of rape and soy produce more CO2 . Approximately 6 kilos
828
of vegetable protein are necessary to produce one kilo animal protein.
Lacto-vegetarian nutrition:The Cornell University (Ithaca, USA) found in a study, that

the production of one kilo milk protein needs 14 kilocalories of fossile energy, this is the same
amount needed for the production of one kilo porc. The German Freiburger Öko Institute
writes that 8 litres milk are necessary to produce 1 kilo cheese.
The CO2 - equivalence of the production of 1 kilo, cheese, meat, egg and yoghurt
Product Emission of
CO2 equivalece Cheese 8 kilo
Meat 6 kilo
Egg 2 kilo
yoghurt 1 kilo
Soy and feed:According to Jörg Michael Greef from the German from the Bundesforschungsanstalt
für Landwirtscaft. The world production of soy is 220 million tons. Germany imports 40 million
tons. Three million tons are used for the production of edible oil and other applications. The
main core of 37 millions tons are transformed in animal feed.
Soy farms built monocultures in USA, Argentina and Brazil, where they invade the tropi-
cal forest and savannahs. Centralised animal breeding, depending on soy are an environmental
false step. Smaller units, depending on local feed are ecology friendly and create jobs.
PalmoilAccording to the Environmental Program of the United Nations UNEP, 83% of palm
oil comes from Indonesia and Malaisia. The consumption of Palm oil increases deforestation of
these countries.
High consumption of red and processed meat linked breast cancer risk.
[1531] In a survival analysis to assess the effect of meat consumption and meat type on the risk
of breast cancer in the UK it was found that women, both pre- and postmenopausal, who con-
sumed the most meat and processed meats had a significant increase in the risk of breast cancer.
According to Professor Janet Cade and colleagues from the University of Leeds, the high satu-
rated fat content of the meat may be behind the apparent effects, with this kind of fat linked to
cholesterol production which is a precursor for the female hormone oestrogen, linked to breast
cancer risk.
The disease is, however not limited to red meat as sole cause, but many other factors may
trigger breath cancer.
The authors found a 64 per cent greater risk of breast cancer for post-menospausal women
which consumed more than 20 grams per day processed meat, such as as bacon, sausages, ham
or pies. An increased risk of 56found in women of the same age, which consumed more than 57
gram red meat per day. In pre-menospausal women consuming more than 20 grams processed
meat per day an increase of breast cancer of 20 percent, compared with none meat eating women.
The British Charity Breakthrough Breast Cancer denotes that there are other factors like age,
weight, nutritional habits accounting for 30 per cent of the cases, and exercise which influence
health. It is being emphasized that all women eat a balanced diet, limit alcohol consumption,
exercise regularly and keep a healthy weight in order to maintain general good health.
830
Chapter 23
Phytopathology, diseases of plants
Diseases of plants can cause great crop damages which may lead to hunger disasters of great
part of populations. Basic knowledge of the diseases of plants and their cause are therefore
important for everyone handling foods.
Despite all efforts to reduce crop damage due to plant diseases using agrochemicals in the past 30
years the loss of approximately 10% remained unchanged. As the crops have increased the total
loss is increasing rapidly. This makes a better understanding of phytopathology necessary[671].
Phytopathology wants to bring a bectter understanding on the cause, the circumstances and
the progress of diseases of plants as well the interaction of host-pathogenic agent.
Phytopathogenic agents are not pathogenic to mankind as moulds and bacteria known as
phytopathogenic cannot grow at 37oC or are eliminated by immunology of mankind. Phy-
topathogenic virus need plant louse or gnome zicada as vectors as they cannot penetrate by
itself. Human skin is not attractive for these insects. The infection of these virus is therefore
not possible.
However allergies to the spores of moulds such as Aspergillus and Penicillium sp. and myco-
toxins are of great importance.
The evolution of diseases in plants Diseases in plants develop in different phases:
Phases of a disease caused by mould:
• Infection period:The infection period is the time between the first attack of the plant by
the pathogen agent and the moment in which he has established itself in the tissue of the
host.
• Incubation period:The incubation period includes the infection period and ends with first
macroscopic symptoms.
831
832
• Fructification period:Is the time between Infection and the first reproduction of the agent
in the host.
Some moulds have short periods and the whole life cycle takes only days such as:
• Polymyxa
• Phytium
• Olpidium
Some moulds need over half a year to complete their life cycle such as:
• Sphaerotheca mors-uvae
• Venturia inaequalis
• Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici Its spores may be transportet in air at several thousand
meters of altitude for a distance over 100 kilometers. That is the cause of sudden diseases
never known in this region.
• Ophiostoma novo-ulmi: It is the agent of the death of elms and is carried by the elm beetle.
• Erwinia amylovora: Is being carried from pear farm to pear farm by birds or insects.
• Ustilago segetum var. hordei
Phases of a disease caused by other agents: viral agents,bacteria, mycoplasma-like or-

ganism (MLO) and Rickettsia-like Organism (RLO) present a great reproduction with high
number of organism before the fist symptoms appear.
Vectors of phytopathogenic agents
Bacteria such as Xylella fastidiosa, spiroplasma, mycoplasma-like Organism (MLO) and Ricketsia-
like organism (RLO) need the help of other living cells or small animals like gnome zicade as
vectors to invade another host
The cause of plant damage
• Climatic factors like excessive temperatures like heat or frost, heavy or prolonged rain,
storm.
Care should be taken to avoid harmful environment such as may become in a green house
under specific conditions.
Cucumber growing in a green house had a heavy attack of moulds destroying the flowers.
The part of the plant coming through the door to the outside of the green house was free
of moulds, the flowers could develop to ripe cucumber.
Instead of using fungicidal chemical to combat moulds one should seed remove the green
house as soon as the first signs of mould attack
• Soil structure, heavily compact, water and oxygen circulation, chemical composition,
content of manganese or aluminum
• Emissions like acid rain and industrial smog and dust
• Agrochemicals in excess which may evaporate coming down as rain like the herbicide
atrazin
Condition for a disease of plants Susceptible to the disease: The host must be sus-
ceptible to the disease. Some plants are resistant to different agents.
Organ specific activity: There must be an organ specific activity of the agent. Some agents
can infest only specific organs like flowers or roots to which they are specialized. they cannot
invade other parts of the plants.
Examples of organ specific activity are: Polymyxa betae for instance can only atta
Phase specific activity
Some agents have a specific activity to flowers. They have wait till the blossoms open to attack
the host, other have a phase specific activity to leaves. they have to wait for the phase of leaves
of a plant which is growing from a seed.
Survival of the agent
Some agents have developed survival strategies to overcome the time between one host to an-
other. Virus cannot survive for long time outside a host cell. They need therefore a vector cell
to get through the time between where there are no host cells available.The spores of the mould
Polymxa can serve as vector for the beet necrotic yellow vein furovirus for a period of many
years. Other agents have a saprophytic phase surviving in dead tissue of the host of the culture
period to another season to start a new outbreak of disease. Saprophytic decomposition
Some saprophytes may decompose cell walls of dead material this activity also can include
living phytopatological agents. Mucor and Rhizopus moulds can decompose cellulose of the cell
of dead materials disclosing pathogen virus which had invaded these cells. The virus is now
unprotected and will soon be damaged.
834
Agrochemicals can interfere in the cycle of nature destroying normal saprophytes which are
enemies of harmful pathogenic agents.
Competition of nutrients
Saprophytic bacteria can multiply within an half hour. Pathogen mould need days to multiply
being so in disadvantage on regard of nutritional resources.
Production of antibiotics Some moulds like Penicillium sp and Streptomyces sp =produce
antibiotics which act as natural enemies of some phytopathogen agents. Interfering in the nat-
ural environment may destroy useful saprophytes boosting pathogens.
Virus with mycopathogenic activity. Some virus act toxic on pathogenic moulds. The
protection of the natural environment is therefore important. Modern agricultural techniques
should protect the complex interaction of th different biological systems.
Hyperparasites
A parasite with phytopathologic activities may be invaded on its turn, by other parasites ,like
nematodes, bacteria and bacteriophages.
Parasitic plants can be half parasites having well developed leaves. They depend only from
water and minerals from the xylem of the host (Loranthaceae, Viscaceae, Scrophulariaceae.
Full parasites have underdeveloped or no leaves at all. They invade the xilem and the phloem
of their host and get there nourishing substances
Table 23.1: Parasitic plants causing diseases
Mistletoe
Loranthus europaeus South Europe Oak tree
Arceuthobium sp North America, Himalaya conifer
Viscum album ssp album Europe Apple, poplar
Viscum album ssp.abietes Europe Fir tree
Convolvulaceae
Cuscuta europea Europe Hop, shrubs, sugar beets
Cuscuta campestris worldwide Legume, sugar beet
Cuscuta reflexa Southeast Asia Citrus, Coffee, Litchi
Scrophulariaceae
Striga asiatica worldwide,except Europe Maize,sorghum, millet, sugar cane
Orobanchaceae
Orobanche cernua Mediterranean region Sunflower
East Europe,Africa
Orobanche crenata Mediterranean region Beans, lentil, chick pea
Orobanche ramosa Mediterranean region Tobaco, tomato, aubergine
Africa, Zentral and North America
Microbes as agents of plant diseases Virus: have only one type of nucleic acid, most of
the time RNA, seldom DNA. Energy system ATP does not exist. Virus depend on ribosomes
of host cells.
Mycoplasma-Like Organism (MLO)
Rickettsia-Like Organism (RLO)
Bacteria
Moulds
MLO, RLO, bacteria and moulds have usually both types of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA).
Energy system ATP exists and they can multiply without aid of a host cell.
Phytopathogenic virus Cauliflower mosaic (Caulimo): It is build of DNA.

Bacilus-shaped DNA (Badna)
Gemini virus
Phytoreo virus
Rhabdo virus
Tomato spotted wilt (Tospo)
Tenui virus
Cowpea mosaic virus (Como)
Faba virus
Nematode-transmitted polyeder (Nepo)
Potato virus Y (Poty)
Rye grass mosaic (Rymo)
Barley yellow mosaic (Bymo)
Southern bean mosaic (Sobemo)
Luteo virus
Tomato bushy stunt (Tombus)
Carnation mottle (Carmo)
Tobacco necrosis (Necro)
Diantho virus
Tobacco mosaic (Tobamo)
Tobaco rattle (Tobra)
Hordei virus
Fungus-transmitted, rod shaped virus (Furo)
Clostero virus
Turnip yellow mosaic (Tymo)
Alfafa mosaic (Alfamo)
Isometric labile ringspot (Ilar)
Brome mosaic (Bromo)
Cucumber mosaic (Cucumo)
Carnation latent (Carla)
Potato virus X (Potex)
836
Virus of economic importance Cacao swollen shoot badnavirus: It is a DNA- virus.

Tomato leaf roll geminivirus: DNA- virus.
Cassava mosaic geminivirus: DNA- virus
Rice dwarf phytoreovirus: RNA- virus
Tomato spotted wilt tospovirus
Rice grassy stunt tenuivirus
Barley yellow dwarf luteovirus
Potato leaf roll luteovirus
Beet yellows closterovirus
Citrus tristeza closterovirus
Potato virus Y potyvirus
Barley yellow mosaic bymovirus
Tobacco mosaic tobamovirus
Grapevine fanleaf nepovirus
Beet necrotic yellow vein furovirus
Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus
Prunus necrotic ringspot ilarvirus
Alfafa mosaic alfamovirus
Tobacco rattle tobravirus
Table 23.2: Phytopathogenic bacteria

Pathogen germ Host Disease
Gram-negative
Agrobacterium tumefaciens tumor
Agrobacterium vitis vine
Burkholderia solanacearum
Burkholderia caryophylli clove
Erwinia amylovora pear and apple
Erwinia carotovora potatos
Pseudomonas savastanoi bush bean
Pseudomonas syringae
Xanthomonas axonopodis
Xanthomonas campestris cabbage
Xantomonas hortorumpelargonium
Xanthomonas oryzae rice
Xanthomonas transluceus wheat
Gram-positive
Clavibacter michiganensis tomato
Rhodococcus fascians pea
Streptomyces scabies potato
Phytopathogenic moulds Aspiognomonia veneta: It causes antracnosis on plane-tree.

Cryphonectria parasitica: causes disease of chestnut-tree.
Diaporthe perniciosa: Causes necrosis of the bark from apple-tree
Leucostoma cincta: Causes a disease of the bark of peach-trees.
Cochliobolus sativus: Disease of cereals.
Cochliobolus victoriae: Victoria disease of oats.
Didymella aplanata: Disease of raspberry.
Leptosphaeria maculans: Disease of the roots of rape.
Mycosphaerella arachidicola: Spots on leaves of the peanut-plant.
Mycosphaerella graminicola: Spots on leaves of wheat.
Mycosphaerella musicola: Disease of banana.
Phaesphaeria nodorum: Disease of wheat.
Pyrenophora chaetomioides: Disease of oats.
Pyrenophora graminea: Disease of barley.
Pyrenophora teres:Disease of barley.
Venturia inequalis: Scab of apple.
Blumeria graminis Disease of cereals: It cannot synthesize purines which are part of nucleic
acid . Purines must therefor be taken from the host. It is therefore an obligatory parasite
Leveillula taurica: Disease of tomatos.
Podosphaera leucotricha: Disease of appel.
Sphaerotheca fuliginia: Disease of cucumber.
Uncinula necator: Disease of grape plant.
Aspergillus flavus:Disease of peanuts.
Penicillium expansum Rot of apple.
Claviceps purpurea: Ergotism of wheat. Claviceps purpurea forms ascospores can infect
only blossoms. The best conditions of weather for the production of blossoms of the wheat
most of the time occurs at a different time of the releae
Builts black sclerots which are formed from mycelium Cibberella fujicuroi: Disease of rice.
Cibberella zeae:Disease of maize.
Nectria galligena: canker of apple-tree.
Diplocarpon rosae: Disease of roses.
Drepanopeziza ribis: Disease of redcurrant.
Mollisia acuformis: Disease of cereals.
Pezicula malicortis: disease of apple.
Pseudopezicola tracheiphila Disease of wine.
Pseudopeziza medicaginis: Disease of Spanish trefoil.
838
Magnaporthe grisea Rice blast.

Taphrina deformans: Disease of peach.
Taphrina pruni: Disease of prun.
Alternaria solani: Stains of the leaves of tomato-plant.
Septoria apiicola: Stains of the leaves of celeriae.
Alternaria sp.: Black rott of citrus fruit.
Aspergillus sp.: Black rott of peach and nectarine.
Aspergillus flavus produce aflatoxin B1 . 100mcg in the feed of mice over a long period o time
induces liver cancer in all rats. In Africa Aspergillus flavua can be very high. The disease
of liver cancer is in Africa the highest of the world because of contaminated vegetable foods.
Botryodiplodia sp.: Rottenness of the banana-plant.
Botrytis sp.: Rottenness of fruits.
Cercospora musaeIs the cause of the Sigatoka disease of banana plantations.To fight the
Sigatoka fungus a watery solution of chalk and copper sulphate was sprayed on the plants,
later on mineral oil was sprayed by helicopters and crop airplanes.
Environment protection organizations have started a campaign to reduce toxic chemicals in ba-
nana plantations. The careless use of chemicals used against moulds and worms as well as weed
killers being sprayed by crop planes over banana plantations produce sterility, skin diseases,
asthma, damage kidneys and liver of the population living in this area.[682]
Cladosporium sp.: Rottenness of fruits.
Colletotrichum sp.: Rottenness of citrus fruits, avocados and papayas.
Diaporthe sp.: rottenness of citrus fruits.
Diplodia sp.: Rottenness of the stem of citrus fruits, avocados, and papayas. Wet rottenness
of peach.
Fusarium sp.: Brown rottenness of citrus fruits, pineapple and wet rottenness of figs.
Fusarium oxysporum var.cubense This fungus is known as agent of the Panama disease of
banana plants. It invades the roots of the plant and destroys a banana farm. In 1925 and 1935
the Fusarium fungus was avoided by getting the plantations one to one and a half meter under
water. After six month the water was drained and the plantation could be used again for five
to six years. This method could be used only in valleys or plains.
Very sensible to Fusarium are the banana sorts Gros Michel. In Brazil, in some parts of Africa
and Australia the Cavendish sort is being cultivated, also Lactan and Robusta are sorts which
are resistant to the fungus Fusarium.
Geotrichum sp.: Acid rottenness of citrus fruits and peaches.
Gibberella fujikuroi is the agent of the Bakanae disease of rice. The fungus Gibberella pro-
duces gibberilin acid which is a growth promoter. The growth which is induced by gibbeilin thin
and the plant can scarcely carry its own weight. Gibberella also produces a substance which is
toxic to the roots of rice. The rice plants die on account of these substances. Gloeosporium
sp. Rottenness of pome fruits.
Leptosphaeria maculansIs worldwide the most important pathogen fungus which attacks
rape. There are pathogen and not pathogen types.
Monilia sp.: Brown rottenness of fruits.

Monilia attacks cherry-trees, killing leaves and branches.
Nigrospora sp.: Rottenness of banana pulp.
Penicillium sp.: Blue and green rottenness of fruits.
Phomopsis sp.: Rottenness of the stem of citrus fruits and avocados.
Phytophthora sp.: Rottenness of citrus fruits, apple and strawberry.
Piricularia oryzae causes the Brusone disease blue dots which later change to brown color
are the first symptoms. When the invasion takes place at an early stage of the growth of the
plant no rice kernels are built. If it takes place later the stalk is bend under the weight of the
grain in such a manner that the grain comes together with water or mud and gets lost.
To help against the Brusone disease solutions of mercury compounds and copper compounds
were used despite their toxic effects. Rhizopus sp.: Wet rottenness of fruits.
Sclerotinia.: White rottenness of strawberry.
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Is a fungus which causes great damage on rape. This fungus is
in vitro highly sensible to alkenile-glucosinolates. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum produces during the
invasion of a plant high amount of oxalic acid getting the pH down to 2,0 - 4,0. At the place
of the invasion nitriles instead of alkenyles are formed. Trichoderma sp.: Brown-green rot-
tenness of citrus fruits.
Venturia sp.: rottenness of fruits.
Mediterranean fruit fly The Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata attacks fruits, veg-
etables and nuts. The female Mediterranean fly mates once in her life span depositing the
sperm in the female sperm-storing organ, the spermatheca. The female produces 250 - 1,200
eggs which can be fertilized with the stored sperms from the spermatheca.
The fertilized eggs are deposited beneath the outer surface of fruit and vegetables hatching into
maggots which then feed on the pulp of the fruit or vegetable spoiling them. Matured maggots
drop to the ground, form pupae and eventually emerge as new flies, completing the life cycle.
The fly originated in West Africa from where it spread out to North and South Africa. As the
eggs are hidden under the skin of fruits the fly can easily be exported to all parts of the world.
The fly is now being found in Europe, Middle East, Australia and South America.
Key program of USA against the Mediterranean fruit fly In California the Mediter-
ranean fruit fly was seen for the first time in 1975. USA has a key program against the fruit
fly distributing traps with trimedlure as bait for the fly.
External abiotic sources of damage of plants
• Climate and weather: Frost,heat, excessive rain, hail shower, snow, light and storm.
840
• Composition of the soil: The soil may be to compact, carry insufficient amount of water.
It may have insufficient oxygen,insufficient amount of nutrients.It may have excessive
manganese and aluminum.
• Environment poisons:
Plant diseases which spread by traffic Hop mildew was introduced in North America in
1890 coming from Europe and Asia. Hop mildew destroyed the plantations of hop of east and
middle west of USA. The mildew mould was found all over the country.
Asparagus rust reached America 1912. Quarantine of plants and seeds being imported are an
important measure against uncontrolled spread of plant diseases.
Silage [683] To avoid moulds and resulting aflatoxins in hay silage and forage as well as silage
grains and feeds liquid concentrates of fermentation extracts of Lactobacillus acidophilus, lactis
in the pre-bud stage of growth may be added. Alfalfa hay can thus be baled with 18 to 23%
moisture.
1 ton square bales hay had the best results on proteins when obtained at 20% moisture.
Most frequent hazards to trees [884]

Beetles:
Beetles attack deciduous trees and coniferous forests.If they fed on leaves only the damage is
not great, but some beetles such as bark beetles can destroy large parts of the plant beneath
the bark. Other beetles transmit virus diseases.
Rhychaenus fragilis: Their larva undermine the leaves of the red beech and copper beech.
the leaves turn out brown.
Elm sapwood beetle (Scolytus scolytus): is known to attack European elms. In America
Elms are threatened by Hylurgopinus rufipes.
Big brown weevil (Hylobius abietis):Brown weevil This beetle gnaws round holes in the
bark of young conifers causing their death.
Butterflies
If numerous butterflies are present complete defoliation of the growing ends may happen. Of
importance are
Sackbeetle (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis): Male species with wings are harmless.Female
species are wingless and live in a sack spun with leaves and leavestalks of USA shrubs and trees.
They can cause defoliation of young trees.
Moonbird (Phalera bucephala): Larvae can cause complete defoliation at various decidu-
ous trees.
Tamarack moth (Coleophora laricella): The larvae hollow out the needles of tamarack.
Western tent caterpillar (Malacosoma pluvialis): Their larvae live on hardwood trees of
the Pacific coast of USA, inside of cocoons and nourish themselves with the young shoots of
the plants.
Sawflies
Adult species are not harmful, but their larvae destroy leaves and needles heading to complete
defoliation.
Larch sawfly (Pristiphora erichsonii): The larvae nourish from larch needles.causing de-
structive defoliation.
Willow sawfly (Pontania vesicator): It forms blister-like galls between the midrib and
leave edge of willow trees. In these galls larvae develop.
Plant louse
They are small insects which may have wings or are wingless. attacking deciduous trees and
coniferous plants.
Schizoneura lanuginosa: It sucks on elm leaves . not regular galls are formed.
Byrsocrypta ulmi (Byrsocrypta ulmi:) produces similar lesions as the galls of Schizoneura,
but they are club formed.
Pemphigus bursarius: It attacks poplars deforming the petioles with galls.
Sitka spruce Picea sichensis: It feeds on the vascular system of spruce. Scale insect:
Scale insects are generally covered by a waxlike protective cover. Only female species produce
damage. They attack deciduous trees and coniferous plants.and fruits. Leaves and needles may
die. Common scale insects are :
San-José-scale Insect, Pernicious scale Diaspidiotus (Quadraspidiotus) perniciosus
sucks on leaves and fruits of apple-, plums- and peach trees.
The insect is small. it introduces its mouthpieces in the plant and feeds from the liquids. It
secrets a white waxi material.
The University of California maintains the Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program,
stressing that San Jose Scale has many natural enemies which, however, may be disrupted by
broad-spectrum insecticides. Not using broad-spectrum sprays for 2 or 3 years may thus solve
San Jose scale problems. [885]
Beech scale (Cryptococcus fagi): It is a sap feeding insect which together with at least
two Nectria fungi causes beech bark disease.
The American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) may be infested with the beech scale (Cryptococcus
fagisuga Lind= fagi Baer).The tiny insects attack trunk and branches of the trees suckling sap
of the inner bark.White wax covers the bodies of the scale so trees seem to be covered by white
wool. Very small wounds caused by the scale enable the Nectria fungus to penetrate the tree
killing areas of woody tissue. The tree will be girdled and die. Some infected trees will break
off in heavy winds which is called “ beech snap “.
The scale insect is tiny. It feeds on sap of the inner bark of the tree trunk and branches of
American and European beech trees (Fagus sylvatica). The body of the scale is covered by
a white wax which gives a look of white wool covering heavy infected parts of the tree. The
scale insect causes small wounds and injuries which enables the Nectria fungus(Nectria galligen,
Nectria coccinea var.faginata, Nectria ochroleuca) to penetrate the deeper tissues of the tree.
leading to widespread damages.
842
The wind may transport scale insects and fungal spores, spreading the disease. The scale in-
sect and the Nectria fungi can be transported from tree to tree in wind. The Nectria fungi
species which are associated to beech bark disease are: Nectria galligena , Nectria coccinea
var.faginataand Nectria ochroleuca.Beech scale alone does not kill the trees but after 3 to 6
years an invasion of Nectria fungi takes place which leads to the destruction of the plant.
Oistershell scale, Mussel scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi:) It feeds from the liquid of plants
such as olive and apple trees causing incrustations on branches, twigs and fruits.It also leads
to the splitting of the bark.
Anthracnose fungus (Colletotrichum sp.): is a disease of plantations of coffee, cashew,
melons,citric fruits (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) but also trees are affected, such as willow
trees and poplar trees.Humidity accelerates the growth of the fungus.
Also economical important is Colletitrichum lindemuthianum (Sace and Magn.)which attacks
black beans important food in Brazil. Armillaria mellea: Is a root disease which is a frequent
cause of decay of trees in garden and in free nature. It survives as mycelium in the roots and
wood of dead trees. The mushrooms of Armillaria grow in clusters at the base of dead or dying
tree-trunks or near infected roots.
Plantations of coffee can be infested by Armillaria and Rosselinea spp. which has remained in
roots and wood of trees of preceding forest.
Fruit tree red spider mite: Mites are spider like organisms which nourish from plant sap.
Economical important mite is the Fruit tree red mite Metatetranychus ulmi. it feeds by sucking
the underside of leaves of vine and fruit trees like apple, pear, cherry-trees. The leaves turn
brown and dry.
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus It is a nemathode which attacks pines. Its habitat is the south-
west Asia and is present in USA, Japan China and Scandinavia. The nemathode is vectored
from one pine to another by cerambycid loghorn beetles, also known as sawyers of the genus
Monochamus. It can destroy 50 to 70 years old trees within few years.
In Germany,Saxony living nematodes Bursaphelenchus xylophilus were found for the first time
among pallet wood of Chinese origin. As wood for pallets are of poor quality of dead trees are
used pallets turn out to become a way of spread pests all over the world.
Diseases of potatoes Tuber diseases:

Pink rot: is caused by the fungus Phytophthora erythroseptica which is soil-borne. Pink rot
can be detected by a smell of ammonia prior of visual symptoms.
Phytium leak is caused by the fungi Phytium debaryanum and Phytium ultimum.Also known
as water rot is caused by the fungus Phytium spp. living in the soil. The fungus invades the
tubers through wounds made during harvest. It causes internal wet spongy rot with hollow
cavities leaving behind only the tuber shells as thin paper skins.
Avoid overwatering near harvest. Avoid unnecessary damage to the tubers during harvest.
Fusariun dry rot:It is a postharvest disease of potatoes. It is caused by several soilborne
fungus Fusarium. Infected tubers have wrinkled, sunken, brown to black lesions. The Fusar-
ium fungi are common in soil and decaying plants as resistant spores. After low-temperature
storage, internal tissues become firm and dry or even powdery.
Potato bacterial ring rot: is caused by Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus pro-
ducing yellow areas which start on leave margins later turning brown. The leaves look like
being burned.
Brown necrosis of the tubers are formed from the middle of the tuber, progressing to surface,
leaving sometimes only hollow shells.
Rhizoctonia Canker: It is a disease of potatoes caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani.
It is known as black scurf Hard black bodies called sclerotia are formed on the surface of the
tubers. Delayed budding is caused by an attack of the buds by the fungus. Misshappen stems
and weak plants with brown cankers at the base and belowground portions of the stem.
Silver scurf: Is a potato disease caused by the fungus Helmithosporium solani. It causes a
metallic discoloration of the epiderma and causes weight loss during storage due to increased
water loss of the tubers. Shrinking and flabbiness affects peeling of the tubers reducing con-
sumer acceptance and rejection. It is a seed-borne disease.
Spongospora, Powdery Scale Is a disease of potatoes caused by Spongospora subterranea
which can be the vector of the mop-top furovirus.
Net necrosis:
Foliar diseases
Early blight: Potato early blight is caused by the fungus Alternaria solani. It is a disease of
stressed and senescing plants. Lesions of the leaves are circular with a target look. They turn
out yellow and drop. Tubers develop dry rot lesions which appear sunken.
Infection is possible during wet and warm weather conditions (dew, rain or sprinkler irrigation).
Tubers can be contaminated by lifting them through the surface soil.
Early blight can be reduced with with optimum growing conditions like fertilization,irrigation
and other pest controls in order to strengthen the plants. Fungicide application is recommended
only when the plants become diseased in a very early stage so the damage will be considerable.
Potato late blight[689] Potato blight is caused by Phytophthora infestans a fungus-like or-
ganism whose sporangia are dispersed by wind. To avoid damage caused by blight the potato
farmers watch weather forecasts for the climatic conditions which favor the spread of the dis-
ease. Spraying fungicides may be unnecessary when blight spores are not present in the air
current. More efforts are being done to control spore flight with air sampler in connection with
flow cytometer. Particles collected by the sampler are stained and analyzed in the cytometer
using laser light. Airborne potato blight spores are identified and counted against a background
of other fungal spores, pollen and inert particles. This system is being developed by Dr. Gareth
Griffith of the Institute of Biological Sciences at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. The
forecast of the potato blight disease which has caused the Irish Potato Famine, 1845-1847 lead-
ing to the death of 1 million people could be improved using data of the climatic forecast (
suitable conditions for pathogen growth) and detection of the sporangia in air (inoculum). With
the help of these data the decision to spray the crops could could reduce excessive fungicides.
844
Potato late blight is caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans and is the most important
potato disease. Specially the US-8 genotype is strongly resistant to the fungicide mefenoxam
and is together with the genotype US-11 very aggressive.
The spores of the fungi are carried by wind or other infection ways from one field to another.
Once the fungi is established in the plant no chemical fungicide can kill it. Prevention is there-
fore the best way to prevent great damage. Fungicides must always be applied before the crop
shows any signs of infection. The fungus hibernates in infected potato tubers as mycelium.New
sprouts of the mycelium invades the cortical tissue of the tubers.Reaching the aerial part of
the plant sporangiosphores will be created and which emerge through the stomata of leaves or
stems.The sporangia which are then produced can infect other wet plants by means of wind
and rain. Infection of tubers may not be seen during harvest, but it will go on during storage.
The sporangia can also spread on soil and tubers near the surface.
Prevention of potato late blight depends on the forecast of temperature and humidity of the
specific region
When the relative humidity is below 80% the sporangia will lose its ability to germinate in 3
to 6 hours. Free moisture or dew makes germination possible.Best conditions for growth of the
fungus is 100% of relative humidity.
Preventive application of fungicides are necessary if the environmental conditions are favorable
for the disease. Mefenoxam is not recommended because Phytophthora infestans is resistant to
it. If there is an infection of late blight the vines should be dead 2 to 3 weeks before harvest to
avoid contamination of the tubers, as Phytophthora infestans does not survive for long in dead
foliage.
Copper free compounds had either no or limited effects on blight compared with
copper fungicides [690]
The EU project leaded by Professor Carlo Leifert aims the development of management of
late blight in EU organic potato production. In this project it is being notet that there is a
widespread view that a copper fungicide ban will have serious consequences for organic potato
production unless effective alternatives are available.
Some conclusions of this project were:

Extracts of manure-based composts gave control of blight in potato leaf assays but not in the
field. However, use of an adjuvant in combination with an autoclaved compost extract gave
improved control and slightly higher yields in an experiment in 2003. Some micro-organisms,
plant extracts and existing products showed promising effects on blight control. Efficacy of a
range of commercial and novel anti-fungal compounds was unaffected by dose rate or formula-
tion. Copper free compounds had either no or limited effects on blight compared with standard
copper fungicides at normal rates but low doses of copper products were almost as effective.
Net necrosis and Potato leaf roll virus: Net necrosis is caused by the potato leaf roll
virus (PLRV). It is a damage of the cells of the vascular tissue.of the tuber causing specific
symptoms.
The virus can be spread by means of various aphid species such as the green peach aphid which
can be killed with carbamate insecticides. Mechanical contact does not cause a transmission of
the virus from plant to plant. it occurs only with a vector such as the aphids.
Phenology
Phenology is the study of the annual cycles of plant and animals and how they respond to
seasonal changes in their environment. The uses of phrenology can be used in IPM:
• Correlation with insect emergence and pest control.
• Correlation with crop planting dates
• ”Trap cropping” planting small plots at the beginning and end of a growing season to
attract and concentrate pests which can be killed by selective insecticides
• Designing bee forage plantings
• Designing orchards for pollination and ripening sequence
Desertification[1096] On the occasion of the World Day to Combat Desertification to be cel-

ebrated on June 17, 21006, worldwide farmers of the International Federation of Agricultural
Producers presented a message, highlighting the essential role of farmers to combat desertifi-
cation and their commitment to join efforts along with the international community and other
relevant stakeholders to be more effective in this endeavour:
In a new policy statement, IFAP calls for increased investment in agriculture to turn dryland
areas into economic ones through: investments in family farming and local food security which
are the engines of economic growth; looking at all the assets of rural development; as well as
development of people centered and rights based approaches to rural development.
Natural resources such as fertile topsoil, organic matter, plant cover and healthy crops are
the most severely affected by desertification.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) presents a sustainable

development and poverty reduction instrument. Unfortunately lack of investment for imple-
menting the Convention due to a lack of political will and commitment hinders its activities.
[1110]
Almost one-quarter of the earths land surface are defined as ’desert’ , being home for over
500 million people. Degradation of fragile drylands are progressing due to overgrazing, overuse
of land climate variations deforestation and poor irrigation methods.
846
Most of the 12 desert regions have a rainfall forecast of 10 to 20 per cent lower by the end
of the century. Very threatened by drought are Chad, Iraq, Niger and Syria.
Soybean diseases
The Brazilian Census Bureau (IBGE) estimates an harvest of 59.2 million tonnes of soybeans
in 2005-06, up from 51.1 million tonnes in 2004-05. Some crop losses due to dry weather in the
previous season were reported.
Asian rust is another factor that could endanger some part of the Brazilian crop. Small and
medium-sized farmers cannot pay the spray if rust attacks. Asian soybean rust was first found
in Brazil in 2002 and has since spread to Brazil’s major soy regions.
Extreme heat and drought in much of the Midwest in 2005 limited the spread of soybean
rust to the southern United States (central Florida, reaching Kentucky and Texas ).X. B. Yang
of the Department of Plant Pathology of the Iowa State University the disease developed slower
in kudzu plants in southern states compared with those in South America. This might have
been due to the biology of the U.S. Kudzu soy plant. However, the disease is still a serious
threat to all U.S. soybean growing areas. [1112]
Asian soybean rust: It is a fungal disease caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi. It can de-
foliate plants and reduce pod set, pod fill, seed quality and yield.
Similar looking diseases Diseases which are similar looking to asian soybean rust are:
• Bacterial Blight Pseudomonas syringae pv glycinea
• Bacterial PustuleXanthomonas campestris pv. glycines
• Cercospora Blight caused by the fungus Cercospora kikuchii
• Frogeye Leaf Spot Cercospora sojina
• Downy Mildew fungus Peronospora manshurica
• Brown Spot is a fungal disease caused by Septoria glycines

[1111]
Extreme heat and drought in some regions of Europe

The European Commission in a statement comments heat and drought in summer 2006 as
follows:
”Frequent and persistent heat waves associated with dry conditions characterised the whole
month of July. At the same time, the drought and the heat stress phenomena moved north-
ward through the continent affecting particularly those areas where the winter crops were still
at their sensitive stage (ripening/maturity),
Both in southern and in northern Europe, the spring-summer crops, in full vegetative to flow-
ering phase, were suffering from the above-mentioned conditions. All this also had an impact
on water reservoirs, reducing the irrigation resources mainly for grain maize, sugar beet and
potatoes.
Severe drought in German corn
Summer 2006 a severe drought makes corn leaves acquire a curly formate.
Genetic diversity within a species improves the ecosystem
[1113] [1114] Gregory Crutsinger and colleagues from the University of Tennessee in Knoxville
found that increasing population genotypic diversity in a dominant old-field plant species,
goldenrod (Solidago altissima), determined arthropod diversity and community structure and
increased aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP), such as the insect diversity.
848
Goldenrod (Solidago altissima)
The scientists counted and identified every insect on every plant. Crutsinger found that plants
from plots that had the most genetic diversity ,12 genotypes, were bigger and contained not
only the most insects but also the most species of insects. than plots with a single plant geno-
type.
The results of the study suggests that the goldenrods in the genetically diverse plots had
provided better quality resources to the insects, with a resulting positive impact on the plants
too.
Crutzinger thinks that tiny differences in plant characteristics, from leaf shape to stem thick-
ness, might have promoted a wider diversity of pests and pollinators and spread out their effects
over the plot, so that some plants are really nailed by insects and some are barely touched at
all, The plants might also have picked nutrients out of the soil differently from each other,
helping them make best use of the resources available.
Crutsinger concludes that the findings are significant for conservation biology and stresses
the importance of genetic diversity within the crops.
Similar results had been reported by Youyong Zhu [1115]. He mixed a disease-susceptible
with a disease-resistant variety of rice. Growing the two together boosted yields. Youyong Zhu
concluded that crop heterogeneity is a possible solution to the vulnerability of monocultured
crops to disease. Both theory and observation indicate that genetic heterogeneity provides
greater disease suppression when used over large areas.
Insect Resistance Management

[1116] Insect resistance management (IRM) is the term used to describe practices aimed at
reducing the potential for insect pests to become resistant to a pesticide. Bt IRM is of great
importance because of the threat insect resistance poses to the future use of Bt plant-pesticides
and Bt technology as a whole. Specific IRM strategies, such as the high dose/structured refuge
strategy, will mitigate insect resistance to specific Bt proteins produced in corn, cotton, and
potatoes.
Academic scientists, public interest groups, organic and other farmers have expressed concern
that the widespread planting of these genetically transformed plants will hasten the develop-
ment of resistance to pesticidal Bt endotoxins. Effective insect resistance management can
reduce the risk of resistance development.
The insect resistance management section provides EPA’s scientific assessment of various Bt
plant-pesticide IRM strategies by reviewing the data and information available to the Agency.
The Agency will use this assessment, the report of the FIFRA SAP meeting on October 18, 2000,
and all public comments in its development of its risk management decisions for Bt plant- pesti-
cides. The whole document can be downloaded at http://www.epa.gov/oscpmont/sap/meetings/2000/o
Insect pest discussed in the EPA insect resistance management documet are:
Table 23.3: Insect pests

Common Name Scientific Name Crop
Black Cutworm Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) corn
Cotton Bollworm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) cotton
Corn Ear Worm Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) corn
Colorado Potato Beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) potato
Common Stalk Borer Papaipema nebris (Guen.) corn
European Corn Borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Huebner) corn
Fall Armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) corn
Pink Bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) cotton
Southern Corn Stalk Borer Diatraea crambidoides (Grote) corn
Southwestern Corn Borer Diatraea grandiosella (Dyar) corn
Tobacco Budworm Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) cotton
850
Resistance management strategy [1116]

The 1998 Science Advisory Panel Subpanel agreed with EPA that an appropriate resistance
management strategy is necessary to mitigate the development of insect resistance to Bt pro-
teins expressed in transgenic crop plants.
The Subpanel recognized that resistance management programs should be based on the use
of both a high dose and structured refuges designed to provide sufficient numbers of susceptible
adult insects. The 1998 SAP also noted that insect resistance management strategies should
be sustainable and to the extent possible, strongly consider grower acceptance and logistical
feasibility.
High dose [1116]

The Subpanel defined a high dose as 25 times the amount of Bt delta-endotoxin necessary to
kill susceptible individuals. The Agency has adopted this definition of high dose. A Bt plant-
pesticide could be considered to provide a high dose if verified by at least two of the following
five approaches:
1) Serial dilution bioassay with artificial diet containing lyophilized tissues of Bt plants us-
ing tissues from non-Bt plants as controls;
2) Bioassays using plant lines with expression levels approximately 25-fold lower than the
commercial cultivar determined by quantitative ELISA or some more reliable technique;
3) Survey large numbers of commercial plants in the field to make sure that the cultivar is
at the LD99.9 or higher to assure that 95% of heterozygotes would be killed (see Andow and
Hutchison, 1998);
4) Similar to #3 above, but would use controlled infestation with a laboratory strain of the
pest that had an LD50 value similar to field strains; and 5) Determine if a later larval instar
of the targeted pest could be found with an LD50 that was about 25-fold higher than that of
the neonate larvae. If so, the stage could be tested on the Bt crop plants to determine if 95%
or more of the later stage larvae were killed.
Effective IRM is still possible even if the transformed plant does not express the Bt protein
at a high dose. If the Bt plant is non-high dose, the IRM plan could include increased refuge
size, increased scouting and monitoring, and/or prohibition of sales of non-high dose products
in certain areas.
Structured refuge [1116]

A structured refuge is a non-Bt portion of a grower’s field or set of fields that provides for
the production of susceptible insects that may randomly mate with resistant insects that may
emerge from Bt fields and dilute resistance. The size, placement, and management of the refuge
is critical to the success of the high dose/structured refuge strategy to mitigate insect resistance
to the Bt proteins produced in corn, cotton, and potatoes. The 1998 Subpanel defined struc-
tured refuges to ”include all suitable non-Bt host plants for a targeted pest that are planted
and managed by people.
These refuges could be planted to offer refuges at the same time when the Bt crops are available
to the pests or at times when the Bt crops are not available.” The Subpanel suggested that a
production of 500 susceptible adults in the refuge that move into the transgenic fields for every
adult in the transgenic crop area (assuming a resistance allele frequency of 5 x 10-2) would be a
suitable goal. The placement and size of the structured refuge employed should be based on the
current understanding of the pest biology data and the technology. The SAP also recognized
that refuges should be based on regional pest control issues.
Insect resistant management imposed on registered Bt plant-pesticides [1116]

To address the very real concern of insect resistance to Bt proteins, EPA has imposed IRM
requirements on registered Bt plant-pesticides. Sound IRM will prolong the life of Bt pesticides
and universal adherence to the plans is to the advantage of growers, producers, researchers, and
the American public. EPA’s strategy to address insect resistance is two-fold:
1) mitigate anysignificant potential for pest resistance development in the field by institut-
ing IRM plans, and
2) better understand the mechanisms behind pest resistance. Beginning with the first Bt
plant-pesticide registration, the Agency has taken steps to manage insect resistance to Bt with
IRM plans being an important part of the regulatory decision. The Agency identified (later
confirmed by the 1995 SAP) seven elements that should be addressed in a Bt plant-pesticide
resistance management plan:
1) knowledge of pest biology and ecology,

2) appropriate dose expression strategy,
3) appropriate refuge,
4) resistance monitoring and aremedial action plan should resistance occur,
5) employment of integrated pest management (IPM),
6) communication and education strategies on use of the product, and
7) development of alternative modes of action.
Developing an IRM plan [1116]

852
Key to developing an effective IRM plan is an understanding of the pest(s) biology, the dose
ofthe protein expressed in the various plant tissues, and the size and placement of the refuge
(a portion of the total acreage using non-Bt seed). It is believed that planting a refuge will
delay the development of insect resistance by maintaining insect susceptibility. In addition to
a structured refuge, IRM plans include additional field research, resistance monitoring for the
development of resistance (and increased insect tolerance of the protein), grower education, a
remedial action plan in case resistance is identified, annual reporting and communication. IRM
plans will change as more scientific data become available. EPA, has in fact, changed IRM
plans as new data has become available.
A summary of the Agency’s risk assessment of insect resistance development and insect re-
sistance management plans to mitigate resistance is provided below for Bt corn, Bt cotton,
and Bt potato products. The detailed Agency risk assessments of insect resistance manage-
ment are found in the following memoranda: A. Reynolds and R. Rose (OPP/BPPD) to M.
Mendelsohn (OPP/BPPD), dated September 11, 2000; S. Matten (OPP/BPPD) to W. Nel-
son (OPP/BPPD), dated July 10, 2000; S. Matten (OPP/BPPD) to W. Nelson (OPP/BPPD),
dated September 11, 2000; and S. Matten (OPP/BPPD) to W. Nelson and L. Hollis (OPP/BPPD),
dated July 5, 2000.
Citrus canker:USDA APHIS study not supported by scientifically sound evidence.

The USDA APHIS evaluation of asymptomatic citrus fruit, (Citrus spp.) as a pathway for the
introduction of citrus canker disease (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri) concludes that it
is highly unlikely that citrus canker could be introduced on asymptomatic, commercially pro-
duced citrus fruit that has been treated with disinfectant dips and subject to other mitigations.
Even if infected fruit were to enter a canker-free area with susceptible hosts, the establishment
of citrus canker via this pathway appears to be unlikely. [1117]
The new Plant Health (PLH) Panel of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evalu-
ated a recent study on citrus canker disease published by the US Agriculture Departments
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services (APHIS) with special attention to its conclusion
that citrus canker is not likely to spread by means of citrus fruit that show no signs of the
disease. The PLH Panel concluded that key arguments in the study, and its conclusions, were
not supported by scientifically sound evidence. [1118]
Citrus canker is an economically significant plant disease caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) affecting most of the citrus growing areas in the world, including
Florida. Once established, various control methods including spraying of copper compounds
must be combined to reduce the damage by Xac. [1119]
Rigorous phytosanitary measures have insured that some areas, including Europe, are still free
of the disease. These include the use of systems approaches. The current systems approach
for the trade of citrus fruit requires that fruit are coming from disease-free area surrounded by
a non-export buffer zone. The APHIS document proposes to modify the systems approach so
that asymptomatic fruit coming from infected/contaminated areas are eligible for trade. [1119]
The APHIS proposal to allow fruit from contaminated groves to be traded is a major devi-
ation from existing phytosanitary measures. The APHIS document analyses the five events
that must occur for successful introduction and proposes a new systems approach to prevent
entry and establishment. However, no new or additional studies are presented and the analysis
of the evidence provided in the document does not justify a change in the regulations. None
of the preventative measures in the systems approach proposed by APHIS are shown to give
effective control of Xac. Therefore, it can be concluded that, where an initial inoculum load
exists, the transmission of Xac in the scheme proposed by APHIS is more likely than with the
current systems approach. [1119]
Cassava
As tapioca starch finds growing applications in global food industry the producing countries are
highlighted: Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava, followed by Brazil, Thailand Indonesia
and Congo. Floods, droughts and cassava mosaic virus threaten African tapioca yields, and low
prices for cassava made Thailand farmers change from cassava to maize and sugar cane because
of low prices of cassava. To counter this,Thai government plans to launch a futures market to
stabilize the price. Bacteria harm cassava such as Phytomonas manihotis in Brazil, Bacterium
cassava in Africa and Bacterium solanacearum in Indonesia. Insects like locusts, beetles and
ants, rats, goats and wild pigs may devastate plantations.
Iceberg lettuce breeding for high resistance to fungus and microbes [1120] [1121]
Ryan J. Hayes, Krishna Subbarao and colleagues studied the disease verticillium wilt of iceberg
lettuce. The lettuce collapses before firm nicely rounded heads are formed. The agent of the
disease is the root-rotting fungus Verticillium dahliae.
The researchers made seeds of three new parent lettuces available to researchers and plant
breeders the parent lines are meant for crossing with consumer-ready lettuces to boost the
commercially grown lettuces’ resistance to verticillium wilt.
Verticillium wilt The Verticillium dahliae fungus infects roots of vulnerable plants, moving
into leaves and causing them to discolour, then to eventually wilt and die. The fungus can also
infect and kill hundreds of other kinds of plants, including strawberries and tomatoes.
Corky root Corky root is a disease caused by the bacterium Sphingomonas suberifaciens
which causes lettuce roots to develop ugly, yellow-to-brown lesions that harden to a corklike
854
texture. Corky-root-infected plants may produce stunted heads 30 to 70 percent smaller than
normal.
Lettuce mosaic The lettuce mosaic, is caused by a virus of the same name. It results in
stunted growth as well as unattractive mottling of leaves. Green peach aphids can spread the
virus from plant to plant.
Mou and Carolee T.Bull working at ARS are searching for corky-root-resistance genes that are
different from the one already working inside the new parent lettuces to give lettuce additional
corky-root-resistance genes.
Resistant varieties Breeding lettuces with natural resistance remains the most environmen-
tally friendly, economical and sustainable option for combating the fungus and microbes.
The authors conclude that because of the existence of resistance-breaking race 2 isolates, this
resistance may not be durable. Alternatively, targeted releases of race-1-resistant cultivars to
fields with only race 1 pathogen genotypes may extend the life of these cultivars.
Verticillium dahliae count in soil Verticillium dahliae can attack tomato, eggplant, pep-
per, potato, chrysanthemum, asters, fruit trees, strawberries, raspberries, roses, alfalfa, maple,
elm and others. Damage to most fruit and vegetable crops if the Verticillium dahliae count in
soil is high. This count is made when solanaceous crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant
or peppers are to be grown. [1122]
Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl. is a perennial ornamental belonging to the Leguminosae family.

It is grown in gardens for flower beds and borders. Garibaldi and colleagues found the fungus
Verticillium dahliae to infect up to 30% of this legumonose in Northern Italy. [1123]
Olive plants Mercado-Blanco and colleagues developed a nested-polymerase chain reaction

(PCR) procedure based on the simultaneous amplification of both an ND- and a new D-specific
marker by means of duplex, nested PCR. This procedure helps to certify pathogen-free planting
material and accurate detection of defoliating (D) and nondefoliating (ND) Verticillium dahliae
pathotypes infecting olive plant. [1124]
Jacobs and colleagues (1994) reported interspecific variation in susceptibility to Verticillium

wilt caused by Verticillium albo-atrum Reinke and Berthier and Verticillium dahliae in redbud,
and that Cercis yunnanensis is susceptible to the disease. [1125]
Sanogo and Clary (2003) report that Verticillium dahliae recovered from the weeds Physalis
wrightii (Wright groundcherry), Anoda cristata (spurred anoda), and Proboscidea louisianica
(devil’s-claw),is pathogenic to Chile pepper.
Control of Wright groundcherry, spurred anoda, and devil’s-claw may be important in the man-
agement of Verticillium dahliae in chile pepper. [1126]
Al-Rawahi and Hancock (1998) found the fungus Pythium oligandrum to be a parasite of
Verticillium dahliae in dual culture, impeding the latter’s ability to grow and form microscle-
rotia. Pepper grown in soil infested with V. dahliae, shoot and fruit weights were significantly
higher in the presence of P. oligandrum than in its absence. When soil was infested only with
P. oligandrum, fresh weights of shoots and fruits were 40 to 50% higher than when plants were
grown in its absence. The authors find that improved plant health associated with soil treat-
ment with P. oligandrum could be the result of complex interactions between pathogen, host,
and mycoparasite. [1127]
Spink and Rowe (1989) evaluated Talaromyces flavus as a potential biological control agent
of Verticillium dahliae on potato, but found no significant effect on disease development, tuber
yield, or percent recovery of V. dahliae from rhizosphere or nonrhizosphere soil at harvest. [1128]
Page and colleagues (1991) studied the loss in irrigated alfalfa (Medicago sativa) attributable
to Verticillium wilt (caused by Verticillium albo-atrum) was determined by comparing yields
of resistant and susceptible cultivars grown in the presence of Verticillium wilt and developed
equations for making economically sound decisions for managing alfalfa under the consederation
of losses due to Verticillium albo-atrium [1129]
856
Chapter 24
Physiology
Research and intensive supervision of food has widened the knowledge about the physiology
of nutrition. The activity of newspaper, broadcasting and television searching for sensational
news have mobilized the food industry in order to optimize their products.
The interest of the industry on nutrition physiology developed a great know how in the sector of
laboratory analysing methods, in processing technologies, in packaging material and in storage.
All these efforts resulted in better quality and safety.
The consumer, however needs more information. Many basic rules for healthy nutrition are not
known and misleading information are spread by commercials seeking sales increase resulting
sometimes in extreme reactions of certain groups of consumers.
Failure of nutrition is responsible for most of our diseases and rotten health. Diets are a wide
field of incomprehensible efforts to correct mislead nutrition.
The classic function of diets are to reduce body weight.

A great number of women try diets to reduce their weight. They are looking for better health
or want to improve aesthetics. Body culture is getting important in actual society.
Weight reduction should only be considered if there are clinical reasons. Body weight is geneti-
cally controlled. If one feels good with a certain weight everything no diet should be considered.
Much outdoor exercise keeps you healthy. There are some ways to determine normal weight[65]:
• Broca normal-weight
• Table of the American life insurance companies
• Bodymass Index BMI
The Broca normal-weight The Broca normal weight is given in kg and is defined as body
size in cm minus 100 for man.
For women the body size minus 100 minus 5 to 10% is used. Over- and underweight in relation
857
858
to broca normal weight is given in percent. The Broca-Indexis the quotient of the actual weight
and the Broca normal-weight.
Table of the American life insurance companies With this table the actual weight is
put in relation to the normal weight for the corresponding age and body size.
The Bodymass Index BMI The Bodymass index is the quotient of the body weight and
the square of the body size (kg/m2 ). This index gives best informations about the mass of the
body fat. It is less used as Broca because it is less informative for the patient.
Table 24.1: Ideal Bodymass index in relation to age

Age Bodymass index (kg/m2 )
19 - 24 years 19 - 24
25 - 34 years 20 - 25
35 - 44 years 21 - 26
45 - 54 years 22 - 27
55 - 64 years 23 - 28
over 65 years 24 - 29
(National Research Council 1989)
Table 24.2: Classification of overweight
Grade of overweight BMI(kg/m2 ) Broca-overweight(%)
Normal weight 0 20 up to 24,9 -

Moderate overweight I 25 up to 29,9 0 up to 20 (-40)
Strong overweight II 30 - 40 20 - 70 (-80)
Extreme overweight III > 40 > 70 (>80)
Dubious Pharmaceutical industry and flat magazines recommend all kind of diets. There are
made increasing turnovers in this field, not always without damage of health of the consumer.
Advertising uses terms like”slim”, ”calorie reduced”, ”light”, ”Du darfst”(You may), ”fat re-
duced” and others to promote selling of their products.
With great publicity campaigns in magazines, TV and radio appetite of the group of overeaters
is stimulated rather then reduced. The result of these products are therefore negative.
Examples of diets lacking any scientific background[414]:
• The apple diet
• The mayo diet
• The Max-Plank-diet
• The Book ”Fit for live”H. and M. Diamond, USA
• The separation diet of DR. Howard Hay in USA and Dr. Walb in Germany
• the Atkins diet
• The point diet
Lowcarb diets Lowcarb diets are low in carbohydrates and rich in protein and fat. The
most prominent lowcarb diets are the Atkins diet, the Southbeach diet, the Ketogen diet the
Anabole diet and the LOGI diet (Low Glycemic Index) from Dr. Nicolai Worm.
Vegetarian food with animal ingredients

Many vegetarian labelled foods of industrial origin do contain animal ingredients such as bovine
suet, lard, restaurants prepare their meals labelled as vegetarian with meat broth and marine
oil[430].
Psychology of diet plans

Diet plans and diet systems to be successful must observe some basic psychological rules:
1. At the beginning of a diet plan the dangers of overweight are enumerated. This is the
most dangerous part of the plan as those who do not succeed with the diet will later on
create a deeper psychological conflict. Their real problems which took them to overeat
will then be boosted. Such an introduction should always be banned from a diet plan as
it frightens the reader, it increases the inferiority complexes. Instead of telling the reader
how bad its life is, a diet plan should make its introduction enumerating the benefits.
2. The promise that overweight can be reduced to normal values using a specific diet is not
honest. As weight reduction is coupled to intake and output of calories over the whole life,
the necessary modification of life style cannot be achieved in one or two weeks of sometimes
strange procedures which lack any explanation of how it should work. The explanations
should be short and come to the point precisely. If the principles are unknown this part
should be omitted completely.
3. Reference of people who were successful with the diet. Usually well known people of the
public life and TV stars are cited. This increases the desire to participate of the life of
these persons. Awaking from the fairy tales the monotony of the daily round will be more
sad then before.
860
4. Certainty that everyone can succeed with the diet is a claim which is untrue.
Many people are unsuccessful and have great psychological distress failing in what is told
to be easy for everyone.
5. Explanation of the foundations of the diet should only be given based on well known
statements. If there is no explanation available no comment suggesting miracles should
be given.
The cause of failure of diet plans and how to do it better

Mislead diets are not caused by alteration of the basic metabolism. The real cause is the lack
of learn effect to adapt the life Style to a healthy way of life and to correct the bad habits.
Wolfgang Stabel[434], during a course to get rid of smoking habit said:
”Mankind can live 170 seconds without air, 12 days without water and 46 days without food.
Without tobacco it can live a whole life.”
To this statement one can add : one can live without chocolate, without candies and hamburg-
ers.
The essential message of diet plans should be to change the life habits: How to to it better[437]:
1. Drink 2 litre of water per day, eat fibre rich food.
2. Do not bother about calories, but spare fat and alcohol.
3. Eat on regular hours, do not eat in between.
4. Eat enough vitamins, minerals and proteins
5. Noting is forbidden, you can eat everything, but always without excesses
6. Enjoy a small dish. Eat always with attention.
7. Act against stress with physical activity and relaxation exercise and not with eating junk
food
8. Stay realistic. Set small scores. Distrust crash-diets and miracle-diets. Do it the safe way
changing food habits.
9. Activate the fat break down with physical activity. The more muscles you activate more
calories are burned.
10. Money back guarantee in case of failure of the diet is a bad trick. Less than 10% complain
in case of failure. The majority does not dare to do it. Who wants to admit to have failed
when it is being told that all other do succeed ?
The National Weight Control Registry (NWCR)[435]

The National Weight Control Registry (NWCR), is a research study from the University of
Colorado that seeks to gather information from people who have successfully lost weight and
kept it off for long periods of time.
The findings of this study are:

A little over one-half of the sample lost weight through formal programs (such as Weight Watch-
ers, or professional assistance, such as Overeaters Anonymous, a psychologist or a registered
dietitian; the remainder lost weight on their own.
Both groups reported having used both diet and exercise to lose weight and nearly 77% of
the sample reported that a triggering event had preceded their successful weight loss. Mean
(+/-SD) current consumption reported by registry members was 5778 +/- 2200 kJ/d, with 24
+/- 9% of energy from fat, Members also appear to be highly active: they reported expending
approximately 11830 kJ/wk through physical activity.
Surprisingly, 42% of the sample reported that maintaining their weight loss was less difficult
than losing weight. Nearly all registry members indicated that weight loss led to improvements
in their level of energy, physical mobility, general mood, self-confidence, and physical health.
[436]
Diet pills and powders[437] Many pills and powders are sold in super market in health
stores and in pharmacies. They promise wonders for much money without success:
L-carnitin Bodybuilder were the first to use L-carnitin as fat-burner.

L-carnitin works only with long time persistent muscle training, together with fat reduced food.
L.carnitin under these condition can act as a biocarrier in the energy system of the mitochondria
of the muscle cells.
Without physical activity fat is not burned. Even carnitin cannot change that. Oxygen must
burn the fatty acids and the resulting energy must be used.
L-carnitin can be obtained by the body through synthesis using methionine and lysin in liver
and kidneys.
Carnitin is present in bovine and in sheep meat. That is the etymology of carnitin (Carne-
latin=meat).
Vegetarians could get an undersupply of carnitin. However there are no signs of over weight
because vegetarians eat less fat. The use of pills containing carnitin is therefore unnecessary.
Tyrosine Tyrosine is an hormone of the thyroid gland . It is supposed to stimulate burning

of food components. Tyrosine is sometimes prescribed by physician to compensate an insuf-
862
ficient function of the thyroid gland gland. In normal persons the use of tyrosine can lead to
hyperfunctioning of the thyroid gland gland causing insomnia, restlessness, heart throbbing,
tachycardia, trembling, fear and overexcitability as well as intensive sweat.
Instead of using tyrosine normal persons should have more activity.
Genistein Genistein is a phytoestrogen (plant hormone) found in soybeans being of great

importance in human and in animal nutrition. The fertility of sheep and birds were found to
be reduced by high amount of genistein. It may be a natural defence of plants against natural
enemies.
Genistein has reduced affinity to estrogen receptors and thus a reduced activity compared with
estrogen.
As the use of soy beans in nutrition is increasing high levels of genistein in blood stream is to
be expected. Importance has the nutrition in Asia which has 50 times in normal nutrition and
400 times more genistein in baby food with soy bean diet than European baby food and normal
nutrition respectively. It is however interesting that there have been no reports on negative
activities with these nutrition. A certain protection against women Breast cancer is brought
into combination with an interference of genistein in the hormone household of hormones which
enlarges the menstrual cycle of Asiatic women. [672]
Natural dietary approaches to menopause disorders: The natural hormone replace-

ment therapy concepts came about as a result of population studies in Asia. The outcomes of
these studies were that many menopausal disorders of Western civilisation (1 to 5 mg/day of
soy isoflavones) were absent in the East due to large amount of soybean products (daily soy
isoflavone intake of estimated 50 mg/day) associated with a low fat intake.
Entering menopause a diet is being recommended being moderate in protein and complex
carbohydrates, with 15 to 20 % of the calories coming from fat. Saturated fat from animal
products should be low, unsaturated fats should come from cold water fish (salmon, tuna,
mackerel and herring). A good portion of the diet should come from soybean products, such
as tofu. To keep bowel bacteria in balance Lactobacillus acidophilus should be included in the
program.
Isoflavone intake amounts: The US National Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC) suggests the
following isoflavone intake amounts: [1522]
Optimal cholesterol reduction seems to require approximately 50 mg/day of isoflavones; this

amount would be found in approximately 25 g/day of soy protein.
For effects of arterial compliance amounts of 40-80 mg/day isoflavones are needed.
For antioxidant effect on lipids 10 mg/day may be effective.
For bone health a minimum of 50 mg/day of isoflavones are needed.
For hot flashes and vasomotor symptoms 40-80 mg/day of isoflavones were used in studies.
More evidence that soy isoflavones and proteins reduce cholesterol levels [1523]
In eleven studies selected for a meta-analysis Kyoko Taku and colleagues 2007 found that soy
isoflavones significantly reduced serum total and LDL cholesterol but did not change HDL
cholesterol and triacylglycerol. The authors concluded that soy protein containing enriched or
depleted isoflavones also significantly improved lipid profiles. Reductions in LDL cholesterol
were larger in hypercholesterolemic than in normocholesterolemic subjects, but no significant
linear correlations were observed between reductions and the starting values.
Iodine and algae Algae (Fucus vesiculosus)are sometimes used to increase the supply of
iodine. and are sometimes added to diet pills and diet powders.
Iodine is needed for the synthesis of thyroid gland hormones which regulate the energy house-
hold. Iodine can be obtained from marine fish, iodised kitchen salt, and food prepared with
iodinated salt.
The daily intake of 180 to 200 mcg is recommended. Increasing the intake over this value no
further activity on the fat burning machine is takes place.
Appetite depressant Ephedrine, Norephedrine, Fenfluramine can cause heart throbbing,

restlessness, insomnia, and hypertension. They can cause addiction.
Laxatives Long time use of laxatives leads to an important loss of potassium ions which on
its turn increases the intestinal inactivity.
Laxatives increase the problems. More physical activity and enough water during meals can
solve it.
Cynarine The bitter constituent and enzyme of chicory can promote the production of bil-
iary acids which act on the digestion of fatty acids.
Cynarine does not destroy fat as often is being told. Physical training is better than cynarine.
864
Bromelain and papain These enzymes are found in tropical fruits such as pineapple, pa-
paya and mango.
They help the digestion of food increasing the absorption. In this way these enzymes do not
reduce or destroy fat. As a matter of fact the assimilation of the food is optimized. This has
nothing to do with weight reduction.
Herbal metabolism boosters: Some herbal metabolism boosters can temporarily cause
weight drop. However, they do not eliminate excess of fat. Most of them contain stimulants
which increase the central nervous system and decrease appetite. They are mild diuretics .
They can cause unpleasant side effects such as dizziness, nausea, and frequent urination. As
soon the administration of these drugs is ended the weight returns to its original height.
How to avoid diet pills:
• Instead of appetite depressant chew longer during meals. Eat slowly. Drink a glass of
water before meals and eat a great portion of salad before the main dish.
• Instead of laxatives eat fibre rich food, drink enough water and make physical training
• Instead of dehydration pills use less salt in the kitchen. Eat more vegetables and fruit
juices, rice containing much potassium
• Instead of enzymes eat protein and vitamins rich foods. The body can produce sufficient
enzymes from proteins and vitamins which exist in nature.
• Instead of carnitin reduce the fat in your meals.
The separation diet of Dr. Howard Hay

Dr. Howard Hay was during his life attacked by a renal insufficiency. To help himself Dr. Hay
studied the composition of the body noting that it was built of 80% of alkaline material and
20% of acid material. Starting from this hypothesis Dr. Hay divided food in alkaline generator
and in acid generators. He introduced the following modification in his nutrition:
Acid generators : Great part of the proteins and part of carbohydrates.
Alkaline generators: Vegetables, fruits and salads. According to Dr. Hay the the alkaline
generators may neutralize acid elements, helping their excretion.
Dr. Hay augmented the amount of vegetables being half cooked and the other half raw.
Dr. Hay says that the failure of balance between the acid generator food and the alkaline
generator food is responsible for diseases like obesity, insomnia and depression.
Dr. Hay separated the protein rich food from the carbohydrate rich food, putting them in
different meals. This gave the name to his diet.
Dr. Hay established the rules to his diet:
• Do not be hungry. The body should be supplied continuously with energy
• Distribute the food through 6 meals between 7:00 am and 10:00pm
• The portions should be small
• Between the meals there are only fruits permitted
• Chew long enough. The old saying ”Chew every bit 36 time” is to be rejected. 20 times
are enough.
If food is not sufficiently ground the enzymes cannot do its job and repleteness cannot be
achieved.
• Beverages: Mineral water is permitted. Herb tea and fruit tea, but not black tea is
permitted
Take the beverages before or after the meals in order not to disturb digestion.
Most of the catabolists are excreted between 5:00 am and 12:00 am. It is that why Dr.
Hay recommends to take great part of the liquid after wake up.
Good diets
Low Fat - 30 Diet: It is a weight reduction program for all who want to reduce their weight
together with a group. Participation is for the time being limited to Germany.
The most important facts about low fat nutrition is given in small groups. Meals should not
contain more than 30% of calories coming from fat. You should eat only when feeling hungry.
At the first sign of satiation one should finish the meal. The diet is based on points. Minimum
amounts of foods are given. Once a week brochures on special topics are given.
A long-lasting modification of the nutritional habits are essential in order to avoid overweigh
Natural Weight Program: This program was developed by Dr. Doris Wolf She herself
had been overweighted and tried to amend it using here knowledge as a psychologist and psy-
chotherapist developing the Natural Weight Program.
Putting on weight because of emotional problems and stress are the main reasons for many
people to skip all good intentions of an healthy nutrition. Frustration, anger and other nega-
tive emotions are compensated by eating. Alternatives to get emotionally balanced other than
overeating are strategies of modern psychology. How to to handle one’s emotions and how to
accept one’s own body not as an enemy, but as a fried, are important subjects of the Program.
The negative attitude towards their body must be changed.
866
According to Dr.Doris Wolf all kind of diets are unsuitable for the majority of persons. There
are biological and psychological reasons which are responsible for the fact that only 2 to 5 per
cent of those who follow a diet register lasting weight reduction.
Dr. Wolf uses four principles as basis for her Program:
The four principles:

1 - Eat only when you are physically hungry and not when mental hungry.
2 - Eat what you like for the moment.
3 - Eat consciously, being aware of what you eat and how your body reacts.
4 - Stop eating when you feel satisfied
The risks of bad diets

The potential risks of low-carbohydrate diets The American Heart Association, the
American Dietetic Association and the American Kidney Fund warn about the potential risks
from the long-term use of low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets.
Low-carbohydrate diets, like Atkins diet avoid carbohydrates (starches or sugar) reducing or
even eliminating the intake of fruit, fruit juices, starchy vegetables, beans, bread, rice, cereals
pasta and other grain products. This leads to a nutrition consisting mainly of fat and proteins.
Permitted are meat, cheese, non-starchy vegetables. Everything else is limited to a minimum.
Later on the carbohydrate restriction is reduced but high fat and proteins persists. Despite
initial weight loss higher than rob obtained with other diets, low-carb diets however have a net
weight loss after one year which is not significantly different from other diets in comparison.
Many nutritionists attack the Atkins weight loss regime for its high fat content, increasing
the risk of clogged arteries heart attack, diabetes, stroke and several types of cancer in the long
term.
Deleterious effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors were demonstrated by Larosa [1392] in
a study of 24 obese individuals who followed the Atkins diet for 3 month. Caloric Intake de-
clined, but LDL cholesterol levels rose despite the weight loss. Most of the weight loss occurred
in the first few weeks, which suggests the combined effects of fluid loss and potential anorectic
(reduction of desire to eat) effects of induced ketosis.
The American Heart Association does not recommend high-protein diets because they restrict
foods that provide essential nutrients. An undersupply of vitamins and minerals, as well as
potential cardiac, renal, bone and liver abnormalities may result.
A new study carried out at the University of Oxford demonstrates a direct affect on the heart
caused by this diet. The results were presented at the American Heart Association conference
in November 15, 2005, in Dalas.
According to this study, the energy stores in the heart were reduced by an average of 16 per cent
as a result of the Atkins diet recommendations. One of the authors , Dr. Damien Tyler says
that similar patterns in a more severe form in patients with heart failure, and type 2 diabetics
also suffer from low energy stores.
Evaluation of High-Protein Diets

[1391] Evaluation of high-protein diets must be done ensuring that the American Heart As-
sociation Dietary Guidelines regarding eating patterns [1393] and the primary prevention for
coronary Omega 6 from the National Cholesterol Education Programme [1394] are observed:
1 - Total Protein intake should not be excessive (average 50 to 100 g/d) and should reasonably
proportional (around 15% of kilocalories per day) to carbohydrate (around 55% of kilocalories
per day) and fat (around 30% of kilocalories per day) intake.
2 - Carbohydrates should not be omitted or severely restricted. A minimum of 100 g carbohy-

drate per day is recommended to ensure overall nutritional adequacy through the provision of
a variety of healthful foods.
3 - Selected protein foods should not contribute excess total fat, saturated fat, or cholesterol.
4 - The diet should be safely implemented over the long term, i.e. it should provide adequate
nutrients and support dietary compliance with a healthful eating plan to prevent increases in
disease risk.
The AHA summarises: ”Successful weight loss occurs most frequently when a nutritionally
adequate diet that allows for caloric deficits (around 500 kcal/d for each 1 lb lost per week) is
tailored according to individual food preferences.
A minimum of 1200 kcal/d for women and 1500 kcal/d for men should be provided.
Total energy deficit has the greatest overall impact on weight reduction, especially when cou-
pled with increased physical activity and behaviour modification to maintain negative energy
balance. Over the long term, diet composition should be consistent with a balanced eating plan
that supports weight maintenance and lowers chronic disease risk.
Fit for Live The book ”Fit for Life ” describes a separation diet like that of Dr. Atkins.
It gives an additional recommendation not to eat simultaneously products rich in proteins to-
gether with dietary fibres.
868
Arguments against the diet of Dr. Atkins and the book ”Fit for Live” Traditional
physiology does not agree with the diet of separation of Dr. Atkins. Meat does not have
dietary fibres. It is therefore necessary to eat meat together with vegetables and fruits. The
fibres absorb rests of digestion.
Protein digestion starts in the stomach with chloridric acid, together with pepsin. In the in-
testines there are proteases such as produced by the pancreas and by the gall bladder.
Important proteasesare: trypsin peptidase elastase ribonuclease and others.
As the external layer of the intestines is also composed by proteins the danger of proteases to
digest his own meat. Nature protects against an own digestion secreting a protective layer of
mucus made of mucopolysaccharides . This is the origin of the denomination”mucous mem-
brane” which is not attacked by proteases.
Sometimes however particles of enzymes get through the mucus barrier. damaging mucous cells
which can regenerate rapidly.With protein rich nutrition there are more proteolytic enzymes
secreted as in case which should of a normal nutrition.
Fibres of vegetables, fruits and cereals absorb excesses of enzymes.Fibres also accelerates pas-
sage of not digestible material through the intestines.
The diet of Dr. Hay advises the ingestion of proteins at night when the body rests permitting
the enzymes to stay longer in the intestines.
The danger of intestinal cancer and other gastric malfunctions are possible.
Other low-carbohydrate diets

Zone diet: The Zone Diet was developed by Barry Sears, a former researcher in biotechnology
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
It is based on the control of insulin by balancing protein and carbohydrate at each meal (1-4).
The American Heart Association notes that food must be eaten in required proportions of pro-
tein (40), fat (30), carbohydrates (30). Menues are not appealing. Vegetable portions are very
large. Food is low in copper. Theories and long-term results are not validated. Couuld result
in weight maintenance if carefully followed. [1391]
Protein Power: The Protein Power diet was developed by Michael R. Eades, M.D., and
Mary Dan Eades, M.D. The principle of Protein Power is the restriction of carbohydrates - in
particular refined ones.[1395]
The American Heart Association notes that this diet is not practical for long term. Rigid rules
must be observed. The diet is low in calcium, fibre, pantothenic acid, copper, manganese. It
has limited food choice and is not practical for long term. It is high in total fat and saturated
fat. No long term, validated studies are published.[1395]
Low-Carbohydrate diets, like the Atkins diet may reduce beneficial gut bacteria
[1404]
Sylvia Duncan and colleagues 2007 found in a study that prolonged use of very low-carbohydrate
weight-loss diets may decreased concentrations of butyrate and butyrate-producing bacteria
(mainly bifidobacteria) in faeces.
According to the authors butyrate production is determined by the content of fermentable

carbohydrate in the diet. Other studies had found that butyrate stops cancer cells from grow-
ing, and so helps prevent colorectal cancer.
The authors stress that plenty of sources of fibre found in fruit and vegetables are impor-
tant to provide the right sort of carbohydrates for the beneficial bacteria if low carbohydrate
diets are to be consumed for long periods of time.
Other critics concerning this type of diet is the higher risk of clogged arteries and heart attack
in the long-term.
Sugar Busters:[1405] Sugar busters involves eating high fibre vegetables and whole grains.
Fruits are encouraged and discourages saturated fats and transfats. It is important to eat three
regular meals daily. Moderation in portions size is most important. Exercise is also on the
program.
The American Heart Association notes that Sugar Buster eliminates many carbohydrate foods.
Discourages eating fruit with meals. It is low in calcium, vitamin D, vitamin E, pantothenic
acid, copper, potassium. [1395]
Stillman Diet[1406] It is a severe form of ketogenic diet. Nothing is permitted if it is not

mentioned in a list. The american Heart Association notes that Stillman diet is low in fibre,
vitamin A, thiamine, vitamin C, vitamin D, folate, pantothenic acid, calcium, copper, mag-
nesium, manganese, potassium. There are no long-term, valid studies published. There are
extreme limitations in food choice, and very little variety. [1395]
Ketosis and the ketogenic diet [1396]

Elevated levels of ketones in the blood is called ketosis. It can occur during fasting, during
a very high fat diet or during a long lasting deficiency in carbohydrate supply. This is the
principle of the ketogenic diet. Atkins diet, which is used basically as low-glycemic index diet,
may also cause ketosis. There are three ketones formed under hunger (also called ” ketone
bodies”): acetoacetate, acetone and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA). [1397]
The fatty acids with participation of glucagon are digested in the liver to ketone compounds in
order to liberate the needed energy. This is to see in opposition to the formation of D-glucose
from carbohydrates to liberate energy. Ketones are burned in muscle and other tissues. High
levels of ketones in tissue reduce the pH level. This is called ketoacidosis. One ketone is acetone
870
which may cross the blood/brain barrier and, if in high concentration, causes central nervous
disorders.
Deficiency of insulin in diabetics may lead to ketosis.
It seems that fasting or high fat diet known as ketogenic diet is appropriate to induce ke-
tosis for medical treatment of a specific neurological disorder. It should not be used as a body
weight reducing diet.
Triglycerides used in ketogenic diets

Medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diet for adults is being suggested by Schiff and colleagues.
The researchers recommend a therapeutic trial of the ketogenic diet in intractable epilepsy for
all ages. [1398]
Foods used in the diet include high triglyceride dairy products (e.g., butter, cream), mayon-
naise and peanut butter. Carbohydrates, found in bread and starches, are eliminated in the
diet, and liquid and calorie intake are often restricted as well in order to aid ketone accumula-
tion.
Dr. Richard Veech at NIH in a study, concludes that ketone bodies increase metabolic effi-
ciency, while decreasing production of free radicals, may treat neurological diseases such as
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, and the heart and brain operate 25% more efficiently us-
ing ketones as a source of energy. [1399] [1400]
Alternative sources of ketones to avoid high fat diet for Alzheimer’s and Parkin-
son’s patients [1401]
Richard Veech and colleagues (2000) found that the elevation of ketones may offer neuropro-
tection in the treatment or prevention of both Alzheimer’s disease, where therapy is lacking,
and Parkinson’s disease, where therapy with L-dopa is time limited. The researchers recom-
mend alternative sources of ketones, produced biotechnologically to overcome the atherogenic
potential of the high-fat ketogenic diet used in childhood epilepsy.
The Mayo diet The Mayo diet has no connection with the famous Mayo-Clinic of USA. It
is a protein rich and fat reduced diet (1.000 to 1.500 kcal)
The diet includes 3 eggs every day, meat, fruits and vegetables.
The diet is not well balanced. It is very high in cholesterol, and even for short time not suitable.
Ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets
Bircher-Benner diet It is the ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet from Dr. Max Bircher-Benner which
according to Dr. Bircher-Benner
• Mobilizes the ability of self healing
• Stimulates the intestines
• Fresh vegetable food containing high energy of the sun
• contains only three meals
The diet contains minimal amount of food The diet contains lacto-vegetable food, at
least 70% food of vegetable origin as muesli, fresh fruits, vegetable, salads, only moderate heat
is used to prepare food. All ingredients should be of ecological origin.
No potatoes and no fish is allowed
The Birchner-Benner diet avoids meat and meat products being therefore low in animal fatty
acids, cholesterol and purine. This is positive in case of gout, coronary diseases and disorder of
the fatty acid metabolism.
Like every lacto-vegetarian diet undersupply of iodine and iron can take place.
Evers diet from the physician Josev Evers The Evers Diet was at first developed to be
applied in case of Multiple sclerosis.
It is a moderate ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet with germinated cereals (containing high level of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.) Ingredients should be of natural, unmodified origin. ” Denatu-
rated” food resulting from industrial processing was considered as being the reason for diseases
of industrial era.
The diet has different levels to be applied on different diseases:
• In case of disease only unheated vegetarian food, no potatoes are given.
• For convalescents low-fat meat, ground unheated meat, fresh fish and raw ham are given.
Comment The ban of potatoes is unreasonable. Potatoes are low in calories, and dietary
fibres and vitamin rich.
Ground, unheated meat is a danger to weak patients because of possible bacterial hazard.
872
Waerland diet, Waerland, Sweden This diet was established to clean intestines, to bal-
ance acid and base metabolism.
Regulate the intestinal flora. Useful bacteria from milk and plants are in confrontation with
harmful bacteria from meat, eggs and fish. The diet has low amount of food. Raw vegetable
meals are followed by cereals meals. Milk, fruits and vegetables are considered as alkaline food.
Instructions about sleeping and working time are given. In the morning 1/2 litre of potato-
vegetable soup is taken followed by warm bed rest lying on stomach.
The Waerland diet cannot be explained. Meat, eggs and fish cannot be considered as harmful
and many claims are not true.
Danger of sudden changes of nutrition

Increasing Salads and other vegetables increase intake of certain vitamins like folate, vitamin
A and K.
Decreasing high caloric foods like dairy products, red meat, salad oil or eggs reduces intake of
minerals such as calcium zinc and selenium, vitamin D, E, B12 and essential fatty acids.
Anthroposophical nutrition It was established by Rudolf Steiner. It should develop con-

sciousness, to live in reconciliation with nature, nutrition as part of the holistic doctrine.
Ovo-lacto-vegetable nutrition with low content of meat. Avoid potatoes as they destroy instinct
and promote materialism. Ban of use of pressure cooking and frozen food as they are ”enemies
of life”.
Comment Many of the doctrines of anthroposophy cannot be followed. The ban of potatoes,
pressure cooking and frozen food is not tenable.
Macrobiotic nutrition according M.Kushi Macrobiotic nutrition was founded by G.Ohsawa,

Japan. His nutrition was dangerous and some people died using this diet. In USA macrobiotic
nutrition according Ohsawa was prohibited.
M.Kushi modernized the content of macrobiotic nutrition. A short use of this nutrition is
harmless. It is harmful and not indicated to be followed for a log period. Macrobiotic nutrition
is a part of Zen-Buddhism a kind of philosophy of life.
Life energy comes from vegetable nutrition, cereals in the highest form.
Contrast from passive to active, from night to day, from feminine to masculine, is the principle
of Yin and Yang which were transferred to food by Kushi. No milk, and milk products, no
meat and tea are consumed.
The Jo-Jo effect reviewed

Two important studies recently reviewed the knowledge about the Jo-Jo effect, following a diet.
These studies received much attention in 2007 following the effort to tackle the obesity problem
in large parts of the population of developed countries.
Rena Wing and James Hill of the University of Colorado started in 1994 ” The National
Weight-Control Register”. [1403]
In Germany Joachim Westenhöfer of the Hamburger Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften

started years ago the ”Lean Habits Study”. [1402]
The strategy: Both studies agreed with foregoing studies in the strategy to counter over-
weight:
• Reduction of intake of energy.
• Increase of energy
• Overcome of the own psyche
• Only one of these three items may become a great help to reduce weight and keep it
down, but using a bit of all three recommendations has the best chance to avoid Jo-Jo
effect .
The physiology of overweight and Jo-Jo effect

The authors stress the fact that a variety of reasons account for overweight and a jo-jo effect
following a diet. The body reacts to weight loss due to famine or diet with defence mechanisms
such as increased hunger and reduced energy consume.This makes weight-reduction and to keep
it down so difficult,
• Thyroid gland: The thyroid glad reduces the production of hormones as soon as the
body weight diminishes. Some parts of the nervous system are also less active reducing
thus the metabolism.
Less calories are transformed.
• Adipous tissue: The adipous tissue elaborates leptin, a compound which signalises the
brain to increase the feeling of hunger, and the body temperature is slightly reduced,
reducing thus the basal metabolism.
• Stomach: The stomach produces ghrelin which is an hormone triggering hunger feeling
in the brain.
874
• textbfPancreases: The pancreases produces insulin which is reduced when the body weight
falls. Less insulin brings the brain to increase appetite and reduces energy consumption.
• Muscle mass: Body weight reduction is related with loss of muscle mass, this means
that the overall consumption of calories is also reduced resulting again in weight gain.
The studies clearly state that overweight is not bound to a genetic code, what is settled is the
individual energy output. Seven strategies are recommended:
1 - Stay mobile: Sport and mobility during work reduces the risk of overweight. The main
goal of sport and mobility is to keep, or build muscle mass. Walking, swimming or biking are
recommended by the authors.
• Make sport of 30 minutes three times a week
• Don’t use elevators. Use stairs instead of escalators. Use your bike or walk to your office.
2 - Never say ”never”: Trying to avoid everything brings frustration the moment you make
a small error. You may have a nice fatty dinner as long you compensate it the next day with
vegetables or you insert an extra sport session.
3 - Don’t loose the rhythm: Eat always at the same time. Take your time for your meals.
Do not eat in a hurry. Do not miss your breakfast.
4 - Control is necessary: Weigh yourself once a day or at least once a week, so you can take
countermeasures as soon as your weight rises.
5 - Be stingy with fat: You can do without butter, fatty cheese, heavy sauces and fatt
pork. Instead of this you can eat vegetables and fruits instead.
6 - Fresh vegetables:You can eat as much vegetables and salad. as you wish. You get
enough dietary fibre and have a low calorie intake. Eat small portions of fruits spare with
banana, raisins, grapes and dates.
7 - Join a weight club: You may feel strong in company of kindred spirit in a weight
club. Avoid people who seduce you to eat the wrong foods.
Special nutrition
Adventists of 7 Days Nutrition of Adventists is reduced in proteins and may chose between
3 types:
1. Rigid vegetable nutrition (veganism)
2. Ovo-lacto-vegetable nutrition (approximately 50% of adventists follow this nutrition)
3. Conventional nutrition low in meat, avoiding completely the intake of pork and his deriva-
tives, molluscs and blood.
Every meal should have many grains of cereals, fruits and vegetables. Strong spices are
avoided,
Old cheese and spicy cheese such as roquefort as well as alcoholic beverages or caffeine
are not allowed.
There are only three meals each day without any coffee break.
It is interesting that there is a smaller number of cancer of adventists and Mormons as found
in other groups. There is no doubt that the different nutrition of adventists and Mormons is
one important factor of lower cancer rate.
Batiste They have moderate meals and negation of alcohol.
Buddhists Nutrition generally veganic, no bulb vegetables are eaten(onions, garlic etc). Ban
of alcohol and caffeine.
Hare Krishnas Vegetarian nutrition, raw meals. Veganic nutrition is seldom followed. Ban
of alcohol and caffeine.
Hindus
1. Lower castes: Mixed nutrition with little meat, sheep, lamb, goats, pork, chicken and
fish. Bovine and buffalo meat are not eaten
2. High castes (Brahmans): Lacto-vegetal nutrition with exclusion of any kind of meat and
fish, often exclusion of eggs. The nutrition avoids bulb vegetables (onions, garlic and
leek). Alcohol is forbidden.
Mormons Mormons are moderate in nutrition. They eat fruits and vegetables and have a
moderate consumption of meat.
Such moderate nutrition is reduced in fat, albumin, cholesterol and purines. Vitamins and
dietary fibres are higher as found in normal nutrition.
Mormons and adventists have lower cancer rate as other groups. There way of life and their
nutrition seems to be the reason for favorable statistics.
876
Jews Jews try to avoid any kind of excesses. There are detailed rules concerning consume of
meat. The animals are chosen and killed ritualistic by a butcher which is determined by the
community. Bovine meat is permitted, as well as goats, lamb, poultry (excluding carnivorous
birds) fish with scales and fins.
Forbidden is pork, meat of horses, camels, rodents, carrion eating animals, bird of prey, eel,
octopus, Crustacea, milk and eggs of forbidden animals, blood and meat with rests of blood,
fatty acids from organs such as kidneys, sciatic nerve.
Supply of meat and derivatives is made by communities.
Milk and meat are not consumed together. Milk has to be taken immediately before meals
containing meat, or 5 to 6 hours after. Milk substitutes of vegetable origin have no restriction.
Milk and milk products in soups, margarine, ice cream and chocolate must always be taken in
consideration.
Food containing milk are to be kept and handled separated from food containing meat and
their derivatives. This refers also to utensils such as pots, knifes, forks and spoons, plates,
napkin have to be used only for one type of food. Dish washing of both types of food must be
separately.
Fish, eggs and vegetable food can be consumed together with meat. There is no restriction.
During Passah (the Jewish eastern) unleavened bread is eaten.
Kosher Foods The food scares in Europe and in US shows a great need of further food
quality control through official governmental ruled authorities.
Industry and retail service are engaged in a catastrophic price war in the struggle for might and
power. That is why the level of assessment between good and evil in the practice of business
world is being lowered and gives chances to outlaw practices in food industry.
In this struggle ethics are put aside, unfortunately also by governments such as the case of BSE
meat being forced to be sold in the European Community by directives of the Commission of
the European Community. It is that why US consumer starts to buy kosher foods in the hope
to get food produced under strictly controlled environmental technologies.
In US the market of kosher food is growing by over 10% each year and even over 40% of all
grocery items are kosher certified in the Northeast America. Religion is not the only motivation
for these customers.
Over 60 % of kosher food buyers are not Jewish. Muslims, Seventh Day Adventists, vegetari-
ans, people with specific allergies and consumer seeking extra quality look for food labelled as
kosher[556].
What is Kosher Food ? Kosher means ”fit” and is regarded as prepared in accordance
with Jewish food laws.
The laws are biblical in origin coming from the five books of the Bible. Interpretation and
extentions were made by rabbits in order to include new foods and new processes such as new
technologies.
Slavery of desires and emancipation of animal inclinations an the role of moral laws
such as kosher dietary laws [693] Rabbi Grunfeld wrote in 1972 an essay about why Jews
follow kosher dietary laws: ”Holiness or self sanctification is a moral term; it is identical with
moral freedom or moral autonomy. Its aim is the complete self-mastery of man.”
”To the superficial observer it seems that men who do not obey the law are freer than law-
abiding men because they can follow their own inclinations. In reality however, such men are
subject to the most cruel bondage; they are slaves of their own instincts, impulses and desires.
The first step towards emancipation from the tyranny of animal inclination in man is , there-
fore, a voluntary submission to the moral law. The constraint of law is the beginning of human
freedom...Thus the fundamental idea of Jewish ethics, holiness, is inseparably connected with
the idea of law; and the dietary laws occupy a central position in that system of moral discipline
which is the basis of all Jewish laws.”
”The three strongest natural instincts in man are the impulses of food, sex, and acquisition.
Judaism does not aim at the destruction of these impulses but at their control and indeed
their sanctification. It is the law which spiritualises their instincts and transfigures them into
legitimate joys of life.”
Certification of kosher food

In USA an organization makes an audit on the production line of the food which is going to be
certified as kosher. Ingredients and technology is examined in order to see if it is in accordance
to the Jewish law. With a contract the producer signs an obligation to avoid any change.
European certification is done by a rabbi which visits the plant. He alone decides if the product
is kosher. There is no contract being made and the company can therefore change its produce
after the rabbi has gone. This is a matter of ethics. A good company will maintain the rules
imposed by the rabbi. Bad ethics will follow the way which is the best to it.
In London the Beth Din companyis specialized in certification of kosher food plants all over
Europe.
Kosher laws
Jewish religion laws are the basis of kosher laws. It seems that the rules based on the Old Tes-
tament of the Holy Bible developed from experiences such as diseases coming from pork which
was contaminated by Trichinella spiralis. Eating pork with trichinosis could cause disease thus
proving that pigs were impure animals.
Kashrus The Kashrus magazine lists foods and ingredients which are certified as kosher, as
well all kosher certification agencies of the world down to single Rabbis
878
Kosher Status Of Mars Products [694]

According London Beth Din Kashrut Division Announcements articles in the UK press in 2007
say that whey derived from animal rennet is contained in Masterfoods (Mars) confectionery.
Whey can be a by product of cheese-making and animal rennet can be used in cheese manufac-
ture. Since whey derived from this source contains only trace amounts of rennet, it is permitted
according to halacha.
There is therefore no problem with any of the Masterfoods (Mars) products that are currently
on the London Beth Din approved list.
Kosher laws First law: Allowed animals

Allowed are mammals which chew their cud and have a split hoof. So cows are permitted. Pigs
and horses are forbidden.
Birds: Chicken, ducks and goose are allowed. Ostrich and Emu are forbidden.
Fish: All fish with fins and easily removable scales ( without tearing the skin ) are allowed.
Molluscs and crustaceans: This includes shrimps lobsters and oysters are forbidden, such as
lard, chitin and porcine lipase.
Ingredients: All ingredients derived from not kosher foods are forbidden. Ingredients such as
gelatin, tallow or lard, chemicals derived from animal fat such as glycerol or monoglycerides
are prohibited.
Emulsifiers such as used in the production of margarine containing mono and diglycerides are
of great concern as their plant or animal origin are often unknown.
Second law: Animal blood Blood is considered to be a special fluid inherent to life. Con-
sumption is forbidden. Slaughter must be performed by a trained person in a way to eliminate
the blood from the remaining meat. Slaughter must therefore follow a specific procedure.
Heat, hot water and various acids to prevent microbial contamination are forbidden at this
stage of processing. Inspection of the meat must guarantee that there are no specific defects.
After that the meat is soaked and salted to remove last remains of blood. The second law does
not apply to fish.
Third law: Separation of dairy products from meat products and equipment used
The third law says that all kosher foods, ingredients and equipment are classified in three cat-
egories:
1.- Dairy products
2.- Meat products
3.- Pareve: Here are included all vegetable foods fish, eggs and honey. Pareve food and their
ingredients must be dairy free.
People with allergies to milk and their derivates, allergies to egg proteins and vegan vegetarians
welcome the third law as they can find the separation of these three categories which are not
being observed by any other food laws. Pareve may contain a certain amount of milk and their
derivates as it is sometimes not to be avoided. This may be tolerated for religious purposes but
should be kept in mind of those who are very sensitive.
Ingredients allowed for pareve foods: Agar-agar, Carrageen, dextrose, gum arabic (Aca-
cia), lecithin Chocolate may also contain milk and milk derivates. The technical equipment
used for milk chocolate must be cleaned carefully before producing pareve chocolate. European
chocolate may have up to 5% of other fats than cocoa fat. These fats can be of vegetable and
of animal origin.
Fourth law: Ban of leavened products made from grains of wheat, oats, rye, barley
and spelt during the Passover week
Permitted is matzo which is a specifically prepared unleavened bread, matzo meal and matzo
cake flour.
Many baked products are available completely grain free giving persons with grain allergies
such as coeliac disease to get foods which are free of certain allergens.
Grain-like materials Rabbis in Europe have extended the prohibition of the grain rules to
other grain-like materials such as legumes, corn, rice mustard and sesame seeds.
Sugar and corn syrup are avoided as ingredients of many products during Passover The third
rule supports the theory that the deep roots of the Jewish religious laws regarding kosher foods
were unconciously based on veterinary and epidemiological experiences which had summed over
centuries under the classification ” this is good and that is bad”.
Kosher technology The production and marketing of kosher food require: 1.- A reputable
rabbinical supervision agency (or a single Rabbi in Europe) must be contacted.
2.- All ingredients are checked are included in the Kashrus. The equipment and their material
must be examined to be kosher. There are restrictions on account of parts made of rubber
ceramics and some plastics.
3.- All ingredients must be completely labelled on kosher food thus providing a complete in-
formation for sensitive people, whereas normal food regulation use class names and exceptions
allowed to hide some of the ingredients.
Ingredients which require kosher supervision: Casein, emulsifiers fats, fatty acids, lipids
and whey.
880
Moslems
Mosque in Kuwait city
Halaal food:
Halaal food means permitted, allowed lawful or legal for Muslims. The opposite of Halaal is
Haraam meaning prohibited, not allowed, unlawful, illegal. Halaal is a set of Islamic dietary
laws guided by the Qur’an the Holy Book and the teachings of Allah’s profet Muhammad,
may peace and blessing be upon him. Nutrition of Muslims differs from one region to another.
There is a strong negation of pork and his derivates, gelatine, meat of dogs, birds of prey, frogs
and snails.
Killing of animals are ritually. Alcohol is forbidden. Consume of blood is not allowed. The use
of animal fat in baking is forbidden. Gelatine is not allowed.
Exceptions are allowed only in emergencies.
The rules for Halaal are very similar to those of kosher foods
The most important rules for Halaal are:
1.- Meat must be slaughtered in a particular way.
2.- Only certain animal products are allowed
3.- Technological processing , like Processing aids, cleaning materials and equipment used in
production must be free from prohibited food traces.
These restrictions are based on the Quran (The revealed book)and Sunna
The Islamic dietary laws which rule the production of Halaal foods is a religious matter which
can be handled only by a Muslim expert. The Quran is the holy book of Muslims, being the
last testament and revealed from God (Allah) as the Holly bible.
The Quran says:

Sura five ( The table) ( Al - Maida ) verse 4 to 5. ”(4) It is forbidden to eat: From which
has died by himself, blood and meat of swine and of that by whose slaughter another name as
Allah has been invoked, and of that which has been suffocated dead by beating or which has
fallen to death or which has been killed by the horns of other animals or have been killed by
other wild animals, (except the animal which has been wounded by wild animal came to your
hands still alive and you have finally killed it by yourself), and this what has been slaughtered
in honour to wrong idols.”
Other quotations are:
The Hadith (sayings of the last Prophet, Muhammad
The figh (jurisprudence) of the Muslim Jurists Hanafi, Shafii, Maliki and Hanbali.
The Muslim Food Board ( UK ) is one company which investigates and certifies Halaal foods.Heat,
hot water and various acids to prevent microbial contamination are permitted.
Technology and science has deeply changed production, ingredients and packaging enhanc-
ing shelf life, food colour and texture. Global spread of exotic foods and rapid changing of
nutritional habits make it important to verify the lawfulness of food in compliance with the
commands of the Islam.
Muslims are allowed to eat food prepared by people who are of other beliefs ( 5:5) and Muslim
food is permitted to be eaten by them, on condition that these foods are pure and permitted
foods. (5:88). This permits an interchange and living together of Muslims with other groups
all over the world. This is very important for the functioning of our global world.
However some precautions should be made:

’Do not eat unless Allah’s name has been taken and this (not taking Allah’s name) practice is
transgression’ (Qur‘an 6:121)
The Ahlul-kitaab of today are recognized by name, less faith. There is no guarantee that
they take the name of Allah/God when slaughtering an animal. Furthermore, they cannot be
anymore trusted in matters pertaining to Halaal/haram. Unless there is certainty that the
Ahlul-kitaab read the ’Tasmiyah’ i.e. take the name of God when slaughtering an animal, only
then the meat will be permissible. It was suggested that the Muslims in the U.S.A. and U.K.
slaughter the animals themselves. This will make them independent from Christian/Jewish
sources.
The meat sold on the market such as supermarkets should be packed, sealed and stamped
by a Muslim organisation consisting of reliable scholars and Úlama who have proper Islamic
knowledge of the principles pertaining to Halaal/haram.
Intoxicants, such as alcohol are forbidden because they are harmful substances.(2:219) (5:91)
Consume of blood is not allowed. The use of animal fat in baking is forbidden.
Exceptions are allowed only in emergencies, such as being forced by hunger, without intention
to practice sin (2:175, 5:5)
The classification of new foods and their ingredients in Halaal and haram, based on the com-
mandments of the Qum‘ran the Holy Book can only be done by an Muslim expert. The Islamic
882
religion does not have a central religious head which dictates latest findings but some author-
ities are accepted in their leadership, such as the mufti of the Al Azhar University of Cairo.
Due to different translations of the Koran the local interpretation of its content differs from
country to country.
Some experts which can classify food as Halaal or haaram are: halalexplorer.com; muslim-
consumergroup.com;somalitalk.com; Joe M. Regenstein, Cornell University, USA; M. Chaudri,
IFANCA International: Masood Khawaja, The Halaal Food Authority.
Haram ingredients:
Any product or by-product (including any product used temporarily as a substitute) which
contains any one or more of haram products in however minute quantity, whether as an ingre-
dient or sub-ingredient or as a processing aid or as a releasing agent or as a glazing agent or as
an additive or as a colour or in any other form, is haram.
Table 24.3: Halaal Ingredients -A-

Acacia gum E414 Ammonium carrageenan Antioxidants (BHA and BHT)
Acetic acid Ammonium chloride Arachidonic acids
Adipic acid (acidulant) E355 Ammonium sulfate Artificial colour
Agar E406 Amylase Ascorbic acid E300
Algin/calcium alginat E404 Amylose Aspartame
Table 24.4: Halaal Ingredients -B-

Baking soda BHT Butylated hydroxytoluene E321 Sparrow, emu
Benzoate of soda E211 Bird, exclude bird of prey Ostrich
Benzoic acid E210 Chicken, duck, turkey, goose Butyric acid
BHA Butylated Hydroxyyanisole E320 Pigeon, dove, partridge, quail
Table 24.5: Halaal Ingredients -C-

Calciferol (Vitamin D3 ) Calcium sorbate E203 casein
Calcium acid phosphate Carbohydrates (natural) Cellulose E460
Calcium carrageenan CMC Carboxymethylcellulose E466 Cellulose gum
Calcium disodium EDTA Carotenoid Cholecalciferol
Calcium carbonate Carrageenen E407 Choline fron yeast, soy
Calcium propionate E282 Carrot oil corn meal,corn starch
Calcium saccharin E954 Carrageenin E407 Corn syrup
Calcium silicate E552 Carotene E160a Cultures,living microbes
Table 24.6: Halaal Ingredients -D-

Dextrin E1499 Diglyceride (plant) Disacharides
Dextrose Dipotassium phosphate
Dicalcium phosphate Disodium inosinate E631
Table 24.7: Halaal Ingredients -E-

Erythorbic acid E315 Ergosterol Enzyme (plant)
Ergocalciferol
Table 24.8: Halaal Ingredients -F-

Farina Ferrous sulfate Fructose
Fatty acids (plant) Fibre Fumaric acid E297
Ferric orthophosphate Ficin Fungal protease enzyme
Ferrous gluconate E579
Table 24.9: Halaal Ingredients -G-

Galactose Glutamic acid Glyceerol/Glycerin (plant) E422
Gallic acid Gum acacia Glycine, sodium salt (plant) E640
Gliadin/ Gluten Glyceride (plant) Guar gum E412
Glucose Gum arabic E414
Table 24.10: Halaal Ingredients -H-

Hemicellulose Honey Hydrogenated oil
Hormones (plant) Horse meat (sometimes) Hydrolysed vegetal protein
Table 24.11: Halaal Ingredients -I-

Inulin Invertase Isopropyl citrate
Invertase Iodine
Table 24.12: Halaal Ingredients -L-

884
Lactic acid (synthetic) Lactostearia Lecithin (soy or plant) E322

Lactose Leavenings Lysin
Table 24.13: Halaal Ingredients -M-

Malt Mannitol Monocalcium phosphate
Malic acid E296 Mannosan Monoglycerides (plant) E471
Malt diastase Methionine Monosaccharides
Maltic acid Methylcellulose E461 MSG (monosodium
Maltodextrin Methylsilicone glutamate) E621
Maltose/ maltitol E965 Molases from Halaal source
Table 24.14: Halaal Ingredients -O-
Oxalic acid
Table 24.15: Halaal Ingredients -P-

PABA(para-aminobenzoic Pectin E440 Potassium bromate
acid) from plants Phospholipi (plant) Potassium citrate E332
Papain Propionate Potassium phosphate E340
Partially hydrogenated Propionik Acid Potassium sorbate E202
vegetable oil Propyl gallate Propyl gallate E310
Pectic material Potassium benzoate E212 Propylene glycol E1520
Table 24.16: Halaal Ingredients -R-
Roughage
Table 24.17: Halaal Ingredients -S-

Silicon dioxide E551 Sodium erythorbate E318 Stannous chloride
Smoke flavourings Sodium hexametaphosphate Sucrose
Sodium acid pyrophosphate E450 Sodium phosphate E339 Suet
Sodium alginate E401 Sodium propionate E281 Sulphur dioxide E22
Sodium aluminum sulfate Sodium propionate E281 Sweetener (natural)
Sodium ascorbate E301 Sodium silicon aluminate Sodium bisulfite E22
Sodium benzoate E211 Sodium sorbate E201 Sodium caseinate E46
Sodium bicarbonate E500 Sodium sulfite E221 Sorbitol E420

sodium caseinate E469 Sorbic acid E200
Sodium citrate E331 Soybean lecithin
Table 24.18: Halaal Ingredients -T-

Tannic acid Tartaric acid E334 Titanium dioxide E171
Tapioca From grape only,not from wine Tricalcium phosphate
Table 24.19: Halaal Ingredients -V-
Vanilla acid, Vanillin Vitamines Tablets (A, D, E, C
Table 24.20: Halaal Ingredients -Z-

. Zinc .
Vinegar produced from alcohol: Vinegar Fermentation is only permitted when vinegar
as final product is wanted. A rest of 0,5% alcohol is permitted.
Shubhah (Mushbooh)
Shubhah or Mushbooh means ”suspected” and is applied for foods or drinks from which it is
not known to be Halaal or haram. Shubhah or Mushbooh foods, being doubtful foods or drinks
should not be consumed.
Table 24.21: Mushbooh Ingredients

Acetic acid ester of Mono- Alanine Animal fat
diglycerides (animal) E272a
Beta-carotene, apocarotenal Bile salts Broth (animal)
using animal based gelatine
Brilliant blue E133 Carcium stearoyl lactylate E482 Charcoal (animal)
Chelate Cholesterol Chymotrypsin
Citric acid ester of Mono- Cobalamine Cochineal E120
Diglycerides (animal) E272c
Coloring extract Cures Cystein
886
Cystine Diglyceride (animal) Disodium guanilate

Dissodium inosinate Dripping (animal) EDTA
Enzyme (animal) Etoxylated mono-/diglyceride Fatty acids(animal)
Folic acid Glyceride (animal) Glycerol/glycerin
Glycerol stearates Glycogen Gum traganth E413
Histamine Hormones (animal) Hydrolysed animal protei
Inositol Insulin Keratin
Lactic acid ester of Mono- Lactose made from whey Lipids

diglyceride (animal) E272 which is produced from animal rennet
Monoglycerides (animal) Monopotassium tartarate E336i Niacin

(tartar Cream) from wine
Oleic acid Oxysterin Para amino benzoic acid

Pepsin (animal) Phenyl alanine Phospholipid (animal)
Phosphoric acid E338 Polysacharides-glycogen Polysorbate 60 E435
Polysorbate 80 E433 Polyunsaturated (animal) Propylene glycol

alginate E405
Propylene glycol monostearate Quinoline yellow E104 Renin/rennet (unless it is

if animal glycerol is use of plant/microbial/synthe
origin)
Riboflavin Rum flavour Saccharine E954

Shortening(animal) Sodium lauryl sulfate Sodium stearate(animal)
Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate E481 Sorbitan monostearate E491 Sodium nitrate E251
Sweetener-Aspartame Sweentener-Cyclamate Sweetener-Saccharine
Stearate Stearic acid Sunset yellow E110
Sucroglycerides E474 Tartaric acid E 334 Tartaric acid ester of Mon

from wine diglycerides (animal) E27
Tartazine E102 Thiamin Tonic

Trypsin
Table 24.22: Haram Ingredients
Alcohol Animal fat Alcoholic beverages

Animal shortening Bacon (pork) Boar
Carmin E120 CochinealCollagen (pork)
Carnivorous animal (Lion,tiger, Cider (alcohol) Cocaine

cheetah, dog, cat)
Codeine Fermented malt Gelatin

Lipase(animal origin) Kosher gelatin l-cysteine (if from human hair)
Monkey Pepsin (Hog) Pork
Rennet Sodium nitrite E250 Uric acid
Snakes Tallow Vanilla extract (alcohol)
Wine Whey (unless the rennet

used is plant/microbial/
synthetic
Ritual slaughter
The Sunna describes the ritual slaughter. All animals should be slaughtered according to this
Islamic ritual with exception to animals shot during hunting. Ritual slaughter should be done
invoking the name of Allah and cutting the throat, artery and gullet with one stroke of a sharp
knife. The animalö must be alive at the moment of slaughter in order to allow total bleeding
because consumption of blood is forbidden.
Blood is therefore used as meal for animal feeding or dried together with the content of stomach
and intestines as agriculture fertilizer.(Buckenhüskes et al.,1996][378] In Germany the Islamic
ritual slaughter is not allowed (BVerwG,Urt from 15.06.1995-BVerwG 3 C 31.93 German reso-
lution against ritual slaughter without stunning). According German veterinary rules animals
have to be made unconscious before bleeding. The University Al Azhar of Cairo has accepted
stunning with electro shocks. This however is not according to the opinion of the majority of
Moslems which consider such slaughter as haraam[378].
Animal slaughter research At the University of Hanover, Germany Professor Schultz and
Dr. Hazim used Electroencephalograph (EEG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) to compare the
888
pain caused by Islamic slaughter and western method using captive bolt stunning.
According to both scientists the Halaal method caused no change in the graph of the EEG the
first 3 minutes after cutting the throat of the animal according to Islamic ritual.The next tree
minutes showed a condition of deep sleep, followed by a zero level.The heart was still pumping
and convulsion of the animal due to a reflex of the spinal cord driving maximum quantity of
blood out of the body.
Islamic slaughter was therefore classified as humane and hygienic method.
Western method by captive bolting stunning showed in the graph of the EEG signs of severe
pain. The heart stopped beating retaining much blood in the body.
The western method was therefore classified by the authors as unhumane and unhygienic for
the consumer because of increased amount of blood being retained in meat(Animal slaughter
research; report in Internet).
Ramadan, the fast-month Consumption of food and beverages during daytime. There is
only one meal right after sunset and one meal before sunrise. This rule is very difficult to be
followed by hard workers, persons exposed to high temperatures and travelers.
Halaal (lawful) food product definition The Muslim Food Board (U.K.) [378] gives the
following definition of food for Moslems [378]:
Halaal food is defined as any food product that is free from all of the following:
Any product or by-product derived from:
a) Pig
b) Blood
c) Carnivorous animals (except fish]
d) Reptiles and insects
e) Any marine animals except fish
f) The bodies of dead animals
g) The bodies of Halaal animals (i.e. Buffalo, Cow, Sheep, Lamb, Goat, Deer, Rabbit, Chicken
etc.) which are not slaughtered according to the Islamic Law.
h) Wine,Ethyl Alcohol or Spirits, where these remain in their original chemical form.
Vinegar, produced from alcohol.
Fermentation is only permitted when vinegar as final product is wanted. A rest of 0,5% alcohol
in the vinegar is permitted. A natural content of alcohol in fruit juices is tolerated even by
deep religious people [378].
Any product or by-product (including any product used temporarily as a substitute] which
contains any one or more of the above products in however minute quantity, whether as an
ingredient or sub-ingredient or as a processing aid or as a releasing agent or as a glazing agent
or as an additive or as a color or in any other form, is Haraam (unlawful) for Muslims.
Some examples of Halaal food products are as follow:

1. Milk (Cow, Sheep and Goats)
2. Honey
3. Eggs
4. Fish
5. Edible plants (including sea plants), which are not intoxicant
6. Edible fresh or naturally frozen vegetables
7. Edible fresh or dried fruits
8. Edible nuts like peanuts,cashew nuts, hazel nuts, Walnuts etc.
9. Edible grains such as wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats etc.
10.Edible condiments such as cardamom, clove, sage leaves, turmeric, chilli, curcumin etc.
Some common examples of Haraam (unlawful,forbidden) food products are as follows:
1. Bone stocks or animal fats (e.g.: Lard, suet, dripping, gelatine, aspic, glycerol, stearates,
stearic acid, proteins, amino acids, bone, charcoal, pepsin, animal renet etc. )
At the beginning of 1998 the Al Azhar University of Cairo redefined gelatine as Halaal. Ac-
cording to the University of Cairo is gelatine a food ingredient which is so strongly hydrolysed
that there is no connection left with the original pig. This new point of view is official granted
but not everywhere accepted by all Moslems. The industrial use of gelatine should therefore
be avoided.
The Islamic religion does not have a central religious head which dictates latest findings but
some authorities are accepted in their leadership, such as the mufti of the Al Azhar University
of Cairo.
Due to different translations of the Koran the local interpretation of its content differs from
country to country[378].
2. Any additive or color derived from animals:

E 120 Cochineal
E 104 Quinoline yellow (if glycerol is used)
E 153 Carbon black (if animal charcoal is used)
E 471 Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids (if animal products is used)
E 472 (a to e) Acetic ,lactic, citric, tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides of fatty acids
(if animal product is used)
E 474 Sucroglycerides (if animal product is used)

E 476 Polyglycerol esters of polycondensated fatty acids of castor oil (if animal product is used)
3. Production of whey powder or whey solids using animal based rennet.
4. Lactose made from whey which is produced using animal rennet.
5. Lining of containers with animals or alcohol products as used in baking of bread, cakes etc.
890
6. Production of beta-carotene and apocarotenal using animal based gelatine.

7. Use of animal based glycerine as a coating for raisins or as a flower improver.
8. Vitamins A, D and beta-carotene which is protected in a matrix that do not conform to the
above Halaal Food Production definition. The above are some examples of Halaal and Haraam
food products,the list is by no means complete. 9.- Plants which can cause drug addiction and
cause doping.[378] Not permitted foods are called Haraam. The hypothesis that certain kinds
of food were forbidden because of hygienic reasons was made by Lück in 1966 and Saleh in
1972. This hypothesis is nowadays denied unanimously.It is believed that all rules have strict
religious origin[378]. A food does not lose his halaal character when it proves to be allergic to
a small part of the population.
Toxic foods such as containing aflatoxins are haraam because they are harmful [378]
Definition of Halaal Food according to the Codex Alimentarius second edition:Food

labeling 1998(General Guidelines for use of the term ”halal”) [558]
Muslim halal dietary laws are found in the Qumramand the books of Hadith ( the Traditions).
Interpretation of these laws are made by Muslim scholars over the years to make an update
to modern nutritional knowledge including new processes which are being used in modern
technology.The basic principles of the Islamic laws should however not be altered. Because of the
growing global Moslem population the committee of the Codex Alimentarius has set up rules for
a global definition of Halaal Foods. According to the Codex Alimentarius are Halaal Foods those
which are conforming with the Islamic laws. They do not contain anything which is forbidden
by the Islamic laws. They were handled stored and free of any forbidden materials.During their
production they were kept away from other food which are not conforming with Islamic laws.
The processing or storage of halaal foods is allowed in the same room where not halaal food is
being processed or stored when it is absolutely sure that any contact between both foods are
avoided.
It is allowed to prepare Halaal foods which equipments which have been used to prepare not
halaal foods when cleaning of the equipment according to Islamic laws have been performed.
Basic foods which are Halaal according to the Codex Alimentarius All foods are
considered as Halaal with exception of specific animal origin or containing products or derivates
from not law conform origin.
Haraam animal food

• Pigs and boars
• Dogs, snakes and monkeys
• Carnivorous animals with claws and tusks such as lions, tigers, bears, and similar animals.
• Birds of prey with talons, such as eagle, vulture and similar animals
• Pests like rats,centipedes, scorpions and similar animals.
• Animals which according to Islamic laws should not be killed such as ants, bees and
woodpecker
• Repulsive animals such as lice,flies worms and similar animals
• Animals which can live on land and in water such as frogs, crocodiles and similar animals
• Mules and similar animals
• All poisonous and dangerous animals of the sea
• All animals which have been slaughtered disregarding the Islamic laws.
• Blood
Haraam vegetable foods All poisonous and dangerous plants are considered as Haraam,
unless the poison or the danger is being discarded during processing.
Haraam beverages All alcoholic beverages are haraam as well all forms of poisoning and
dangerous beverages.
Haraam additives All additives which originate from the foods cited before are considered
as Haraam.
Halaal slaughter
• All animals living on land according to Islamic laws should be slaughtered in accordance
to the Islamic hygienic rules.
• The person who slaughters the animal should be of Islamic religion and should know the
Islamic slaughter procedure.
• The animals which are to be slaughtered should be in conformity with the Islamic laws
• “The sentence “ Bismillah “ ( in the name of Allah ) should be uttered immediately before
the slaughter of every animal.
• The slaughter instruments should be sharp and not withdrawn from the animal during
slaughter
• Slaughter should happen cutting the windpipe,the gullet and the most important veins
and arteries in the neck.
892
Labeling of Halaal food according to the Codex Alimentarius If Halaal characteristics

are mentioned in relation to food the term “ Halaal ” should be declared on the label. Claims
suggesting that Halaal foods are more nourishing or healthier than other foods should be
avoided.
What is behind a brand

Halaal chocolate confectioneries: [64] Confectionery is commonly forbidden as ingredients
as gelatin, enzymes and emulsifiers are considered Mashbooh because he origin of the ingre-
dients is not known. Tesco, however wants to introduce the Ummah Foods chocolate range,
being free of animal fat. “Ummah” means “the Muslim community“ Ummah Foods already
supplies the Halaal orange and caramel chocolate bars to Islamic bookshops, newsagents and
universities in UK in 2006.
Launching his products among the Muslim population of East-London, Mr.Kahlid Sharif, di-
rector of Ummah Foods, believes that winning over the Muslim customer base, rather than
targeting a broader “ethical” market, is the key to success. Mr. Sharif says “You cannot put
a Muslim name on a product and not expect the core customers to be Muslim”. With Tesco
targeting the ethnic foods, changes this marketing strategy.
Qibla Cola: [64] The brand has a presence as far as England, Canada, Pakistan and Africa.
Since Qibla is an Islamic word used to describe the direction in which Muslims face to pray,
one could think that the cola is aimed at Muslims. However, according to the producer the
target is everyone who wants to make a conscious decision to buy an ethical brand.
Quakers Quakers don’t have a set of rules about anything including nutrition. Their principle
is moderation in all things.
Rosacrucis Lacto-vegetable, renunciation of alcohol.

Not to be mistaken by A.M.O.R.C. Antiquus Misticus Ordae Rosae Cruzis who smoke, drink
alcohol, all forms of nutrition are allowed.
Sikhs Meat of bovines and alcohol are not allowed.
Weight Reduction
Daily intake of energy The only way to treat overweight is to bring the daily intake of
energy down to the level of the daily output of energy. None of the above mentioned wonder
diets have brought a durable weight reduction[65]
”Eat half of what you eat now” can reduce intake of calories to an acceptable amount. Formula
diets [170] Formula diets such as Cambridge-diet, Day-fit , Slimfastor Herbalife according to
DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) are expensive, reduce life quality and destroy
environment.
Formula diets in Germany have to be in accordance to the Diet-directrix which prescribes the
concentration of nutritional components.
The amount of dietary fibres of formula-diet is often to low, so fibres and pellets of peelings
and hull of cereals are added.
Formula diets for weight reduction according to Codex Alimentarius, second edi-
tion,1994 part 3 Formula Foods for weight reduction diets are foods which are ready to
serve or must be prepared according to instructions and are intended to replace one or more
meals of the day.
Formula foods to replace all daily meals They should have at least 800 kcal(3.350 kJ) and
not more than 1.200 kcal (5020 kJ).for a day, divided in three or four meals with equal amount
of calories.
Formula foods to replace one or more mealsTo replace one or more meals they should
have at least 200 kcal(835 kJ) and not more than 400 kcal (1.670 kJ) for each meal.
If the formula foods are claimed to replace main meals they should not have more than 1.200
kcal (5.020 kJ). The formula diet system is not a safe system to reduce body weight. As soon as
one comes back to former nutritional habits the overweight returns. This is called Jo-Jo-effect.
Publicity campaigns using words like flavour and delicious meals were prohibited in relation to
formula diets because of their monotonous flavour which becomes disgusting being used for a
long period.
To reduce body weight the DGE says to return to normal balanced nutritional habits.
There should be no struggle with the body.
A permanent bad conscience leads to stress. A good feeling is to achieve having no feeling of
guilt.
As an orientation about the amount of energy which is necessary in normal life a table of the
daily required energy is given below. This table does not replace weighing. It is not possible
to calculate the real daily intake of energy and there is not possible to determinate the ideal
intake of energy because each individual has its own basal metabolism and has different jobs
and do different sports requiring different amount of energy.
The determination of nutritive value of carbohydrates and proteins in relation to their content
in calories are calculated using calorie tables when recipes are known.
If recipes are not available the content of fat by means of solvent extraction are determined.
Proteins are measured by means of the Kjeldahl method using the factor of 6,25 for conversion
of nitrogen to protein. The content of fibres and water are determined at 105◦C. Carbohy-
894
drates are calculated as being the rest of it. The energy of 100 g of food is calculated using the
following values:
Table 24.23: Energy of food ingredient
Ingredient kJ kcal
1 g protein 17 kJ 4 kcal
1 g fat 37kJ 9 kcal
1 g carbohydrate 17 kJ 4 kcal
Calorimetry
Calorimetry burning the food in a closed system and measuring the rise of temperature is a
method which is seldom used.
Table 24.24: Daily intake of energy as calories or Joules
Age kCal/day(man/women) cJoules/day (man/women)

0 to 2 month 550 2.200
2 to 5 month 750 3.100
6 to 11 month 850 3.600
1 to 3 years 1.100 4.500
4 to 6 years 1.500 6.500
7 to 9 years 1.900 8.000
10 to 12 years 2.300 / 2.200 9.500 / 9.000
13 to 14 years 2.700 / 2.500 11.500 / 10.500
15 to 18 years 3.000 / 2.400 12.500 / 10.000
19 to 35 years 2.600 / 2.000 11.000 / 9.000
36 to 50 years 2.400 / 2.000 10.000 / 8.500
51 to 65 years 2.200 / 1.800 9.000 / 7.500
> 65 years 1.900 / 1.700 8.000 / 7.000
Pregnancy + 300 + 1.200
Breath-feeding + 700 + 3.000
This table is made for people with normal activities. For hard workers please add:
• For moderate hard workers add 2.500 kJ (600 kcal)

• For very hard workers add 5.000 kJ (1.200 kcal
• For super hard workers add 6.700 kJ (1.600 kcal)
Drugs to fight bodyweight

[210] The classic diets and fasting are seldom long lasting. The pharmaceutical industry is
conscious of the growing market of drugs to reduce weight without changing once life habits.
H. HAUNER [211] writes:”For the moment being there are no convincing drugs for treatment
of overweight. The majority of authorized Drugs act on the neurotransmitter noradrenalin or
serotonin.
Suppressant of appetite like derivates of amphetamines should be used very seldom because of
their side reactions (such as rise of heart beat frequency and rise of blood pressure, insomnia,
pulmonary hypertension), their short time of activity and the danger of habit formation.
A long-time effect every overweight therapy are disappointing. Only less than one third of
patients can hold their weight after a diet.”
Xenical, the antifat drug

Xenical is a drug containing the substance orlistat . It can reduce bodyweight up to 10%
without serious side effects.
Xenical can help when used for a long period together with a change of life habits. Its activity
takes place in the intestines. It reduces the absorption of fat up to 30 percent. Xenical is being
produced by Hoffmann la Roche , Grenzach, Swiss.
Orlistat
Orlistat is a synthetic substance resulted from the research regarding lipstatin which had been
found in bacteria which live in the soil of Mallorca, the Island in the Mediterranean Sea.
Lipstatin was found to slow down the absorbtion of fat. This took the research of Roche to the
discovery of orlistat. Xenical was liberated on the European market in august 1998.
Amphetamines
Amphetamines were used in war to keep soldiers awake during combat.Later amphetamines
were found to act as appetite suppressant and being sold as such. Very soon the selling was
canceled because of heart complaints, Angina-pectoris tremble and nervosity.
Phentermin and norephedrine

Phentermine is the active substance of Adipex N and norephedrine was used in Antidiaposi-
tum X 112 Fugoa N and Regenon. They are appetite suppressant. They have the same side
896
reactions noted by amphetamines. Phentermin was prohibited in Germany because of the high
blood pressure of the pulmonary artery. In Austria it is still being sold under the name Adipex.
Aminorex
Aminorex was used as active substance of the drug MenocilMenocil. Its selling was canceled
because of irreparable high pressure at the pulmonary artery.
Phenfluramine
Phenfluramine is an appetite suppressant which stimulates serotonin presenting the same side
reactions described above as well as depressions.
Sesame seed and oil and control of high blood pressure: Researches at the Osaka
University of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Taiwanese researchers have demonstrated vasode-
pressing properties which help to control high blood pressure.
Sesamin, a supplement made from sesame exerts action on nitric oxide production and its
ability to inhibit ET-1 production from endothelial cells. ET-1 constricts blood vessels.
Publications biased by own understanding of their authors or editorss [476]

James R Marshall and Zhao Chen argue that epidemiologic patterns of disease-exposure asso-
ciations must be interpreted in light of the profound imprecision of exposure assessment that
characterizes nutritional epidemiology. The authors highlight the imposition of publication
bias: the failure of researchers to submit and of editors to publish findings that do not fit
well with the their own understanding. The information extracted from assays of associations
between exposure and disease is always estimated with serious imprecision or bias.
Physiology of hunger
Hunger has different phases:
Phase 1: The seat of the centre of hunger is located in the hipothalamus. Tiny sensors
situated on the walls of the stomach and intestines communicate with the hipothalamus. They
send informations about quantity of food filling the stomach and the intestines.
Other biochemical sensors control the concentration of the different substances such as
glucose, the amino acids and the concentration of fatty acids in blood. These informations are
also send to the hipothalamus.
When the level of glucose drops the hipothalamus sends signals to the brain where old habits
related to the search for food are located.
Phase 2: If the body does not react on these signals the hipothalamus intensifies the signals
of hunger.
Phase 3: If these strong signals of hunger does not work the hipothalamus changes his tactic
and starts to burn fatty acids, situated in the centres of reserve.
Phase 4: If this phase is also overcome the hipothalamus erases the signals of hunger.
Hunger artists and Fakirs can overcome long periods of hunger. These people report that
hunger vanishes after 2 to 3 days of starving being replaced by a feeling of wellnes which may
escalate to euphoria.
Appetite to specific foods

The body can show unspecific hunger but also increase the desire to specific foods, for example:
Noradrenalin, insulin and the neuropeptide Y are responsible for the desire to eat bread or
noodles.
Galanin is responsible for the desire to fatty food. As serotonin rises the desire for carbohydrates
decreases increases the appetite to food rich in proteins such as fried meat. After a meal rich in
proteins the blood level of serotonin decreases. The next meal will then be rich in carbohydrates.
Well-fed
The feeling of well-fed comes slowly. The first signals come from the walls of the stomach
and intestines indicating the stretch of these organs. These informations are centralized in the
brain.
The feeling of well-fed depends not only from the amount of food which had been eaten but
also from the quality of food. One litre of water does not kill hunger.
The seat of the feeling of well-fed is located in the hipothalamus controlling also the level of
nutrient substances in blood.
Noradrenalin and cholecystokinin are responsible for the informations of sufficient quantity
of energy being stored. Other substances such as serotonin modulate the informations with
emotions.
Serotonin is being produced in the brain and transported along the spinal cord to the neurons
where it produces the feeling of well-fed.
Reductil, a suppressant of appetite

Reductil is being sold in the USA under the name of MERIDIA . It acts in the brain reducing
appetite. The active substance of Reductil is sibutramin Reductil is being produced by BASF-
Knoll (Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik) . The drug has been liberated by the FDA (Food and
Drug Administration) in USA only after a long time. A similar drug, the appetite suppressant
898
REDUX with its active part the dexfenfluramin presented dangerous secondary reactions. In
Germany and in Austria Redux had been sold under the name of Isomeride. Redux has caused
damage of cardiac valves as well as pulmonary hypertension. After many tests it has been
proved that Reductil does not have these side reactions.
Reductil or Plenty makes serotonin stay for a longer time between the neurons. By this mean
the appetite is suppressed. The neurotransmitter serotonin transmits the feeling of well-fed in
the sinapsis from one neuron to another. after some time serotonin is slowly catabolized and
partially reabsorbed by the neurons.
Reductil with sibutramin closes the way which exists in the cell membrane of the neurons in
the region of the sinapsis avoiding serotonin being absorbed. Serotonin can therefore transmit
for a longer time the feeling of well-fed.
At the end of the decade of the 80 the WHO (World Health Organization) had obesity declared
as being a worldwide epidemic.
The FDA ( Food and Drug Administration) being conscious of the gravity of the problem had
speeded the registration and the approval of weight reducing substances. This caused a flood
of new drugs, fibres to fill the stomach, laxatives, teas, special diets and appetite suppressants.
All these products don’t work or have serious side reactions.
Xenical, The fight against fat

Digestion of fat takes place with help of bilear acids and pancreatic lipases, which hydrolyzes
the fat molecules enables thus the absorbtion by the gastric mucose.
Xenical by means of its active substance orlistat blocs the lipases of pancreas avoiding 30% of
fat to be hydrolysed in smaller parts. Fat which is not hydrolysed cannot be absobed by the
gastric mucous. It remains in the faeces causing diarrhea when to much fat is consumed. This
causes an educational effect which lead to a reduced intake of foods rich in fat.
Xenical acts slowly. It is necessary to take the drug for a long period. It helps only in combina-
tion with a diet, together with a change of its nutritional habits towards a healthy composition:
much fruits and vegetables, little meat, less fat accompanied by physical activities such as sport
or garden work. One cannot escape the following overweight equation:
(Absorbed energy) - (Basal metabolism energy + physical activities energy) =
Body fat
To reduce body weight it is necessary to eat less, to reduce fat intake, and practice more phys-
ical activities.
All efforts to reduce overweight with drugs, even surgery of the adipose tissue are not lasting
when they are not accompanied by a change of the nutritional habits.
Basal Metabolic Rate: The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the number of calories burned
in a 24 hours period while lying down, but not sleeping in a comfortably warm environment.
Active Metabolic Rate: The Active Metabolic Rate (AMR) is estimated by adding the
caloric cost of all activities throughout the day to the BMR.
A person should not eat less than their BMR but not more then their ANR.
Serotonin Serotonin is a neurotransmitter which together with more than 100 other sub-
stances are active in the brain where nerve cells (neurons) link.
Serotonin is 5-Hydroxytryptamine. Besides its biochemical activities in the neurophysiology it
is also active as biogenic amine produced by bacteria. Serotonin is part of the blood clotting,
being released by the trombocytes[477]. Serotonin causes a strong contraction of blood vessels
resulting in an increase of blood pressure [478]
Serotonin
HO CH2 . CH2. NH2
N
H
Tryptophane is basis for serotonin. It is broken down by monoamineoxidase The Institute of
Technology of Massachusetts discovered that a high level of serotonin provides good mood and
avoids uncontrolled hunger and continuous desire to sweet food. Serotonin is therefore also
known as ” Good mood hormone”. Serotonin should be present in a steady concentration of
about 10 mg.
Some foods are rich in serotonin such as pineapple, banana, tomatoes. Other foods are rich in
trytophan which can be used by the body to synthetize serotonin. These foods should therefore
build the basis for a long lasting diet to reduce overweight.
Foods rich in serotonin and/or Tryptophan:[475]

Fruits: Pineapple,avocado, banana, date, fig, papaya.
Vegetable: Lamb’s lettuce, carrot, round lettuce, leek, parsley, beetroot, spinach, tomato, onion.
Meat: Chicken, veal, beef, pork, turkey breast.
Seafood: Perch, catfish, trout, shrimp, herring, codfish, carp, salmon, spiny lobster, mackerel,
900
mussel, sardine, haddock, plaice, pollack, sole, tuna.

Cereals: Rolled oats, rice, rye bread, white bread, rusk.
Milk and eggs: Buttermilk, eggs, fresh cheese, yoghurt, low fat curd cheese, milk.
Nuts: Cashewkernel, peanuts, hazelnut, almond, Brazil nut, walnut.
Overweight The Body-Mass-Index (BMI) is used to indicate overweight.

BMI = Body weight divided by the square of body length in meters
International classification of BMI ( Please see also BMI at the beginning of the chapter ”Phys-
iology”:
Table 24.25: Classification of overweight (National Research Council 1989)
Grade of overweight BMI(kg/m2 ) Broca-overweight(%)

Normal weight 0 20 up to 24,9 -
Moderate overweight I 25 up to 29,9 0 up to 20 (-40)
Strong overweight II 30 - 40 20 - 70 (-80)
Extreme overweight III > 40 > 70 (>80)
Slimming ingredients: The slimming ingredients are based on the following mechanisms of
action:
• Boosting fat burning (thermogenesis)
• Inhibiting protein breakdown
• Suppressing appetite/ boosting satiety (feeling of fullness)
• Blocking fat absorption
• Regulating mood (linked to food consumption).
Use of Xenical in case of low body weight (BMI below 30)

Xenical and Reductil were not developed to adjust cosmetic effects.They are drugs .0 to be
used when there are clinical indications.
Physicians and authorities of health departments refuse prescription of both drugs because new
drugs may have serious side effects which are seen only after many years. It is necessary to
compare the unknown risk of a new drug with the risk of obesity.
The greatest effect of weight reduction with Xenical are due to reduction of fat in the food
using the diet which should accompany the use of the drug. Chocolate, fat sausages, cheese
with high fat content and similar food should be banned from the table when weight should be
reduced. Reducing fat causes the weight return to normal in a healthy way without dependence
on drugs.
Food with reduced fat

Curd cheese can be used in place of butter or margarine as bread spread.
Avoid all white sauces like mayonnaise, use vinegar or sauces made with diluted yoghurt. Be
careful not to use Sauces with yoghurt from the supermarket. they contain small amount of
yoghurt together with a lot of oil in order to increase self life.
Avoid peanuts, sunflower nuts and other nuts. They contain much oil.
Avoid fried potatoes and all fast food.
Medical prescription of Xenical in case of BMI 30 to 40

In Germany Xenical is being sold only with medical prescription. The BMI must be at least
30 (obesity degree I and higher).
Use of Xenical in case of BMI over 40

In case of overweight with a BMI over 40 the use of Xenical should not be used. The loss of
weight would be to slow. In these cases the use of the Optifast program is indicated or even a
surgical reduction of the stomach.
Xenical, the drug of the rich society

The use of Xenical is very expensive. The medication of one month with Xenical costs 200 Dm
in Germany [210] and 300 Reais in Brasil[212]. The use of Xenical for two years costs 2.400
Dm.
Dexfenfluramin
Dexfenfluramin acts on the brain reducing appetite. It was recalled from market because of
serious side reactions such as coronary problems. Dexfenfluramin had been sold under the
name of Redux and is an example of serious side effects which are noted only after years of use.
One of such horrible markers of the history of pharmacy Contergan which produced anatomical
modifications on unborn. Other drugs which are being studied as possible weight reduction are
leptin , neuropeptide Y inhibitor, and CCK hormone . CCK hormone is produced by the small
intestine and acts as message substance telling the brain that there is enough food which has
been taken in. [212].
Instead of praising a new era of wellness-drugs (Viagra from Pfizer, Prozac from Eli Lilly an
antidepressant, Propecia from Merck Sharp and Dohme for better hairs, Xenical from BASF
902
to fight overweight and Reductil from Roche an appetite suppressant) one should come back
to the real values of life.
Spices and obesity[213]

Magriet Westerterp-Plantenga and colleagues found that consumption of spiced foods or herbal
drinks leads to greater thermogenesis (heat generation) and in some cases to greater satiety. In
this regard, capsaicin, black pepper, ginger, mixed spices, green tea, black tea and caffeine are
relevant examples.
The authors conclude that thermogenic ingredients may be considered as functional agents
that could help in preventing a positive energy balance and obesity.
Active Capsaicin of red chilli pepper boosts heat generation by the body. More energy is
therefore burned, reducing fat deposition.
Gingerols and shogaols of ginger have thermogenic properties.
Mixtures of of black pepper, red chilli, turmeric, cumin, ginger and other spices could therefore
become interesting to help against obesity.
Piperine of black pepper, is said to bind to so-called Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid
(TRPV1)receptors in the brain and other parts of the nervous system.
Capsaicin from red pepper may avoid obesity [214] Chin-Lin Hsu and Gow-Chin Yen
of Taiwan have found that capsaicin,from red pepper cause apopteosis (death) of immature
fat cells, the pre-adipocyte cells called 3T3-L1from mice. These cells differentiate into mature
adipocytes and increase fat mass, causing obesity. Capsaicin also decreased the amount of in-
tracellular triglycerides and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.
According to the authors, capsaicin inhibited the protein expression of PPAR which regulate
several genes involved in the formation of fat cells, as well as making body fat. These results
demonstrate that capsaicin efficiently suppresses adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes and
adipocytes. Red chilli pepper was also linked to inhibit the growth of pancreatic cancer cells.
[215]
However, high intake of hot chillies has been linked with increased risk of stomach cancers
in the populations of India and Mexico. [216]
Transient receptor potential or TRP:The phrase Transient receptor potential or TRP

is appended to at least three classes of ion channels which mediate the response of a cell to ex-
ternal stimuli (electrical charge, substances, and forces) by increasing or decreasing its selective
permeability to particular ions. The effect of this change is to modify the potential difference
between inside and outside of the cell. Hence ”receptor,” for sensitivity to the environment,
and ”potential” for this difference. TRPV1 to TRPV4 can basically be seen as thermometers
on a molecular level, and are activated by various means. When TRPV1 gets activated, it turns
up the heat by boosting heat production by the body. TRPV1 is activated by noxious heat,
acidic pH and capsaicin. [217]
These new findings should not lead to a higher consumption of chilli con carne. Obesity is
the result of many biochemical psychological and environmental occurrences. Seasoning could
be a small contribution to tackle the obesity problem.
The Conference on Preventing Childhood Obesity, December 8, 2003

Rising childhood obesity were highlighted at the Conference trying to find out how additional
increases in obesity could be prevented.
Matthew Gillman, MD, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, pointed out some of
the highlights of the conference: factors in foetal development and the first six month
of life
• Preconception: Maternal prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) may determine preg-
nancy glucose and insulin levels in the mother and fetus, with high levels increasing
newborn weight.
• Postnatal: The feeding of the newborn, infant, and child can determine the rate of
growth and influence the timing and magnitude of the adiposity rebound seen in childhood
According to Dr. Gillman differences in birth weight as well as subsequent BMI may be
determined by some the prenatal and postnatal environments In addition, genes that cause
birth-weight differences may also determine BMI differences.
Alterations in the foetal environment: Transfer of fatty acids, leptin, and other hormones,
foetal hyperinsulinemia, and the functioning of the foetal/placental unit are here included.
Other speakers pointed out:

Breastfeeding is protective against obesity and should be encouraged to be practiced during
the first year of life.
Foods and beverages that are energy dense and nutrient poor like soda and french fries should
not be fed to infants as young as 7 months of age as they alter taste preferences.
Authoritative versus permissive parenting styles and their role in childhood obesity should
be subject of further research.
Relationship of birth weight and childhood

904
According to Dr S. Kramer from the McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, like the United
States, Canada is experiencing an epidemic of obesity, not only among 6- to 17-year-old indi-
viduals but even in the toddler and preschool periods.
During the course of life, exposures that determine obesity may be attributable to environ-
mental, social, behavioural, or biological factors.
He examined relationship of birth weight to weight in childhood data from the Special Supple-
mental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Tennessee, and found
that the 3.0- to 3.5-kg birth-weight grouping most closely approximated that value at 5 years of
age. The lightest infants (1.0-1.5 kg) and the heaviest infants (4.5-5.0 kg) had the most extreme
weight-for-age and height-for-age scores initially but moved to less extreme values within about
12 months.
Overweight status at 7 years of age tended to increase as birth weight increased, with the
greatest increase in prevalence in the highest birth-weight (3.61-5.56 kg).
Obesity during pregnancy linked to high birth weight [592]

Dr. Kramer examined a Swedish study linking women’s weight in early pregnancy and their
own birth weights. There was a statistically significant increased risk of having a BMI of over
25 during pregnancy among women who were born large for gestional age.
The effect of high birth weight may become more important as birth-weight distributions move
toward higher weights.
Breathfeeding and obesity [592]

The relationship between breastfeeding and obesity data was also discussed by Dr Kramer. He
found that high maternal BMI is associated with reduced breastfeeding initiation and duration.
Therefore, the higher weight status of bottle-fed infants could be attributable to selection of
children of higher-weight mothers, who were both less likely to have breastfed and more likely
to have higher-weight children.
In addition, highly controlling bottle feeding practices at 18 month may interfere with the
child’s ability to self-regulate energy intake, an effect that may be long-lasting.
Dr Kramer concluded that there is probably a small protective effect of breastfeeding on child
obesity but is not of major public health importance. Neither birth-weight changes nor breast-
feeding explains the obesity epidemic.
Decreased physical activity as key role to the obesity epidemic [592]

Dr Kramer believes that a decrease in physical activity to be the main reason for the obesity
epidemic and less the higher energy intake.
Influences on the nutritional behaviour of children [592]

Barbara Devaney, PhD, Mathematica Policy Research, Princeton, New Jersey According to Dr
Devaney reported energy intakes of infants and toddlers are exceeding estimated requirements.
The transition in infant feeding from true infant foods to more adult foods occurs during a long
period but begins mostly at 9 to 11 months. As infants start to make the transition, the adult
diet has a significant influence on what children eat. With the importance of table foods in
the diets of children through the second year, changing what toddlers are eating may require
changing what adults and older siblings are eating.
Nutritional and flavour programming early in life [592]

According to Dr. Julie Menella, of the Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvaniathe
eating preferences of children are guided by their senses and not cognitive decisions. These
senses are well developed in utero but continue to change during development. There is mount-
ing evidence of nutritional and flavour programming early in life.
Infants can detect a diversity of flavours in amniotic fluid and mother’s milk. They accept
new foods, such as cereals, more readily if they are prepared with their mother’s milk. The
flavour profile of human milk reflects the mother’s diet and the culture in which the infant is
born and is similar to the flavour profile experienced in utero.
These findings are the first experimental demonstration that prenatal and early postnatal ex-
posure to a flavour enhances the acceptance and enjoyment of that flavour during weaning.
Dr. Menella concludes that the more varied the mother’s diet is during pregnancy and lacta-
tion, the more likely it is that the infant will accept new flavours, and that these very early
flavour experiences may provide the foundation for cultural and ethnic differences in cuisine.
Understanding both the causes of and likely solutions to poor food habits and choices requires
attention to the complex interactions of our genes, experiences, and lifestyles.
Parental feeding styles and children’s eating and weight [592]

Dr Jane Wardle of the University College, London, presented an overview about the relation-
ships between parental feeding styles and children’s eating and weight, and came to the conclu-
sion that greater control is probably associated with slightly lower weight and lower weight gain.
Breathfeeding and the time of introduction of solids [592]

Dr Andrew Ness, from the University of Bristol, Bristol, England, presented results from the
Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).
The associations of breastfeeding and introduction of solids with obesity risk were examined.
Breastfeeding appeared to be protective against obesity in unadjusted models, but these as-
906
sociations did not remain after adjustment. Some models examined the effect of the timing
of the introduction of solids. There was a suggestion in the unadjusted odds that the later
introduction of solids reduced the risk of obesity, but this was not the case after adjustment.
Family characteristics [592]

Dr. Ness found that for children whose mother’s BMI was >30, there was a 4.5-fold increase in
obesity risk, which was reduced to 4.2-fold after adjustment. For children whose father’s BMI
was >30, there was a nearly 3-fold increase in obesity risk, which was reduced to 2.7-fold after
adjustment. If both parents had BMIs of >30, then the child’s risk was increased 11.7-fold.
Children with no siblings had an increased risk of obesity, with an OR that increased to 2.2
and became statistically significant with adjustment. None of the other family factors was a
significant predictor of obesity risk.
Effects of activity, several characteristics of children’s lifestyles [592]

Dr. Ness noted that the effect of activity measured at 38 month showed that watching televi-
sion more than 8 hours//week increased obesity risk, compared with less than 4 hours/week.
Obesity risk was increased if less time was spent asleep overnight. More active children sleep
better in opposition to those who are sitting and eating in front of the television
Defining obesity: Obesity is defined according to sex- and age-specific BMI cut-off points
proposed by the International Obesity Task Force and Dietary Recommendations for Children
and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners; Pediatrics, February 1, 2006 from the American
Heart Association. [593]
Meal frequency and obesity citeToschke meal frequency André Michael Toschke from the
Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany and colleagues assessed the relationship be-
tween meal frequency and childhood obesity. An inverse association between meal frequency
and the prevalence of obesity in adulthood had been related in previous studies.
The scientists found that prevalence of obesity decreased by number of daily meals: three
or fewer meals, 4.2% ; four meals, 2.8% ; and 5 or more meals, 1.7%.
They concluded that the protective effect of an increased daily meal frequency on obesity
in children appeared to be independent of other risk factors for childhood obesity, and might
be due to a modulation of the response of hormones such as insulin.
Breath feeding and intelligence [1527]

Several studies suggest a positive association between breastfeeding and intellectual develop-
ment in childhood.
Mortensen and colleagues noted in a study published in 2003, that test scores suggested a dose-
response relationship for breastfeeding during the first nine months of life and adult intelligence.
The researchers found a significant positive association between duration of breastfeeding and
intelligence. They conclude that duration of breastfeeding may correlate with maternal intel-
ligence and with the quality of mother-child interaction, and that nutrients in breastmilk may
have long-term positive effects on cognitive and intellectual development.
Early Nutrition Programming Project EARNEST [1528]

The Early Nutrition Programming Project EARNEST is an European collaborative investi-
gation into the long-term consequences of early nutrition by metabolic programming and will
work until 2010 being coordinated by Professor Koletzko of the Children’s Hospital, University
of Munich, Germany.
It investigates early nutrition programming to enable a better understanding of the extent to

which nutritional influences in early life can programme a person’s development and metabolism
in adulthood, and studies the consumer attitudes to early nutrition programming and their eco-
nomic importance.
Important questions are targeted such as beneficial effects of maternal diet on visual, mo-
tor and cognitive development, and cardiovascular risk factors, including obesity propensity
and type II diabetes for the child.
Also on the agenda is the safety of prenatal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supply with regard to
growth, infection rates, and occurrence of other potential adverse effects, the relation between
prenatal (maternal) and postnatal (infant) dietary factors and how they predict early disease
markers and risk factors for chronic diseases, including chryptorchism, early growth patterns,
psychomotor developmental milestones, atopic diseases and cognitive development.
One point is the importance of promotion of breastfeeding, together with the development
of the right composition of infant formula and the appropriate complementary food. The Pro-
gram also wants to determine when are the critical windows during early development when
maternal nutrition programmes can influence one or more of the following chronic degenerative
diseases; obesity, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, renal disease, immune
function and cancer. A possible genotype dependence of these outcomes is to be elucidated.
Combined analysis of European Databases: EARNEST also assesses the combined anal-
yses of the Danish National Birth Cohort (DNBC) and Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort
(NMCC) databases.
Analysis of the information sources used by parents: The aim is to determine the
information sources used by parents to acquire knowledge about matters related to infant care
and nutrition in selected EU countries, and evaluate the accuracy of available information on
908
early nutritional programming.
Improved dietetic producs and commercial application: The knowledge generated by

EARNEST has great potential for application in new and improved dietetic products and thus
for creation of wealth and employment in Europe, and studies the modification of infant formu-
lae for commercial application. Such as innovative approaches to inulin-type oligosaccharides
and a recombinant human protein, both of which are natural constituents of breast milk.
Height, predictors of C-peptide and cancer risk in men [595] Giovannucci and col-
leagues in a study, found that excessive energy intake tends to increase circulating levels of
insulin and free insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I), which may increase risk of some cancers
that are common in Western countries. Greater body mass index, lower physical activity, and
a Western dietary pattern were independent predictors of higher plasma C-peptide levels .
A C-peptide score, based on these variables, was positively related to risk of Western-related
cancers, but not to other cancer types. Height was also only related to Western-related cancers.
The authors concluded that maximal growth in the pre-adult period and hyperinsulinaemia
during adulthood may largely underlie the excess risk of some cancers that are common in
Western populations. A substantial proportion of these cancers may be modifiable in adult-
hood, through alterations in body weight, sedentary behaviour, and dietary patterns that
stimulate hyperinsulinaemia. The risk for Western cancers could be cut by about 50% if the
entire population had an adult height and C-peptide score comparable to those values seen in
the lowest decile of the population.
A classification and regression trees analysis on risk factors for childhood over-
weight (CART analysis)
[596] André Michael Toschke and colleagues used high weight gain, parental overweight and
obesity, lack of breastfeeding, parental education under 10 years, high birth weight, having
older siblings, ethnic affiliation, and maternal smoking in pregnancy as predictors for later
overweight or obesity. The classification and regression trees (CART) was used as predictive
analytical method. They found that identifying children at high risk for overweight at school
entry by means of predictors detectable at 2 years of age the authors found that the Weight
gain >10,000 grams and obese parents accounted for the best reliable positive predictive value
of 40%. In this subgroup of 4% of the entire population, two of five children will be overweight
at school entry. These results reflect an improved but still insufficient identification of high-risk
children even with an optimal set of of predictors. Toschke came to the conclusion that positive
predictive values might be insufficient to allow for decision-making regarding specific interven-
tions targeted at high-risk children: most children would undergo an unnecessary intervention
with potential side effects if intervention were based on the sets of predictors assessed in this
study.
Classification and regression trees (CART) [597] Predictive analytics is an area of statis-
tical analysis that deals with extracting information from data and using it to predict future
trends and behaviour patterns. The core of predictive analytics relies on capturing relationships
between explanatory variables and the predicted variables from past occurrences, and exploit-
ing it to predict future outcomes. Such predictions rarely take the form of absolute statements,
and are more likely to be expressed as numbers that correspond to the odds of a particular
event or behaviour taking place in the future.
Classification and regression trees (CART) CART is a non-parametric technique that

produces either classification or regression trees, depending on whether the dependent variable
is categorical or numeric, respectively.
Predictive values are essential for objective evaluation of the predictive potential of tests under
consideration for the general population or test results on the individual level. Furthermore,
decision trees provide a useful and precise tool for decision-making in the physician’s daily
routine by simple visual assessment of disease probability without the need of any calculations.
Dietary fibre Dietary fibre are a variety of carbohydrates which are not hydrolysed by the
digestive system of the small intestine. They comprise polysaccharides which are not starch,
Oligosaccharides and lignin. They are found in vegetables, fruits, wheat bran, oat bran, sugar
beet pulp, Guar gum, locust bean gum, gum arabic, Psyllium, carrageenan,gum tragacanth
(Astragalus spec., alginic acid, xanthan gum, dextran, lactulose, karaya gum ( Sterculia urens)
)
Dietary fibre have great nutritional values for intestinal bacteria in the colon.
Dietary fibre have influence in the metabolism of the carbohydrates, lipids and minerals they
act protective against colon cancer.
Recommended daily intake of dietary fibre: at least 30 g/day.
European and other industrial countries daily intake of dietary fibre is around 20 g/day. The
intake of food rich in dietary fibre should therefore be increased.
Recommended composition of the dietary fibre:
- 20 g macromolecular dietary fibre of polysaccharides of not starch type. 5 g of them should
be insoluble.
- 15 g of resistant starch
- 3-4 g oligofructose
Mango dietary fibre [598]
Interest in dietary fibre has been increasing with scientific studies linking increased intake to re-
duced risks of cancers such as colorectal, and cardiovascular disease. According to the Columbia
University showed the average intake in the US was about 12.5 grams a day, instead of 32 grams
910
recommended by the US National Fibre Council.
According to Nely Vergara-Valencia from the Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bioticos del
IPN Mango dietary fibre might be an alternative for development of products with balanced
dietary fibre components and low glycaemic response, aimed to people with special carbohy-
drate/energy requirements. Unripe mangoes have promising chemical composition, soluble and
insoluble fibre content, antioxidant activity and of extractable polyphenols.
The concentrated extract of mango was tested in cookies and bread with a better balance
of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre compared to control bakery products.
The new products had higher total dietary fibre that respective controls, and the products
maintained significant antioxidant capacity associated to their extractable polyphenols.
Pectin Pectin can:

- Bind and help the excretion of steroid compounds reducing thus blood level of LDL- cholesterol[599].
- It increases viscosity and reduces the availability of nutritional energy.
- It reduces the peak of glucose after meals.
- It binds water and increases volume of faecis.
- Pectin has anionic groups which can be used as a transport medium of special drugs which
should act in colon. On the other side it should always taken under consideration if medication
should be taken during meals or between meals as the in some cases important parts of the
drug may be absorbed by pectin and other dietary fibre.
-Pectin can cause modification of the mucosa. Increase of the weight of ileum and colon of mice
was found by Schmehl[600].
Low esterified pectin had great activity. Even with no limits established by food law the use
of pectin should be kept in a reasonable level as the high viscosity may reduce resorption of
important food components.
Dietary fibre and inflammation

[601] C-reactive protein (CRP) is produced in the liver and is a known marker for inflamma-
tion. Increased levels of CRP are a good predictor for the onset of both type-2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease.
Yunsheng Ma and colleagues suggest that a diet high in fibre may play a role in reducing
inflammation and, thus, the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and that dietary fibre
is protective against high CRP. 20 to 35 grams of fibre per day, including both soluble and
insoluble fibre are being recommended.
It was suggested that dietary fibre could reduce the oxidation of fats and that soluble fibre
act as prebiotics improving gut health diminishing inflammatory conditions.
Dietary natural agents and cancer

Lupeol from fruits and vegetables
Lupeol, a triterpene present in fruits and vegetables is being studied as dietary natural agent
to slow tumour progression in prostate cancer.
Lupeol treatment resulted in significant inhibition of cell viability in a dose-dependent manner

and caused apoptotic death of prostate cancer cells. Among all death receptor targets exam-
ined, Lupeol specifically caused a significant increase in the expression of Fas receptor.
The small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of the Fas gene and inhibition of caspase-6,
caspase-8, and caspase-9 by their specific inhibitors confirmed that Lupeol specifically activates
the Fas receptor-mediated apoptotic pathway in androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells.
The treatment of cells with a combination of anti-Fas monoclonal antibody and Lupeol re-
sulted in higher cell death compared with the additive effect of the two compounds alone,
suggesting a synergistic effect. Because early clinical prostate cancer growth is an androgen-
dependent response, the results of the present study suggest that Lupeol may have a potential
to be an effective agent against prostate cancer. [602]
Green tea
Green tea polyphenols , a mixture of various polyphenols inhibit the growth and progression
of prostate cancer in TRAMP mice. Epidemiologic reports support that green tea may reduce
prostate cancer risk in humans. During the course of prostate cancer development and progres-
sion the effectiveness of green tea is not yet certain in humans. However, based on the study, it
is suggested that green tea in general and polyphenols present therein may prove to be a useful
supplement in the prevention or slower progress of prostate cancer in humans. [603] The IGF-
I/IGFBP-3 signalling pathway is a prime pathway for green tea polyphenol mediated inhibition
of prostate cancer that limits the progression of cancer through inhibition of angiogenesis and
metastasis. [604]
Chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activity of C3G compound from black-

berry [605] Min Ding an colleagues say that epidemiological data suggest that consumption of
fruits and vegetables has been associated with a lower incidence of cancer. Cyanidin-3-glucoside
(C3G), a compound found in blackberry and other food products, was shown to possess chemo-
preventive and chemotherapeutic activity in the present study.
912
They conclude that a purified compound of anthocyanin inhibits tumor promoter-induced car-
cinogenesis and tumor metastasis in vivo.
Genistein
Studies in vitro suggest that osteopontin (OPN), an extracellular matrix protein secreted by
macrophages infiltrating prostate tumours, and by tumour cells, may have a role in the transi-
tion from clinically insignificant tumours to metastatic prostate cancer.
Studies are consistent with the possibility that dietary genistein may delay the progression
from benign to malignant tumours by inhibiting OPN expression. Our earlier studies in Trans-
genic Mouse Prostate adenocarcinoma (TRAMP) mice showed that genistein, an isoflavone
found in soybeans, lowered the incidence of advanced PC. This suggested that lower intake of
dietary soy may be one possible cause for higher incidence of advanced prostate carcinome in
Western men. [606] [607]
Green Tea and weight reduction

Nestlé and CocaCola advertising weight control ENVIGA [608]
Servane Rudelle and colleagues 2007 studied the effect on weight control of a beverage contain-
ing Epigallocathechin gallate EGCG, green tea and caffeine. The authors found an increase in
24-hour energy expenditure of 100 kcal/d on account of this beverage.
The weight gain of the American population is slightly less than 1 kg/yr, which represents
a median excess energy of 15 kcal/d, and because energy is stored with 50% efficiency, a nega-
tive energy balance of 100 kcal/d would be sufficient to prevent weight gain in most of the U.S.
population The authors conclude that consuming this type of beverage regularly together with
exercise, may be helpful in weight control.
Based on this study Nestlé and CocaCola launched its ENVIGA product with the advertis-
ing adds: Benefits: ”burn more calories” ”drink negative” [609]
The Center for Science in the Public Interest CSPI Says ”Calorie Burning” and
Weight Loss Claims Illegal [623]
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) should take enforcement action against Coca-Cola and
Nestlé for their unlawful deceptive advertising for Enviga, their green-tea-flavored diet soda,
according to a complaint filled with the agency on May 2007 by the nonprofit Center for Science
in the Public Interest (CSPI). At issue is the companies’ claim that Enviga burns more calories
than the five calories per can it delivers, which, CSPI says, strongly implies weight loss.
Obesity control reducing energy density of foods [611]

Julia Ello-Martin and colleagues 2007 assessed as reduction diet the reduction of fat in com-
parison to the reduction of fat together with higher intake of fruits and vegetables during 1 year.
For both groups no goals for energy or fat intake were assigned; the participants could eat
ad libitum.
The low fat and high intake of fruits and vegetables group, had a lower dietary energy density,a
higher weight loss (7,9 kg/1 y), and less hunger than did the low fat group (6,4 kg/1y) with
variation of +- 0,9 kg for both. The authors concluded that the reduction of dietary energy
density, combining increased fruit and vegetable intakes with decreased fat intake, is an effec-
tive strategy for managing body weight.
Commentary of OurFood: Reducing fat in dairy products, convenience foods and fried
products such as french fryies fish sticks, croissants, forget about oily dressings and sugar-
glucose energy bars to sweeten your calories, adding fruits and vegetables to your menu is the
right way.
Instead of roasting lean beef or chicken breast in your pan using plenty of oil, you can cook it
using water and zero oil. Gourmet add some wine instead of water. If you add a tomato salad
on vinegar you meet the Juilia Ello-Martin specifications.
Long-term consumption of green tea [612]

According to Yung-hsi and colleagues 200, long-term consumption of green tea may decrease
the incidence of obesity and, perhaps, green tea components such as EGCG may be useful for
treating obesity. The authors point out, however, that oolong tea was found to reduce obesity
in mice, despite having much less EGCG that green tea does. The authors calls for studies
with purified components to identify the active componentsof tea.
Oolong tea [613]

According to Han and colleagues 1999 oolong tea has anti-obesity effects in high-fat diet-
treated mice which might result from an enhancing effect of caffeine isolated from oolong tea
The auithors suggest that oolong tea may be effective in treatment of obesity and fatty liver
caused by a high-fat diet.
Effect of tea catechins on obesity [614]

Murase and colleagues 2002 studied the effects of long-term feeding with tea catechins, which
are naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds widely consumed in Asian countries, on the
development of obesity in mice. They found that the anti-obesity effects of tea catechins might
be caused by the stimulation of the hepatic lipid metabolism They suggest that long-term con-
sumption of tea catechins may help to suppress diet-induced obesity, and it may reduce the
risk of coronary diseases.
914
Reduction of abdominal fat in humans [615]

Long-term feeding of tea catechins suppressed body fat accumulation in high-fat diet-induced
obesity in mice, and that their effects might be attributed, at least in part, to the activation of
hepatic lipid metabolism. Consecutive intake of tea catechins (588 mg/day) reduced body fat,
especially abdominal fat in humans. These results demonstrate that intake of tea catechins is
beneficial for body fat accumulation.
Epigallocathechin gallate (EGCG) and fat-reduction effect [616] Wolfram and col-
leagues 2005 examined the antiobesity effect of tea epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), in mice
fed with high-fat diet.
They found that food intake was not affected but faeces energy content was slightly increased by
EGCG, indicating a reduced food digestibility and thus reduced long-term energy absorption,
and conclude that d ietary EGCG attenuated diet-induced body fat accretion in mice. EGCG
apparently promoted fat oxidation, but its fat-reducing effect could be entirely explained by its
effect in reducing diet digestibility.
TEAVIGO [617]
Wolfram and colleagues 2005, in a study from DSM Nutritional Products Ltd found that epi-
gallocatechin gallate (EGCG), in a pure form, present in the commercial product TEAVIGO
inhibited adipocyte differentiation in vitro, and concluded that supplementation with EGCG,
abolishes diet-induced obesity, and should be considered as a valuable natural treatment option
for obesity.
Antimitogenic effect of green tea epigallocatechin gallate [618]

Pei-Fang Hung and colleagues 2005 investigated the pathways of EGCG’s modulation of the
mitogenesis(cell- division) of preadipocytes. They found that EGCG inhibited preadipocyte
3T3-L1 proliferation.
The authors demonstrate the ERK- and Cdk2-dependent antimitogenic effects of EGCG,
and that EGCG was more effective than epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epigallocate-
chin in changing the mitogenic signals. The signal of EGCG in reducing growth of 3T3-L1
preadipocytes differed from that of 3T3 fibroblasts. Hung and colleagues conclude that reduc-
tion of obesity caused by EGCG may be linked to the inhibition of fat-cells division.
EGCG inhibits proliferation of fat-cels and induces autodestruction of fat-cells

[619]
Green tea catechins have been shown to promote loss of body fat and to inhibit growth of many
cancer cell types by inducing apoptosis. Ji Lin and colleagues 2005 studied the influence of
epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) on adipocytes to inhibit adipogenesis and induce apoptosis
using mouse 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and mature adipocytes. The researchers found that EGCG
had no effect on either viability or apoptosis of preconfluent preadipocytes. EGCG also did not
affect viability of mature adipocytes; however, EGCG increased apoptosis in mature adipocytes
and inhibited lipid accumulation in maturing preadipocytes.
The authors concluded that EGCG can act directly to inhibit differentiation of preadipocytes
and to induce apoptosis of mature adipocytes and, thus, could be an important adjunct in the
treatment of obesity.
EGCG downregulates the fat hormone Resistin expression by reducing the amounts
of phospho-ERK1/2 proteins. [620]
Resistin is a hormone discovered in 2001 and is a response of leucocytes to inflammation and
participates in the inflammatory response, and this may be the link to insulin resistnce. Accord-
ing to Hang-Seng Liu and colleagues 2006 resistin is an adipocyte-specific secretory hormone
that can cause insulin resistance and decrease adipocyte differentiation, and epigallocatechin
gallate (EGCG) of green tea, have been reported to act against obesity and diabetes.
The study suggest that EGCG may modulate the distribution of resistin protein between
the intracellular and extracellular compartments. EGCG reduced the amounts of phospho-
extracellular signal-related kinase-1/2 proteins (phospho-ERK1/2 proteins). The researchers
conclude that EGCG downregulates Resistin expression via a pathway that is dependent on
the ERK pathway.
Resistin controversy [621]

Most all findings (many times elucidated under the same experimental conditions) reported by
groups opposing the resistin link theory are the exact opposite from what those groups who
support the theopry have observed. The idea that resistin links obesity to type 2 diabetes
mellitus is now under even more scrutiny as recent investigations have confirmed a rather vast
expression of resistin in many tissues rather than those only characteristic of obesity such as
adipocytes.
With nearly as many scientists against this theory as those scientists who seem to support
it, the likelihood that resistin will ever be viewed as the key node linking obesity to type 2
diabetes mellitus in the near future is very low. The very extent to which these two views op-
pose each other raises questions about the synchrony and methodology used in these respective
groups which resulted in polar opposite results.
Insufficient data of EGCG human trials [622]

Wolgang, Wang an Thielecke 2006 write that studies conducted with human subjects report
reduced body weight and body fat, as well as increased fat oxidation and thermogenesis related
to green tea. However, according to the authors, there is still a need for well-designed and con-
trolled clinical studies to validate the studies. According to Wolfgang and colleagues specific
916
effects of EGCG of green tea on obesity should be investigated in human trials.
Tea-catechins together with swimming reduces obesity gain by 20 percent [623]
The effects of long-term intake of tea catechins in combination with regular exercise on the
development of obesity in mice was investigated by Murase and colleagues 2006. Tea-Catechins
intake in combination with swimming exercise suppressed high fat diet-induced body-weight
gain by 18 and 22%, respectively, compared to Exercise and tea-Catechins intake on their own.
These results indicate that intake of tea Catechins, together with regular exercise helps to re-
duce diet-induced obesity. This effect might be attributed, at least in part, to the activation of
whole-body energy metabolism.
Green tea reducing cancer risk

Green tea is supposed to reduced risks of breast, lung, prostate and ovarian cancer. Black tea
does not present cancer protective effect.
The meta-analysis of Can-Lan Sun and colleges from the Cancer Center of the University
of Minnesota indicates a lower risk for breast cancer with green tea consumption. Available
data suggest a possible late-stage, promotional effect of black tea on breast carcinogenesis. [624]
Administration of green tea to SKH-1 mice, via the drinking fluid, was found to significantly
reduce the incidence and volume of ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation-induced skin tumors in a
study by leading author Q Liu. [625]
Epigallocatechin Gallate is an anti-oxidant polyphenol flavonoid isolated from green tea. Its
possible benefit as a nutritional chemopreventive agent for cancer, atherosclerosis, and neu-
rodegenerative diseases is generating increased scientific interest.
The protection from breast cancer by tea is related specifically to the catechin content, specif-
ically epillocatechin.
According to Joshua D. Lambert and Chung S. Yang a typical cup of brewed green tea contains,
by dry weight, 30-40% catechins including epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin-3-gallate,
and epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Through fermentation, a large percentage of the catechins are
converted to oligomeric theaflavins and polymeric thearubigins in black tea. The resulting
brewed black tea contains 3-10% catechins, 2-6% theaflavins and >20% thearubigins. [626]
The catechins have been demonstrated to undergo considerable biotransformation and to have
low bioavailability. The theaflavins are even less bioavailable. This poor availability confounds
attempts to correlate in vitro findings with cancer prevention in animal models. Cell line studies
typically require concentrations of compound in the 5-100-micro mol/L range. Such concentra-
tions are typically not observed systemically. [626]
Dietary supplementation with green tea extract, epigallocatechin gallate EGCG

as a contribution to anti-diabetic nutritional strategies [627]
Swen Wolfram and colleagues in a study found that dietary supplementation of epigallocatechin
gallate (high purity green tea leaf extract] resulted in improved oral glucose tolerance, blood
glucoses levels, lower free fatty acid plasma concentrations, as well as increasing plasma in-
sulin concentrations in mice and rats. The researchers wrote that EGCG downregulated genes
involved in gluconeogenesis, as well as genes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids, triacylgyc-
erol, and cholesterol.
The authors conclude that EGCG beneficially modifies glucose and lipid metabolism in H4IIE
cells and markedly enhances glucose tolerance in diabetic rodents. Dietary supplementation
with EGCG could potentially contribute to nutritional strategies for the prevention and treat-
ment of type 2 diabetes mellitus if the findings can be translated to humans.
Bamboo leaves extract: [628]

The active compounds, include flavone, phenolic acid, lactone, polyose, amino acid, and mi-
croelements of bamboo extract and are, according to Carol Cheow from Cactus Botanics, linked
to protection of blood vessels, the liver, improving sleep quality, protection against cancer, and
anti-age, having positive impacts on the health and longevity of human beings.
Green tea and cognitive function: [629]

According to Kuriyama from the Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan, con-
siderable experimental and animal evidence shows that green tea may possess potent activities
of neuroprotection, neurorescue, and amyloid precursor protein processing that may lead to
cognitive enhancement, no human data are available. That is why Kuriyama analysed the
consumption of green tea, black tea, oolong tea and coffee)
Green tea is a rich source of catechins, compounds suggested to play a beneficial role in weight
loss, cardiovascular and oral health, such as epigallocatechin gallate which is said to be brain
permeable . Its protection of the brain is proposed to be due to mechanisms other than its
antioxidant and iron-chelating properties. Modulation of cell survival and cell cycle genes and
promotion of neurite overgrowth activity are cited as possible mechanism.
This may be the reason why Kuriyama found that drinking more than two cups of green
tea a day could cut the risk of dementia by half in elderly Japanese subjects. Kuriyama con-
cluded that a higher consumption of green tea is associated with a lower prevalence of cognitive
impairment in humans.
918
Kuriyama found only a weak or null relation between consumption of black or oolong tea
or coffee and cognitive impairment.
The authors, however point out the limitations of the study noting that healthier and more
active individuals might have more opportunities to consume green tea which might promote
higher cognitive function.
Reduction of risk of age-related neurodegenerative pathologies[630]

beta-amyloid deleterious role in the Alzheimer’s disease . Bastianetto and colleagues found
that green and black tea extracts and flavan-3-ols were neuroprotective active against toxicity
induced by beta-amyloid-derived peptides.
Strong activity: Strong active flavan-3-ol were found to be gallic acid, epicatechin gallate
(ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) being the strongest of them.
ineffective: Bastianetto and colleagues found epicatechin and epigallocatechin ineffective in

the same range of concentrations.
According to this study the catechin gallates (through the galloyl moiety) contribute to the
neuroprotective effects of both green and black teas, reducing age-related neurodegenerative
diseases, such as Alzheimer disease. The content of catechins of green tea is about 70 mg per
100 mL. Black tea contains only about 15 mg per 100 mL. Green tea should therefore be given
preference.
Increased intake of folate by diet and supplements may may decrease risk of
Alzheimer’s disease. [631]
Luchsinger and colleagues studied the role of higher intake of folate, vitamins B6 (pyridoxine
hydrochloride) and B12 (cyanocobalamin) in decreasing the risk of Alzheimer disease (AD)
through the lowering of homocysteine levels.
The authors concluded that higher folate intake from both dietary and supplements decrease
the risk of Alzheimers’s disease about 50%, and that the effect of folate was independent of
other risk factors and levels of s B6 and B12 .
The authors point out that dietary folate nor supplements alone were significantly linked to
Alzheimer’s disease risk; only the two in combination appeared to produce an effect, and that
vitamin B12 and B6 levels were not associated with Alzheimer’s disease risk.
Lower homocysteine levels were found in the group of higher folate intake. Homocystein is
involved in the accumulation of amyloid proteins in the brains causing Alzheimer disease.
The authors call for clinical studies before the decision to increase folate intake to prevent
Alzheimer’s disease can be made. The results of the ongoing ”B-Vitamin Treatment Trialist’s
Collaboration” addressing the link between B-vitamins, homocysteine levels, and cognitive
function should be waited for.
The role of tea in wound healing, cardiovascular-related diseases and cancer [632]
Restricted oxygen supply (hypoxia) such as found in altitude sickness when oxygen supply to
tissue or the whole body is restricted apoptosis takes place meaning that cells die. According to
Hae Jeong Park, it is an important factor in wound healing, cardiovascular-related disease and
certain cancers. EGCG was found to have a beneficial effect against hypoxia-induced apoptosis
for human haematoma cells.
According to Park EGCG probably prevents the expression of a certain enzyme called cas-
pase 3, which plays a important role in programmed cell death.
FDA report on possible anti-cancer effect of green tea [633]

The origin, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment for each type of cancer are unique. Since
each form of cancer is a unique disease based on organ site, risk factors, treatment options,
and mortality risk, each form of cancer must be individually evaluated in a health claim petition.
As a result, the agency considered whether the studies supported the potential substance -
disease relationship for any type of cancer.
Two studies do not show that drinking green tea reduces the risk of breast cancer in women,
but one weaker, more limited study suggests that drinking green tea may reduce this risk.
According to FDA it is, therefore, highly unlikely that green tea reduces the risk of breast
cancer and concludes that existing evidence does not support qualified health claims for green
tea consumption and a reduced risk of any other type of cancer.
Cannabinoids
Cannabinoids are the active components of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus (marijuana) and their
derivatives. Cannabinoids received renewed interest in pharmacology in recent years due to
their diverse activities such as cell growth inhibition, anti-inflammatory effects and tumour
regression.
Results of studies suggest that WIN-55,212-2 or other non-habit-forming cannabinoid receptor

antagonists could be developed as novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of prostate cancer.
[634]
Black Tea and post-stress recovery [635]

Andrew Steptoe and colleagues in a study concerning black tea, found that 6 weeks of tea
consumption leads to lower post-stress cortisol and greater subjective relaxation, together with
920
reduced platelet activation. Black tea may have health benefits in part by aiding stress recov-
ery. Speeding the recovery following acute stress may reduce risk of chronic illnesses such as
coronary heart disease.
50 minutes after a stress situation, lower cortisol levels, a lower blood platelet activation,
and a greater degree of relaxation in the recovery period were found in a tea drinking group,
compared with a not drinking tea group.
Because of the complex composition of tea comprising catechins, polyphenols, flavonoids and
amino acids, no compound, either independently or acting in synergistic could be identified to
be responsible for these positive effects,
Green Tea has better health benefits than black tea

Green tea contains between 30 and 40 per cent of water-extractable polyphenols, while black
tea contains between 3 and 10 per cent. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epigallocatechin,
epicatechin gallate, and epicatechin are being found in fresh tea leaves and are subject of nu-
merous researches.
Green tea and rheumatoid arthritis [845]

Salah-uddin Ahmed and colleagues in a study evaluated the efficacy of Epigallocatechin-3-
gallate (EGCG), a polyphenol extracted from green tea on in multiple myeloma (MM). The
authors found that the tea extract may suppress the inflammatory products in the connective
tissue of people with rheumatoid arthritis due to its ability to modulate growth factor-mediated
cell proliferation.
EGCG induced both dose- and time-dependent growth arrest and subsequent apoptotic cell
death in MM cell lines also led to significant apoptosis in human myeloma cells grown as tu-
mors in SCID mice.
EGCG activates distinct pathways of growth arrest and apoptosis in MM cells by inducing
the expression of death-associated protein kinase 2 rising hope for therapies using the specific
antimyeloma activity of EGCG.
Synovial fibroblasts - cells that form a lining of the tissue surrounding the capsule of the joints
- from patients with rheumatoid arthritis , under the influence of pro-inflammatory cytokine
interleukin-1 beta (IL-1beta), produced molecules of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) which is linked to joint destruction during rheumatoid arthritis. With EGCG the
production of IL-6 and COX-2 was not observed.
Epilocathechin-3 gallate and multiple myeloma [846]

Masahiro Kisaki and colleaugue (2005) found that epigallocatechin-3-gallate from green tea
has potential as a novel therapeutic agent for patients with B-cell malignancies including mul-
tiple myeloma via induction of apoptosis mediated by modification of the redox system, and
enhances. As2O3-induced apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cells.
Green Tea reduces colorectal cancer risk in women [847]

Tea and its constituents have shown anticarcinogenic activities in in vitro and animal studies.
Epidemiologic studies, however, have been inconsistent.
Green tea contains between 30 and 40 per cent of water-extractable polyphenols, such as epi-
gallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epicatechin., while black tea
contains between 3 and 10 per cent.
Gong Yang assessed green tea consumption and colorectal cancer risk and rectal cancers. The
researchers found an inverse dose-response relationship between the amount of tea consumed
and duration in years of lifetime tea consumption This study suggests that regular consumption
of green tea may reduce colorectal cancer risk in women.
Benefits of Mediterranean diet [848] [849] [839] Studies published in 2006 suggest that
Mediterranean diet, rich in fruit, vegetables and olive and sparing in red meat and dairy prod-
ucts has been associated with a lower risk for several diseases and risk factors, including cancer,
obesity, high cholesterol, high blood pressure and problems with processing glucose that may
lead to diabetes, coronary heart disease, reduction of the risk of Alzheimer disease. According
to the studies, the diet should contain turmeric and omega-3 fatty acids.
Increased risk of colorectal cancer recurrence associated with The high calorie, low
fibre dietary pattern [840]
Jeffrey Meyerhardt and colleagues from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, studied the asso-
ciation of dietary pattern and risk of cancer recurrence in stage III colon cancer patients.
They found that a diet characterized by higher intakes of red and processed meats, sweets and
desserts, French fries, and refined grains increases the risk of cancer recurrence and decreases
survival.
The authors say that eighty per cent of colorectal cancers may be preventable by dietary
changes.
The researchers compared dietary pattern characterized by high intakes of fruits and veg-
etables, poultry, and fish with the Western pattern, characterized by high intakes of meat, fat,
refined grains, and dessert.
The researchers found that a diet with a higher correspondence to the Western dietary pattern
after cancer diagnosis were at a significant increase in the risk of cancer recurrence or death.
922
The top 20 per cent of people with the greatest Western-style diet were 3.3 times more likely
to have cancer recurrence or death that those with least Western-style diet.
The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (19932000)

[841]
A study by E. Kesse and colleagues concerning the data of the European Prospective Investi-
gation into Cancer and Nutrition (19932000), linked people with a ”Western” diet pattern to
a significantly increased risk of the cancer.
The study made a comparison between four dietary patterns:

”Healthy”: (Vegetables, fruit, yogurt, sea products, and olive oil). This diet was found to have
the lowest recurrence risk of all other diets.
”Western”: (Potatoes, pizzas and pies, sandwiches, sweets, cakes, cheese, cereal products, pro-
cessed meat, eggs, and butter). An increased risk of adenoma with high scores of a higher risk
of colorectal tumors was observed.
”Drinkers”: (Sandwiches, snacks, processed meat, and alcoholic beverages). High risc of found.
”Meat eaters”: (Meat, poultry, and margarine). It was positively associated with colorectal
cancer risk.
Western diet and high fructose diet blamed as ”toxic environment” [842]
Robert Lustig from the University of California blames the ”toxic environment” of Western
diets to cause hormonal imbalances that encourage overeating by its increased energy density,
high-fat content, high glycemic index, increased fructose composition, decreased fiber, and
decreased dairy content.
Lustig blames in particular, too much fructose and not enough fiber as the cornerstones of the
obesity and diabetes epidemic.
No difference in the acute effects on vascular reactivity between conventional fast-

food and ”healthy fast-food” [843]
Tanja K Rudolph and colleagues 2007, in a study from the University Hospital Hamburg-
Eppendorf, Germany looked for the acute effects of conventional and alternative fast-food meals
on vascular function investigating the flow-mediated endothelium-dependent dilatation (FMD)
and cardiovascular disease risk markers before and after a conventional beef burger meal and
healthier choices.
The researchers found that a conventional beef burger meal with French fries, ketchup and
soda, did not differ significantly in their acute effects on vascular reactivity. compared with a
vegetarian burger with French fries, ketchup and soda and the vegetarian burger with salad,
fruit, yogurt, and orange juice The authors attribute the postprandial decline in FMD in part
to a postprandial increase in baseline arterial diameter.
Fast-food remains unhealthy. Adding vegetables and orange juice does not present the va-
riety of Mediterranean diet, according to the findings of the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort
Study:
The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study: The combination of the ingredients

of the Mediterranean diet and not vegetable and fruit considered separately reduce
heart disease risk [844] The Mediterranean diet has higher intake of plant foods and fish,
moderate intake of wine and lower intake of animal products. It includes garlic, cucumber,
olive oil, salad greens, capsicum, legumes, tomato, feta and ricotta cheeses, olives, onion, wa-
termelon, steamed fish and boiled chicken. It is therefore a rich source of antioxidants reducing
oxidative damage, monounsaturated fat that help to lower cholesterols, omega- 3 fatty acids
believed to stabilise the heart rhythm, and fibre, and relatively low in saturated fats which in
combination may help to reduce cardiovascular disease.
Despite increased cardiovascular disease risk factors, migrants to Australia from Mediterranean
countries have lower mortality than do native-born Australians.
The researchers found for the Mediterranean-style diet 41 per cent reduction, while for veg-
etables and fresh fruit considered separately, only 31-34 per cent mortality from cardiovascular
disease (CVD)risk reduction was observed.
The authors concluder that frequent consumption of traditional Mediterranean foods is as-
sociated with reduced cardiovascular mortality after controlling for important risk factors and
country of birth.
Vegetarian nutrition Vegetarian nutrition may lead to undersupply of iron, proteins, cal-
cium, vitamin D and vitamin B12.
Iron can be got from wholemeal bread and green vegetable such as broccoli or kale (Brassica
oleracea sabellica). Proteins are get from vegetables wholemeal bread, cereals, legumes, nuts,
milk, cheese and yoghurt. Calcium, vitamin D and vitamin B12 can be supplied by milk and
milk products.
Calcium supplementation is usually found in vitamin and mineral supplement formulas as

calcium hydrogen phosphate. Gadot Biochemical company, however, offers a citrate based
calcium compound, designed to supplement liquid food products conveniently with a readily
absorbable form of calcium. The company claims the product to be suitable for soy milk and
other soy based products, rice milk and other dairy alternative beverages fortification. Accord-
ing to Gadot specification it is free of raw materials from bovine origin and any food allergens
according to annex 3a of EU directive 2003/89.
924
Although soymilk is recognized as a nutritious beverage, it contains much less calcium than
cowmilk (20-30 mg/100 ml vs. 100-120 mg/100 ml), so fortification is essential.
Potassium, the major intracellular cation in the body, is required for normal cellular function.
Severe potassium deficiency is characterized by hypokalemia. Moderate potassium deficiency,
which typically occurs without hypokalemia, is characterized by increased blood pressure, in-
creased salt sensitivity, an increased risk of kidney stones, and increased bone turnover (as
indicated by greater urinary calcium excretion and biochemical evidence of reduced bone for-
mation and increased bone resorption).
An inadequate intake of dietary potassium may also increase the risk of cardiovascular disease,
particularly stroke. On the basis of available data, an Adequate Intake (AI) for potassium is
set at 4.7 g (120 mmol)/day for all adults. This level of dietary intake (i.e., from foods) should
maintain lower blood pressure levels, reduce the adverse effects of sodium chloride intake on
blood pressure, reduce the risk of recurrent kidney stones, and possibly decrease bone loss.
It is generally agreed that the bioavailability of Organic Calcium is much higher than Inorganic
Calcium. From the litreature it appears that the bioavailability of Organic Calcium is 2 to 5
times higher than Calcium Carbonate.
On the other hand, the various organic forms of calcium show more or less the same bioavail-
ability with slight advantage to Calcium Citrate. In addition, potassium/calcium combination
may enhance calcium absorption. GADOCAL K contains therefore 15 % calcium and 6 %
potassium. [560]
Conversion salt and sodium

Sodium is responsible for elevated blood pressure, heart diseases and stroke.
UK Food Standards Agency recommends not to eat more than 6g salt a day and provides a
salt calculator at http://www.salt.gov.uk/how much is 6.shtml
In 1994, the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy (COMA) recom-
mended reducing the average salt intake of the population from 9g to 6g a day because of the
link between high salt intake and high blood pressure.
National guidance regarding salt varies in Europe. Belgium recommends less than 8.75 grams
a day. Portgual recommends less than 5g and countries such as Greece and Hungary advice
people to avoid salt and foods rich in salt.
The WHO intake goal: It is less than 5g per day and is contained in the joint WHO/FAO
report on diet, nutrition, and the prevention of chronic diseases.
The Expert Report’s specific recommendations on diet include limiting fat to between 15 and
30 percent of total daily energy intake and saturated fats to less than 10 percent of this total.
Carbohydrates, the report suggests, should provide the bulk of energy requirements - between
55 and 75 percent of daily intake and free sugars should remain beneath 10 percent. Protein
should make up a further 10-15 percent of calorie intake and salt should be restricted to less
than 5 grams a day. Intake of fruit and vegetables should be plumped up to reach at least 400
grams a day. [561]
Australia, New Zealand, Canada and U.S. have a guidance of less than 6g salt intake/day.
Singapore recommends less than 5g/day and Japan has a guidance of less than 10g salt/day.
Brazil has a guidance of less than 5g salt intake/day all other countries of South America have
no guidance on this matter, remaining a lot of work to be done by WHO to convince these
countries to tackle the problem of salt-reduction.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health: This organization urges consumers to boycott
foods that contain either more than 1.25g of salt (0.5g of sodium) per 100g or more than 2.4g
of salt per serving, forcing manufacturers to reformulate excessively salty foods. World Action
on Salt and Health (WASH) was established in 2005 and is a global group with the mission to
improve the health of populations throughout the world by achieving a gradual reduction in
salt intake. [562]
Labels
Sodium is usually listed in the nutritional information on food labels. If salt is listed, sodium
chloride is meant.
Conversion Salt to sodium and sodium to salt

• Salt = sodium X 2.5
• Sodium = salt X 0,4
Conversion Potassium chloride and potassium Salt replacer [?]
• Potassium chloride = potassium X 2

• Potassium = potassium chloride X 0,5
Blends of KCl (potassium chloride), sugar, yeast extract, and flavours are being developed to
hide the bitterness of potassium chloride,with salty perception but does not work against the
active yeast of a dough system.
Table 24.26: Daily Recommended Intakes of Fiber, Sodium, and Potassium by Age and Gender
926
Gender/Age Fibre, g Sodium, mg Potassium, mg

1-3 y 19 <1500 3000
4-8 y
Female 25 <1900 3800
Male 25 <1900 3800
9-13 y
Female 26 <2200 4500
Male 31 <2200 4500
14-18 y
Female 29 <2300 4700
Male 38 <2300 4700
Dietary fibre recent studies on colorectal cancer
Denis Burkitt proposed in 1971 the link between colorectal cancer and dietary fibre. Inconsis-
tent results of studies could not back this theory.
A new study of Elizabeth Jacobs from the Arizona Cancer Center , however considered the
sex of the participants and found a significant benefit of fibre for men, but not for women. This
may explain the discrepant results of the Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention
Trial. [636]
The Wheat Bran Fibre Trial assessed the effect of a high wheat bran fibre supplement against
a low wheat bran fibre supplement men and women, randomly assigned to the supplements.
The Polyp Prevention Trial studied the effect of a low-fat, high fibre diet, rich in fruit and
vegetables on the recurrence of pre-cancerous polyps in the colon and rectum.
Both studies reported that the high-fibre diets had no effect of the recurrence of colorectal
polyps.
The Arizona researchers from the Arizona Cancer Center re-evaluating the data of both studies
observed statistically significant reduced odds of recurrence for men, but no significant associ-
ation for women. [636]
The recently published results of the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) trial also reported no
link between a diet low in fat, and high in fruit, vegetables and whole-grain intake. This study
was restricted to women and appears to agree with the results from Arizona. Poor compliance
with the dietary intervention in the WHI trial do, however, raise questions about the validity
of these results. [637]
Limitations of the two studies (Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention Trial): 1.-
Both had very short follow-up periods of only two to four years The latency period of the cancer
is between 10 and 20 years, 2.- The use of polyps as a marker for actual cancer was criticized
as questionable by Dr. Arasaradnam from Northern General Hospital in Sheffield in 2004. [638]
Concorde grape:
Vitis labrusca (Fox grape) is a specific grape native in the northeast of the United States. It is
the source of many grape cultivars, including concord grapes. The characteristic ”foxy” musk
of V. labrusca is inherited by the Concorde grape. [639]
A study performed by lead author Barbara Shukitt-Hale the Human Nutrition Research Center
on Aging at Tufts University relate improved results on behavioural tests and enhanced motor
performance on rats fed with Concorde grape juice, which is rich in polyphenoles. The study
suggests that the effects of Concorde grape juice may be more effective than any one single
Hopes are rising that component of grape juice may reverse brain aging. [640]
Concord grapes may have many health benefits such as reducing hypertension and the neg-
ative effects of second-hand smoking, but these results are tentative. [641]
Cardiovascular protection of red wine and white wine

[642] M. Falchi and colleagues found that the flesh of grapes are equally cardioprotective as skin,
and antioxidant potential of skin and flesh of grapes are comparable with each other despite of
the fact that flesh does not possess any anthocyanin activities.
Recent studies have documented that grapes and grape juices are equally cardioprotective
as red wine. despite vastly differing polyphenol content.
Several studies have linked regular consumption of red wine to reduced risk of heart disease.
The skin of red grapes is a rich source of red coloured anthocianine. Red grapes are usually
crushed whole, meaning the anthocyanines are transferred to resulting wine and juice, on the
contrary, most white wine or white grape juices are prepared by discarding the grape skin,
nourishing the belief that red wines and red grape juice are healthier than white.
M. Falchi fed three groups of rats with water only (control), grape skin extract, or grape
flesh extract. The increase of malondialdehyde (MDA), a reactive carbonyl compound related
to oxidative stress, was measured under ischemic and myocardial infarction conditions.
No difference was observed between the flesh and skin extracts, both groups had significantly
reduced heart attack size compared with water control group.
Quantification of the polyphenol content confirmed that, while the skins had anthocyanin con-
centrations of about 128 milligrams per 100 grams, the flesh contained no such compounds.
928
However, the radical scavenging abilities of both the flesh and skin extracts were found to
be the same. The flesh of the grapes did contain polyphenols but not of the anthocyanin type
of grape skin. Furthermore caffeic acid, caftaric acid, and coutaric acid have been reported
which are also present in white grape varieties.
Red wine and reduction of atherosclerosis [643]

Tony Hayek and colleagues studied the effect of consuming red wine, or its major polyphenol
constituents catechin or quercetin, on the development of atherosclerotic lesions, in relation to
the susceptibility of plasma LDL to oxidation and to aggregation in mice.
They found that the inhibition of LDL oxidation by polyphenols could be related, at least
in part, to a direct effect of the polyphenols on the LDL, since both quercetin and catechin
were found to bind to the LDL particle via the formation of an ether bond.
The authors conclude that dietary consumption of red wine or its polyphenolic flavonoids
quercetin and, to a lesser extent, catechin leads to attenuation in the development of the
atherosclerotic lesion, and this effect is associated with reduced susceptibility of their LDL to
oxidation and aggregation.
Concentrated red grape juice reduces risk of cardiovascular disease [644]

The aim of the study was to study the effects of dietary supplementation with concentrated
red grape juice, a source of polyphenols, on lipoprotein profile, antioxidant capacity, LDL oxi-
dation, and inflammatory biomarkers.
The authors concluded that dietary supplementation with concentrated red grape juice im-
proves the lipoprotein profile, reduces plasma concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers and
oxidized LDL, and may favor a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk.
Nutrition claims in the Philippines The US company Procter & Gambler has launched
on the Philippines market a concentrated orange powder ”NutriDelight”. This orange juice in
form of a dehydrated powder is enriched with vitamin A, iron and iodine.
This product is claimed to ” let children grow stronger, taller, and smarter.
According to P&G director Durk Jager the undersupply of these three elements is one of the
most outstanding problem of worldwide nutrition. The ”Nutridelight” according to Jager has
been developed in cooperation with Health departments and UNICEF and was tested in Tan-
zania. This product may have importance in the nutrition of a wide population in case of
undersupply during catastrophes where international associations try to feed people of a lim-
ited region to overcome a short period of calamity. It not suitable for the nutrition at normal
times. The population which has no money to buy a balanced natural nutrition will certainly
have not the possibility to achieve orange juice powder enriched with food supplements from
Procter & Gambler.
Health authorities should try to get the population educated in a way to get a well balanced
nutrition with local fruits,vegetables, fish and meat.
Getting back to the elementary balanced nutrition helps although the local industry, fishery
and agriculture bringing jobs and the most important of all: It gives thousand and thousand
all other components which are necessary to our nutrition avoiding synthetic food from pills
and pharmacy.
Complete low caloric servings Low caloric serving ”pro figur” are servings of 250 g of
yoghurt enriched with vitamins, pineapple, cereals vitamins and minerals. The servings are to
small to avoid hunger. Artificial sweetener are used not being in consent to an organic food.
The amount of cereals should be increased. the flavouring of the product is very intensive
turning it very soon to be felt awful. Intensive flavouring should always be avoided in products
which are supposed to be used over a long time.
It is advisable to go back to the recommendations of the health departments and associations
like the DGE in order to reduce or to avoid overweight:
1.- Increase the amount of vegetables and fruits.
2.- Reduce fat
3.- Eat fish
4.- Practice sport to burn excessive calories.
These recommendations lead to normal weight without synthetic modified foods. The main goal
which Nestlé tries to achieve with ”profigur” is to boost sails taking out sails from drugstores
where low caloric ready servings are well sold. However even there these servings have proven
to bring no success on lasting weight reduction.
Low fat nutrition [481] Low fat nutrition has proved to be suitable to reduce body weight.
The Ernärungsphychologische Forschungsstelle in Göttingen[481] (Nutrition Psychology Re-
search Center in Göttingen) has made a study related to body weight reducing diet changing
from high fat to low fat nutrition. High fat sausages and cheese types were exchanged by low
fat foods. Milk and yoghurt with 1,5 % fat were taken in the nutrition plan. Whipped-cream
gateau was exchanged with fruit tart with a bottom of yeast pastry. Foods based on carbohy-
drates such as vegetables and fruits were unlimited allowed.
The result of this study was successful. In 8 weeks weight reduction of 1,5 up to 2,9 Kg took
place. This nutrition should be used to body weight reduction instead of pills or special foods
which cannot be consumed a whole life.
The low fat nutrition keeping the old nutrition habits can be followed for an unlimited period.
It is therefore an alternative to the reduction diets which can be followed only during short
930
time ending in the jo-jo effect.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
History of RDA [66]

The RDA was developed during World War II by lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling and
Helen S. Mitchel under the auspices of the National Research Council. The National Research
Council determined that a set of dietary standards were needed, especially given the possibility
that rations would be needed during the war.
The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civil-
ians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell
surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances, and submitted them to experts
for review. The final set of allowances were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to
provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a ”margin of
safety.”
The RDA was established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the (US) National Academy of
Sciences.
In 1997 at the suggestion of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy RDA be-
came one part of a broader set of dietary guidelines called the Dietary Reference Intake used
by both the United States and Canada.
RDA inclusion in DRI family [67]

The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) had been valid from 1941 until 1989, the RDAs
to evaluate and plan menus that would meet the nutrient requirements of groups as well as
other applications such as interpreting food consumption records of populations, establishing
standards for food assistance programs, establishing guidelines for nutrition labelling, to name
a few. The RDAs were created to prevent nutrient deficiencies. They were not intended to
evaluate the diets of individuals.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) family In 1997, the Food and Nutrition Board of the
National Academy of Sciences created the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) after a extensive
revision of the RDAs. The new family of nutrient reference values is organized in four types of
DRI reference values:
1. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): A daily nutrient intake value that is esti-
mated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a life stage and gender
group. EAR is used to assess dietary adequacy and as the basis for the RDA.
2. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA):The average daily dietary intake level

that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98%) healthy
individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.
3. Adequate Intake (AI): a recommended intake value based on observed or experimen-

tally determined approximations or estimates of nutrient intake by a group (or groups)
of healthy people, that are assumed to be adequate. AI is used when an RDA cannot be
determined.
4. Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): The highest level of daily nutrient intake that
is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for almost all individuals in the general
population. As intake increase above the UL, the potential risk of adverse effects increases.
These dietary reference values were intended to prevent nutrient deficiencies and to reduce the
risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
Critical Issues in the Application of Dietary Reference Intakes [68] [69]

Dr. George Beaton, University of Toronto, examining application of the Dietary Reference
Intakes (DRI) among individuals and groups comes to the conclusion that the RDA lacks an
acceptable scientific basis and suggests that dietary advice for both groups should be achieved
through critical DRI reference values.
According to Beaton, tradition and the DRI reports themselves have created an erroneous
impression that the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is intended for use with individ-
uals, while the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is to be used with populations.
He concludes that the median requirement and Tolerable Upper Limit (UL) are the critical
reference values for both individuals and populations. The RDA is both unneeded and lacking
a sound scientific basis.
Defending RDA [70]

According to Murphy, Barr, and Yates, Dietary each DRI category has specific uses in dietary
assessment and/or planning for groups or individuals. For example, the RDA is ”intended to
be used as a goal for daily intake by individuals as this value estimates an intake level that
has a high probability of meeting the requirement of a randomly chosen individual.” The DRI
paradigm is being used as a model for nutrient standards worldwide. The authors argue in
favour of keeping the present thinking about it the uses of nutrients.
Beaton replied that we now live in an era of increasing demand for evidence-based nutrition
and stresses the necessity of revising previous thinking and approaches as it becomes apparent
that they lack evidence of validity.
932
Actual dietary references set from US Food and Drug Administration FDA
DVs (Daily Values): The use of Dvs on the food label started in 1994, following the US
Nutrition Labelling and Education Act of 1990. [71]
It is made up of two sets of references, DRVs and RDIs. But, according to Paula Kurtzweil
from FDA, these two sets are ”behind the scenes” in food labelling; only the Daily Value term
will appear on the label to make label reading less confusing.[71]
The labelling act from 1990 requires nutrition label information to be conveyed in a way
that enables the public to observe and comprehend the information readily and to understand
its relative significance in the context of a total daily diet. [71]
According to Christine Lewis from FDA’s Office of Food Labelling, the DV does that in two
ways: First, it serves as a basis for declaring on the label the percent of the Daily Value for
each nutrient that a serving of the food provides. [71]
For example, the Daily Value for fat, based on a 2,000-calorie diet, is 65 grams (g). A food that
has 13 g of fat per serving would state on the label that the ”percent Daily Value” for fat is
20 percent. Second, it provides a basis for thresholds that define descriptive words for nutrient
content, called descriptors, such as ”high fibre” and ”low fat.” For example, the descriptor
”high fibre” can be used if a serving of food provides 20 percent or more of the Daily Value for
fibre - that is, 5 g or more. [71]
URLs (Daily Reference Values): a set of dietary references that applies to fat, saturated
fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, protein, fibre, sodium, and potassium.
RDIs (Reference Daily Intakes): a set of dietary references based on the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for essential vitamins and minerals and, in selected groups, protein. The
name ”RDI” replaces the term ”U.S. RDA.”
RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances): a set of estimated nutrient allowances es-
tablished by the National Academy of Sciences. It is updated periodically to reflect current
scientific knowledge.
References on dietary references and dietary supplements For more informations on

US FDA dietary references, please go to their homepage of http://www.fda.gov/fdac/special/foodlabel/d
For more informations on dietary supplements please go to http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/d̃ms/supplmnt.html

Vitamins and essential elements The WHO (World health Organization of the United
Nations) has recommended the Daily Allowance(RDA) of vitamins and minerals given in the
table below.
Linus Pauling and a group of his followers claim higher doses.
The table draws a comparison between WHO and other recommended doses.
The recommendations of WHO should be followed as the doses marked ***are likely to be
considered as overdose when used for long time.
You may find the table of RDA useful to compare with the labeling of your food complements.
Table 24.27: Recommended Daily Allowance(RDA) of vitamins and minerals
Vitamin or mineral RDA minimum *** daily *** maximum ***

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 60 mg 500 2000 10.000
Vitamin E (d-alfa tocopherol) 10 I.U. 400 600 1.000
Beta carotene 0 mg 15 15
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) 1,0-1,4 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) 1,2-1,7 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B3 (niacinamide) 18 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 2,2 mg 10 50 50
Pantothenic acid 4-7 mg 50 100 200
Folic acid 400µ 1.000 5.000
Biotin 100-200µg 0 300 3ßß
Vitamin D 200-300 I.U. 0 200 400
Vitamin K 70-120µg 0 0 120
Selenium 100µg 150 200
Chrome picolinate 200µg 200 400
Zinc 15 mg 15 30
Calcium 500 mg 1.000 1.500
Magnesium 200mg 400 600
Iodine 150µg 150 150 300
Bioflavonoid 0 200mg 1.000
Garlic 0 600 mg 900
Concentrated fish oil 0 1.000 mg 2000
Glutathione 0 50 mg 100
Glutamine 0 2.000 mg 8.000
Coenzyme Q10 0 30 mg 240
Ginkgo Bilobe Egb 761 0 120 mg 120
Iron 0-18 mg 0 0 5
934
Copper 2-3 mg 0 2 3
Manganese 2,5-5,0 mg 0 2,5 5,0
Molybdenum 0,15-0,5 mg 0 0,15 0,5
Fluor 0mg 0 0
Vitamin B6 overdose Heavy overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine can cause alterations of

mobility, psychological alterations and reactions like those of Contergan in new born.
The Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment
(COT) gives the advice not to exceed daily 10 mg. Supplier of vitamin B6 are meat, fish, eggs,
cereals and some vegetables.
Some food complements contain dose up to 100 mg. COT tries to establish a voluntary limit of
vitamin B6 in food complements between manufacturers and include more informations on the
label. The commission has great concern with possible about damages of the nervous System
in case of over dose[72].
Other components of nutrition
The nutritional value of fats Oils and fats have high nutritional value as they are rich
in energy and act as transport medium of liposoluble vitamins. Some fatty acids cannot be
synthetize by human body, they are called essential fatty acids (arachidonic acid, linoleic acid
and linolenic and linolenic acid) . They are important parts of the synthesis of the hormone
prostaglandin and are part of the structure of cell membrane[73].
The intake of fat, however is to high. Adults should reduce the intake of fat
There is a connection between the amount of fat consumed and arterial diseases, as well as
duodenal cancer and mammal cancer.
It is advisable to reduce fat an to chose fat with high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Daily intake of fat The European population has a daily intake of 130 to 150 gram/person/day.
This should be reduced to 60 gram with maximum of 90 gram.
Recommended composition of fats According to the DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Ernährung) and WHO the intake of fat should be constituted by on third of saturated fatty
acids, one third of monounsaturated fatty acids and one third of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
(This rule is called ”The one third rule”.
The amount of saturated fatty acids in nutrition is to high.
The main source of saturated fatty acids is found in meat, sausages milk product, cakes and
biscuits. This should be reduced.
Total fat intake: should not be over 30% of total energy by people with light manual work,
and not over 35% of total energy by people for people with heavy manual work.
Long chain saturated fatty acids: should not be over 10% of total energy.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: should be about 7% of total energy and up to 10% when the
amount of saturated fatty acids lies over 10%.
Relation between linoleic acid (n-6) and linolenic acid (n-3): the relation should be 5:1.
Monounsaturated fatty acids: can fill up to the total amount of total energy. Trans-fatty
acids: should be less than 1% of total energy[685]
Recommended intake of Cholesterol The European daily intake is 500 to 800 mg/person/day.
This should be reduced to a maximum of 300 mg/day.
Every health organization supports the theory of an excess of animal food rich in cholesterol
and saturated fatty acids being the main cause of high levels of blood fats and arteriosclerosis.
Saturated fatty acids rise thae blood cholesterol, accelerating the formation of arteriosclerosis.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids may help to reduce blood cholesterol.
Blood levels of Cholesterol
• HDL cholesterol should be at least 45 mg/dl for females and 35 mg/dl for
male.
The maximum of cholesterol for adults allowed is 200 mg.
• Values of cholesterol between 200 and 250 mg/dl have to be controlled. They can
be tolerated if the bad LDL is low and the good HDL is high and there are no secondary
risks (high arterial pressure, smoke, diabetes, excessive body weight, no sports are made
and continuous stress). The higher secondary risks are more cholesterol values have to be
reduced. According Lancet 1996 every third person with more then 40 years, smoking,
with high arterial pressure and cholesterol over 230 mg/dl of blood will suffer an infarct.
In Germany 261000 persons die of infarct each year.
• Values of cholesterol over 250 md/dl are always coronary risks. Everyone should
know his values of blood cholesterol. Values over 200 mg/dl should be reason enough to
change the way of life, the nutrition and the physical constitution.
With a modification of nutrition indicated by a dietician blood cholesterol may be reduced
by 20%. (250 mg/dl may be brought down to 200 mg/dl without medication.)
It is therefore important to stop smoking, to have a healthy nutrition and practice sports.
According to the WHO healthy nutrition should have 45 to 55% complex carbohydrates, 30%
of oils and fats having more than half of her fatty acids unsaturated. (Some say 10% saturated,
10% monounsaturated and 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids.) The intake of cholesterol should
be under 300 mg/day and less than 5 gram of salt /day. This means nutrition rich in pasta,
936
fish, olive oil, vegetables and fruits. The daily sport should be 30 minutes biking or walking.
Infarct risk and diabetes II can so be reduced significantly. It is important to consider the fat
intake not in percentage of calories but as grams of fat.[136]
Salt intake, Recommendations of the American Heart Association [135]

According to the American Heart Association physicians recommend keeping salt intake below
2,300 milligrams sodium (mg)(one teaspoon of salt) per day. for people with heart failure,
recommended sodium intake is no more than 2,000 mg per day.
Sodium is present not alone in salt also in sodium alginate, sodium sulfite, sodium caseinate,
disodium phosphate, sodium benzoate, sodium hydroxide, monosodium glutamate, sodium cit-
rate and other ingredients.
High salt intake is the major reason of raising blood pressure, responsible for strokes and
heart attacks.
Current intake in Europe varies between 10 and 15 grams/day,WHO which recommends no

more than 5 grams of salt intake per day for every adult in the world.
The Consensus Action on Salt and Health, together with the UK’s Specialist Advisory Commit-
tee on Nutrition, which advises the FSA, say that consumers should reduce their consumption
to 6g a day.
About 80 per cent of salt is consumed through the consumption of processed food. Salt makes
the product cheap, tasteless food edible, and more water to products can be added because it
acts as a binder.
Robert Speiser, director of EuSalt , however, says that there is scientific evidence to sug-
gest that reducing salt may not necessarily be in the interests of all consumers.
He says that two recent studies that concluded that there was no need to reduce salt among
healthy people were neglected by regulators. According to Speiser the UK Food Standards
Agency (FSA) is the only official authority to propose a signposting initiative that says it is
necessary to reduce salt. The scientific evidence for this doesn’t exist. Salt intake should remain
determined by the needs of the individual.
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys ( NHANES)1960 to 1994 shows that
the intake of fat in percent has decreased but the average body weight has increased. This was
caused by a steady increase of all other components of food.
The NHANES paper shows that lowering fat intake lowers total cholesterol, lowers low density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, reducing cardiovascular risks, but it also reduces the high density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, increasing cardiovascular risk if it drops below 35 mg/decilitre.
Trevor Smith says that a blanket condemnation of saturated fats is unwise. [136]. It has been
shown by Scott Grundy that stearates (saturated fatty acids) does not raise blood cholesterol.[137]
Lowering fat intake often lowers HDL cholesterol.
According to Trevor Smith it is sufficient to limit the fat intake to an average of one gram per
kilogram of body weight, or target body weight per day. There is no need to count calories hav-
ing a normal balanced diet. In addition one should limit animal fat intake avoid hydrogenated
fats entirely, pefer olive and rapeseed oil, increase the consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole
grains and prevention of excessive weight increasing physical activity like walking three miles
a day at least five days a week, or an hour a day [138].
Salt consumption [221]

The UK Food Standards Agency recommends for adults not to eat more than 6 gram salt a
day. The daily recommended maximum for children depends on their age:
• 1 to 3 years - 2 g salt a day (0.8g sodium)
• 4 to 6 years - 3g salt a day (1.2g sodium)
• 7 to 10 years - 5g salt a day (2g sodium)
• 11 and over - 6g salt a day (2.5g sodium)
These are the recommended maximums for children. It is better for them to have less.
The Agency advises to look at the nutritional information on the label:

High salted foods have 1.25g salt or more per 100g (0.5g sodium or more per 100g).
Low salted foods have 0.25g salt or less per 100g (0.1g sodium or less per 100g
The FSA classifies foods between high and low, as moderate salted foods.
Salt calculatorhttp://www.salt.gov.uk/salt calculator.shtml
Nutritional habits
According to FSA, the taste buds get used to high levels of salt and may not notice the saltiness
of some foods. Getting used to eating less salt the taste buds become more sensitive and can
find out how salty foods taste which had been considered as not salty before.
Eating foods with less salt one gets used to this nutritional habit and they will become more
tasty because lots of salt can hide more subtle flavours.
If children have too much salt, this could affect their health and give them a taste for salty
food, being more likely to continue eating too much salt when they grow up. [222]
938
Blood LDL cholesterol should be treated in order to level with:

• LDL cholesterol > 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l)
• LDL cholesterol > 130 mg/dl (3,36 mmol/l) with two or more secondary risks and HDL
cholesterol > 35 mg/dl=0,91 mmol/l Secondary risks are: Arterial hypertension, smoke,
overweight, Diabetes mellitus, peripheral arteriosclerosis and cerebral sclerosis
• Arterial hypertension:
Blood pressure up to 140/90 mmHg is considered as normal.
Blood pressure from 140/90 mmHg up to 160/95 should be put under medical supervision.
Blood pressure higher than 160/95 is considered as hypertension which needs medication.
• LDL cholesterol > 100 mg/dl (2,6 mmol/l) in case of manifested coronary diseases
• LDL cholesterol > 110 mg/dl (2,8 mmol/l) in children and juveniles
Traditional blood cholesterol values Isolated values of total blood cholesterol does not
give safe informations for therapy control. Below values are cited as being traditional:
Table 24.28: Blood values of cholesterol traditional considered as normal

Adults < 30 years total cholesterol < 180 mg/dl (4,66 mmol/l)
Adults > 65 years total cholesterol < 240 mg/dl (6,21 mmol/l)
Children total cholesterol < 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l)
Diet necessary total Cholesterol < 200 mg/dl (5,17 mmol/l)
LDL/HDL quotient < 5,0
Dietary measures to lower blood cholesterol The following measures lower the blood
cholesterol in great number of cases.
• Reduction of calories
• Reduction of fat in nutrition
• Change of nutrition related the composition of fatty acids, substituting saturated fatty
acids
• Reduction of cholesterol in nutrition. An interesting way to reduce cholesterol in nutrition
is made with the introduction of a low-cholesterol egg. These eggs are produced in
Malaysia and also in Germany feeding chicken with monounsaturated fatty acids, maize
and palm oil. They have 100 to 160 mg cholesterol which is 25 to 50% below normal
[223].
The omega-3 egg In Germany there are being made efforts to produce eggs with high
level of omega-3 fatty acids. Hens are being fed with a special type of grains. This
gets eggs rich on polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 type. The daily intake of
omega-3 fatty acids should be 0,5% of total calories ( with a diet of 2.200 kcal/day =
approximately 1 g omega 3 fatty acids)(information from EIVIt Fischer Weppler GmbH
PB 100572 76486 Baden-Baden).
• Rise of amount of fibres in nutrition
• Reduction of the amount of meat in nutrition
• Reduction of Broca Index below 1,0.

Broca Index Body weight in Kg = Body length in cm-100
• Body Mass Index < 25

Body Mass Index = Body weight in Kg : (Body length in meters)2
Before medication is used a 6 month cholesterol lowering diet should be tried.

An immediate medication together with a diet is needed when LDL-cholesterol >
350 mg/dl= 9,1 mmol/l.
Approval of products in EU: Regulation (EC) No 258/97 concerning novel foods

and novel food ingredients
Before any new food product can be introduced on the European market it must be rigorously
assessed for safety. In the UK the assessment of novel foods is carried out by an independent
committee of scientists appointed by the Food Standards Agency, the Advisory Committee on
Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).
UK novel foods committee

The Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP ) is an independent group
of experts who advise the Agency on any matters relating to novel foods and novel processes.
Varied fruit juices have been subjected to approval, some o them enriched with plant sterols.
[224]
Pomegranate juice reverse proatherogenic effects of disturbed arterial flow [225]

According to F. de Nigris and colleagues, atherosclerosis is enhanced in arterial segments ex-
posed to disturbed flow. Perturbed shear stress increases the expression of oxidation-sensitive
responsive genes (such as ELK-1 and p-JUN) in the endothelium. Evidence suggests that
polyphenolic antioxidants contained in the juice derived from the pomegranate can contribute
to the reduction of oxidative stress and atherogenesis.
In their study, the authors conclude that the proatherogenic effects induced by perturbed
940
shear stress can be reversed by chronic administration of pomegranate juice.
Heart UK and Coronary Heart Diseases

Heart UK, the Cholesterol Charity specialises in patients who inherit high cholesterol, with
particular concern for those who remain undiagnosed with the condition called Familial Hyper-
cholesterolaemia (FH), or inherited high cholesterol (IHC)
The Charity maintains relationships with companies whose product is beneficial to a healthy
diet particularly within the field of high cholesterol, approving those products like pomegranate
juice and others with evidence to support their heart health benefits. [226]
Supplementary juice product made from blackcurrants and blueberries, rich in antioxidants
and vitamin C are being investigated on their effects on cardiovascular diseases.
The Heart UK Charity stresses that diet is central to the treatment of hyperlipidaemia. Lipid-
lowering drugs are generally only prescribed when treatment goals are not met through dietary
change alone. For those who do require drug therapy, following a pattern of healthy eating is
strongly encouraged. [226]
The OPTILIP study concerning ischemic heart disease [227]

Sanders and colleagues measured the effect of low dietary ratio of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids (n-6:n-3) (3:1)on high risk factors of ischemic heart disease. The risk factors are
known to be elevated fibrinogen, activated factor XII (FXIIa), and factor VII coagulant activity
(FVIIc). The authors concluded that decreasing the n-6:n-3 to 3:1 by increasing the intake of
EPA and DHA lowers fasting and postprandial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in older
persons but does not influence hemostatic risk factors.
Wild blueberries as protective factor against strokes citeKalea GalAGs

Dorothy Klimis-Zacas and colleagues investigated the effects of wild blueberries (Vaccinium
angustifolium) on functional and structural molecules in the walls of the aorta of rats.
The study was focused on glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are carbohydrate molecules in
the blood vessel walls that are directly or indirectly involved in a variety of functions, including
lipoprotein metabolism, blood coagulation, and organization of the extracellular matrix.
The increased intake of polyphenols may provide protection against coronary heart disease
and stroke.
Blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium) are one of the richest sources of antioxidants among
fruits and vegetables. Phenolic compounds from berry extracts inhibit human low density
lipoprotein and liposome oxidation.
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and proteoglycans (PGs) are structural components of aortas

interacting with compounds such as enzymes, cytokines, growth factors, proteins and lipopro-
teins and their subsequent role in degenerative diseases.
The presence of three GAG populations were studied: hyaluronan (HA), heparan sulfate (HS)
and galactosaminoglycans (GalAGs).
The study demonstrated that increased galactosaminoglycans (GalAGs) content, together with
a lower concentration of oversulfated disaccharides in both HS and GalAG populations in the
aortas of rats fed with a supplement of Blueberries was found to be a protective factor.
The authors conclude that a diet rich in blueberries results in structural alterations in rat aor-
tic tissue GAGs, affect cellular signal transduction pathways and biological function of GAG
molecules within the vascular environment.
Mangosteen
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)is a fruit of south east Asia. It is rich in mangostin,
one of a family of active compounds known as xanthones. Mangosteen inhibits the oxida-
tion of LDL-cholesterol and the activity of PGE2, COX-1, and COX-2 (prostaglandin E2 and
cyclooxygenases-1 and -2) key factors involved in inflammatory conditions.
Mangostin is a natural organic compound isolated from various parts of the mangosteen tree.
It is a yellow crystalline solid. Mangostin and a variety of other xanthones from mangosteen
have been investigated for biological properties including anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and
anticancer activities. [229]
The extract of the mangosteen plant has a strong inhibitory effect on Propionibacterium acnes
and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Therefore, it could become a possible alternative treatment
for acne according to Chomnawang. It also provides in-vitro antibacterial activity against
staphylococcus aureus [230] [231]
The active substances of the crude extract of the fruit hull of mangosteen were identified
as alpha-mangostin and gamma-mangostin. The structures of alpha-mangostin and gamma-
mangostin is free from nitrogen atom. It does not resemble to the common structures of
histamine and serotonin receptor antagonists. These compounds may therefore become novel
types of lead compounds for histamine and serotonin receptor antagonists, helping to fight al-
lergies and inflammation. [232]
942
Other components of Garcinia mangostana: Three new xanthones, mangostenol (1),

mangostenone A (2), and mangostenone B (3), were isolated from the green fruit hulls of
Garcinia mangostana, along with the known xanthones, trapezifolixanthone, tovophyllin B (4),
alpha- and beta-mangostins, garcinone B, mangostinone, mangostanol, and the flavonoid epi-
catechin. [233]
Four new compounds of Garcinia mangostana were isolated byYang YL and col: Three mi-
nor xanthones, garcimangosone A (1), garcimangosone B (2), and garcimangosone C (3), and
a benzophenone glucoside, garcimangosone D (4). [234]
Mangostin inhibition of the oxidative modification of lipoprotein LDL: The oxidation

of low density lipoprotein (LDL) may play an important role in atherosclerosis. Mangostin,
isolated from Garcinia mangostana was found to act as a free radical scavenger to protect the
LDL from oxidative damage in vitro system. [235]
Cancer chemoprevention of mangostin: Researches with crude methanolic extract from

the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana using human breast cancer (SKBR3) cell line as a model
system suggestes that the methanolic extract from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana had
strong antiproliferation, potent antioxidation and induction of apoptosis. According to Moongkarndi
the results of the study indicates that this substance can show different activities and has poten-
tial for cancer chemoprevention which were dose dependent as well as exposure time dependent.
[236]
Ischemic heart disease, epidemiological studies [237] [238] [239] [240] [241] [242]
Epidemiologic studies Western countries linked dietary factors such as total fat, saturated fatty
acids (SFAs), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), n-3 series fatty acids, and cholesterol with
the incidence of ischemic heart disease.
The most relevant studies were the Western Electric Study, the Zutphen Study, the Hon-
olulu Heart Program, the Puerto Rico Heart Health Program, , the Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart
Study, and the Seven Countries Study. A total fat intakes of 3540% of energy had been found
in Western countries. Recommended dietary fat allowance in Western countries: Fat intake
should be less than 30% of energy come from fat to prevent fat-related diseases.
Effect of dietary fatty acids on atherogenesis [243] According to many studies satu-
rated fat from foods, such as meat products, hard cheese, cream and palm oil, increase serum
cholesterol.
Studying the effect of dietary fatty acids on atherogenesis lead researcher, Dr. David Cel-
ermajerStephen, J. Nicholls and colleagues found that consumption of a saturated fat reduces
the anti-inflammatory potential of HDL and impairs arterial endothelial function. In contrast,
the anti-inflammatory activity of HDL improves after consumption of polyunsaturated fat.
They found mechanisms by which different dietary fatty acids may influence key atherogenic
processes due to anti-inflammatory properties of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and vascular
function.
Raised levels Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
(VCAM-1) were found to be a response of the immune system which results in inflammation
of the vascular endothelian.
A saturated fat meal made HDL-cholesterol to be less effective at inhibiting the expression
of both ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and polyunsaturated meal caused HDL to have increased in-
hibitory activity compared HDL from fasting plasma.
Labelling of the content of saturated fat and trans fatty acids could help to reduce the risk of
heart disease by choosing products with reduced content of saturated fatty acids. Depression
and lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids [173] In order to examine whether depression
was associated with lower levels of omega-3 FAs in serum phospholipids cancer patients were
divided in three groups: major depression group a minor depression group and a nondepression
group.
There were no differences between the major depression group and nondepression group in
any FAs. The minor depression group had higher mean levels of docosahexaenoic acid.
These results suggested that serum FAs are associated with minor, but not major, depression
in lung cancer patients.
Omega 3 fats and prostate cancer[174] The Omega-6 poly-unsaturated fatty acid, Arachi-
donic acid, has been shown to enhance the proliferation of malignant prostate epithelial cells
and increase the risk of advanced prostate cancer.
Invasion of the human bone marrow takes place. This invasion is mediated by the arachi-
donic acid metabolite prostaglandin E2 .
Mick Brown and colleagues found, however, when Omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids eicos-
apentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at a ratio of 1 : 2 Omega-3 : Omega-6 were present
the spread of cancer cells was stopped.
N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and reduction of mortality due to myocardial in-
farction [175]
A meta-analysis of Heiner Bucher and colleagues suggests that dietary and nondietary intake
of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces overall mortality, mortality due to myocardial in-
944
farction, and sudden death in patients with coronary heart disease.
Lack of benefit of dietary advice concerning fruits and oily fish [176]
In this study 3114 patients with angina were distributed in four groups:
1. advised to eat two portions of oily fish each week, or to take three fish oil capsules daily;
2. advised to eat more fruit, vegetables and oats;
3. given both the above types of advice;
4. and given no specific dietary advice.
A study of Burr and colleagues found that the advice to eat more fruit resulted in no detectable
effect on mortality. Men advised to eat oily fish, and particularly those supplied with fish oil
capsules, had a higher risk of cardiac death. The result is unexplained, but caused a high
repercussion in non-medical press like ”Der Spiegel” denying any protection again cancer and
are of no help against depression. [177]
Long chain and shorter chain omega 3 fats discredited[178]

Hooper and colleagues, in a meta-analysis of randomised control trials and cohort studies
concluded that long chain and shorter chain omega 3 fats do not have a clear effect on to-
tal mortality, combined cardiovascular events, or cancer. Trial results were inconsistent and
showed no strong evidence of reduced mortality or cardiovascular events in participants taking
additional omega 3 fats.
It is not clear whether long chain or short chain omega 3 fats (together or separately) re-
duce or increase total mortality, cardiovascular events, cancer, or strokes. The findings do not
rule out an important effect of omega-3 fats on total mortality, as robust trials at low risk of
bias reported few deaths. There is no evidence that the source (dietary or supplemental) and
dose of omega-3 fats affected the effectiveness of long chain omega-3 fats.
Hooper looked for an explanation why the study by Burr et al contradict the other large
studies by not suggesting a benefit of omega-3. The authors examined the harmful cumulative
effects of methylmercury in the long Burry trial, the fact that a specific angina patient group
was chosen, and if oily fish could have a different effect as fish oil supplements, but no expla-
nation was found. It is therefore not clear why the results of Burr et al differ from the other
large studies on fish based omega- 3. The authors conclude that the effect of omega 3 fats on
cardiovascular disease is smaller than previously thought, or that its beneficial effect is limited
to a specific group not represented in the study by Burr et al.
The authors add as final recommendation that UK guidelines encourage the general public to
eat more oily fish, and higher amounts are advised after myocardial infarction (supported by
trials after myocardial infarction). This advice should continue at present but the evidence
should be reviewed regularly. It is probably not appropriate to recommend a high intake of
omega 3 fats for people who have angina but have not had a myocardial infarction.
Health recommendations conflict concerning oily fish and omega-3 fat supplements
[302]
In an editorial in 2006 Brunner states that for the general public some omega-3 fat is good
for health. Long chain omega 3 fatty acids are structural components of neuronal and other
cell membranes, and they modulate the production of eicosanoids and inflammatory cytokines.
Whether omega-3 fat prevents cognitive impairment and dementia is currently being tested
in trials. Extreme nutritional deficiency of these fats results in a neuropathy that can be
reversed with rapeseed oil or other vegetable oils containing alfa-linolenic acid (18:3 omega
3). Alfa-Linolenic acid is a precursor of long chain omega-3, but endogenous conversion to
eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 omega-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 omega-3) is limited and
inefficient.
Benefits of omega fatty acids supplementation outweighs any likely hazard of fish
oils[180]
Hooper et al. address the risks and benefits of omega-3 fats mentioning contaminants such as
methylmercury, dioxins and dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Michael J. James and colleagues analysed the anti-inflammatory effects of fish oil advising
patients to take 15mls fish oil daily on juice (equivalent to 14 standard capsules daily) Third
party analysis showed dioxins and indicator PCBs, which can be reduced by molecular distil-
lation during processing of fish oil, to be below the level of detection and mercury present at
0.006mg/kg. Analysing mercury levels in both urine and blood in patients who had taken fish
oil 15ml/day for at least 3 years low levels within the normal reference range and in most cases
at or below the limit of detection were found.
In evaluating the risks of fish oil one needs to consider the hazards of treatments it displaces.
This collateral damage clearly outweighs any likely hazards associated with fish oil use.
High yields of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) from microalgae [179]

With the introduction of Advanced BioNutritions DHA from microalgae rather than from fish
meal and oil, there is the added benefit of the fish fed with these microalgae to bee a completely
renewable and contaminant-free resource which can be certified as organic.
The fermentation process for the production of plant DHA uses the microalgae Cryptheco-
dinium cohnii as well as some other microalgae.
946
DHA and ARA are used infant formulas. The best source of DHA, an omega-3 fatty acid,
has traditionally been fish oil.
DHA from microalgae avoids mercury contamination of fish oil. Other vegetarian sources
such as flax oil are considerably less bioavailable.
Other publications on this matter are:

Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, et al. Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-
analysis of metabolic ward studies. Brit Med J. 1997;314:1127.
Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester ADM, et al.: Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates
on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a
meta-analysis of 60 controlled studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:114655.
Omega-3 fatty acids levels in fresh beef from feedlots

A feedlot or feedyard is a type of concentrated animal feeding operation (also known as factory
farming) which is used for fattening livestock, notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter. Aside
from ethical and environmental concerns, feedlots have come under criticism for human health
reasons. The tissues of feedlot-raised cattle have far more saturated fat than that of grass-fed
cattle, some sources say up to 500 percent more. Feedlot-raised beef may after long periods on
feed have reduced healthy omega-3 fatty acids because of the corn-and-grain diets of the cattle.
[300]
Maddock and colleagues assessed the effects of flax addition and flax processing on feedlot
performance and carcass characteristics. The researchers found that feeding 8% flax to feedlot
heifers increased gain and efficiency, and processing flax increased available energy and resulted
in increased efficiency of gain and increased levels of n-3 fatty acids in fresh beef. [301]
Importance of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease [181]

William E. Connor in a supplement in 2000 states that n-3 Fatty acids favorably affect atheroscle-
rosis, coronary heart disease, inflammatory disease, and perhaps even behavioural disorders.
Omega-3 fatty acids and biomarkers of inflammation and endothelian activation

in women [182]
Lopez-Garcia and colleagues found in 2004 that the intake of alfa-linolenic acid was inversely
related to plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), and E-selectin. (n-3) fatty acids
(eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic) were inversely related to soluble intracellular adhesion
molecule (sICAM-1) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule (sVCAM-1). Total (n-3) fatty
acids had an inverse relation with CRP, E-selectin, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1.
The researchers conclude that dietary (n-3) fatty acids are associated with levels of these
biomarkers reflecting lower levels of inflammation and endothelial activation, which might ex-
plain in part the effect of these fatty acids in preventing cardiovascular disease.
The effects of diet on inflammation [183]

Giugliano in a review in 2006, states that the incidence of coronary heart disease may be re-
duced with a diet comprising adequate omega-3 fatty acids intake, reduction of saturated and
trans-fats, and consumption of a diet high in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and whole grains and
low in refined grains. Prudent dietary patterns may reduce inflammation associated with the
metabolic syndrome.
Omega-3 fatty acids and serum C-reactive protein [184]

The intake of n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids or fish is inversely associated with serum C-reactive
protein (CRP) concentrations.
K. Niu and colleagues , studying in 2006 the effect of high intake of of omega-3 fatty acids
from a diet rich in marine products, found that greater intake of n3 PUFAs was independently
related to a lower prevalence of high C- reactive protein concentrations in an older Japanese
population with a diet rich in marine products, suggesting that even very high intakes of n3
PUFAs may lower serum C- reactive protein concentrations.
n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease[185]

Jan L. Bleslow in 2006 writes that fish oil containing the n3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is associated with decreased cardiovascular death,
whereas consumption of the vegetable oilderived n3 fatty acid alfa-linolenic acid is not as effec-
tive.
At doses >3 g/d, EPA plus DHA can improve cardiovascular disease risk factors, including de-
creasing plasma triacylglycerols, blood pressure, platelet aggregation, and inflammation, while
improving vascular reactivity. The American Heart Association recommends that everyone eat
oily fish twice per week and that those with coronary heart disease eat 1 g/d of EPA plus DHA
from oily fish or supplements.
Fish consumption and cognitive decline [186]

In a prospective cohort study Morris and colleagues examined whether intakes of fish and the
omega -3 fatty acids protect against age-related cognitive decline.
The results of the study were a 10% and 13% slower decline among persons who consumed
1 fish meal per week and 2 or more fish meals per week, respectively, compared with the cog-
nitive decline of persons who consumed fish less than weekly.
The authors concluded that fish consumption may be associated with slower cognitive de-
948
cline with age. Further study is needed to determine whether fat composition is the relevant
dietary constituent, as there were little evidence that the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
were associated with cognitive change.
Balancing benefits and risks of seafood study 2006 [187]

The 2006 study Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks sponsored by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Marine Fisheries Service and the FDA,
supports public health guidelines.
According to this study the contamination coming from seafood counts only for only 9 per
cent of the PCBs in the diet. The rest come from meat and dairy. According to this study,
which was conducted by the US National Academies of Science, Institutes of Medicine, the
levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls are low, and potential cardiovascular and other
effects are outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake.
The findings of the study is backed up by the results of the study of Dariush Mozaffarian
and Eric B. Rimm [188]
Fish intake, the risks and the benefits [188]

Searching reports published through April 2006, Dariush Mozaffarian, and Eric B. Rimm found
evidences that modest consumption of fish (eg, 1-2 servings/wk), especially species higher in
the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), reduces risk
of coronary death by 36% and total mortality by 17% and may favourably affect other clinical
outcomes. Intake of 250 mg/d of EPA and DHA appears sufficient for primary prevention.
Women of childbearing age and nursing mothers should consume 2 seafood servings/wk, limit-
ing intake of selected species.
A variety of seafood should be consumed; individuals with very high consumption (>5 serv-
ings/wk) should limit intake of species highest in mercury levels. Levels of dioxins and polychlo-
rinated biphenyls in fish are low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed
by potential benefits of fish intake.
the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, bene-
fits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks.
Recommendations of the National Heart Foundation [189]

Reduce saturated fat (SF) (and -fatty acids) to reduce CVD risk. Replace SF and trans-fatty
acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and monunsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs).
Identify food sources of different fats i.e. SF (and trans fats), mono and poly. Promote con-
sumption of at least 2 fish meals per week.
The Northern Osteosporosis and Obesity Study (NO2 Study) linking omega-3 fatty
with increased bone build up in young men Magnus Högström and colleagues in a Swe-
den study known as the Northern Osteosporosis and Obesity Study (NO2 Study) measured
fatty acids in the serum phospholipids fraction in healthy men and their association with bone
mineral density and bone accrual . They found that n-3 fatty acids, especially docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), are positively associated with bone mineral accrual and with peak bone
mineral density in young men around the age of 16 to 22 years. In an earlier study higher
ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids was negatively associated with bone build up in elderly men and
women. [190]
Chaim Vanek and William Connor suggested that the healt benefit of n-3 fatty acids on bone
health might result from affecting expression of the role of peroxisome proliferators-activated
receptor gama (PPAR-gama). Overexpression of this protein is linked to lower bone mass,
therefore eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA may protect bone mass.
The authors call for more research on this matter. [191]
The essential fatty acids The essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) comprise 2
main classes: n-6 and n-3 fatty acids.
The most common source of n-6 fatty acids is linoleic acid is found in vegetable oils. Arachi-
donic acid n-6 fatty acid, is obtained largely by synthesis from linoleic acid in the body.
The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are found in fish and
fish oils. The beneficial health effects of these two n-3 fatty acids were first described in the
Greenland Eskimos, who consumed a high-seafood diet and had low rates of coronary heart dis-
ease, asthma, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and multiple sclerosis. These positive health attributes
of n-3 fatty acids include reduction of risc of cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid
arthritis, and psoriasis. [181]
Significant benefits of dietary supplementation with fish oils were found in several inflammatory
and autoimmune diseases in humans, including rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, ulcera-
tive colitis, psoriasis, lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis and migraine headaches. [192]
Australian regulations for mercury in fish [193]

The Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code prescribes maximum level for mercury of 1.0
mg mercury/kg for swordfish, southern bluefin tuna, barramundi, ling, orange roughy, rays and
shark. and a level of 0.5 mg/kg for all other species of fish, crustacea and molluscs.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued two major reports on mercury
the Mercury Study Report to Congress (1997) and the Utility Hazardous Air Pollutant Report
950
to Congress (1998). In those reports, fossil-fuel power plants, especially coal-fired utility boil-
ers, were identified as the source category that generates the greatest Hg emissions, releasing
approximately 40 tons annually in the United States.
Methylmercury
[194] The major pathway for human exposure to methylmercury is consumption of contaminated
fish. Dietary methylmercury is almost completely absorbed into the blood and is distributed
to all tissues including the brain; it also readily passes through the placenta to the foetus and
foetal brain.
Major Health Effects of Methylmercury Epidemics of mercury poisoning following high-

dose exposures to methylmercury in Japan and Iraq demonstrated that neurotoxicity is the
health effect of greatest concern, such as effects on the foetal nervous system, mental retar-
dation, cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, and dysarthria in utero and in sensory and motor
impairment in adults.
The studies in the Seychelles Islands, New Zealand, and the Faroe Islands were designed to
evaluate childhood development and neurotoxicity in relation to foetal exposures to methylmer-
cury in fish-consuming populations. No adverse effects were reported from the Seychelles Islands
study, but children in the Faroe Islands exhibited subtle developmental dose-related deficits at
7 years of age. These effects include abnormalities in memory, attention, and language. In
the New Zealand prospective study, children at 4 and 6 years of age exhibited deficiencies in a
number of neuropsychological tests.
Other studies were conducted in the Amazon; Ecuador; French Guiana; Madeira; Mancora,
Peru; northern Quebec; and Germany. Effects of methylmercury on the nervous system were
reported in all but the Peruvian population.
The EPATissue Residue Criterion is 0.3 mg methylmercury/kg fish. This is the concentration
in fish tissue that should not be exceeded based on a total fish and shellfish consumption-
weighted rate of 0.0175 kg fish/day. The risks posed by pollutants such a methylmercury,
and polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs) is outweighed by the benefits of fish consumption, like
omega-3, protein,mineral content, and essential vitamins such as vitamin D where a 150 g serve
of fish will supply around 3 micrograms of vitamin D.
EPA is proposed to function by increasing blood flow in the body, to affect hormones and
the immune system, and is involved in the membrane of ion channels in the brain, making it
easier for them to change shape and transit electrical signals. Outstanding publications on this
matter are:
The Pregnancy Outcome and Community Health (POUCH) Study: A diet high
in ocean fish poses risk of premature birth. [195]
A study leaded by Fei Xuein and published in 2006, reinforced previous findings suggesting that
fish consumption is a major source of mercury exposure for pregnant women. The greatest fish
source for mercury exposure appeared to be canned fish, both because it was consumed more
and, per meal, it was among the fish categories associated with the highest levels of mercury in
maternal hair. The observed relationship between elevated mercury levels and increased risk
of very preterm delivery is a new finding and requires caution in interpretation.
Major strengths of the present study include the large number of pregnant women partici-
pating, the prospective design, and the use of hair as an index of methylmercury exposure.
Hair levels of total mercury represent a longer window of exposure than those of blood levels.
Mercury levels in hair ranged from 0.01 to 2.50 ppm (mean = 0.29 ppm, median = 0.23 ppm).
The study is the first to report an association between delivery at less than 35 weeks gestation
and maternal hair mercury levels at or above 0.55 ppm
The Seychelles Islands study finds no threat coming from diet high in ocean fish
[196]
Philip W. Davidson and colleagues in a ten-year study of over 700 children in the Seychelles
Islands found that the mean maternal hair total mercury level was 6.8 ppm and the mean child
hair total mercury level at age 66 months was 6.5 ppm. No adverse outcomes at 66 months
were associated with either prenatal or postnatal MeHg exposure. The authors concluded that
consumption of a diet high in ocean fish appears to pose no threat to developmental outcomes
through 66 months of age. The Seychelles Islands study is significant as the studied population
eats 12 fish meals a week, There is no home made mercury pollution.
Omega-3 fatty acid function of brain neurons [197]

Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3), one of the main structural lipids in the mammalian brain,
plays crucial roles in the development and function of brain neurons.
The function of DHA in neurogenesis and learning was examined in a study conducted by
Kawakita, Hashimoto and Shido Ohese. The researchers demonstrated that docosahexaenoic
acid effectively promotes neurogenesis both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that it has the new
property of modulating hippocampal function regulated by neurogenesis. Maintaining brain
DHA concentrations may be an important part of prevention of neurodegeneration with ageing.
Fish advisories in United States [198]

Each state sets its own criteria and decides which bodies of water to monitor. Fish advisories
are voluntary state recommendations and are not governed by federal regulations.
Frequently, when a fish advisory is issued it is because of pollutants that have lingered in
952
the environment for long periods, sometimes decades, even though they are no longer used or
their use has been significantly curtailed. These pollutants include PCB’s, chlordane, DDT,
mercury and dioxin.
EPA has made considerable progress toward reducing the occurrence of these contaminants
in the environment: EPA issued first-ever regulations to control mercury emissions from the
power sector by 70 percent, the Clean Air Mercury Rule. Production of PCBs for use ceased
in 1977; chlordane was banned in 1988; DDT was banned in 1972; and known and quantifiable
industrial emissions of dioxin in the United States are estimated to have been reduced by ap-
proximately 90 percent from 1987 levels.
General Dietary Advice: [198]

FDA recommends that consumers eat a balanced diet, choosing a variety of foods including
fruits and vegetables, foods that are low in trans fat and saturated fat, as well as foods rich in
high fibre grains and nutrients. Fish and shellfish can be an important part of this diet.
WHO guidelines for mercury in fish

The World Health Organization’s guidelines maintain that the lowest level that could possibly
be harmful to humans is 5 parts per million (ppm).This level is based on scientific results from
the 1960s that placed the level at which risk begins at 50 ppm for most people; WHO then
applied a safety factor of 10, deciding that a level of 5 or less is safe for even the most vulnerable
populations.
EPA has recommended that a person ingest no more than 30 micrograms of mercury per
day. Based on estimates of U.S. fish consumption, FDA recommended that only commercial
fish with less than 1 ppm of mercury be sold. Later on the EPA recommended to Congress that
the tolerable daily intake of mercury be dropped to just one-fifth the current allowable level,
to about 6 micrograms per day.
The FDA supports statements that it is safe to eat fish and shellfish twice a week and that one
should always eat a variety of species.
Morrissey stresses that pregnant women should stick with current FDA recommendations of
about 12 ounces (340 grams) per week. Do not eat shark, swordfish, King Mackerel, Tilefish.
The rest of the population should be eating fish four to seven times per week. [199]
US FDA List of Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish Recent US FDA
data of mercury levels in fish and shellfish are available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov frf/sea-
mehg.html and Mercury Concentrations in Fish: FDA Monitoring Program (1990-2004)
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ frf/seamehg2.html
EPA and FDA fish consumption advice for pregnant women and young children
[205]
EPA and FDA advice not eat: Shark, Swordfish, King Mackerel, Tilefish. They contain high
levels of mercury.
EPA and FDA recommend to eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of
fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. Five of the most commonly eaten fish that are low
in mercury are shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish.
EPA and FDA says to be carefully with albacore (”white”) tuna which has more mercury
than canned light tuna. No more than 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna fish from
local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. per week should be eaten and no other fish during that
week.
EWG recommendation in addition to FDA [204]

Recommendation of the Environmental Working Group (EWG) and the U.S. Public Interest
Research Group (U.S. PIRG) published in Brain Food: What Women Should Know About
Mercury Contamination of Fish:
• Pregnant women, nursing mothers and all women of childbearing age, should not eat tuna
steaks, sea bass, oysters from the Gulf Coast, marlin, halibut, pike, walleye, white croaker,
and largemouth bass. These are in addition to FDA’s recommendation to entirely avoid
shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish.
• These women should eat no more than one meal per month combined of canned tuna,
mahi-mahi, blue mussel, Eastern oyster, cod, pollock, salmon from the Great Lakes, blue
crab from the Gulf of Mexico, wild channel catfish and lake whitefish.
• The following fish are safer choices for avoiding mercury exposure: farmed trout or catfish,
shrimp, fish sticks, flounder, wild Pacific salmon, croaker, haddock, and blue crab from
the mid-Atlantic.
Mercury Levels in High-End Consumers of Fish [202] Jane M. Hightower and Dan
Moore tested mercury levels in blood and hair of frequent fish eaters. They found mercury
levels ranging from 2.0 to 89.5 µg/L for the 89 subjects. The mean for 66 women was 15 µg/L,
and for 23 men was 13 µg/L.
• (Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and the National Academy of Sciences
recommend keeping the whole blood mercury level < 5.0 µg/L or the hair level < 1.0
µg/g . This corresponds to a reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 g/kg body weight per day.)
The authors concluded that high blood levels of mercury could be reduced by abstaining from
eating fish for more than 21 weeks. Mercury levels in tested women averaged in this study 10
954
times the levels recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National
Academy of Sciences. Levels in men were close behind, while some of the children tested were
found to have levels 40 times those recommended. Nearly 90% of those tested were above the
recommended levels.
Environment and power plants [200]

Concern over mercury contamination has led government agencies to warn consumers not to
eat bass, trout and other sport fish caught in over a thousand lakes and streams across 40 U.S.
states.
Coal-burning power plants are the single largest source of mercury pollution, and the only
major source the government does not regulate. Mercury is an extremely volatile metal that
can be transported great distances after spewed into the atmosphere. Once it reaches an
aquatic environment, mercury is transformed into methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, which
accumulates in top predator fish and the people and wildlife who eat them. When ingested
by pregnant women, methylmercury readily crosses placenta and targets the developing brain
and central nervous system. Even relative tiny amounts can produce serious developmental
delays in walking, talking hearing and writing. Infants can also be exposed to high levels of
methylmercury during breastfeeding.
Mercury emissions from the power sector was reduced by 70 percent, following the EPA Clean
Air Mercury Rule of 2005. [201]
Fatty acids with trans configuration Most of the unsaturated fatty acids in nature have
a cis configuration. The trans configuration results mainly during chemical hydrogenation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
In February 1995 the first part of the Euromic-Study was published in The Lancet. This
part of the study was mainly concerned with trans fatty acids and diseases of the coronary
vessels. The second part of the study was related to intake of TFA and cancer.
Approximately 2 to 3% of the fat of the milk and derivates have a cis configuration being
elaidinic acid ( C18:1 trans) responsible for most of the trans fatty acids of milk.
In some cases the amount of trans fatty acids in milk and derivates can be as high as 5%.
Therefore the International Federation of Margarine Association (IFMA) and the IMACE
(Association of Margarine Industry of the EC Countries)indexAssociation of the Margarine In-
dustry of the EC Countries (IMACE) recommended to lower the amount of TFA (Trans Fatty
Acids) in margarine to a maximum of 5% of fat.
Margarine to be used as spread or cooking should have less than 1%.[206]
The trans fatty acids can be reduced during refining by reducing the temperature of the process.
This however means a longer time the oil or fat has to spend in the system an therefore higher
operation costs. The increased costs should be accepted in change of a healthy product.
The deodorization of vegetable oils during refining using temperatures over 2300 C results more
than 3% of trans fatty acids. Using temperatures under 2300C a maximum of 0,5% trans fatty
acids are formed. This can be tolerated.
A real great amount of trans fatty acids are formed by partial hydrogenation of soy oil.
A melting point of 36 to 370 C of soya oil very commonly used in the production of margarine
as well as deep frying fat and products for bakery results in up to 50% of trans fatty acids.
Trans fatty acids are therefore hidden in cakes, cookies, creams and margarine and all kind of
fried product.
In USA partially hydrogenated oil is used almost everywhere. The trans fatty acids represents
therefore a great menace to health because they act as saturated fatty acids and may cause
arteriosclerosis.
Trans fatty acids can be avoided during industrial processing of oil using entirely hydrogenated
oil.
If all double and triple bindings of the molecule of the fatty acids are saturated the trans
stereoisometric configuration ceases to exist and there is no negative physiological activity left.
To obtain the same consistence of partially hydrogenated oil it is necessary to add more liquid
oil and esterified the whole compound. This implies in higher production cost. All efforts to
get healthy products should however be made, including the acceptance of a small increase of
price of the final product in order to get margarine, fats, creams and bakery products having
less than 5% of their fatty acids in trans configuration.
Snacks , fast foods and restaurant meals should phase out unhealthy fats [207]
Marie-Pierre St-Onge and colleagues 2007 in a study found that replacing low-fat and high-fat
snacks with snacks rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and low in saturated and trans
fatty acids improves cardiovascular health.
The authors found in their study that the reduction of LDL- and total cholesterol concen-
trations were greater with the low-fat and the high-PUFA diets than with the high-fat diet The
high-PUFA diet tended to reduce triacylglycerol concentrations, and this change was greater
than that with the low-fat and high-fat diets. In addition the PUFA diet was the only one
that tended to reduce triacylglyerol concentrations. However this that low fat diets may lead
to reduction in high density lipoprotein (HDL /good cholesterol), and increase triacylglycerol
concentrations. Some high fat foods such as nuts and avocados are therefore considered as
healthy.
956
The authors concluded that snack type affects cardiovascular health. Consuming snack chips
rich in PUFA and low in saturated or trans fatty acids instead of high-saturated fatty acid
and trans fatty acid or low-fat snacks leads to improvements in lipid profiles concordant with
reductions in cardiovascular disease risk.
According to the authors the consumption of snacks above balanced meals should not be pro-
moted as healthy, but this research adds to the evidences that snacks, fast food and restaurant
meals should be reformulated to reduce unhealthy trans fatty acids and to increase polyunsat-
urated fatty acids. Organisations like the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) are
working hard on this issue
Fats and margarine for bakery Fats and margarine for bakery must have special stability,
structure and melting point. Therefore special hydrogenated oils and fats are needed.
Table 24.29: Example of fat for flaky pastry
Palm oil, hydrogenated melting point 45/460C 40%

0
Soybean oil, hydrogenated melting point 36/38 C 35%
Rapeseed oil, liquid melting point 50 C 25%
This fat blend has a content of trans-fatty acids of 20 to 25%.
Melting points of fats found in nature: Coconut fat melting point 24-280C Palm oil
melting point 37-390C Palmkernel oil melting point 26-300C These melting points are to low
for the production of pastry margarine.
To avoid hydrogenated oils and fats for bakery it is possible to fractionate fats leaving it at spe-
cific temperature to permit the hard components (stearin) to crystallize. Filtration separates
the low melting components (olein).
Industry still uses hydration instead of fractionated fats because of the the higher prices of
fractionated fats. For the sake of health the higher price should be accepted by the consumer
in order to get healthy food.
Bakery products bear a lot of hidden fats and are a great source of trans fatty acids with
arteriosclerotic and carcinogenic activity.
Physiology of trans fatty acids The fatty acids in cis form have the property to reduce
blood cholesterol, meanwhile the trans configuration being consumed about 30 to 40 gram a
day make the total blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol to rise. HDL cholesterol is reduced
by trans fatty acids.
In countries with high consume of partially hardened soya oil like USA there is an increase of
heart diseases like heart infarct.

Industrial manufactured oils and fats cannot avoid completely trans fatty acids.
By using proper technologies the content of trans fatty acids however can be reduced to a
tolerable amount of maximum 5%.
A daily intake of 4 to 6 gram of trans fatty acids are told to be harmless. All effort should be
made by the industry to reduce the amount of trans fatty acids.
Trans fat claims, FDA proposal

[119] In its November 1999 proposal, FDA proposed a definition for the nutrient content claim
”trans fat free” and proposed limits on the amounts of trans fat wherever saturated fat limits
are placed on nutrient content claims, health claims, or disclosure and disqualifying levels.
With regard to the specific definitions, FDA proposed that ”trans fat free” and ”saturated
fat free” should be defined as less than 0.5 g trans fat and less than 0.5 g saturated fat per
reference amount and per labelled serving; ”low saturated fat” as 1 g or less of saturated fat and
less than 0.5 g of trans fat per reference amount and not more than 15 percent of calories from
saturated fat and trans fat combined; ”reduced saturated fat” as at least 25 percent less satu-
rated fat and at least 25 percent less saturated fat and trans fat combined; ”lean” as 4.5 g or less
of saturated fat and trans fat combined; and ”extra lean” as less than 2 g of saturated fat and
trans fat combined. In addition, cholesterol claims were allowed only on foods containing 2 g or
less of saturated fat and trans fat combined, and disqualifying and disclosure levels were set at 4
g or less of saturated fat and trans fat combined. FDA did not propose to define ”low trans fat.”
Quantitative declaration of trans fat in the Nutrition Facts panel [119]

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amended its regulations on nutrition labelling to
require that trans fatty acids be declared in the nutrition label of conventional foods and dietary
supplements on a separate line immediately under the line for the declaration of saturated fatty
acids.
FDA is revised Sec. 101.9(c) by adding paragraph Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(ii) to require the quan-
titative declaration of trans fat in the Nutrition Facts panel. This new paragraph requires the
listing of trans fat on a separate line under the statement for saturated fat. As is the case
for all subcomponents of total fat, it is to be indented and separated by a hairline, with the
amount expressed as grams per serving to the nearest 0.5 g increment below 5 g and to the
nearest gram increment above 5 g. If the serving contains less than 0.5 g, the content must be
expressed as 0, except when the statement ”Not a significant source of trans fat” is used. In
addition, the agency is clarifying that the word ”trans” may be italicized to indicate its Latin
origin.
958
Not a significant source of... [119]

Section 101.9(c) requires that information on mandatory nutrients, such as saturated fat and
trans fat, be included in all nutrition labelling unless otherwise excepted from such labelling as
provided for in specified paragraphs.
Special provisions within Sec. 101.9(c) allow for shortened formats that provide manufac-
turers flexibility to omit noncore nutrients (i.e., mandatory nutrients other than calories, total
fat, sodium, total carbohydrate, and protein) that are present in insignificant amounts from the
list of nutrients and group them in a summary statement at the bottom of the label that states
-Not a significant source of-(see 58 FR 2079 at 2083, Comment 8, January 6, 1993). These
special provisions are found in Sec. 101.9(c)(1)(ii) for calories from fat, Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(i)
for saturated fat, Sec. 101.9(c)(3) for cholesterol, Sec. 101.9(c)(6)(i) for dietary fibre, Sec.
101.9(c)(6)(ii) for sugars, and Sec. 101.9(c)(8)(iii) for vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, or iron.
For consistency with the labelling scheme for these other noncore mandatory nutrients, new
Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(ii) provides that if the trans fat content is not required and, as a result, not
declared, the statement -Not a significant source of trans fat- must be placed at the bottom of
the table of nutrient values.
Physiology of saturated fatty acids Saturated fatty acids rise the blood level of LDL
cholesterol.
Claim to lower risk of heart disease with soy products [482] U.S. Food and Drug
Administration has approved to label foods containing at least 6,25 grams of soy protein per
serving touting a link between eating soy and lower risk of heart disease.
6,25 grams of soy proteins are one-fourth of the 25 grams of soy protein daily which are supposed
to be needed to show a significant cholesterol-lowering effect.
The claim was requested by Protein Technologies International, a subsidiary of DuPont Co,
which is a manufacturer of isolated soybean protein.
Foods which may be qualified for this claim are soy beverages, tofu, soy-based meat alternatives
and some baked goods.
Omega-3 fatty acids claims The major source of omega-3 fatty acids is dietary intake of
fish, fish oil, vegetable oils (principally canola and soybean), some nuts such as walnuts, and,
dietary supplements.
The Oxfor-Durham Study concerning Omega-3 fatty acids and DCD[483]

Alexandra J. Richardson and colleagues studied the effect of dietary supplementation with
omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD).
This disorder affects 5% of school-aged children. They present deficits in motor function asso-
ciated with difficulties in learning, behaviour, and psychosocial adjustment.
The authors found significant improvements in reading, spelling, and behaviour, however, no
effect of treatment on motor skills was apparent. They concluded that fatty acid supplemen-
tation may offer a safe efficacious treatment option for educational and behavioural problems
among children with DCD.
The British company Dairy Crest relying on these results claimed that her omega enriched
milk could enhance children’s ability to concentrate and learn. The Britain’s Advertising Stan-
dards Authority requested to stop this claim alleging that children would have to drink more
than five litres of that milk every day to get the same amount of omega-3, being thus mislead-
ing. [484]
Britain’s Joint Health Claims Initiative (JHCI) has approved a generic health claim that foods
containing omega-3 benefit heart health, but not learning ability or concentration. The JHCI
offers pre-market advice and a code of practice for the food industry, enforcers and consumers,
to ensure that health claims on foods are both scientifically truthful and legally acceptable.[484]
UKs Food Standards Agency, concerning omega fatty acids said that there is insufficient quality
evidence to reach firm conclusions on the effect of nutrition and dietary changes on learning,
education or performance for all schoolchildren. The Agency maintains their advice to a diet
lower in fat, sate and sugar but high in fruits, vegetables and complex carbohydrates, in addi-
tion to being physically active.
Omega-3 fatty acids and brain function[485]

Omega-3 fatty acids were proposed as having an important role in mental health, because up to
60% of the adult brain is composed of lipids (dry weight). Thirty five percent of the lipids are
phospholipids comprised of unsaturated fatty acid such as docosahexaenoic acid (an omega-3
fatty acid) and arachidonic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) acids.
Omega 3 and psychiatric disorders[485]

Disorders of mental health are becoming increasingly common in the US. It is estimated that
in a given year, 22%, or one in five American adults, suffers from a diagnosable mental health
disorder.[486] These disorders, including major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and
obsessive-compulsive disorder, account for four of the ten leading causes of disability in the US
and other developed countries. Many people suffer from more than one mental disorder at a
given time.[487]
Schachter, and colleagues co authors of the Oxford-Durham study write that overall, other
than for the topics of schizophrenia and depression, few efficacy or safety studies were identified.
960
Only with respect to the supplemental treatment of schizophrenia is the evidence even some-
what suggestive of omega-3 fatty acids potential as short-term intervention. Additional research
might reveal the short-term or long-term therapeutic value of omega-3 fatty acids.
One study demonstrating a significant clinical effect related to 1 g/d E-EPA given over 12
weeks to 17 patients with depressive symptoms cannot be taken to support the view of the util-
ity of this exposure as a supplemental treatment for depressive symptomatology or disorders.
Nothing can yet be concluded concerning the clinical utility of omega-3 fatty acids as sup-
plemental treatment for any other psychiatric disorder or condition, or as a primary treatment
for all psychiatric disorders or conditions examined in the review. Primary treatment studies
were rare.
Much more research is needed before the possible utility of (foods or supplements contain-
ing) omega-3 fatty acids as primary prevention for psychiatric disorders or conditions can be
ascertained. Studies of omega-3 fatty acids’ primary protective potential in mental health could
be ”piggybacked” onto longitudinal studies of their impact on general health and development.
FSA Systematic review of the effect of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learn-
ing, education and performance of school children carried out by the University of
Teeside [488]
The UK’s Food Standards Agency has published the results of a systematic review of the effect
of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learning, education and performance of school children
aged 4 - 18 years, covering already published studies.
The Government and those involved in education are committed to improving learning and
raising standards in schools, as well as meeting the needs of individual pupils.
There is widespread belief that nutrition and diet may have a part to play in this process;
however, there is a degree of uncertainty as to what interventions or supplements work.
Much of the available evidence is confusing and contradictory. In essence those charged with
supporting and delivering education are seeking clear guidance for both individuals and groups
of children, so as to be able to identify what probably works, what might work and what prob-
ably does not work.
The authors conclude that there is insufficient evidence to identify any effect of nutrition,
diet and dietary change on learning, education or performance of school aged children from
the developed world. Further research is required in settings of relevance to the UK and must
be of high quality, representative of all populations, undertaken for longer durations and use
universal standardised measures of educational attainment.
However, challenges in terms of interpreting the results of such studies within the context
of confounders such as family and community context, poverty, disease and the rate of individ-
ual maturation and neurodevelopment will remain.
Whilst the importance of diet in educational attainment remains under investigation, the ev-
idence for promotion of lower fat, salt and sugar diets, high in fruits, vegetables and complex
carbohydrates, as well as promotion of physical activity remains unequivocal in terms of health
outcomes for all school children.
Omega-3 fatty acids from diet or supplements and depression[491]

Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation have been linked with behavioural improvements of chil-
dren with learning difficulties, behavioural problems or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD). According to the phospholipid hypothesis the decreased omega-3 fatty acid intake
could be responsible for the disease.
According to the US Department of Health and Human Services 3% of children and 12%
of adolescents may suffer from clinical depression.
Professor Haim Belmaker and colleagues treated for one month children aged between 6 and
12 with a combination of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an
omega-3 supplement commonly available at drugstores.
The researchers found significant depression reductions in the omega-3 treated group, conclud-
ing that Omega-3 fatty acids may have therapeutic benefits in childhood depression.
Cognitive function seems to benefit from DHA which is involved in the membrane of ion chan-
nels in the brain, making it easier for them to change shape and transit electrical signals. EPA
may influence brain function directly increasing blood flow in the body, affecting hormones and
the immune system.
Belmaker and colleagues concluded that omega-3 fatty acids may have therapeutic benefits
in childhood depression.
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Essential Fatty Acid Status as a Predictor of Future

Suicide Risk [492]
Low levels of docosahexaenoic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, and elevated ratios of omega-
6/omega-3 fatty acids are associated with major depression and, possibly, suicidal behaviour.
M. Elizabeth Sublette and colleagues found in a study that a low docosahexaenoic acid per-
centage and low omega-3 proportions of lipid profile predicted risk of suicidal behaviour among
962
depressed patients over the 2-year period. If confirmed, this finding would have implications
for the neurobiology of suicide and reduction of suicide risk.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Mood Disorders [489]

In an overview of epidemiological and treatment studies concerning deficits in dietary-based
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, resulting mood disorders and their therapy with omega-3
fatty acids supplementation Gordon and colleaugues found that according to the different au-
thors reviewed eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is likely to provide
the greatest benefit. More studies studies clarifying the efficacy of omega-3 supplementation
for unipolar and bipolar depressive disorders are needed.
Mood gene D4DR[490][493] The gene, called D4DR (fourth dopamine receptor gene) and
located on the 11th chromosome, is said to be responsible for 10 percent of people’s novelty-
seeking or adventurous behaviour. The D4DR gene was discovered in the United States in 1991.
Its functioning is expressed in the limbic part of the brain - the section involved in emotions -
and binds with high affinity to clozapine, a drug used to treat schizophrenia. Doctors at Soroka
Hospital and the Beersheva Mental Health Center and at Jerusalem’s Herzog Memorial-Ezrat
Nashim Hospital, who tested 124 healthy Israelis, made the discovery. Doctors from the U.S.
National Cancer Institute also pinpointed the gene on 300 people of various ethnic groups at
the University of Maryland.
People who score low on the novelty-seeking test tend to be exploratory, fickle, excitable,
quick tempered, and extravagant, while those who score high are more stoic, loyal, reflective,
frugal, rigid, and even-tempered.
An U.S. team, which included Dr. Jonathan Benjamin of Soroka, backed up the Israeli findings.
Changing nutritional habits regarding omega fatty acids [100]

Nutritional habits have changed from whole grains, beans and other seeds, and seafood high in
omega -3 fatty acids to prepared foods containing corn oil, safflower oil, cottonseed oil, peanut
oil, soybean oil and red meat, which are high in omega-6.
EM Berrry says omega-6 fatty acids are essential for normal growth, development and health,
and so extreme care is necessary before deciding that they are harmful. The relation n-6 : n-3
changed from 3:1 towards 1:20
n-6 function cannot be considered in isolation but needs to be seen as part of the complex
of nutrient interactions with n-3 fatty acids (which compete for the same enzymatic pathways)
and antioxidants.
Insulin sensitivity might be the common factor relating disease to fatty acid metabolism both
within and between the fatty acid pathways. High linoleate to arachidonate concentrations
have been observed in insulin resistance, diabetic complications and some tumours, but these
are multifactorial processes that include many lifestyle determinants and it is therefore wrong
to condemn only n-6 fatty acids in their etiology.
Omega-6 and prostate cancer [101]

New research, leaded by Professor William Aronson found that changing the ration of omega-3
to omega-6 in the typical Western diet might reduce prostate cancer tumor growth rates and
prostate specific antigen PSA levels. PSA is a marker for the risk of prostate cancer.
Omega-3 fatty acids( eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) and the
omega-6 acid ( arachidonic acid) compete to be converted by cyclooxgenase enzymes (COX-1
and COX-2) into prostaglandins, which can become either pro-inflammatory and increase tu-
mour growth, or anti-inflammatory and reduce growth. Aronson and colleagues found that
levels of the pro-inflammatory prostaglandin (PGE-2) were 83 per cent lower in tumours in the
omega-3 group than in mice on the predominantly omega-6 fatty acid diet.
According to this study higher levels omega-3 fatty acids may lead to development of more
anti-inflammatory prostaglandins. The authors conclude that eating a healthier ratio of these
two types of fatty acids may make a difference in reducing prostate cancer growth.
The role of fat and cardiovascular diseases [102]

The Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial leaded by
Barbara Howard found that dietary changes like eating less fat and more vegetables has no
effect on the risk of cardiovascular disease.
This study is inconsistent with earlier studies which associate dietary fat intake and a low-
ered risk of cardiovascular disease, focusing on wholegrain, fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids.
The authors, however, find it possible that a diet specifically lower in saturated and trans fat
combined with increased intakes of vegetables, fruits, and grains might have led to a decrease
in cardiovascular disease risk.
According to Cheryl Anderson and Lawrence Appel The Women’s Health Initiative study had
not considered current dietary guidelines to cut CVD risk, such as less salt and more potassium,
the DASH (Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension) diet, and weight loss. Current policies
towards fruit, vegetables and wholegrain would probably be unaffected. The study, however,
may indicate that saturated fat levels should be lowered from 10 per cent to seven per cent of
total energy intake. The possibility that the effect might have been greater in men or if the
diet had been initiated at younger ages cannot be ruled out. [?]
964
Reduction of fat level in fried fish [104] Three hydrocolloid coating materials were tested
in reducing fat uptake in battered fish products. Camden and Chorleywood Food Research
Association Group coatings such as alginate, pectin, gellan gum, methyl cellulose, and hydrox-
ypropyl methyl cellulose. Fish fillets were coated with alginate, pectin and gellan gum and then
fried. All three coated battered fish fillets with either water or one of the three hydrocolloids
showed reduced fat level in the final product.
These findings could help to reduce total lipid intake by the population as fried fish is an
important constituent of the average population.
The authors suggest that the reduction of fat was due to the waterbinding ability of the coat-
ings. In fully fried products, the reduction in fat uptake was less marked, although an effect
was still seen.
It is likely that the longer frying times compromised the integrity of the coatings, empha-
sising the need to consider the requirements of both product and process when applying edible
films.
Green Paper ”Promoting healthy diets and physical activity” [105]
The obesity crisis [105] The Green Paper of the Commission of the European Communi-
ties entitled” Promoting healthy diets and physical activity: towards a European strategy for
the prevention of overweight, obesity and chronic diseases” opens the discussion on the obesity
crisis, focusing on the factor of food for the prevention of chronic diseases, overweight and
obesity
Improving the health of Europeans through better diets and greater physical activity is crucial
to preventing a range of non-communicable diseases and improving quality of life for millions
of people.
According to the Confederation of Food and Drink Industry of the EU a greater understanding
of all obesity-related factors is needed, calling for improved public health education on nutrition
and healthy lifestyles. This would enable consumers to take responsibility for making healthy
choices. It will be also be the basis for understanding and making use of product information
provided by the industry.
Strategies should include the determinants that affect food choice, factors that lead to in-
sufficient physical activity in every-day life, and not just food products themselves. [106]
The Green Paper considers industry self-regulation the best way of dealing with the problem.
According to the CIAA, however, a broader approach is needed to meet all factors involved,
such as:
• It should be clear that each consumer is responsible for ensuring that his or her own
lifestyle is a healthy one.
• Parents have a similar responsibility for their children.
• Increase of level of physical activity in children, adolescents and adults, in particular in

the school environment.
The European Vending Association (EVA) questions the scientific data of the Green Paper
regarding the excessive intake of energy-dense snacks and sugar-sweetened soft drinks:
EVA says the ”notion of excessive intake” is vague and very subjective, and it is unclear
how it impacts directly on the Body Mass Index. EVA calls for other factors such as energy
out determining if intake is excessive or not.
New discussion connecting high fructose syrup with obesity [107] High fructose corn
syrup (HFCS) was introduced in the 1970s. Food industry, particularly the soft drink industry,
uses fructose syrup in excess. Removing fructose from soft beverages could help to reduce obe-
sity, as a possible mechanism is suggested which may explain the link between rising obesity
and sweetened beverages.
Three important studies report that high fructose corn syrup is an important factor in the
rising obesity epidemic:
According to Hella S. Jürgens and colleagues (2005), from the Department of Pharmacology,
German Institute of Human Nutrition, Potsdam-Rehbruecke, exposure to fructose water in-
creased adiposity, whereas increased fat mass after consumption of soft drinks or diet soft
drinks did not reach statistical significance. Total intake of energy was unaltered, because mice
proportionally reduced their caloric intake from chow. The researchers found that fructose also
produced a hepatic lipid accumulation with a characteristic pericentral pattern.
Jürgens conclude that a high intake of fructose selectively enhances adipogenesis, possibly
through a shift of substrate use to lipogenesis.
Swiss researcher Kim-Anne Le and colleagues report in December 2006 that moderate fructose
supplementation over 4 weeks increases plasma triacylglycerol and glucose concentrations with-
out causing ectopic lipid deposition or insulin resistance in healthy humans. [108]
In February 27, 2007 Juan Carlos Laguna and colleagues wrote that liquid fructose changes
the metabolism of fat in the liver by impacting a specific nuclear receptor called PPAR-alpha,
leading to a reduction in the liver’s ability to degrade the sugar. According to the authors,
966
this would partly explain the link between increased consumption of fructose and widening
epidemics of obesity and metabolic syndrome. In their article the authors conclude that hy-
pertriglyceridemia and the retention of fat in liver induced by fructose ingestion result from a
reduction in the hepatic catabolism of fatty acids driven by a state of leptin resistance.
According to this research, the fructose increased fat synthesis in the liver and also acted
on the PPAR-alpha receptor( which controls the oxidation of fatty acids) to reduce the degra-
dation of the fructose, and reduces the activity of the hormone leptin which is engaged in the
metabolism of faty acids in liver. [109]
The Corn Refiners Association CRA position

The Corn Refiners Association (CRA), claims in a release from April 6, 2006, that that HFCS
is not the unique factor responsible for obesity. http://www.hfcsfacts.com/
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS), according to Kathleen J Melanson is similar to sugar in
the production of leptin, insulin and ghrelin and regulation of the bodys calorie control mech-
anisms. (Experimental Biology conference on April 1-5, 2006, San Francisco.) [110]
Martine Perrigue et al compared the level of fullness (satiety) after consuming HFCS-, sucrose-
and aspartame-sweetened beverages with milk and a no-beverage control. The study found
that all four caloric beverages suppressed hunger ratings and increased satiety ratings relative
to the no beverage control. However, there were no significant differences in satiety profiles
among the sucrose- and HFCS-sweetened beverages, diet cola, and 1% milk. [111]
textbf Insufficient data to conclude that high-sugar diet results in lower nutrient intake [112]
Rennie and Livingston (2007) in a systematic computerised literature search determined the
associations between dietary added sugar intake and micronutrient intake. Dietary added sug-
ars are getting in headlines as they might compromise intakes of micronutrients. However, in
this study, the authors found no clear evidence of micronutrient dilution such as vitamins or
minerals, or a threshold for a quantitative amount of added sugar intake. The authors conclude,
that there are insufficient data and inconsistency between studies which require further research
to determine which food products high in added sugars might adversely affect micronutrient
intakes by displacing other food items from the diet.
Low-calories, low dietary energy density and physical activity
PREMIER: Lifestyle Interventions for Blood Pressure Control [113]

The PREMIER study compared the effectiveness of advice of the Comprehensive Intervention
and the DASH Intervention. Both multicomponent lifestyle interventions aimed to control
blood pressure.
Comprehensive Intervention: Reduced sodium intake, increased physical activity, weight

loss, and moderate alcohol ingestion are associated with a modest reduction of both systolic
and diastolic blood pressure in with high normal and Stage 1 hypertension.
The DASH Intervention: The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) study
found that a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy products, and decreased saturated fat,
total fat, and cholesterol reduced both diastolic and systolic blood pressure in similar baseline
blood pressure groups.
Outcomes from the PREMIER study [114] The PREMIER writing group, leaded by
Apel wrote in 2003 that both behavioral interventions significantly reduced weight, improved
fitness, and lowered sodium intake. The established plus DASH intervention also increased
fruit, vegetable, and dairy intake. Individuals with above-optimal BP, including stage 1 hy-
pertension, can make multiple lifestyle changes that lower BP and reduce their cardiovascular
disease risk.
Both behavioral interventions significantly reduced weight, improved fitness, and lowered sodium
intake. The established plus DASH intervention also increased fruit, vegetable, and dairy in-
take. Across the groups, gradients in blood pressure and hypertensive status were evident.
Dietary Energy Density Reduction [115] Jenny Ledikwe and colleagues 2007 found that
participants of the PREMIER study maintained weight loss after dieting adhering to a low
calorie, low energy density diet, even when large amounts of low calorie, low energy density
foods were consumed. Both large and modest energy density reductions were associated with
weight loss and improved diet quality.
The researchers found that the energy density of the diet was decisive. Participants on a
low energy density diet reported the same weight loss as those on low calorie high physical
activity diets. However, the low energy density group reported consuming the largest increase
in the weight of food consumed as well as increased intakes of fruit, vegetables, fibre, vitamins
and minerals. Even a modest reduction in energy density accomplished reduced body weight.
The authors therefore concluded that a reduction in dietary energy density was a healthy weight
management strategy.
Low Energy density may reduce physical activity necessary to maintain weight.
[116] Tiffany L. Cox and colleagues 2007 determined the role of physical activity and energy
intake on weight maintenance among former EatRight Weight Management Program partic-
ipants. The authors found that 80% of participants maintained their body weight and 20%
had gained weight. Maintainers consumed 384 fewer kcal/d on average. Maintainers had a
lower energy density dietary pattern (1.58 vs. 2.01 kcal/g,). There was no significant difference
in physical activity min/d reported by maintainers and gainers. even for people who did not
968
exercise regularly .Adopting a lower calorie, low energy density dietary pattern may reduce the
amount of physical activity that is truly necessary for weight maintenance. This is a new hope
for those who cannot maintain a certain level of their daily exercise
EatRight model [117] EatRight model encourages the intake of foods that have fewer calo-
ries by volume such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains, while limiting consumption of foods
that are calorie-dense such as meats, cheeses, sugars and fats, and includes increasing physical
activity and behavioural intervention to reduce or remove barriers to lifestyle change.
Antioxidants in human nutrition [118]

Formation of radicals
Free radicals are told to start cancinogenic reactions in vivo. Oxygen is the main source of free
radicals such as Singulett-O2, superoxydation and the hydroxilradical.
In small amounts the radicals are used in many biochemical reactions. The amount of free
radicals being however to high the benefit of the radicals turn out to be dangerous to the phys-
iology of the cell ending in Arteriosclerosis and cancer.
The organism protects itself from free radicals with the building of an own free radical de-
fence system helped by external antioxidant vitamins.
Table 24.30: Antioxidant vitamins and their protective function

Antioxidant vitamins Protective function against free radicals
Carotenoids (provitamin A) Singulett-O2 quencher.
Tocopherols (vitamin E ) Act as radical receiver in lipid layers

together with vitamin C mainly to protect
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Tocopherols also protects beta-carotene
and vitamin A from autoxidation in cells.
Vitamin C Act as radical receiver in the cytoplasm

together with vitamin E. It also
regenerates tocopherol from tocopheryl
radicals which were originated during the
antioxidant function.
Aspirin can triple the rate of excretion
of vitamin C
Selenium, Zinc, copper,

manganese As elements being found as traces in enzyme
system of the cells. An undersupply of these
elements reduces the efficiency of vitamins,
therefore they are here included
Magnesium[?] Magnesium is a light metal which can burn in presence of oxygen,
being used as torch but also in metal alloys in
aeronautic.It is present in minerals, seawater and
mineral water, in plants as chlorophyll and wheat bran 590 mg/100g,
slim cocoa powder 500 mg/100g, sunflower seed kernel 20 mg/1000g,
sesame seed 350 mg/100g, cashew nut 270 mg/100g
peanuts 163 mg/100g, oat flakes instant 140 mg/100g
dried figs 70 mg/100g, Edam cheese 45% 59 mg/ 100g
cooked spinach 50 mg/100g, wholemeal bread 92 mg/100g
white bread 19 mg/100g. A balanced diet supplies sufficient magnesium
It is an important biological element for animals and humans.
It is a physiological antagonist of
calcium. Values of serum are 0,65-1,03 mmol/l
Magnesium is very important for many enzymatic
reactions (it activates all reactions where ATP is present.
Important for undisturbed building of bones,
It acts relaxing. It is being told that magnesium
improves the connections of the synapsis of
nerve cells having therefore anti stress function,
however there is no scientific evidence for it.
According to D. Hötze, C. Küpper and A. Zittermann[718]
research has been done relating a permanent
effect of the“ streß hormones “catecholamine and cortisol.
The result of this research was that there is
a loss of magnesium. Other findings say there is an
improving of the stress situation with supplementation of
magnesium working in very laud places.
An undersupply of Magnesium may be an additional
factor of the origin of arteriosclerosis[719]
Undersupply of Magnesium electrolyte syndrome
970
caused by undersupply of magnesium due to

unbalanced diet, infusion therapy, chronic diarrhea,
special diets, excessive alcoholism. laxatives,
inflammation of the pancreas, diseases of the intestinal tract.
faulty absorption syndrome, magnesium loss through
urine with diuretica therapy. chemotherapy, Diabetes mellitus
Syndromes of undersupply of magnesium
are: Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting,lack of drive, weakness.
Course tremor, cramps, cramp in the leg during
the night. Tetanic contractions.
Selenium Aside of its function in enzymes selenium
is known acting by itself as an antioxidant and
probably protecting from cancer. All other
inorganic elements have not been found with
antioxidant properties.
The study of Finland : Over 5.000 men and women over a period of 14 years in Finland
were given a nutrition with high levels of vitamin E They had a significantly lower cardiovas-
cular death rate than the group with lower intake of vitamin E.
In women vitamin E had a synergistic activity with beta-Carotene and vitamin C.
Warning about high levels of multivitamins increasing the risk of prostate cancers
[720] Karla Lawson in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study found
that regular multivitamin use has no effect on prostate cancer. High levels of multivitamins
along with other supplements have increased the risk of advanced and fatal prostate cancer by
32%. The risc was strongest in men with a family history of the disease, or amongst men took
additional micronutrient supplements, including beta-carotin, selenium, or zinc.
A new nested study published 2007 in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition reported
that an increased selenium intake in combination with a daily multivitamin may reduce the
risk of prostate cancer by about 40 per cent.
Goran Bjelakovic and Christian Gluud comment the study of Lawson and explain ” that reac-
tive oxygen species in moderate concentrations are essential mediators of reactions by which the
body gets rid of unwanted cells. Thus, if administration of antioxidant supplements decreases
free radicals, it may interfere with essential defensive mechanisms for ridding the organism of
damaged cells, including those that are precancerous and cancerous.
Our diets typically contain safe levels of vitamins, but high-level antioxidant supplements could
potentially upset an important physiologic balance.” The author conclude that Lawson and col-
leagues add to the growing evidence that questions the beneficial value of antioxidant vitamin
pills in generally well-nourished populations and underscore the possibility that antioxidant
supplements could have unintended consequences for our health. [721]
Liz Baker, from the British charity Cancer Research UK commented the research saying that
it’s still not entirely clear what factors can affect a man’s risk of developing prostate cancer.
And there is conflicting evidence on the pros and cons of vitamin supplements. She refers to
the benefits of vitamins that naturally occur in our food, and encourages consumers to eat a
diet rich in fibre, vegetables and fruit, and low in red and processed meat. [722]
The results were challenged by Daniel Fabricant of the Natural Products Association (NPA).
[723]
The VITAL study [724]

Chris Slatore and colleagues of the University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle
presented the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL) study. No statistically significant relationships
between different types of supplements and lung cancer were found in this study.
A study of more than 75.000 adults found that taking supplemental multivitamins, vitamin
C and E and folate do not decrease the risk of lung cancer. The study, which also did not find
any increased lung cancer risk from the supplements, is one of the most detailed, prospective
observational studies to look at the effect of vitamin supplements instead of vitamins from
foods on lung cancer risk.
This confirms foregoing studies which suggest that vitamin supplementation mightnot be as
healthy as believed.:
The CARET study 1996 [730]

In 1996, a large study known as the CARET study which was looking into the effects of the
dietary supplements beta-carotene and retinol (vitamin A), was halted after the supplements
were found to increase lung cancer risk, particularly among smokers. That study, and others,
encouraged researchers to look more deeply into the relationship between supplements and lung
cancer, Dr. Slatore said.
Beta-Carotene, vitamin E or vitamin A increasing risk of death American Medical

Society February 2007 [730]
Supplements have been getting a lot of attention this year. In February, the Journal of the
American Medical Association published an overview of studies that found that supplements
of beta-carotene, vitamin E, or vitamin A slightly increases a person’s risk of death.
972
The recommendation of the National Cancer Institute related to supplements [730]

The recommendations of the NCI are: ”The results of the Physicians’ Health Study showed no
benefit or harm to nonsmokers who took beta carotene every other day for 12 years. The re-
sults from CARET and the ATBC Study do not provide information about the effects of beta
carotene supplements on non-smokers. NCI does not make recommendations as to whether
Americans should take supplements. For those who wish to reduce their risk of cancer, NCI
advises that it is prudent to adopt a low-fat diet containing plenty of fruits, vegetables, and
grains.”
In a comment from Daniel Fabricant from the Natural Products Association the findings re-
ported at the American Thoracic Society 2007 International Conference, on Monday, May 21,
suggesting that taking supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C and E and folate do not decrease
the risk of lung cancer were questioned. [731]
The American study : 1.900 men in the USA with hypercholesterolemie from type IIa
(according Frederickson) had shown over a period of 14 years an inverse relation between the
total carotenoids in serum and cardiovascular diseases.
The EUR0MIC-Study : The EUROMIC Study has verified the risk of trans-fatty acidsin
food. This study has demonstrated an inverse correlation between the level of beta-carotene
and heart attack.
Basel Study : This study monitored 4.000 employees of a chemical industry during 7 years.
The study shows an inverse correlation between the serum level of beta-carotene and lung- and
stomach carcinoma.
To obtain high levels of carotenoids, vitamin E and vitamin C, a nutrition rich in fibres and
reduced in fat, typical for vegetables was used in these studies. The prophylactic effect of
this nutrition cannot be considered apart from the effect of the vitamins lowering thus the
importance of the foregoing.
The ATBC Study of Finland : Over 29.000 men in Finland between 50 and 69 years were
given 20 mg beta-carotene and 50 mg vitamin E for 6 years.
The group of beta-carotene had an unexpected increase of 18 % of lung carcinoma and 8%
higher mortality compared with the placebo group. Only the prostate gland carcinoma had
34% decreased and a very low decrease of colon carcinoma.
ATBC study and the Followuo study [725]

According to Albanes and colleagues 1996 the adverse effects of beta-carotene increased with
modest alcohol intake and in those smoking at least 20 cigarettes daily. [726]
According to leppälä participants taking vitamin E had fewer cases of prostate cancer and fewer
deaths from prostate cancer. Death from hemorrhagic stroke was increased in men taking alpha-
tocopherol supplements; the increase occurred primarily among men with hypertension, but
prevents cerebral infarction. Beta-Carotene supplementation increases the risk of intracerebral
hemorrhage in male smokers. [727]
The Postintervention Follow-up study [728]

Taking the vitamin supplements were stopped in April 1993 and followed the participants until
April 1999 In the follow-up period, the participants taking beta-carotene experienced 7 percent
higher overall mortality than men on the placebo. In the beta-carotene group, the higher
mortality during the trial was due to cardiovascular disease and lung cancer. In contrast, the
higher mortality during the post-intervention period was due to cardiovascular disease alone.
The conclusion of the post-trial follow-up period [728]

The adverse effects from beta-carotene and the beneficial effects from supplementation with
alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) largely disappeared during the post-trial follow-up period. There
were no additional beneficial late effects on cancer or mortality observed after the trial ended.
The study supports the recommendation that beta-carotene supplementation should be avoided
by smokers. The possible preventive effects of alpha-tocopherol on prostate cancer require
confirmation in other ongoing trials.
Calcium supplements and excessive consumption of dairy products may increase

the risk of prostate cancer in smokers, according to a study related to the ATBC
study. [729]
Calcium is reported to be the biggest seller supplement claiming that high dietary intakes of
calcium and dairy products to reduce prostate cancer risk.
Mitrou and colleagues 2007 in a study concerning dietary intakes of calcium and dairy prod-
ucts in relation to risk of prostate cancer in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene (ATBC)
Cancer Prevention Study in smokers, found that calcium intake of more than 2,000 mg/day
was associated with a marked increase in prostate cancer risk. Total dairy intake was also
positively associated with risk of prostate cancer, but eliminating calcium from the data no
risk of prostate cancer was found being calcium the pro-cancer agent of dairy products.
According to the authors intake of calcium or some related component contained in dairy
foods is associated with increased prostate cancer risk.
974
The CARET Study [732]

Approximately 14.000 smokers and employed persons in asbestos industries were given 30 mg
beta-carotene and 25.ooo i.U. vitamin A during 6 years.
The rate of lung cancer rate was 28% higher and the death rate 17% higher than the placebo
group.
The Physician Health Study [732]

Over 12 years 22.000 male physicians in USA were given 50 mg/day beta-carotene. There was
no significant change in cancer, heart disease rate or mortality.
The Linxian Study : Linxian is a northern Chinese region which has worldwide the highest
rate of Oesophagus cancer and a very low intake of retinol, beta-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin
C and riboflavin.
In this study 29.000 men and women in the age of 40 to 69 years were supplemented with 30 mg
vitamin E, 15 mg beta-carotene, 30 microgram selenium. Death rate of Oesophagus cancer was
reduced about 13%, stomach cancer about 21% and death of general origin about 9% compared
with a placebo group.
The Nurses Health Study : 87.000 healthy US nurses were supplemented with 100 mg
vitamin E /day during 8 Years.
Death rate due to heart diseases was reduced to37% compared withe the placebo group.
The Health Professional Study : 40.000 healthy US physicians were supplemented with
100 mg vitamin E /day during 4 Years.
Death rate due to heart diseases was reduced to 43% compared withe the placebo group.
The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Study
[699]
Studying the protection of fruits and vegetables against oesophagus and gastric cancer Carlos
A. González and colleagues found in the EPIC study that total vegetable and onion and garlic
intake has a protective role in the intestinal type of gastric cancer and the adenocarcinoma of
oesophagus.
Citrus fruit consumption may have a role in the protection against cardia gastric cancer and
the adenocarcinoma of oesophagus, but no evidence of association between fresh fruit intake
and gastric cancer risk was found.
Dietary recommendations to increase vegetable consumption are being supported by this study
because this may reduce the risk of intestinal type of gastric cancer.
The Swedish Mammography Cohort and the Cohort of Swedish Men[700]

Susanna C. Larsson and colleagues prospectively investigated the association between consump-
tion of fruits and vegetables and the incidence of gastric cancer among women of the Swedish
Mammography Cohort and men of the Cohort of Swedish Men, found that consumption of
green leafy vegetables and root vegetables was inversely associated with risk of gastric cancer.
The authors concluded that frequent consumption of vegetables (three or more servings a
week) of green leafy vegetables, like spinach, lettuce, and green salad reduced the risk of stom-
ach cancer by 46% and roots vegetables by 57% compared with a group who ate less than half
a serving every week. No relation between fruit consumption and stomach cancer was found.
From all these studies it is to be noted:

1. No help to reduce cancer incidence is expected with high dose of antioxidant vitamins in
high risk groups such as heavy smoker when cancer already had started before begin of
the supplementation.
2. Very high, not physiological dose of beta-carotene can start prooxidative reactions in
relation to the tension of oxygen in cells.
The studies were made with high dose of beta-carotene which are not obtained with
normal food.
3. Vitamin E can act as antioxidant only in presence of sufficient concentration of vitamin

C.
Vitamin C bears the danger to build Fe++ ions when high iron levels are present.
4. In some regions were not sufficient supply of vitamins are present a supplementation with
low dose of antioxidant vitamins can act positively
5. With a nutrition rich in vegetables and fruits and reduced amount of lipids there is no
need to supplement with vitamins because ideal blood levels are normally achieved
RDI of vitamin C
The recommended daily intake of the vitamin C in Europe is 60 mg. In the US, men are
recommended to consume 90 mg per day, and women 75 mg per day.
To provide data for the RDA of vitamin C, Mark Levine and colleagues conducted an in-
hospital depletion-repletion study. They found that bioavailability was complete for 200 mg of
vitamin C as a single dose. No vitamin C was excreted in urine of six of seven volunteers until
the 100-mg dose. At single doses of 500 mg and higher, bioavailability declined and the ab-
sorbed amount was excreted. Oxalate and urate excretion were elevated at 1000 mg of vitamin
C daily compared to lower doses. Based on these data and Institute of Medicine criteria, the
current RDA of 60 mg daily should be increased to 200 mg daily, which can be obtained from
976
fruits and vegetables. Safe doses of vitamin C are less than 1000 mg daily, and vitamin C daily
doses above 400 mg have no evident value. [701]
Antiinflammatory effects of vitamin C [702]

Blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA), known as
markers linked to inflammation were found inversely associated with Plasma vitamin C, fruit
intake, and dietary vitamin C.
Goya Wannamethee and colleagues from the Royal Free and University College Medical School,
London concluded that vitamin C has antiinflammatory effects and is associated with lower
endothelial dysfunction in men with no history of cardiovascular disease or diabetes.
The authors found that the high blood levels of vitamin C were associated with a 45 per cent
reduced risk of inflammation (with respect to CRP levels), and high fruit intake was related to
a 25 per cent reduced risk of inflammation. Plasma (but not dietary) vitamin C also showed
inverse associations with both fibrinogen concentrations and blood viscosity. No associations
were seen with von Willebrand factor or factor VIII.
Critics on the Wannamethee study [703]

Previous clinical trials (with diabetics, smokers and healthy men) had not reported an anti-
inflammatory effect from vitamin C supplementation.
In contrast, intravenous vitamin C trials did report an improvement in endothelial function.
Ishwarlal Jialal and Uma Singh from the University of California Davis Medical Center, writes
in an editorial that in respect to the antiinflammatory effects of vitamin C, the article of Wan-
namethee does not allow the drawing of any valid conclusions. Much further research in a
dose-response structure is required to ascertain whether oral vitamin C supplementation is an-
tiinflammatory and whether it improves endothelial dysfunction. Until such studies have been
conducted, it is safe to adhere to the guidelines of national organizations to consume e 5 or
more daily servings of fruit and vegetables.
Other shortcomings of the article of Wannamethee are cited in this editorial:

The study was only focused on elderly white men and thus could not be generalized for other
groups.
The use of t-PA as a measure of endothelial inflammation is being questioned.
Previous clinical trials (with diabetics, smokers and healthy men) had not reported an anti-
inflammatory effect from vitamin C supplementation.
Intravenous vitamin C trials did report an improvement in endothelial function.
The authors call for more research in a dose-response to ascertain whether oral vitamin C
supplementation is anti-inflammatory and whether it improves endothelial dysfunction.
Different forms of vitamin E

There are eight forms of vitamin E:
Tocopherols: alpha, beta, gamma, delta. Alpha-tocopherol is found in supplements and in the
European diet, and gamma-tocopherol is found in the American diet.
Tocotrienols: alpha, beta, gamma, delta. They are found in palmoil, cereal grains and rice bran.
Tocotrienols stopping the spread of cancer cells[704] [705]

Yoshiyuki Mizushina from the Kobe-Gakuin University, leading author studied the effects of all
eight forms of vitamin E on the inhibition of mammalian DNA polymerase, the enzyme that
assists DNA replication. He found that tocotrienols could stop the spread of cancer cells.
The four tocopherols did not influence the activities of mammalian polymerases and had no
effect on the spread of cancer cells.
Alpha- and delta-tocotrienols inhibited polymerase lambda activity, and inhibited the spread
of cancer cells, and angiogenesis (the growth of new blood vessels) is inhibited and the spread
of the cancer to other parts of the body is hindered reducing risk of metastasis.
Other Study by Chandon Sen, Savita Khanna and Sashwati Roy [705] support identical claims
for tocotrienols, including neuroprotection, reduction of cholesterol, as an antioxidant, and
other anti-cancer studies.
Vegetable phenols Vegetable polyphenols are due to historical background known as ”tan-
nin” when they are able to tan animal skin to leather. Substances of the group of the vegetable
phenols act antioxidant similar to antioxidant vitamins. These substances are:
Chlorogenic acid
Flavonoids
Anthocyanesare the most important flavonoids.Anthocyanes are found mainly in red grape peel,
in red beet and bilberry.
Flavonoids are found in nature having phenylchroman as basic element. Its characteristic
molecular formula is C6 - C3 - C6 . Important flavonoids are:
quercentins: Scientists of the University of California have found that quercentins are present in
yellow and red onions, red grapes and broccoli. Quercentins are anticancer agents suppressing
malignant cells before they form tumors an were used against capillary fragility, easy bruising
and small pin-point hemorrhages
Quercentin is obtained by steam distillation of quercentins bark and epicatechin, in the rinds
and barks of wild fruits and trees, in clover blossoms and in ragweed pollen. Isolation was done
from rhododendron , forsythia, hydrangea, pansies and eucalyptus Antocyanes
Catechines(Flavanoles).
Flavonole
978
Flavone
Flavanole: (= 3-Hydroxyflavone)
Flavanonole: (= 3-Hydroxy-2,3-dihydroflavone)
Flavanoneor catechin: (= 2,3-Dihydroflavone)
Anthocyanide
Isoflavone
Activity of polyphenols These substances interrupt the radical chain reaction in lipids of
the cell membrane avoiding the formation of oxidized LDL which starts ateriosclerotic diseases.
They have reducing properties. Flavonoids may also act as antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic.
Some activities of flavonoids in human are studied but are not confirmed yet:
Inhibition of enzymes with carcinogenic activity.
Inhibition of proteolytic enzymes.
Polyphenoles of these groups are found in many fruits and vegetables.
That is why more fruits and vegetables and less meat, fat and alcoholics should be consumed.
Tea is the main source of catechins. According to the Rotterdam-Study the consumption of
tea protects against heavy aorta ateriosclerosis in particular in women.[706]
Important varieties and their content of polyphenoles are:
Camellia sinensis var. assamica:
• High content of catechins and coffein
• High activity of Phenoloxidase activity resulting in dark brown colour of black tea
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis:
• Lower content of catechins and caffeine as noted in assamica
• Lower activity of Phenoloxidase activity which makes it suitabler for the production of
green tea
Protective effect of green tea and soy intake in relation to breath cancer risk
There is substantial in vitro and in vivo evidence implicating tea polyphenols as chemopreven-
tive agents against various cancers.
However, epidemic data collected by researchers of the Department of Preventive Medicine,

University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles are not supportive of
a protective role of tea, mainly black tea, in the aetiology of breast cancer.
The case study showed that both green tea and soy intake had significant, independent protec-
tive effects on breast cancer risk The results of this case study point to an important role of
both green tea and soy intake in relation to breast cancer risk. [707]
More evidences of anticancer effects of green tea

Shaun K. Rodriguez et col. suggest a novel mechanism for green tea catechin, epigallocatechin-
3-gallate anticancer effects where epigallocatechin gallate can abrogate vascular endothelial
growth factor signalling by interfering with the formation of a receptor complex, resulting in
attenuated mitogenic and angiogenic signalling. [708]
Bitter chocolate has high levels of catechins ( 53,3 mg/100g chocolate).
Milk chocolate has only 15,9 mg catechins /100g chocolate.
Catechines are situated in the cocoa part of the cocoa beans ( Theobroma cacao ), that is why
bitter chocolate with high cocoa is rich in catechines.
Analytical test for total polyphenols is the Folin-Ciocalteau. Due to the reducing activity of
the polyphenols a strong blue colour is created which can be be measured.
Specific polyphenols are measured with aid of HPLC or capyllary electrophoresis.
In order to act reducing it is necessary have at least one of the following structures:
1.- 3’ , 4’ -Dihydrofunction at the B ring. This makes the turnover of a proton building thus
an aryloxy-radical.
2.- OH- A group in position 5 and 7 at the A ring.
3.- A doublebound in 2-3 position in conjugation with the 4-Oxo-function and the 3-OH group
at the ring C turning possible the delocalization of the electrons of the B ring.
Quercentine has all three structures turning out to be an excelent antioxydant in water solution.
980
Polyphenols
OH
OH OH
B B
O O
OH OH
A C A C
OH
OH O OH O
Quercentine Flavone
OH
B OH
B
O
OH O
C OH
A C
A
OH
OH
OH O
OH
Flavanole Flavonole
Flavonols in chocolate
[709] A 15 years follow up study made by Brian Buijsse and colleges indicate that cocoa-
containing foods improve endothelial function and reduce blood pressure. In a cohort of elderly
men Brian Buijsse and colleges found that cocoa intake is inversely associated with blood pres-
sure and 15-year cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, confirming previous studies which have
linked flavanols (Flavan-3-ols) to improved cardiovascular health.
The cocoa-containing foods from this study included chocolate confectionery, cocoa sandwich
filling, cocoa desserts, cocoa drinks, and dietary supplements.
The men who consumed the most cocoa (more than 2.3 grams per day) had lower systolic
diastolic blood pressures (3.7 mmHg and 2.1 mmHg, respectively) than those who consumed
the least cocoa (less than 0.36 grams per day).
Several previous studies have shown that flavonol consumption increased blood vessel vasodi-
lation, and improve endothelial function.
However, Cathy Ross, of the British Heart Foundation, said that here is some evidence that
when eaten in small quantities, dark chocolate might have some beneficial effects on blood ves-
sels and lowering blood pressure, but as yet no study has investigated the long-terms clinical
effects.
People would have to eat about 100 grams of dark chocolate a day with 500 calories and
30 % of fat to get an effective amount of flavanols. According to Cathy Ross there are much
better ways of improving heart health like products with increased flavonol content. [710]
Legumin and homologous proteins

Legumin in maize [1097]
Legumin is a member of a family of storage proteins (11S globulins) found in the Leguminaceae
and other higher plants.
It is a histidine- and glutamine-rich polypeptide of 5055 kDa with a peptide bond joining
the C-terminus of the alfa-subunit (always asparagine) and the N-terminus of the beta-subunit
(almost always glycine)
Yamagata and colleagues found that a legumin does exist in maize, that it is uncleaved, that it
appears to be localized to small protein bodies essentially identical to those found in legumes,
and that it is more abundant in wild type (W64A), than in sweet corn or opaque-2 maize. The
authors discuss the phylogenetic relations between maize legumin and 7S globulin (vicilins).
Convicilin in Pisum and faba beans[1098]

Boulter and colleagues found in Pisum and faba beans two major families of storage proteins,
legumin and vicilin. Legumins are hexameric proteins comprising of 6M gama 60 000 subunits.
Vicilins are a less well-defined group of proteins consisting largely ofM gama 50 000 subunits.
Boulter found a third storage protein, convicilin, a vicilin-type protein with vicilin immunolog-
ical determinants.
According to Boulter proteins homologous to legumin have been found in Arachis, Glycine,Vigna
unguiculata, Lupinus, Cicer, Lens and Lathyrus. Equivalent vicilin-type proteins occur in
Phaseolus vulgaris, Glycine, Arachis and Vigna unguiculata.
982
Legumin type protein in almond [1104]

According to Shridhar and colleagues the almond major storage protein, amandin,Amandin is
a legumin type protein. Amandin is composed of two major types of polypeptides linked via
disulfide bonds. Amandin is a storage protein Amandin is not a glycoprotein. Amandin-1,
amandin-2, and amandin-3 are antigenically related and have similar biochemical properties.
Shiddhar found that methionine is the first essential limiting amino acid in amandin followed
by lysine and threonine.
Western Blot Legumin protein [1105]

The classical three-step procedure of Western Blot (blocking, primary antibody-binding and
secondary antibody-binding) takes about 4.5 hrs . GenScript developed the One-Step Western
which performs Western blot or Dot blot to detect any protein including Legumin protein and
related proteins within an hour. After the proteins are transferred from a gel to the membrane,
the membrane is incubated in Pretreatment Solution for 5 minutes and in WB solution with
primary antibody added for 40 min, the membrane is washed three times for 5 min each and
the blots are develop using either Chemiluminescent substrate or TMB.
Prickly pear cactus pads may control diabetes in Mexico [1106]

Nopalesare made from the young stem segments of prickly pear cactus, peeled to remove the
spines. Opuntia ficus indica and other cactuses are cultivated in Mexico. Nopales are very rich
in insoluble and especially soluble dietary fibre. They are also rich in vitamins and minerals.
Nopales reduces the glycemic effect of a mixed meal according to Bacardi-Gascon and col-
leagues 2007 who studied the effect of the cactus pear nopales on blood sugar levels when eaten
with regular Mexican fodder like burritos and quesadillas. Bacardi-Gascon and colleagues con-
cluded that Mexican patients could use nopales as a culturally based choice for the management
of diabetes. [1107]
Caterpillars of the Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), known as the Prickly Pear Moth feed on
the pads (cladodes) of cactus and may endanger yields. [1108]
Cocoa extract and vitamin E counteract overproduction of free radicals [1109]

P.Rozan and colleagues studied the effect of a a cocoa polyphenolic extract and vitamin E , on
free radicals produced by leucocytes assessing cognitive impairments in rats which had been
exposed to heat of 40o C /2hours. They found that the extract as well as vitamin E counteract
the overproduction of free radicals under these conditions.
Industrial processing of cocoa discards epicatechin in commercial cocoa [1099]
Norman Hollenberg and colleagues studied the Kuna people in Panama, descendants of the
Inca Empire, which have a diet low in protein, very low in fat and is rich is rich in fruit and
vegetables. They drink not less than 5 cups of cocoa a day. Their cocoa is processed very
gently and is rich in flavanoids, also found in red wine, tea, and onions.
Hollenberg found that in the island-dwelling Kuna who drink much cocoa, the renal excretion of
nitric oxide metabolites, nitrate and nitrite, is extremely high when compared to city-dwelling
Kuna who drink little or no cocoa. The researcher believe elevated levels of nitric oxide in the
blood helps relax the blood vessels and improves blood flow.
Hollenberg found that all of the commercially-available cocoas are flavanoid-poor because of
the industrial processing which removes epicatechin because it is bitter.
According to the researchers a vasodilator action of flavanoid-rich cocoa include the kidneys,
the extremity, and the cerebral circulation. In healthy humans, endothelial function fades with
increasing age. Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark of diabetes mellitus.
As flavanoid-poor cocoa with essentially similar levels of theobromine and other constituents
has not replicated the effect of flavanoid-rich cocoa, Hollenber finds it very likely that the fla-
vanols are involved.
According to Hollenberg epicatechin can reduce the risk of five of the major health problems:
stroke, heart failure, cancer, diabetes and age-related high blood pressure which are found to
be less than 10% in the Kuna people.
Copper may reverse cardiac hypertrophy caused by high blood pressure [1100]
[1101]
A study on mice with unhealthy enlarged hearts found that the condition reversed itself with
supplementation of copper. The researchers hope this could also humans be applied in humans
using 3 mg dosis/ day.The current recommended daily intake for humans, however, is only 0.9
mg/day. Although high, the dose was nevertheless below safe upper limits for copperthat were
fed the equivalent of three times the amount of copper recommended for human health.
According to the list of copper-rich foods of the US Agricultural Research Service (ARS) some
foods rich in copper are: [1102]
984
Food mg Cu/100g
Mollusk, oyster 2,50
Bakin chocolate, bitter 2,00
Mushroms 0,40
Crustaceans, crab, canned 1,18
Tomato paste 0,40
Barley, pearled,raw 3,70
Beans, white, canned 0,50
Beans, white, raw 0,80
Fat-free fluid milk promotes a greater positive protein balance than does soy pro-
tein [1103]
Hartman and colleagues 2007 found that Acute consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resis-
tance exercise promotes better results on training-induced lean mass accretion.
They compared drinks immediately and again 1 h after exercise:

Fat-free milk with a drink of fat-free soy protein that was isoenergetic, isonitrogenous, and
macronutrient ratio matched to Milk and a third drink of maltodextrin that was isoenergetic
with Milk and Soy.
Greater increases in the Milk group than in both the Soy and control groups were found in
Type I and type II muscle fiber area and DXA-measured fat- and bone-free mass.
The authors concluded that chronic postexercise consumption of milk promotes greater hy-
pertrophy during the early stages of resistance training in novice weightlifters when compared
with isoenergetic soy or carbohydrate consumption. Staple foods, like fat-free milk provide
better results than many costly protein hydrolysates.
Chapter 25
Packaging
Modern packaging protects food, increasing shelf live and safety. It also makes distribution
possible over long distances. Its closures are made to avoid any undesired alterations after
production. This includes safety seals and other devices to show any criminal poisoning of food
by blackmailer.
The best packaging is glass because of its chemical stability. Industry tries to change glass by
one-way packages made of glass because of price and weight.
Glass is one hundred percent barrier against oxygen. Glass however can break. The small
splinters being undetected present a great hazard to consumers. The industry spends great
efforts to avoid any fragmentation.
Tin cans are widely used for packaging of pasteurized and sterilized food. They present corrosion
with acid medium. Zink, iron and all other metal ions are the increased in food. Many poisoning
cases were caused by the use of zinc bowls.
Metal ions were drastically reduces by internal coating the cans with layers of varnish. The
wrong varnish can also create a high level of BADGE ( see this topic).
Small cracks of the varnish layer can cause black dots when chicken meat is present. The iron
of the can reacts with the sulphur of the protein molecules of the resulting iron sulfide. Quality
inspection of the varnish coating is therefore very important.
Packaging made of plastics present new advantages. There are rigid and flexible packages.
Flexible packages may present active and barrier properties. This is used for meat packaging.
At first the package acts actively to get rid of excessive moisture and works then as a barrier
against oxygen.[219]
The war between glass and plastics

The war between glassworks and plastic producers fighting for increasing sales of packaging
materials goes on for years. PP and PET is gaining ground because of lighter weight compared
with glass and being unbreakable. These however are of minor importance when advantages of
glass packagings are cited:
985
986
1. Glass is inert. There is no migration of components of the plastics to the food. There is no
danger of intake of plastic components and other chemicals and there are no alterations
of taste caused by these substances.
2. Glass is a perfect barrier to atmospheric oxygen, avoiding rancidness, changes of colour

such as brown colour of Ketchup.
Plastics can also bear poisons from herbicides, insecticides and other pesticides when the bottle
was wrongly used for these substances.
Reusing bottles which had been used as described before endangers the health of the consumer
because of migration of the polycyclic aromatic components.
To detect and discard these bottles a complicated system called ”sniffer” is being used detecting
volatile compounds of pesticides which might be present in some bottles.
This system covers only a special group of substances. It does not give an ultimative solution
to avoid reusing contaminated packagings.
The Fraunhofer-Institut fr Verfahrenstechnik und Verpackung (IVV) in Freising, Germany has
developed a test of concerning how inert PET is.
Bringing the material in contact with a sample of four classes of chemicals (alcoholes, ester, ke-
tones, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons) and measuring the remigration of residues
in a test filling medium PET material can be examined in relation to undesired migration of
chemicals in food. As different PET plastics are produced varying from producer to producer
the migration from chemicals of the packaging material itself and chemicals of poisonous fillings
such as pesticides, cleaning agents,industrial chemicals and organic poisons such as aflatoxins
turning the use, the reuse and even the recycling of plastics as food packaging a danger for the
consumer.
PET bottles are being used increasingly for soft drinks such as cola and soft drinks, because off
flavour caused by migration of plastic chemicals to food is not noticed by the consumer because
of the dominance of the product flavoring.
Mineral water with carbon dioxide however shows off flavour immediately. That is why glass
bottles are still used for this kind of beverage.
Unfortunately the glass bottle is being changed to PET by Gerolsteiner mineral water pro-
ducer in Germany .
The PET bottle used by Gerolsteiner has acetaldehyde residues which are below taste level.
Acetaldehydes are told to be responsible for apple taste in water.
Karlsberger brewery tries a new PET for its beer which is told to be a barrier against oxygen.
According to Walter Jungbauer from the Bund Natur und Umwelt (BUND) Bonn (Union for
Nature and Environment the PET bottle for beer is a compound of PET-therephthalat and
Nylon in order avoid changes of taste. This material can very hardly be recycled[354].
The argument of lower weight compared with Glass bottles is insignificant because of the diffi-
cult recycling.
Industry wants to force the one way bottles to get rid of recall of packagings. The Coca Cola
Company sells water in one-way PET bottles, filled by BEG Badische Erfrischungsgetränke
being deposit free.All other soft drinks of Coca Cola are also sold in this way.
In the early times of the use of plastics as packaging material PVC was the most common used
plastic.
Multilayer-PET-bottle with EVOH barrier EVOH barrier plastics are copolymers of

ethylene and vinylalcohol and are used as gasbarrier as food packaging in order to avoid oxygen
entering the packaging and to avoid modified atmosphere to leave the packaging.
Normally the EVOH film is placed between two layers of PET. This method is used for the
production of bottle for beer in order to achieve same properties of glass bottles. In 6 month
storage not more then 10% loss of CO2 and a maximum of 1 ppm of oxygen are allowed for
beer glas bottles. This material is also used as packaging for ketchup and mayonnaise.
n CH CHCl CH CH
2
CHCl n
2 2
Vinyl chloride Polyvinyl chloride PVC

PVC (Polyvinylchlorid) was banned as food packages because of not entirely polymerized
vinylchlorid (VC) which is carcinogenic.
PVC creates although environment problems. Being burned chloridrig acid is formed which is
liberated in the atmosphere and turns out to be a part of the acid rain which is a menace to
forests.
PVC is being substituted by many other polymerized products such as:
Polyethylen (PE) ,being used also as layers in other packaging materials.
988
H H H H
n C C C C
H H H H n
Ethen Polyethylene
Heavy density polyethylene (HDPE) which is a higher barrier to oxygen compared to PE,HDPE
is used as bottles and tubs for ketchup, mayonnaise and other products with extended self life,
polypropylene (PP) which is mainly used for small vessels as packaging for fine salads, mar-
garine and dairy products and buckets such as 10 kg mayonnaise, Ketchup and other products
of fast food.
Oriented polypropylene (OPP) used as pouches,polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Barrier resins such as ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)prevent oxygen from penetrating the pack-
age, enhancing flavour, extending shelf life, avoiding rancidness.
Newcomers are metallocenes in polyolefin product which however are very expensive. The
metallocene blend is based on a thee-layer coextrusion and offers strong seals at the bottom
and sides of the pack with an easy-open top seal. Specially in frozen food reclosable flexible
packaging is used.[219]
Flexible pouches for beverages are made of a combination of PET, aluminum and polyethylene.
Schöller ice-cream uses Tritello-Peel Pac in its 1,5 l packaging consisting of a plastic layer cov-
ered by carton. To recycle the customer is asked to separate by hand both materials and to
discard them properly. Only very few people will follow these instructions.
Finish producers offer a combination of carton and three-layer polymers (High-Barrier-Layer
Esobarr). The external carton is to suggest the packaging being entirely made of recycling car-
ton. The consumer believes to help environment. He does not know that that compounds of
carton and polymers are almost impossible to recycle. They are burned because a separation
of the carton and the polymer layer would be to expensive. The arguments of the producer of
the Carton-polymer packaging are a better protection against UV rays, a barrier of gas, flavour
and humidity.
As polymers have low weight compared with other packaging materials when used as barrier-
layer they represent down to 5% of total weight. This argument however fails to see the problems
of recycling. The aim is therefore to find new materials which can be used as barrier-layer on
biopolymer basis being recycled in nature[220].
One way packagings such as glass bottles, one way PET bottles and beverage cans made of
aluminum or tinplate were in the past used only as outdoor catering.Nowaday they gain in-
creasingly importance.
The recycling of one way packagings and recycling of PET bottles with deposit will soon be a
task for the industry to avoid to burn the material because of environment problems.
Recycling is possible as long as there is no mixture of plastic types.
The following products result from recycling:[258]
1. The resulting product has technical properties which differ from the original product.
This is called ”downcycling” PET bottles for beverages can be downcycled to packagings
for non-food
2. Recycling food packagings material for the production of industrial textile fibers can be
produced.
3. Recycled PET material may be used as internal layer of multilayer bottles
4. PET material may be used in the steel industry in high temperature ovens instead of
heavy oil
5. Today experiments are made to recycle PET bottles to PET recycling granulate wit
identical properties of the original PET using a recondensation step. The bottles obtained
with this technology can be used for food.
German regulations concerning recycling of packaging:

• Decree to avoid plastic waste from 12.06.1991,Packaging Decree (Verordnung über die
Vermeidung von Verpackungsabfällen vom 12.6.1991 - Verpackungsverordnung.
• LMBG, Lebensmittel und Bedarfsgenständegesetz (Food and articles of daily need)
• BGV, Bundesinstitut fr gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz (National Institute for BgVV,

embracing the Kunststoffkommission (Plastic commission)
Plastic recyclates are classified by the Plastic Commission of the BgVV in Germany as follows:
• Class 1 : Primary recyclate from rests of production.
• Class 2 : Secondary recyclate from unclean of the same type of plastic, such as returned
used PET beverage bottles.
As there are no recall of one type of plastics DSD burns this class.
• Class 3 : Mixed plastic types, unclean such as the recall from the DSD (Duales System
Deutschland -Dual System Germany
This class is not suited to reuse as food packaging. DSD burns all plastics recording it as
thermal use
990
Other plastics used in nonfood articles Common used plastics in nonfood are cited here
because some of them were in headlines.
Polyurethane PUR:
The typical molecular structure is ...-NH-CO-O-... This group is repeated throughout the whole
long molecule.
They are known under the names of Desmopan, Vulkollan, Elastomoll, Moltopren, Porosyn.
Linear polyurethane are thermoplastics. With increasing number of links they turn out to
be elastic and later hard.
They are used as soft and hard foam and many other articles. It is on market under Desmopan,
Vulkollan, Elastomoll, Moltopren, Porosyn.
Polyurethane fibres are used in textiles under trade marks like Dorlastan, Elasthan (Germany,
Lycra (USA).
n OCN − R − NCO + n HO − R − OH − CO − NH − R − NH − CO − O − R − O −
Diisocyanate Diole Linear polyurethane PUR
Phenoplaste PF Polycondensation of phenol or cresol with formaldehyde.

OH OH
H H CH
2 n + (n − 1)H 2 O
n + O = CH 2
H H H H
H H
Phenoplaste
Phenol Formaldehyd
It is used in all electrical articles and as glues.
Phenoplastes are on market as Bakelite, Dekorit, Haveg,Pertinax, Trolitan, Trolitax.
Aminoplaste
They are obtained by polycondensation of formaldehyde with melamine.
Important types of aminoplastes are:
Melamine resin MF
Dicyandiamid resin DD
Urea resin UF
Polyester
The typical molecular structure is ...-CO-O-... (ester group). This group is repeated through-
out the whole long molecule.
It is being obtained by polycondensation of high alcohols and carboxylic acid.
Using maleic acid or fumaric acid unsaturated polyester resines UP are formed. They are known
as Trevira, Diolen (Germany), Dacron (USA).
Epoxy resines EP
Reaction of polyaddition and polycondensation between epoxy (such as Epichloridrine) and a
diphenol (such as diphenyl propane) originating an intermediate product which hardens to-
gether with phthalic acid anhydride or diethylentriamine as hardening agent
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA.
It is the product of the polymerization of methacryl acid methylester
It is known as “ organic glas “ as security glas under the name of Plexiglas and Resartglas.
Polytetrafluorethylene PTFE
Product of polymerization of tetrafluorethene.
It is stable up to 260o C, stable against ozone. It is used as gaskets.
Polyvinylacetate PVAC
It is a product of polymerization of vinylacetate and is used in solution as paint.
Products of cellulose
1.- Cellulose acetate CA Esterification of cellulose with acetic acid anhydride in presence of
sulphuric acid.
2.- Celluloid CN
It is cellulose dinitrate with camphor as plasticiser.
Chemical fibres Polyamide fibres PA

It is on market under Perlon(Germany) and Nylon(USA).
Polyacrylnitril fibre PAN
It is a product of polymerization of acrylnitril. Dralon, Dolan (Germany) Orlon (USA)
The Euro glass

On regard to vanishing natural resources it is important to reduce the quantity of plastics as
packaging material.
Industry should look to the example of German mineral water producers: They all use the
992
same standard bottle. This could also be done with all kind of food. The glass could have the
sizes of 125 , 200 ,250,400 500 and 750 ml. For the size of 100 to 250 ml a 53 twist-off closure
and 63 closure for 400 to 750 ml glass should be used.
The refund system should be used and the glasses could be cleaned in central washing factories
sterilize and protecting the pallets with shrinkable foil. Food producers could order glasses
from the washing factory instead from the glassworks.
The Heinz Ketchup would be found in the same bottle as Kraft Ketchup, the Thomy may-
onnaise together with Hellmann mayonnaise and all fine food together with herring, mustard,
coffee creamer and marmelade.
A universal glass for all products and brands is a nightmare for a marketing manager but
at the same time it is a blessing for the future of his son.
Label and closure gives sufficient ground for the work of art designer to create an individual
touch for every product and every brand.
Unfortunately there is a move from glass to plastic as noted by increasing number of packag-
ing of soft drinks and soft drinks as well as traditional products such as Nestlé Coffee Mate,
the coffee creamer of UK changing from glass to PET (polyethylene terephthalate) jars with a
shrink-sleeve label[245].
Reuse of bottles:
Glass bottles are reused about 45 times. PET bottles are reused about 15 times.
As plastics fail to be recycled it is being burned. Precious materials are so lost. We should try
to change to glass packaging.
Recycling of glass in the way which is practiced at the moment loses fossile or atom energy to
melt and form glass packaging. The refund and cleaning system of a standard glass packaging
would reduce energy needed to reuse glass and jars.
As recycling organizations such as The Green Dot in Germany and Spain fail to reach proper
amount of recycling of plastics, government should regulate the Euro glass. This way is better
as dissolving the recycling organizations leaving the responsibility in the hand of every producer
to recall his own packagings.
Increasing problems with environment and vanishing resources will soon force the producers
to think over their marketing strategy. The situation will also force the consumer to accept
reduction of amenities which can no longer be maintained. Industry tries to change from glass
to plastics because of reduced costs in handling, weight transport costs and costs of cleaning,
disinfection for a reuse. Due to regulations concerning recycling of packagings in Germany
there is a minimum share of 72% defined. This limit was not achieved in 1998.
It is sure that for 1999 the limit will not be achieved.
According to the regulation there will be a compulsory deposit starting from the year 2000 of
0,50 Dm for beverage packagings from 0,2 liter up to under 1,5 liter and greater packagings
starting with 1,5 liter 1,00 Dm.
European regulations concerning packaging recycling

European guideline 94/62/EG from December 1994 regulates the recycling of packagings in the
European Community.
According this guideline the government of the Community may regulate recycling of pack-
aging materials in order to promote reuse of bottles but they are not allowed to create trade
hindrances. Not recyclable packagings are therefore protected by this regulation.
The guideline also defines a rate of 50 to 60% of use of packaging material in any form what-
soever including heat recycling and 25 to 45% recycling the material getting new products.
These scores are ridiculous low and shows that the governments should force the introduction
of standard packagings like the Euro glass.
Types of plastic packaging

The type of Packaging can interfere in the growth of bacteria[303].
Gas permeable packaging: Aerobic bacteria can grow. Fresh meat packed in cellulose film
so as used in tray packaging is threatened by Pseudomonads like Pseudomonas fluorescens and
Pseudomonas fragi as dominant bacteria producing smell and slime.
Gas barrier, closed packaging: The atmosphere in the packaging can be modified accord-
ing to the food which is being packed.
Enzymes, temperature and competitive growth can produce gas like CO2 .
For some food gas packaging with modified atmosphere are used.
Vacuum packaging: Vacuum inhibits the growth of aerobic microbes such as Pseudomonas,Bacillus,
moulds. In these packagings the growth of lactobacillus is dominant. Enterobacteriaceae can
grow under anaerobic conditions.
Modified Atmosphere Packaging MAP: Nitrogen, CO2 and in some cases O2 are used.
Nitrogen has no activity against bacteria. It increases shelf life substuting oxygen.
CO2 acts bacteriostatic on gram negative aerobic bacteria and bactericide because of its undis-
sociated part of H2 CO3 which enables CO2 to trespass the cell membrane and act bactericide
on the cells of the bacteria.
Lactobacillus is not affected by CO2 .
CO2 can reduce growth of Listeria on meat.
994
Table 25.1: Plastics used as packaging material

Polymer used as Filling product
PVdC,EVOH,Acrylnitril Oxygen barrier
PET/PVdc-PVC/PE multilayer foil red meat
HDPE, PVdC,PP water vapor barrier
PA/PE-PVC/PE multilayer foil treated meat
HDPE,PP stability,suitable
for microwave oven
PET/PVdC/PE multilayer foil poultry

Nylon high temperatures
resistant
PET/PE/PVdC-PVC/PE multilayer foil fresh fish

CPET mechanical resistance,
high temperatures
resistant, oxygen barrier
PET/PVdC/PE multilayer foil Pizza

APET mechanical resistance,
oxygen barrier
PET/PE/PCdC multilayer foil Cheese

Polyester high temperatures
resistant, flexibility
and resistant to perforation
Metallized PET/PE-metallized PA/PE multilayer foil dried products,coffee

PVC/PET mechanical stability,
some types
Micropore foil-LDPE/OPP/PVCPA/PE multilayer foil fresh vegetables
LDPE, HDPE, EVA sealing layer

EVA highly permeable to
oxygen and CO2
Table 25.2: Polymers, abbreviations used

Abbreviation material
ABS Acrylbitril-Butadien-Styrol Copolymer
APET amorphous polyester
CPET crystalline polyethylenterephthalat
ECTFE Ethylen-Chlortriefluorethylen Copolymer
ETFE Ethylen-Tetrafluorethylen-copolymer
EVA ethylen-vinylacetat
EVOH ethylenvinylalcohol
FEP Tetrafluorethylen-Hexafluorpropylen
HDPE highdensity polyethylen
LDPE lowdensity polyethylen
OPP streched polypropylen
PA Polyamid (Nylon)
PC Polycarbonat
PET Polyethylenterephthalat
PE Polyethylen
l PFA Perfluor-Alkoxylalkan
PMMA Polymethyl-Methacrylat
PMP Polymethylpentene
PS Polystyrol
POM Polyoxymethylen
PP Polypropylen
PPO modified polyphenylenoxid
PTFE Poly-Tetrafluor-Ethylen
PVC Polyvinylchlorid
PVdC polyvinilidencloride
SAN Styrol-Acrylnitril-Copolymer
Multilayer foils may have PE, PVdC and PET as typical components.
Packaging as short news:[354]
• Plastic bags are bad because they may contain PVC which develops toxic gases as it is
burned. Use paper bags.
• Aluminum cans are hostile to environment because they can hardly be recycled.
996
• Greaseproof paper is better as plastic foodwrap because the later may contain harmful
softener
Nonylphenol in food [1024] Nonylphenol is an industrial chemical which interacts with hu-
man hormones and produces cancer. Its synonyms are p-nonylphenol,4-nonylphenol, C15 H24 O.
Nonyphenoles were found in mineral waters due to migration from the plastic seal of the caps
of bottles.
Another source of nonylphenol in food are the nonylphenolethoxylate which are used in the
production of plastics for wrappings and packagings of food. Nonylphenolethoxylate act as
emulsifier and stabilizer in plasticizers for Packagings. Nonyphenoles are breakdown products
of norylphenolethoxylate detergents used in household and industrial cleaning products.which
contaminate food. Their contact with foods leads to the contamination with nonyphenoles.
Very high amount of nonylphenoles were found in apples and in tomatoes by the Research
Center in Julich.
The estimated human intake of nonylphenoles is 7.5 microgram a day. The content of nonylphe-
nole in pesticides are now being analyzed.
.
Isopropilthioxantone (ITX) in baby milk: Baby milk in Tetrapack was noticed in Octo-
ber 2005 as being contaminated with traces of Isopropilthioxantone. This chemical is being used
for carton printing leaking from the carton to any fatty products like milk when it is exposed to
sunlight’s ultraviolet rays. Researches indicate that the migration of ITX has no known health
effects. According to Tetra Pax ITX is not prohibited for use in food packaging by the EU.
However EU packaging rules, as amended in 2003, require that food contact materials do not
migrate into products meant for human consumption. (EU regulations: Directive 2002/72EC;
Directive 2004/19 and Regulation EC 1935/2004)
ITX is being used as curing process during ultraviolet printing processes when using UV inks.
This process is also being used for packaging for water, juices, ice teas. No migration was
occurring for most of those beverages, except in the case of some citrus juices such as orange
and lemon, and milk. Clear juices such apple, grape and cranberry do not seem to be affected.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) will undertake a risk assessment of the chemi-
cal.Health concerns about packaging chemicals, such as phthalates, have raised consumer aware-
ness of about the risks posed by materials that may come into contact with food.
Phthalates in medical devices

[1025]
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a plasticizer used in medical products made with polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) plastic and may be toxic to humans. DEHP is lipophilic and binds noncova-
lently to PVC, allowing it to leach from these products. Medical devices containing DEHP are
used extensively in neonatal intensive care units.
Previous research has shown that newborns treated at neonatal intensive care units may receive
doses of DEHP at 2-3 times the average daily adult exposure.
Studies have linked di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) with reproductive and developmen-
tal toxicity, and have demonstrated an especially pronounced effect on testicular development
when administered postnatally.
The study classified low-DEHP exposure group including infants receiving primarily bottle
and/or gavage feedings; the medium exposure group included infants receiving enteral feedings,
intravenous hyperalimentation, and/or nasal continuous positive airway pressure; and the high
exposure group included infants receiving umbilical vessel catheterization, endotracheal intu-
bation, intravenous hyperalimentation, and indwelling gavage tube.
Ronald Green and colleagues conclude that intensive use of DEHP-containing medical devices
in intensive care units results in higher exposure to DEHP as reflected by elevated urinary lev-
els of MEHP in these infants. The use of phthalates should be reduced, if possible completely
eliminated from products which come in contact with food, as well as in medical devices or
other applications which come in contact with humans.
[265]
Table 25.3: Packaging under controlled atmosphere
Product Modified atmosphere Remarks
Red meat 80% O2 + 20% CO2 CO2 reduces growth of Pseudomonas
aerobic bacteria which often
spoils red meat.High concentration
of oxygen is needed to keep red colour.
Porc 60% O2 + 40% CO2 CO2 reduces growth of aerobic bacteria

less O2 is needed because of reduced red
colour of porc compared with beef
Poultry 50 - 80%CO2 + 20 - 50% N2 A high headspace with gas is important

998
Sausages 20% CO2 + 80% N2
Sliced heated meat 20% CO2 + 80% N2
Fish, high-fat 60 - 70% CO2 + 30 - 40% N2 No oxygen should be used

to reduce rancidity
Fish, low-fat 30 - 40% O2 + 30 - 70% CO2 Oxygen is used to keep red

+ 0 - 40% N2 colour of low-fat fish and seafood
It also reduces growth of anaerobic
bacteria such as Clostridium
and its toxins
in case of long shelf life
Sliced fish,cooked 20% CO2 + 80% N2

Hard Cheese 80 - 100% CO2 + 0 - 20% N2
Sliced hard cheese 80 - 90% CO2 + 10 - 20% N2
Soft cheese 20 - 40% CO2 + 60 - 80% N2
Gateau 50 - 70% CO2 + 30 - 50% N2 Storage at +4 - +7o C

Cake and bread 20 - 40% CO2 + 60 - 80% N2
Pizza 30 - 60% CO2 + 40 - 70% N2

Pommes frites 70 - 80% CO2 + 20 - 30% N2
Salads with dressings 100% N2
Some special remarks concerning CA packaging (Controlled Atmosphere packaging

Spoilage of food can be caused by:
1. The nature of bacteria and their amount.
Bacteria can be aerobic, growing in presence of oxygen such as Pseudomonas, Acine-
tobacter and moraxella.Or they are anaerobic, growing in absence of oxygen such as
Clostridium producing toxins and Lactobacillus producing lactic acid.
2. Water activity aw
3. pH
4. Cell breathing
5. Composition of the food
6. Storage temperature.
Low temperatures reduces bacteria growth.
Some bacteria grow even under low temperatures, the psycrophilic like Pseudomonas
7. Hygiene during production

Bacteria can be present in the raw material,additives and environment, such as our
skin,used utensils and air.
8. Gasatmosphere
oxygen can cause rancidity, oxidizes vitamins, Nitrogen can replace oxygen.
Oxygen is sometimes necessary to keep the red colour of fresh meat.
The choice of the gas to be used during filling is therefore very important and varies from
one food to another.
9. Good Manufacturing Practice

CO2 reacts with water forming carbonic acid which increases acidity of the product reducing
bacteria growth.Nitrogen can replace CO2
In Products such as cottage cheeseand dairy cream CA packaging with nitrogen instead of
oxygen is being used. Hard cheese is packed under up to 100% CO2 to reduce bacterial activity
and stabilizes consistency of the product. Soft cheese is packed under 20 - 40% CO2 because
otherwise the packaging would shrink because the gas gets in solution with the product.In this
case 30% of of CO2 should not be exceeded.
Carbon monoxide treated meat

[266]
Different attempts have been undertaken to slow down oxidation and its effects on rancidity
and browning of meat like the use of rosemary extract as ingredient, or adding the extract
to the polypropylene film used to package freshly cut meat, and the use of carbon monoxide
modified atmosphere packaging.
Factors which influence the colour of meat are temperature, relative humidity, oxygen partial
pressure, light, and lipid oxidation.
Rosemary extract: Such natural extracts allows meat packagers to use high-oxygen atmo-
spheres in sealed packages to maintain freshness without having to worry about browning.
Carbon monoxide modified atmosphere packaging: Meat and meat products kept under
low-oxygen atmospheres with carbon monoxide look fresh for much longer time than any other
artefact. The gas reacts with the meat pigment myoglobin to create carboxymyoglobin which
1000
has a pink colour.
FDA and carbon monoxide in modified atmosphere packaging

FDA had allowed carbon monoxide use as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in meat und
tuna packagings to keep it looking fresh. The GRAS regulatory category allows producers to
use an additive or a procedure without public review or formal agency approval.
A petition, filed by Kalsec(R), Inc. of Kalamazoo, Michigan, in 2005, urged the FDA to with-
draw its July 2004 decision and related decisions to allow the presence of carbon monoxide in
meat packaging. http://www.co-meat.com/release.html and http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/docke
0459-cp00001-toc.htm
Consumer groups such as leaded by Donna Rosenbaum of Safe Tables Our Priority, an ad-
vocacy group in Burlington, and the Consumer Federation of America wrote to the FDA in
support of a ban. The groups argue that carbon monoxide may mask visual evidence of spoilage
resulted from storage temperature variations. They challenge the Food and Drug Administra-
tion for allowing the practice without a formal evaluation of its impact on consumer safety.
As an alternative to a ban, consumer call for carbon-monoxide-treated meat labelling so they

can decide on what they are buying.
Industry representatives say that the use of carbon monoxide is safe because other signs like
odour, slime formation and a bulging package are indicators of spoilage.
The consumer groups allegate that FDA regulations under the Food, Drug and Cosmetic
Act (FDCA) expressly prohibit the use of carbon monoxide in ”fresh meat products”, the FDA
did not have legal authority to permit the use of carbon monoxide because it is an unapproved
and prohibited color additive. Regulations of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety
and Inspection Service (FSIS) prohibit the introduction of ingredients in fresh meat that func-
tion to conceal damage or inferiority, or give the appearance the product is of better or greater
value.[267]
European Union ban of carbon monoxide as colour stabilizer

The European Union has banned the use of carbon monoxide as a colour stabilizer in meat
and fish. A December 2001 report from the European Commission’s Scientific Committee on
Food concluded that the presence of CO may mask visual evidence of spoilage should the meat
become inadvertently warmer at some point
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) gases are classed as food additives under two Acts,
the Directive of food additives (89/107/EEC) and the Directive of the use of food additives
other than colours or sweeteners (95/2/EC). In June 2003, The European Parliament Environ-
ment Committee voted to outlaw carbon monoxide as a food additive, and thus as a MAP gas,
because it could mislead the consumer as to the freshness of the meat by maintaining the red
colour of the product
Japan, Canada and Singapore also ban the use of carbon monoxide in tuna.
Preservation methods: There is a growing demand for minimal processed foods without
synthetic chemical preservatives. Preservation methods are being developed using high pres-
sure systems, asseptic filling, ohmic heating, pulsed electric field, irradiation and bright light
technologies.
Bioplastics
[268]
Plastics are made from ethylene, propylene, styrol, polyester such as polycaprolacton, Polyesteramide
and polyesteruretane aall coming from petroleum.
Widely used plastics are:
• Polyethylene PE
• Polystyrol PS
• Polypropylene PP
• Polyvinyl chlorid PCV
In 10 years the world demand for plastics doubled, summing 224 million tons in the year 2004.
Europe consumed one fourth of the world output, whereas Germany accounted for 17,5 million
tons/year, which is 8% of the world production, more than half of it, 9 million tons, were used
as packaging.
In an effort to counter further growth of petrol packaging, bioplastics are being developed
using renewable raw materials like starch, cellulose, sugar gelatine, chitin, polyhydroxicarbon
acid ester and polyamin acid won by biotechnology technology. Their price is, however, up
to four times higher as petrol originated plastics. The world production of bioplastics in 2004
summed only 250.000 tons
Other raw materials which are used to form bioplastics are

Some bioplastic articles are foamed duroplastic from starch as trays for vegetables and other
foods and bottles from PLA for mineral water.
1002
Biodegradable Packaging
The use of starch as packaging material: [275]

Different projects are running to improve water resistance of starch and starch plasticizers for
the preparation of thermoplastic starch (TPS) for use in structural packaging materials for
consumer products. Despite all efforts, application of TPS is still limited by its low mechanical
and water resistance. Corn starch and cassava bagasse which is a by-product from cassava
starch production are renewable sources for thermoplastics. [269]
Synthetic biodegradable polyesters fall into two broad categories. One is highly amorphous,
imparting flexibility and clarity comparable to a conventional LDPE copolymer. A second
group of semicrystalline polyesters is more rigid, with properties similar to PET, PP, or PS.
[270]
Starch is an abundant, inexpensive, renewable, and fully biodegradable natural raw material.
However, the hydrophilic character of starch leads to poor adhesion with the hydrophobic poly-
mer in starch-polymer blends. In spite of its relative weakness and a about 600 C melting point
that is too low for many applications, polycaprolactone (PCL) has recently received much
attention due to its flexibility and biodegradability. Additionally, similar to other aliphatic
polyesters, such as polylactide (PLA) , polyglycolide (PGA), PCL and their copolymers. PCL
is, however, more expensive. Hence a blend of PCL with the cheaper material starch, with
a reactive functional group grafted onto PCL to improve adhesion and dispersion of the two
immiscible phases, would appear to offer the best of both worlds.
Blends of regenerated cellulose and polyeteruretane are also being developed. Cellulose is
built of polymerised glucose units. Thermoplasticity and biologic degradation are related to
degree of derivatization (the number of hydroxil groups OH of each glucose unit which have
been substituted) Every glucose unit has three OH group The average substitution degree AS
value [German DS ) can vary from 0 to 3.
Derivates with AS 2.5 up to 3.0 are thermoplastic and can be extruded with available equip-
ment. However only derivates with AS number below 1.5 are biodegradable. To overcome this
problem derivates with low AS numbers and long side chain with low AS number are being
tested, such as cellulosepolyhydroxihexan acid ester. [271]
Polylactic acid (PLA) may become an alternative to PET, HIPS, PVC, and cellulosics in some
high-clarity packaging roles. It is synthesized from processed corn.
Recently an acrylic acid grafted polycaprolactone and starch composite (PCL-g-AA/starch)

was considered to present best results for packaging material. [272][273]
Improved functionality of bioplastics and their growing market lead to more interest. Moreover,
the risks created by imports and increasing costs for fossil raw materials play as much a role as
climate change, whose negative effects are becoming increasingly pronounced. In consequence
the plastics industry is putting more and more emphasis on the use of renewable raw materials.
[274]
Calcium carbonate and binding agent as packaging The packaging material, called Ca-
lymer from Ecolean , consists of 40% calcium carbonate and polymers, which simply act as the
binding agent. This material is flexible and tough with exceptional environmental properties.
Incineration transforms the binding agent of packaging waste the into water vapour and carbon
dioxide and the calcium carbonate is returned to nature.
Polylactic acid (PLA) biodegradable packaging [276]

Polylactic acid (PLA), a material made from corn that can be used for food packaging under
the brand Biophan.
The switch to biodegradable packaging is being driven by environmentally-conscious consumers

the price of oil and recycling regulations.
Polylactic acid can be transformed within 45 days in CO2 in a composting plant. The German
Packaging Ordinance, giving preferential treatment up to 2012 to biologically degradable pack-
aging supports this packaging material.
Innovations on the field of biodegradable plastics Amcor, together with Plantic Tech-
nologies develop a biodegradable, flexible plastic packaging for confectionery.
NatureWorks, a Cargill daughter released a polymer of corn starch, the polylactic acid (PLA) .
Danisco has produced a biodegradable plasticiser from hardened castor oil and acetic acid.
Stanelco markets a natural, biodegradable food packaging based on starch, called Starpol 2000.
BASF will launch Ecovio plastic, a biodegradable plastic made up of 45 per cent PLA from
NatureWorks together with biodegradable plastic Ecoflex, which is derived from petrochemicals.
Companies which have been using PLA plastics as packaging for foods like organic milk in
US is Naturally Iowa. Retailers like Delhaize in Belgium and Auchan in France have also been
testing PLA for various food packaging.
Other edible films [277]

Films forming solutions composed of Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus) flour (4.0 g/100 mL),
stearic acid (5-15 g/100 g of flour), and glycerol (25-35 g/100 g of flour) were prepared by an
1004
emulsification process. The films produced under these conditions exhibited superior mechani-
cal properties (2.5 N puncture force, 2.6 MPa tensile strength, and 148% elongation at break)
in comparison to those of other protein and polysaccharide composite films,
Degradable plastics
[278]
Low density polyethylene (LDPE) film widely used in agriculture for mulching crops could be-
come substituted by degradable plastics which do not need to be removed from field at the end
of the season.
Plastics derived from petrochemicals degrade very slowly. Degradables plastics degraded rapidly
by photodegradation and/or biodegradation.
Degradable plastics made from starch-based polymers are
Photodegradable Polymers
The breakdown of photodegradable plastics depends on irregularities in the polymers and pho-
tosensitive substances, called promoters, such as carbonyl groups and metal complexes, Their
chemical composition varies:
1. Carbonyl Group: Ketone Carbonyl Copolymers

A carbonyl group, vinyl ketone comonomer, is added to the polymers of plastics such as
polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS). the finaldegradation requires the material to be
consumed by microorganisms. This material is ideal for mulch film and products that
usually end up as litter.
2. Carbonyl Group: Carbon Monoxide Copolymers

It is not known whether carbon monoxide products completely degrade into non-plastic
products or whether they simply disintegrate into smaller pieces of plastic.Carbon monox-
ide copolymers.
3. Metal Complexes
Plastics containing metal break down in the absence of light receive enough UV light
before burial they can be used in landfills and tree shelters. heavy toxic metal residues
such as nickel, cobalt, and iron remain in the soil after degradation.
Biodegradable Polymers
Biodegradable plastics are polyesters, polyhydroxybutyrates, and vinyl polymers. They are
degraded by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae. Some biodegradable plastics
are:
Starch-Based Polymers:
They are the most commonly used and lowest-costing ingredient of all biodegradable polymers.
The starch can be derived from corn, potatoes, and rice. According the to manufacture methods
there are:
1. Surface-Modified Starch AdditiveStarch is treated with a small amount of an unsaturated

fat or a fatty acid oxidizing agent, such as vegetable oil.
2. Gelatinized Starch Additive: Gelatinized starch is used in films of polyethylene coacrylic

acid (EAA) and in a mixture of EAA and low density polyethylene.
3. Thermoplastic Starch Materials: They contain 70-100 percent starch as the base for
the polymer. They have great water-solubility are very easily consumed by microorgan-
isms.They are indicated for mulch films, bags for animal feed and fertilizer, and products
that will end up in water.
Other degradable plastics are:
1. Polyesters: Polyglycolic acid (PGA): Used as a controlled drug release and as material
used in cirurgy.
2. Polylactic acid (PLA): Produced from fermenting crops and dairy products PLA is used
as packaging and paper coatings, sustained release systems for pesticides and fertilizers,
mulch films, and compost bags.
3. Polycaprolactose (PCL): Its use in agriculture are as mulch, seedling containers and slow
release of herbicides to control aquatic weeds.
4. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB): It is produced by microorganism. It has poor resistance to

solvents. Its uses are unknown.
5. Polyhydroxyvalerate (PHBV): Its use is limited to medicine and pharmacy because of

high production cost, films and paper coating.
Vinyl:
Polyvinylalcohol: Used in packaging and bagging applications. It is water soluble.
Polyvilylacetate: Uses are unknown. It is watersoluble.
Polyenlketone: Water soluble with unknown uses.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates [279]
Polyhydroxyalkanoates or PHAs are linear polyesters produced in nature by bacterial fermen-
tation of sugar or lipids. More than 100 different monomers can be combined within this family
1006
to give materials with extremely different properties.
They can be either thermoplastic or elastomeric materials, with melting points ranging from
40 to 1800 C. The most common type of PHA is PHB (poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate). PHB has
properties similar to those of PP, however it is stiffer and more brittle.
To produce PHB a culture of a micro-organism such as Alcaligenes eutrophus is placed in

a suitable medium and fed appropriate nutrients so that it multiplies rapidly. Once the popula-
tion has reached a substancial level, the ’diet’ is changed to force the micro-organism to create
PHB. Harvested amounts of PHB from the organism can be anywhere from 30% to 80% of the
organisms dry weight.
A PHB copolymer called PHBV (polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate) is less stiff and tougher, and
it is used as packaging material.
Antimony in PET water bottles [280]

Antimony trioxide is used as a catalyst in the manufacture of PET (polyethylene terephthalate),
plastic bottles. Prof. William Shotyk, Dr. Michael Krachlerand and co-workers at the Institute
of Environmental Geochemistry, University of Heidelberg found antimony to be leaching to the
bottled drinking water. The antimony content of PET bottled waters increased in proportion
to its storage time.
According to Shotyk and Krachlerand pristine groundwater was found to contain only two
parts per trillion of Sb, with the PET bottled waters typically showing values a few hundred
times greater. This is because PET material contains several hundred mg/kg of the metal
whereas rocks and surface soils contain less than 1mg/kg antimony.
Japanese alternatives to antimony: An alternative to antimony as catalyst is insoluble

titanium which is used in for PET bottles made in Japan.
Recommendations to the consumer: Polypropylene bottles are manufactured without

antimony trioxide. Glass bottles do not leach antimony. Consumer should therefore buy water
filled in glass or PPE (polypropylene) bottles.
Tin coating and bisphenol [281] Most foods contain very low concentrations of tin. Canned
foods may contain higher levels because the tin coating used to protect the steel body of the
can from corrosion can slowly transfer into the food.
Tin leaching present no health effect on the consumer apart stomach upsets such as nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and bloating in some sensitive people at levels above
200 milligrams per kilogram. This is the maximum legal amount of tin that can be present in
canned foods.
Limits for tin for particular categories of cans are:
• 100mg/kg for drinks.
• 50 mg/kg for infant and baby foods.
• 50 mg/kg for dietary foods for special medical purposes intended specifically for infants.
Lacquered cans are used for acidic foods. This avoids tin corrosion but leads to bisphenol-A
leaking. This substance is an endocrine disrupter which interacts with hormone systems, such
as the female oestrogens and male androgens. No evidence of a link between harmful effects on
human reproductive health and exposure to endocrine disrupters have been reported so far.
Permeation of atmospheric oxygen through PET bottle [282]

Despite problems of materials leaching from PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottles, they
are still predicted to dominate drinks packaging markets. Growing beverage market leads to an
increase of PET bottles on market. Atmospheric oxygen permeability is a problem to produc-
ers reducing self-life. Looking for test procedures for the determination of the stability and/or
durability of beverages in plastic packaging. WILD developed a test procedure which simulates
reality of a typical several month storage on the product quality within less than three weeks,
the test being suitable for al kinds of passive barrier packaging.
Latex proteins from contact materials and food allergies

Latex proteins are used in packaging material transferred to food in some cases, according to
the study by Leatherhead Food International working for FSA.
There are four major latex allergens: Hev b5 and Hev b6.02 , Hev b1 and Hev b5. No safe level
oif latex are defined, but it seems that small traces can trigger an allergic reaction. Labelling
of the latex content in packaging material is being proposed by some groups.
It wasn’t clear from the research that allergens were being transferred from latex packaging
to food. More work is required to accurately measure the levels of latex in food and the FSA
is doing researche work on the matter. [283]
Latex assessment 2005 [283]

UK FSA released a report on 19 January 2005 on the assessment of latex protein transfer from
contact materials into food and drink products. According to the Agency the study indicated
the presence of one or more of the latex allergens in 7 out of 21 commercial packaging materials
1008
(e.g. chocolate bar and ice cream wrappers).

Low levels of latex allergens (Hev b3 or Hev b5) were found in 3 of the 7 foods tested.
This research has shown that latex allergens may be present in some food packaging mate-
rials and that there is the possibility of transfer from the material to the food. A modified
ELISA method has been developed to detect and quantify latex allergens in packaging and
foods. Further work is required to improve this method to make it a fully validated, quanti-
tative, robust analytical technique. Latex allergen transfer has serious implications for some
individuals.
FSA latex project 2006 [284]

Another research project of April 2006 will build on previous Agency-funded work (A03043)
through development of an improved, validated enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA)
that is robust and reliable. This assay will be used to determine the presence of latex allergens
in food contact materials and associated foods.
Project A03043 included a review on the type and extent of latex protein containing mate-
rial used industrially. Additionally, it was demonstrated that latex allergens were present and
detectable in food packaging materials. When the method was applied to food matrices, overall
recovery for allergens Hev b5 and Hev b6.02 was reasonable (at 6828% and 8918% respectively).
However, Hev b1 and Hev b3 proved difficult to extract from food matrices and measure-
ment of these allergens in food could only be considered as semi-quantitative at best. Overall,
the results indicated that further technical work was required to develop reliable and robust
validated ELISAs for the quantitative recovery of latex allergens, especially Hev b1 and Hev
b3. The most relevant matrices were identified as confectionery, dairy and pastry products.
The modified ELISA protocol will be re-established in the laboratory and used to measure
allergen levels in representative batches of cold seal adhesive and bakery release films. The
project will try to increasing the recovery of Hev b1 and Hev b3 from selected confectionery,
dairy and pastry products. Validation of the new extraction and ELISA protocol will follow.
UK and Packaging waste reduction [285] The Guide to Evolving Packaging Design pub-
lished by Waste and Resources Action Programme (Wrap) is focused on retailers and manu-
facturers. Important companies have signed commitment to cut down on packaging going to
landfill. [286]
Retailers can push their suppliers to reduce the amount of material used or moving to more
recyclable, reusable and biodegradable materials.
New annual targets set by UK regulations increase manufacturers’ obligations to the mar-
ket to recover and recycle their packaging under international and European pressure on the
UK to decrease carbon emissions.
Reducing the weight of beer bottles spares glass and transport costs. Other companies changed
from glass to plastic bottles and succeeded to set it on market.
Experts should bear in mind that migration of pasticizers and other unwanted chemicals takes
place from the plastic bottle to the food, which is not present when glass is used. The oxygen
barrier is not as perfect as the 100% barrier of glass bottles.
Another idea was to use different containers for similar products simplifying processes.
Packaging Recovery Notes (PRNs) [285] The regulations allow accredited waste repro-
cessing companies to sell Packaging Waste Recovery Notes (PRNs) for every tonne of packaging
waste they recycle. Companies with 2m pounds sterling turnover or handling in excess of 50
tonnes of packaging a year meet their obligation, assessed under the scheme, by buying PRNs.
The profits are reinvested in the recycling infrastructure. This resembles the European Green
Dot, where all packaging pay fees for the recycling. This system is not compulsory in UK. [287]
Estrogenic effects of food wrap packaging [288] Estrogenicity of xenoestrogens found

in food wrap packaging and phytoestrogen flavonoids. Uterotrophic and vaginal cornification
assays were studied on rats by Stroheker and colleauges in 2003. Genistein, bisphenol F, and
octylphenol were identified as estrogenic only in immature rats. While apigenin and kaempferol
appeared to have low estrogenic activity, they potentialized the uterotrophic effect of 17 beta-
estradiol in immature rats.
In this study the authors found that phytoestrogens like genistein can be as potent or even
more estrogenic than compounds found in food wrap packaging. Tha authors suggest the vagi-
nal cornification to used as a sensitive and useful test to detect weak estrogenic compounds to
which humans can be exposed via food.
Introduction of biodegradable packaging in supermarkets Searching for alternatives

to petroleum-based packaging such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) supermarket chains
Sainsbury from UK and Delhaize from Belgium move its private label products to biodegrad-
able packaging in an effort to reduce rubbish collected for landfill.
Justin King of Sainsbury called on government to ensure that every home in the UK has a
compost bin. Degradable plastic is made from oil a fossil fuel with additives to enable it to
1010
break down to CO2 plus water. Compostable sugar cane trays, and the use of polylactic acid
(PLA) packaging for punnets or pallets. Polylactic acid is a corn-based biodegradable polymer
made by NatureWorks, a part of Cargill, are being tested.
PLA is already used in many fields:

Serviceware: disposable Dixie cups, dishware, forks, knives and spoons that are used only
once, then thrown away.
Rigid Containers: precut salads, fruit, vegetables and convenience store and fast food restau-
rant bought fountain drink cups.
Bottles: vinegar, water, milk, juice et
Biodegradable packaging decompose in 2 years. Traditional non-biodegradable packaging takes

more than 200 years to return to the earth and creates harmful greenhouse gases when burned.
[289]
Polyhydroxibutirate (PHB), new biodegradable plastic from sugar [290]

PHB polyhydroxibutirate new plant operations planned to start in 2008, the new plant will
produce Biocycle, a biodegradable plastic using sugar as raw material
The Pedra Sugar Mill, in Serrana, in the region of Ribeirao Preto, in the State of Sao Paulo, is
Brazil produces. Polyhydroxibutirate, sugar-derived plastic under the Biocycle trademark.
The pilot plant produces 60 tons of Biocycle a year.The entire production is exported to com-
panies in the United States, Japan and Germany PHB is biodegradable. Packing made with
PHB is degraded into water and carbonic gas in six to 12 months.
According to the producer, a kilogram of the sugarcane polymer costs US$ 5, whereas a kilo-
gram of other biodegradable plastics, made from beet or corn, for instance, costs US$ 14.
According to Jefter Fernandes do Nascimentooday the world produces 200 million tons a year
of polypropylene. PHB is not indicated to replace all the uses of polypropylene, but in the next
years it will take between 1% and 2% of that market.
A packaging for eucalyptus seedlings made with PHB plastic were launched. Three months
after the seedling has been planted the PHB degrades into the soil. Productivity increases at
paper and pulp plants farms.
A research group from the Institute of Biomedical Sciences (Instituto de Ciencias Biomedi-
cas, ICB), of the University of Sao Paulo (Universidade de Sao Paulo, USP), led by biologist
Ana Clara Schemberg, selected the bacterium - Alcaligenes eutrophus, found in sugarcane fields
soil - and produced a transgenic variety that is more efficient in synthesizing PHB.
The process in stages organizes the plant’s operation, which is divided into three main blocks:
fermentation, in which the bacteria reproduce and synthesize the polymer; extraction, in which
the polymer is taken out of the bacteria; and purification and drying, in which the organic
residues - in other words, bacteria remains - are eliminated from the polymer. The selling
of eucalyptus seedlings placed in PHB packaging promising cost reduction and productivity
gains since the seedlings are planted directly into the soil, the elimination of handling prevents
contamination, which affects 20% of the plants when conventional tubets are used.This will be
extended to coffee, pupunha (known as spiny peachpalm) and papaya seedlings.
Corkiness of wine
[291] [292]
Mouldy off-flavour can be caused by 2, 4, 6 trichloranisol and is found in foods like wine raisins,
ethereal oils, bottled mineral water and others.
The sources of trichloranisol are various. Aung and colleagues, for example, demonstrated
that sterilized raisins formed trichloranisol under low water activity nonconducive for microbial
activity. [293]
There are many sources of trichloranisol in wine.

Cork:The best known cork oak forests are located at the Mediterranean region, comprising
large areas of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, southern Europe including Italy, Portugal, Spain and
France. The cork oak develops a thick bark of cork. Trichloranisol content of the bark is
relatively low, but increases in the lower part of the trees, as it nears the ground. Humid-
ity increases near the ground triggering mould activity. That is why near the ground yellow
colouration of cork an and trichloranisol content rises.
Chlorphenols: The most frequent source is the transformation of chlorphenols by several

types of moulds. Chlorphenols are used in agriculture as pesticide, in packagings, in the wood
industry and in cork forestry. The EU forbids therefore the use of pesticides in cork oak plan-
tations.
Chlorine: Chlorine can come from residues in cork and wine barrels. Cork is bleached and
wood barrels are treated with sodium hypochloride. Blanching of cork is now being done with
hydrogen peroxide.
Pollution of the wine cellar: Trichloranisol may heavily contaminate the atmosphere of
1012
the wine cellar and migrate to the stored wine.
Crown-capped bottles: Trichloranisol has already been found in bottles with crown cape
and glass plugs. in these cases the corkiness off-flavour had been originated before bottling.
Wood barrels might be the reason.
Analytical quality control tries to sort out high trichloranisol charges of cork. Water steam
treatment and even microwave oven were seen to remove trichloranisol, however other valuable
odour and flavour components were also removed.
Mousy off-flavour of wine [294]
According to Eleanor M. Snowdon and colleagues mousy off-flavour occurs when wines are
infected with either lactic acid bacteria or Dekkera/Brettanomyces. Snowdon write that 2-
ethyltetrahydropyridine, 2-acetyltetrahydopyridine, and 2-acetylpyrroline are responsible for
the off-flavour.
The authors say that the microbe’s metabolism probably plays a key role in mousy off-flavor
formation, and that oxygen may play a key role. A wine infected with Dekkera/Brettanomyces
in the absence of oxygen may not become mousy unless exposed to oxygen via a processing or
handling procedure
.
Epoxidised soybean oil (ESBO) as plasticizer and stabiliser in PVC gaskets
ESBO in seals for baby foods [295]
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluated in May 2004 the dietary risk of epoxi-
dised soybean oil (ESBO) used as plasticizer and stabiliser in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) gaskets
of metal lids used to seal glass jars and bottles for baby foods packed in glass jars and bottles,
and considered the formation of derivatives of ESBO such as chlorohydrins, which may occur
as the PVC is heated to high temperatures.
The estimated exposure of infants aged 6-12 months to ESBO migrating into baby foods pack-
aged in glass jars and bottles with metal lids sealed with PVC gaskets can sometimes exceed
the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of 1 mg/kg body weight by up to 4- to 5-fold. Since there
is an inbuilt safety factor of more than 100 in the derivation of the TDI, exceeding the TDI
by 4- to 5-fold does not imply that there will be adverse health effects in infants. Moreover,
the Panel notes that ESBO is neither carcinogenic nor genotoxic. However, such a situation is
undesirable because it could reduce on a regular basis the safety margin between exposure and
adverse effects.
The Pannel recommends to develop a specific migration limit for ESBO in baby foods, de-
rived from the TDI of 1 mg/kg body weight for infants of 6 months of age, weighing 7.5 kg, fed
mainly or exclusively on processed baby foods.
The Pannel cannot give an advice on the significance for health of derivatives of ESBO in
foods because of absence of toxicological data. The Pannel stresses that up to 5% of the fatty
acids in ESBO in gaskets is converted into derivatives. The Pannel calls for further analytical
and toxicological data on ESBO derivatives.
Adults exposure to epoxidised soybean oil (ESBO) [296]

According to EFSA 2006, ESBO is used up to 40% in PVC gaskets of metal lids of glass jars
and in PVC cling film up to 10%. The overall exposure from these applications is compared to
the TDI of 1 mg/kg bw for ESBO set by the SCF (SCF, 1999)
.
The plasticiser di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate (DEHA) is frequently used in combination with ESBO
in cling films. Like ESBO, DEHA is practically insoluble in foods with no fat and so migrates
only into fatty foods. Finally, DEHA is a much smaller molecule than ESBO and so its tendency
to migrate from cling films is higher than ESBO. As a consequence of these factors, it can be
concluded that consumer exposure to ESBO migration from cling films will be no greater than
exposure to DEHA. The metabolite of DEHA found in urine of adults is 2-ethylhexanoic acid
(2-EHA).
The Scientific Panel on Food Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Con-
tact with Food (AFC) evaluated the risk of adults resulting from the migration of epoxidised
soybean oil (ESBO) into foodstuffs such as sauces,condiments and products in oil packaged in
glass jar with metal lids lined with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) containing ESBO.
ESBO can be present up to 40% of the weight of the gasket and is also used plasticised PVC
cling films for wrapping foods.
Because of the high migration figures, an estimation of the exposure of adults to ESBO was
necessary in order to find out if the TDI of 1 mg/kg body weight set by the Scientific Commit-
tee on Food (SCF, 1999) was exceeded. The Pannel concluded that the potential high dietary
exposure of adults was estimated to be 0.25 mg/kg bw/day, and that the potential dietary ex-
posure of adults to ESBO from foods packaged in cling films will not exceed 0.2 mg/kg bw/day,
and that the potential dietary exposure of adults to ESBO from foods packaged in glass jars
and in cling films is below the TDI of 1mg/kg bw as set by the SCF (SCF, 1999). The Panel
considered therefore that further refinement of the exposure estimates was not necessary.
Bioplastic packaging materials [297]

Charles Onwulata 2007 looked for the use of whey, a byproduct of cheese production. He de-
veloped a way to use it in the production of candy, pasta, animal feeds and a process called
reactive extrusion to supplement polyethylene with whey proteins.
1014
Reactive extrusion involves forcing plastic material through a heating chamber, where it melts
and combines with a chemical agent that strengthens it before it’s molded into a new shape.
Onwulata and Seiichiro Isobe combined whey protein isolate, cornstarch, glycerol, cellulose
fiber, acetic acid and the milk protein casein, creating a biodegradable plastic product that can
be mixed with polyethylene.
Bioplastic blends can only replace about 20 percent of the polyethylene in a product, is only par-
tially biodegradable. However, Onwulata and his colleagues, looking for completely biodegrad-
able bioplastics are experimenting with polylactic acid (PLA).
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a commercially available biodegradable polymer derived from lactic
acid and is used in many nonfood products as an alternative to petrochemical-derived poly-
mers. PLA substituted with starch-whey concentrates and casein blends (DPB) may enhance
the properties of this polymer. Onwulata says that dairy proteins, whey and casein, may pro-
vide an advantage by lowering the molded product peak temperature of PLA allowing for more
biomaterials to be used in a formulation. [298]
Onwulata 2006 evaluated the properties of several blends of extruded agricultural materials
and found that the properties of extruded blends in pellet form made from milk protein, casein
and whey protein isolates, starch and glycerol milk protein based (MPB) were most suitable
as feed material for injection molding. Injection molded MPB cups demonstrated that agricul-
tural materials based on dairy ingredients can be processed directly in equipment used by the
plastics industry. [299]
Chapter 26
Parasites and Pathogenic Protozoa
A great deal of chronical diseases is caused by parasites and pathogenic protozoa due to con-
sumption of infected water and foods, mainly in underdeveloped countries.
Endamoeba histolytica The vegetative form of Endamoeba histolytica is motile and unin-
ucleate. It multiplies by fission and is able to invade the mucosa of the large intestine where it
causes ulcerations.
The invasion of the mucosa of the colon takes place by using histolytic enzymes what gave
the name to the species. It comes to abscesses and destruction of the intestinal capillarities
raspberry red bloody stool is the result.
It may be carried to the liver, lung or brain and causes abscesses in those organs.
In the intestine, the ameboid form may develop into cyst, a spherical body containing four nu-
clei and one or more rod shaped chromatoid bodies.Cysts are resistant to chemical and physical
agents.
Ninety per cent of infected people are not obviously ill. Only about 10 per cent have active
dysentery, discharging trophozoites (motile cells).AS trophozoites die outside of the body and
are killed by gastric juice and bile if they are ingested, the disenteric cases are not important
as source of infection. The cysts however are able to survive for sometime outside the body
and can pass uninjured through the alimentary canal to the ileum. Here each cyst gives rise to
eight small infective trophozoites.
Important source of infection are cyst passers which do not have signs of any disease but pro-
duce great amount of cysts which are spread by contaminated food and polluted water. If
polluted water is used to irrigate plantations of vegetable and salads and human faecis are
used as fertilizer the spread of Endamoeba histolytica can take place in large group of persons.
Imported vegetables and salads should therefore carefully rinsed or better cooked when the
origin of it is unknown. With modern logistic service throughout the world, contaminated food
can easily be imported from the most exotic parts of the world. Amebiasis is considered to be
a tropical disease however occasional epidemics in the temperate zone are possible. The cyst-
1015
1016
passers state is common in all parts of the world. About 10% of Americans are carriers.Also in
Germany cyst carriers of Endamoeba histolytica are present. The incidence is highest in areas
where sanitation is poor.
In concentration camps, prisons and in homes with poor sanitation like favelas direct transfer
and flies spread the disease[461].
Prophylaxis of amebiasis Improve the sanitary facilities, boil the infected water before
drinking, avoid ingestion of infected vegetables, cook all meals and make combat to flies.
It is obvious that there must be a decline of resistance of the human body to open the way to
an infection. It is also admitted that warm climate rises the disposition to the disease. Other
factors which help the eclosion of the disease are bacterial infections, disorders of nutrition and
cold. Endamoeba histolytica was first seen and described in feces of diseased persons in 1875
by Lösch.
The disease in Germany is also known as Amöbenruhr called after the region around the river
Ruhr in Germany where great epidemics took place around 1875.
Other amebae Endamoeba gingivalis: It is harmless and lives around gums and teeth.
Endamoeba hartmanii: Is a small ameba which may live in the intestines producing sub-
clinical or mild infections.
Dientamoeba fragilis: Is an intestinal form causing infections.It is not common.
Endamoeba coli: It is not pathogen.
Endolimax nana: It is not pathogen.
Iodameba bütschlii: It is not pathogen.
Free-living amoebae as human pathogens

Free-living amoebae belonging to the genus Acanthamoeba are the causative agents of gran-
ulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), a fatal disease of the central nervous system (CNS),
amebic keratitis (AK), a painful sight-threatening disease of the eyes, cutaneous lesions and
sinusitis in AIDS patients and other immunocompromised individuals.
Spiny surface structures called acanthopodia distinguish Acanthamoeba from other free-living
amoebae that infect humans, such as Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia
diploidea
Cysts are resistant to biocides, chlorination, and antibiotics and survive low temperatures
(0 to 2o C) Meisler et al., however, have shown that treatment with Freon or methylene oxide or
autoclaving destroys cysts. Excystment occurs when trophozoites emerge from the cyst under
suitable environmental conditions.
Mazur et al. demonstrated that cysts retained viable amoebae for over 24 years after stor-
age in water at 4o C and were tested for pathogenicity by intranasal inoculation of mice. Fewer
deaths were recorded for mice inoculated with amoebae which had been encysted for 24 years
than for mice inoculated with the same environmental isolates when tested initially.
Marciano-Cabral and Cabral 2003 conclude that it is becoming increasingly apparent that
free-living amoebae cause human disease. Furthermore, with increasing awareness of the po-
tential of free-living amoebae to cause disease, amoebae from other genera may be found to be
causative agents of human infections. [462]
Acanthamoeba Acanthamoeba lenticulata causes cutaneous lesions and sinusitis in AIDS

patients and other immunocompromised individuals. Disseminated acanthamebiasis (DA),
which is defined as widespread extracerebral disease, is extremely rare, but its incidence has
increased in recent years such as occurred on account of organ transplants such as lung and
kidneys.
Marciano-Cabral 2007 reports a fatal case of disseminated acanthamebiasis in a heart trans-

plant recipient and identify Acanthamoeba lenticulata (genotype T5, commonly found in the
environment) as the cause of disease. Disseminated acanthamebiasis is difficult to diagnose,
being made postmortem in most of the cases. [463]
Acanthamoeba spp. are free-living amoebae found in soil, water, air, humans, and various
animals. All known species of Achantamoeba spp are listed in the Taxonomy Browser of
NCBI:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=5754
Giardia lamblia Giardia lamblia is a pathogenic protozoa living in the duodenum often
without symptoms. Giardia lamblia adheres to the surface of the epithelian cells of the mucosa
of the duodenum.
When millions are present the mucosa is completely covered. Fat absorption and digestion is
disturbed. Dietary deficiency, diarrhea and bad smelling flatulence takes place.
The disease is spread over cysts in Water and foods.
Cryptosporidium Oocysts of Cryptosporidium are widespread in the environment and can

be found in lakes and streams. It is found in North America and Caribian islands, infesting
animals which just had been born and adult animals which produce oocysts and serves as a
source of infection for neonates.
Breakdowns of public sewage systems have occasionally resulted in community outbreaks of

cryptosporidiosis. Diarrhea, some weight loss and abdominal cramping are the sign of the dis-
1018
ease. Many cases of cryptosporidiosis are caused by contamination by pet animals or by contact
with other humans.
Balantidium coli It is a very large protozoan which may cause severe ulcerations of the
large intestine. Cysts and motile forms are found in feces. Hogs harbor commonly Balantidium
coli.Infection of men is caused by contaminated food and water.
Parasitic worms Parasitic worms are described under helmiths , comprising three groups:
Nematodes also called roundworms.
Trematodes like the flukes.
Cestodes which are the tapeworms.
Bacteria can multiply in the human body almost indefinitely. Worm parasites do not multiply
in the human host, they usually need to pass through stages in the human host and then they
have to undergo other stages in one or more animals, im soil or water.
Some persons may harbor only few worm parasites, the infestation remains subclinical and
symptomless. However with repeated exposures a massive infestation takes place and illness
comes up.
Roundworms: Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus The infestation with

both worms are alike and no laboratory attempt is made to differentiate among them, reporting
as larvae of ancylostomideans.
Capillaria philippinensis: C. philippinensis is a roundworm causing intestinal capillaria-

sis which appeared first in the Philippines and subsequently in Thailand, Japan, Iran, Egypt,
and Taiwan. Humans acquire the infection by eating small freshwater fish raw. It is considered
a zoonotic disease of migratory fish-eating birds.The parasite multiplies, and symptoms of di-
arrhea, borborygmus, abdominal pain, and edema. Pictures and full article by J H Cross are
available at http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=358231 [464]
Angiostrongylus costaricensis: A. costaricensis Morera and Cespedes, 1971 is a parasitic

nematode of wild rodents that may produce abdominal disease in humans, already reported
from most countries in the Americas, from Mexico to Argentina. Molluscs are intermediate
hosts and shed infective third stage larvae (L3) in their mucus secretions. One possible mode
of infection is the ingestion of raw vegetables and unpeeled fruits containing small molluscs
or their contaminated mucous secretions. MORERA suggested refrigeration of food as part of
prophylaxis based on experiments demonstrating a deleterious effect of low temperatures on
the viability of L3. [465]
Life cycle of ancylostomideans The hookworms are a quarter to halve an inch long. They
attache themselves to the wall of the small intestines. The females produce eggs which are
carried by feces.
In warm moist soil the eggs develop within a day or two into a larval form which is capable to
penetrate human skin between toes if no shoes are worn. It causes local itch.
The blood stream carries the larva to the lungs where it gets though the lung wall and reaches
the bronchi, the trachea and being swallowed getting to stomach and intestines, where it settles
growing to an adult male and a female form. After fertilization of the eggs a new cycle starts.
Infestation from contaminated food and water

The larvae can be ingested from food and water lead to an infestation without the skin-blood-
lung-cycle.This way of infestation is less common but should not be neglected handling with
food, specially imported vegetables and fruits being eaten without proper washing and cooking.
Each worm can suck 0,5 ml or more blood from its host per day. Few worms do not get no-
ticed but when more then two hundred are present severe anemia and intoxication takes place
causing the hookworm disease.
The use of shoes reduces the possibility of an infection by the larva through the skin of the
foot.
Strongyloides stercoralis The disease caused by Strogyloides stercoralis is similar to the

hookworm disease. The eggs can develop to small larvae and are carried by feces. In soil the
larvae can reinfect man in the same way hookworm do.
The use of shoes reduces the possibility of an infection by the larva through the skin of the
foot.
Trichuris trichiura Is also called whipworm because of its shape. The ova are discharged
in great number in the feces. In the soil they need several days to develop to infective larvae.
They enter through the mouth in contaminated food and water.
Ascaris lumbricoides Is is the largest roundworm being up to 12 inches long.

The eggs deposited in feces develop in soil during several weeks to infective stage. When
swallowed the larvae penetrate the intestinal wall and a similar cycle as known as Ancylosto-
mideans. If a considerable number of larvae are ingested at one time high fever and pneumonitis
are caused.
The vermifuge principle of santonica seeds is santonin which is used to expulse Ascaris lumbri-
coides
1020
Ascaris lumbricoides from infected humans.
Enterobius vermicularis It is also called pinworm or seat worm The female migrate through
the anus and deposit thousands of ova on the skin of the perianal region. When these eggs
are ingested they develop into larvae and adult worms in the intestine. Laboratory diagnosis
is done by microscopic examination of anal swabs.
Life cycle of Enterobius vermicularis
Ingestion of
ovum by men
The ovum Contamination by hands,food

develops to and water.
larvae
Adults in lower
intestine and
ovum in feces
Trichinella spiralis Is a common parasite of flesh eating animals. It causes thichinosis.Adult

trichina worms are just barely visible to the naked eye. They live in the duodenum.The female
worm penetrates the intestinal wall and deposits its larvae in the mucosa. The larvae are car-
ried by blood to all parts of the body. In the striated muscle tissue these larvae can grow and
be surrounded by capsules, calcified cysts. When these cysts are ingested by other animals or
by men the material is digested and the larvae gets free. In the duodenum the larvae develop
to mature worms. The cycle begins again.
Trichinella spiralis parasites many flesh eating animals like hogs. Eating raw meat or not suffi-
ciently heated pork containing larvae. As many infections of hooks are not noted there is pork
on market with larvae. Due to growing of the global market veterinary control is not always
perfect. If undercooked food with larvae is eaten infestation of man can take place. To avoid
trichinosis cook meat appropriately. Avoid contaminated meat be eaten by hogs.
As imported meat from unknown and sometimes dubious origin are coming on market the
number of human trichinosis is increasing again.
As treatment is very difficult all care should be made to avoid ingestion of meat with living
1022
larvae of Trichinella spiralis by refusing any food with raw or not sufficiently heated meat, this
includes also all kinds of unheated sausages.
Life cycle of Trichinella spiralis
Men Hog and rat
Ingestion of cyst Ingestion of cyst

in pork by men in garbage and
containing infected
hog flesh
The cyst develops The cyst develops

to adult worms. to adult worms.
females penetrate females penetrate
intestinal wall and
intestinal wall and deposit there larvae
deposit there larvae
Larvae migration Larvae migration

through the blood through the blood
all over the body all over the body
Formation of cysts Formation of cysts

in striated muscles in striated muscles
Flukes (Trematodes) Flukes are uncommon in developed countries. However due to in-
creased travels and adventure trips their importance is growing.
One divides the flukes according to the place where they live:
Blood flukes
Liver flukes and
Lung flukes
Blood flukes There are three important blood flukes:Schistosoma haematobium, Schisto-
soma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum.
Schistosoma haematobium
Is found as chronic disease in Africa and in Asia.
The female gets her way to the capillaries of the lower intestinal or bladder wall where she
discharges the ova which passes the wall of intestine or bladder to reach excreta causing inflam-
matory reactions which can turn out to malignant tumors.
Inflammatory reactions on the portal vessels to the liver are also known. The ova in the exc-
reta can only develop when they get into water. There small free swimming larvae are formed.
These larvae penetrate certain snails where three stages of development are passed. The last
stage emerges from the snail and swims in the water until it comes in contact with human skin
penetrating it and entering the blood stream.
Avoid to take bath in swallow water with low stream velocity. Hygienic condition of drinking
and water used in the preparation of food in these areas in endemic areas should be looked
upon.
Schistosoma mansoni
Causes endemic infections of man in the Caribbeans and the northern part of South America.
The adult worms are much narrower and more elongated than other flukes.
Schistosoma japonicum
Fasciola hepatica [466]

Human infections with Fasciola hepatica are seldom. Generally they are single cases,and rarely
epidemic, However, the number of infections are rising being endemic in Bolivia.Adult parasites
settle in hepatic biliary ducts. The main source of infection are salads of wild growing water
plants like water cress and dandelion. Infection is frequent in cattle and goats.
Fasciola hepatica screening of milk cattle[467] Sandra Koch says that the used f2 antigen
detecting ELISA presents a suitable screening method for the diagnosis on herd level and large
scale surveillance programs of Fasciola hepatica and is to perform automatically from easily ob-
tained bulk tank milk samples. On a screening of milk herd Koch found an overall prevalence
of 32.2% infestation with Fasciola hepatica in Bavaria.
A remarkable high prevalence of 95% was found in the rural district Wunsiedel im Fichtelge-
birge (Oberfranken). Because of the river systems in the Fichtelgebirge there exist a lot of
wetlands and flood plains.
1024
Fishborn flukes
The widspread fishborn flukes are Clonorchis sinensis, Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis
felineus.
Human infection takes place when raw, slightly salted and frozen fish is eaten Clonorchis
sinensis [468]
The Clonorchis sinensis is a human liver fluke in the class Trematoda, Phylum Platyhelminthes.
This parasite lives in the liver of humans, and is found mainly in the common bile duct and
gall bladder, feeding on bile. These animals, which are believed to be the third most prevalent
worm parasite in the world, are endemic to Japan, China, Taiwan, and Sotheast Asia, currently
infecting an estimated 30,000,000 humans.
The metacercariae can then be ingested by humans who eat undercooked or raw fish, who
in turn become infected at the same time. These metacercariae enterthe small intestine and
migrate into, and mature in the human liver, inside of the common bile duct and gall bladder.
C.H.Kim observed the prevalence of intestinal parasites and Clonorchis sinensis infection in
the upper stream of Kumgang (River)in 1991 using cellophane thick smear and formalin-ether
concentration technique. The parasite positive rate including helminth eggs and protozoan
cysts was 40.8%, the paarasite positive rates for Clonorchis sinensis was 30.8%, Metagonimus
spp. 14.5%, Taenia spp. 1.5%,while the rest of all other parasites summed only 4.6%. The
authors concluded that the soil transmitted intestinal parasites including helminths eggs and
protozoan cysts have been decreased remarkably among the inhabitants along the upper stream
of Taechong Dam, Kum-gang (River), but Clonorchis sinensis, Metagonimus spp. and Taenia
spp. are still morderate prevalent. [469]
Despite a gradual decrease in prevalence, clonorchiasis is still prevalent in East Asia. A large
and compelling body of evidence links clonorchiasis and cholangiocarcinoma, although the
mechanisms involved are not completely understood. Clonorchiasis induces biliary epithelial
hyperplasia and metaplasia, and this could facilitate at least one stage of the carcinogenesis.
[470] Opisthorchis viverrini: Opisthorchis viverrini is a food borne trematode, important
because of the sheer numbers of people infected and its serious morbidities such as hepatobiliary
diseases and cholangiocarcinoma. It is found in Asia. Thailand have the highest number of
infections. [471]
Opisthorchis felineus: It is widely spread in russia and is sometimes called Siberian liver
fluke. Infection by undercooked fish eating.
The cat liver fluke is especially common in Siberia and the Ukraine, where up to 80% of the
population is infected. Although these regions being the main endemic areas, it can also be
found in Europe, Asia and North America. Domestic animals, especially cats, become infected
by eating insufficiently cooked fish. Clinical signs are variable, and infestation with a moderate
number of parasites is usually asymptomatic, however with a high quantity of parasites it may
lead to hepatic insufficiency. This parasitosis is relevant to ichthyophagous animals (dogs, cats,
pigs, foxes, wolverine, martens, beavers, otters, European pole cats, Siberian weasels, sables,
Norway rats, water vole, rabbits, seals and lions) (Mehlhorn et al., 1992; Kelly, 1993; Mas-Coma
et al., 2000; Cullen and Maclachlan, 2001). [472]
Intestinal flukes Fasciolopsis buski The fluke Fasciolopsis lives in the upper part of the
small intestine. It contains both mail and female reproductive systems causing diarrhea and
anemia.
The ova in faecis develop to larvae and penetrate certain types of snails as intermediate host.
Leaving the snail the larvae becomes encysted on plants like nuts of the red ling or water chest-
nut which are eaten by man.
Here again the hygienic condition of water is important in the areas where trematodes may
be found. Cooking of all foods, sanitary disposal of sewage and the elimination of snail hosts.
This is not always possible due to high costs.
Echinostoma spp.[473]
They are intestinal flukes which are common in South-East AsiaThere are about 15 species
of Echinostoma from which the most common is Echinostoma ilocanum The infections are
acquired by eating raw or undercooked freshwater snails,clams, and fish containing the metac-
ercariae. Pila luzonica is eaten uncooked by some people in the Philippines, and metacercariae
from these snails developed into adults in a number of laboratory animals. Rats, mice and
hamsters were the most susceptible. There seems to be little disease in humans and animals
infected with Echinostoma ilocanum.
Tapeworms Tapeworms are Cestodes with five important species:

Taenia solium
Taenia saginata
Diphyllobotrium latum
Hymenolepsis nana
Echinococcus granulosus
Taenia solium: Is the tapeworm of pork. The ova leave the body with the faecis free or in
the interior of proglotides.
When these ova or proglotides are ingested by animals the larvae develop in the intestine, pen-
etrate the wall and are carried by the blood to the muscles where they become bladder worms
or cysticerci.
When the muscles are eaten the cyst wall is digested. The tapeworm the head of the worm
adheres to the wall of the intestines and proglotides start to grow. Taenia saginata: Is the
tapeworm of beef.
1026
The adults are 6 to 20 feet long. The proglottids contain male and female reproductive organs.
The ova leave the body with the feces and are ingested from contaminated soil by the interme-
diate host like cattle. The larvae develop in the intestine, penetrate the wall and are carried by
the blood stream to the skeletal muscles becoming bladder worms or cysticerci being spherical
an inverted scolex.
When beef containing these cysts are undercooked eaten the cyst wall is digested and the scolex
may attache to the intestinal wall and the proglotids develop to form the adult parasites.
If ova of Taenia saginata are ingested by men the same cycle observed in cattle take place.
The larvae migrate through the body and cyst formation in various organs may take place. To
control spreading of Taenia saginata it is important to avoid cattle to get in contact with human
feces contaminated soil. Don’t eat raw or undercooked meat as they may contain cysts of Tae-
nia. Don’t drink water from suspected areas without boiling as they may contain ova of Taenia.
Life cycle of tapeworm like Taenia saginata and Taenia solium
Man as intermediate host Hogs and cattle

Man as final host
Ingestion of encysted Ovum of Taenia solium Ovum of Taenia solium

ingested by man as ingested by hogs or
larvae in undercooked meat
intermediate host cattle as intermediate
host
Contamination by hands, The ovum develops The ovum develops

The larvae to .larvae which
develops to to .larvae which
food and water with ovum penatrate the intestinal
adult worm of Taenia solium penatrate the intestinal
wall and fall into blood wall and fall into blood
stream stream
Cyst formation in Cyst formation in

Ovum in feces
various organs various organs
Diphyllobotrium latum Diphyllobotrium latum is the fish tapeworm causing the broad
tapeworm infection. The proglotids are much broader then long. Definitive hosts are man,
cats, and bears.
In water the ova develop to ciliated embryos which must be ingested by a copepod where they
develop during 2 to 3 weeks. If the copepod is swallowed by a fish the parasite develops in the
muscle tissue of the fish. If the contaminated fish is eaten by men, cat or bear the ova develop
to larvae and form the adult tapeworm.
Diphyllobotrium latum may cause severe anemia since it utilizes the vitamin B12 of the host
1028
diet.
It is common in North Europe and also USA. Fish should therefore not be eaten raw or under-
cooked specially fresh-water pike.
Hymenolepis nana It causes the dwarf tapeworm infection. It is a very small tapeworm
which does not need an intermediate host. The ova may remain in the intestine and develop
to the larval form and finally to the adult tapeworm. In this way heavy infestation can take
place.
Contamination takes place through fecal contaminated food and hands. Mice and rats may
also bear Hymenolepis nana.
Hymenolepis diminuta Hymenolepis diminuta (rat tapeworm, adults measuring 20 to 60

cm in length). Hymenolepis diminuta is a cestode of rodents infrequently seen in humans and
frequently found in rodents.
Echinococcus granulosus It causes the hydatid cyst. The adult stage lives in dog. The
ova of the dog feces when ingested by sheep, hogs or cattle develops as larvae in the liver. If
dogs feed from these animals during slaughter the ingested ova develop to adult tapeworms.
Human beings may contaminate itself ingesting ova from food or hands contaminated by feces
of dogs.This kind of contamination is common in sheep-raising countries. The ova so ingested
develops to the larval form which penetrates liver or other organs forming the hydatid cyst
which is a bladder-like growth containing fluid and many small capsules with scolices inside.
The cyst may grow for years and cause severe reactions. Cutaneous larval migration:Larvae
of the dog and cat hookworms can infect humans as unnatural hosts. They will not turn into
adult worms. The larvae remain in the skin where they continue to migrate for months, causing
a creeping eruption under the skin and die at the end. Treatment is surgical removal of the
migrating larvae. A common source of infection are sandboxes contaminated by cats. Sand-
boxes are ideal environment for the hookworm eggs to develop and hatch and for the larvae
to survive. Keep sandboxes covered. Other places where cats like to go are flower beds and
vegetable gardens.
Cats and dogs should be kept away from food production and vegetable farming.
Other pet parasites: There are several examples of parasites that are normally found in
pets which can be transmitted to humans:
Dipylidium caninum: It is the common tapeworm of dogs. It can be transmitted to hu-

mans.
The life cycle of Dipylidium caninum involves dogs or cats as the definitive host and fleas or
lice as the intermediate host. The flea or louse ingests the eggs. The dog or cat (or human)
is infected when they ingest a flea or louse infected with the cysticercoids. Fleas or louse on
dogs and cats should be eliminated as they transmit not only bacteria, viruses but also parasites.
Mesocestoides lineatus: Mesoscestoides tapeworm is a common cestode in carnivorous mam-

mals, but human infection with the tapeworm of this genus have been infrequent.
Taenia pisiformis: Immature forms of the common roundworm of dogs, Toxocara canis can
also cause migration in human visceral tissue. The feces of an infected dog or cat (or human)
may contain proglotids of Taenia pisiformis.
Echinococcus multilocularis: The ”small fox tapeworm” Echinococcus multilocularis causes

alveolar echinococcosis (AE) in intermediate hosts. It is a small tapeworm (less than 4,5 mm in
lenght) that parasites red and arctic foxes (dogs and cats are the definitive hosts). It is found
in wild foxes in parts of Europe, Siberia, China, Japan, and arctic Alaska and in foxes and
coyotes in Canada and north-central North America.
Definitive hosts are always carnivores.In the definitive hosts the adult tapeworm, consisting
of 2 to 6 proglottids, living attached to the luminal surface of the small intestine. The terminal
proglottid contains mature eggs (ovoid, 30-40 m in diameter). The embryonated eggs, the in-
fectious stage, are long-lived and highly resistant to high and low temperature (more than 500
C and down to -400 C). The mature eggs are shed with faeces and are spread in the environ-
ment. It is assumed that the intermediate host acquires the infections through the ingestion of
contaminated fruits and vegetables.
Human Alveolar Echinococcosis [474]

According to Schweiger and colleagues 2007 human alveolar echinococcosis, a hepatic disorder
that resembles liver cancer, is a highly aggressive and lethal zoonotic infection caused by the
larval stage of the fox tapeworm, Echinococcus multilocularis Humans and intermediate host
animals acquire the infection by ingesting E. multilocularis eggs in contaminated food or water
or by having close physical contact with infected foxes, dogs, or host faeces.
Annual incidence of human alveolar echinococcis increased recently in zwitzerland.with fox

population highly increasing. The authors warn from an emerging epidemic of AE. Future
trends will depend on the intensity of present and future contamination of the environment
with E. multilocularis eggs as well as on the number of susceptible persons exposed to the
parasite.
Increasing fox population has increased the infection pressure for a large part of the human
population such as coyotes in the United States and Canada, as suitable definitive host of E.
multilocularis have become established in suburban areas with moderate to dense human pop-
1030
ulations, and other canids such as domestic dogs as definitive hosts.
The authors conclude that public health authorities in echinococcosis-endemic areas should
establish coordinated systems of continuous surveillance and risk assessment, combined with
measures to reduce illness and death from AE in human populations They suggest control
strategies,such as deworming of foxes and other wild canids by using anthelminthic baiting.
target suburban areas that have high human and wild canid population densities.
Anisakis and Herring

Anisakis simplex (herring worm), Pseudoterranova (Phocanema, Terranova) decipiens (cod or
seal worm), Contracaecum spp., and Hysterothylacium (Thynnascaris) spp. are anisakid nema-
todes (roundworms) that have been implicated in human infections caused by the consumption
of raw or undercooked seafood.
To date, only A. simplex and Pseudoterranova decipiens are reported from human cases in
North America. Anisakiasis is most frequently diagnosed when the affected individual feels a
tingling or tickling sensation in the throat and coughs up or manually extracts a nematode.
In more severe cases there is acute abdominal pain, much like acute appendicitis accompa-
nied by a nauseous feeling. Symptoms occur from as little as an hour to about 2 weeks after
consumption of raw or undercooked seafoods. (SUSHIS). With their anterior ends, these larval
nematodes from fish or shellfish usually burrow into the wall of the digestive tract (occasionally
they penetrate the intestinal wall completely and are found in the body cavity).
Anisakis rarely reach full maturity in humans and usually are eliminated spontaneously from
the digestive tract lumen within 3 weeks of infection. In cases where the patient vomits or
coughs up the worm, the disease may be diagnosed by morphological examination of the ne-
matode. (Ascaris lumbricoides, the large roundworm of humans, is a terrestrial relative of
anisakines and sometimes these larvae also crawl up into the throat and nasal passages.)
Seafoods are the principal sources of human infections with these larval worms. The adults of
A. simplex are found in the stomachs of whales and dolphins.
Fertilized eggs from the female parasite pass out of the host with the host’s feces. In sea-
water, the eggs embryonate, developing into larvae that hatch in sea water. These larvae are
infective to copepods (minute crustaceans related to shrimp) and other small invertebrates.
The larvae grow in the invertebrate and become infective for the next host, a fish or larger
invertebrate host such as a squid. The larvae may penetrate through the digestive tract into
the muscle of the second host. Some evidence exists that the nematode larvae move from the
viscera to the flesh if the fish hosts are not gutted promptly after catching.
These parasites are known to occur frequently in the flesh of cod, haddock, fluke, pacific salmon,
herring, flounder, and monkfish. Severe cases of anisakiasis are extremely painful and require
surgical intervention.
Food Analysis: Candling or examining fish on a light table is used by commercial processors
to reduce the number of nematodes in certain white-flesh fish that are known to be infected
frequently. This method is not totally effective, nor is it very adequate to remove even the
majority of nematodes from fish with pigmented flesh.
1032
Chapter 27
Bioterrorism
Food and Bioterrorism

Bioterrorism may involve single cases or menace a whole nation. Some examples are:
Blackmailing: Several cases of blackmail looking with food poisoning have lead to safety
caps and closures to avoid violation of products.
Psychopaths: A psychopath tainted orange juice with thallium. Several German students
were life threatend poisoned one died.
Egotism: Craving for recognition was the cause of tainting mustard with pesticides in a Ger-
man case.
Literature: Agatha Christie describes poisoning with chlorine, Arsenic, nicotine, morphine,
strychnine, chloridric acid, hydrocyanic acid, oxalic acid in 41 books. But also in the daily
life intentional food poisoning happens. The insecticide nicotine was used by an supermarket
employee to poison ground beef in Michigan 2003[1136]. The owner of a fast-food outlet used
rat-poison to taint a competitors breakfast foods in Nanjing, China, 2002 [1137].
Warning from politicians Health and Human Services Secretary Tommy Thompson resining
in December 2004 warned of a global outbreak of the flu and health-related terrorist attacks.
”For the life of me, I cannot understand why the terrorists have not attacked our food supply
because it is so easy to do.”[1181]
The Bioterrorism Security Act

In America the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of
2000 Public Law 107-188 was the response to possible bioterrorism, a modern menace in food.
The New United States Bioterrorism Law will affect all food exporters to the US.
Four new regulations provided by the Bioterrorism Security Act are:

1- All food facilities must be registered with the FDA.
2- The FDA agency must receive prior notice of imported food shipments before food arrives
1033
1034
in the United States.

3- People who receive and distribute food must keep records of their food sources and recipi-
ents.
4- The FDA may detain any food for up to 30 days for which there is credible evidence or
information that the food poses a threat of serious adverse health consequences or death to
humans or animals.
The Bioterrorism Security Act: In response to the attack of September 11, 2001 the Pub-
lic Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 was signed into
law on June 12, 2002.
The Act is divided into five Titles
• I - National Preparedness,
• II - Biological Agents and Toxins,
• III - Safety and Security of the Food and Drug Supply,
• IV- Drinking Water Security and Safety,
• V - Additional Provisions.
Export registration: Section 305 of Title III requires that domestic and foreign food facilities
that export to the U.S. register with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) by December
12, 2003.
Facilities must register, however, or their food will be held at the U.S. port of entry until
the facility is registered.
The recordkeeping proposal is designed to help FDA track foods implicated in future emer-
gencies, such as terrorism-related contamination. Under the proposed rule, manufacturers,
processors, packers, distributors, receivers, holders and importers of food would be required to
keep records identifying the immediate source from which they received the food, as well as,
the immediate subsequent recipient, to whom they sent it.
This requirement would apply to almost all foreign and domestic food sources and almost
all recipients of food destined for consumption in the United States. It would assist FDA in
addressing credible threats of serious adverse health consequences or death to humans or ani-
mals.
The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 (the
Bioterrorism Act or the Act) requires that FDA receive prior notice of food imported or offered
for import into the U.S. beginning on December 12, 2003.
When goods arrive in the U.S., FDA must receive advance information on import shipments.
This would allow FDA time to review, evaluate, and assess information before a food product
arrives, and shift resources to target inspections, to help intercept contaminated products, and
to help ensure movement of safe food to market.
Dangerous agents
Biological agents: Anthrax, plague, smallpox, botulism, Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers, tularemie.
Chemical agents
Sulfur mustard: it is not present in food and is no food contaminant. Last use was in the
Iran-Irak war in the 1980s. Accidental exposure to sulfur mustard may occur to fishermen who
catch weapons dumped in the Baltic Sea, Adriatic Sea, Pacific Ocean and Japanese coastal
waters.
Abrin: Abrin is a natural poison found in the seeds of the rosary pea or jequirity pea (Abrus
precatorius). Abrin is similar to ricin. Abrin is, however, much more poisonous than ricin. It
is possible to prepare it as a yellowish-white powder, pellets or dissolved in water. It is very
stable and can last for a long time in the environment despite extreme conditions such as high
temperatures.
Ingestion of abrin disrupts the synthesis of proteins inside the cells which then die. Symp-
toms may occur in less than 6 hours, but usually in one to three days.
There is no antidote existent for abrin. No widely available reliable test exists to confirm
an exposure to abrin.
Rosary pea is common to many tropical areas and is used sometimes as herbal remedy. The
seeds are red with a black spot at one end. They are used as beaded jewelry.
Abrin could be used to poison food, water and pharmaceutical liquids used as injections.
Brevetoxin: Brevetoxin can be detected by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

method in biologic samples. There are many publications related to brevetoxin, such as the
neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in North Caroliner.[1305][1306]
Colchicine: Colchicine is prepared from dried corns and seeds of autumn crocus or meadow
saffron (Colchicum autumnalen). Ingestion of colchicine leads to profuse vomiting and diar-
rhoea, which can be bloody, followed by hypovolemic shock and multisystem organ failure
1036
within 24-72 hours, coma, convulsions, and sudden death.
Colchicine (N-(5,6,7,9-tetrahydro- 1,2,3,10-tetramethoxy-9-oxobenzo [alpha] heptaien-7-yl)acetamide)

is an alkaloid and is a pale yellow powder soluble in water.
Digitalis:
Digoxin immune FAB (ovine) may be used to bind molecules of unbound digoxin and especially
longer-acting digitoxin.
Nicotine:
Nicotine is a tertiary amine composed of a pyridine and a pyrrolidine ring. It is colourless
to pale yellow, turning brown on exposure to air and light,water-soluble, oily volatile, strong
smell. There are two stereoisomers. The S(-)nicotine (S-3-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl) is the most
active of them.
Ricin:
Ricin is derived from castor beans. It inhibits the protein synthesis. Ingestion leads to profuse
vomiting and diarrhoea (nonbloody or bloody, multisystem organ failure, abnormal liver func-
tion tests and possibly death within 36 to 72 hours of exposure. Symptoms are comparable
to an intoxication with abrin and can be taken for caused by enteric pathogens, mushrooms,
caustics, iron, arsenic and colchicine.
Saxitoxin: It produces numbness of the oral mucosa within 30 minutes after ingestion, paras-
thesia, floating sensation, muscle weakness, vertigo and cranial nerve dysfunction, respiratory
failure and death resulting from paralysis.[1307]
Strychnine The source of strychnine is Strychnos nux vomica which grows in India, Sri
Lanka,East Indies and Australia is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline powder and is water-
soluble. It is a strong poison which can cause serious health effects, including death. It is
used as a pesticide, particularly to kill rats, and can be found in drugs like LSD, heroin and
cocaine. Contamination of water and food is possible because it is water-soluble. Symptoms of
an intoxication appear within 15 to 60 minutes as agitation, apprehension or fear, restlessness,
painful muscle spasm, arching of neck and back, rigid arms and legs, jawtightness, muscle pain
and soreness, difficult breathing, dark urine, brain death.
Tetrodotoxin Toxic amounts of tetrodotoxin causes neurological and gastrointestinal symp-

toms and death. There are no methods for detection of tetrodotoxin in environmental samples
available commercially.
Trichothecene mycotoxins It could be used to poison food, beverages and water.

Emergency Preparedness
Being prepared for emergencies avoids fatal errors when time is short. Fire, flood, chemical
spill, nuclear accidents or terrorism attack. Some simple rules may help you to handle it:
Emergency evacuation
• Have an emergency note prepared telling you are away, with a free place you can fill in
the place where to meet.
• Have a phone list of relatives, friends and work whom you might want to let them know
that you are safe, where you are heading, and how long it will take to return to normality.
• Have your car in the garage always refuelled, because in case of emergency all petrol
stations will be overcrowded and there will be no time to wait in line.
Have an emergency car kit always in the back of your car. It should contain: A pli-
ers, a screwdriver set, a flashlight (check the charge of the batteries from time to time),
a socket wrench set and a foldable spade, so you can spade a way out for your car if it
gets struck in mud, sand or snow. Make sure the car-jack, the wheel lug wrench, jumper
cables, tire chains if winter, is in place. Make sure the shelf life of the first aid kit is
not exceeded, and there are space blankets for everyone available. Have a package of
handkerchiefs in the glove compartment and road maps. Have all tin can holder of your
car filled with canned coffee and mineral water, be sure not to have carbonated drinks on
board. Rising temperatures inside the car may cause them to open and spill.
Have nothing else in the car, as you need the place for persons, and other things you
can grab and which are suited to the season, such as blankets.
• Have your driver licence, ID card and credit cards and a pen with you.
• You can include some canned foods such as chilly con carne, spaghetty and others. Be
sure to have twist-off cans and spoons. Canned food may be consumed without heating.
Once open, be sure to consume the whole can in one day, if not you have to discard the
rest.
• Don’t panic. Drive carefully to avoid accidents which could keep you immobile.
• A small rucksack with toothpaste,toothbrush soap, towel and a sleeping sack are usefull,
but not necessary.
1038
Survival at home
If you are trapped at home by an emergency remember that it probably will not take more
than 3 days the situation to normalise. Help from other regions will come to the distressed
area. In case of radioactive contamination, the region will be evacuated anyway. If you have
food and water for this time make yourself comfortable at home. Canned food may be eaten
without heating in case of electricity or gas failure.
Milk and milkshake: Have milk powder at home, so you can rehydrate it for your kids.
Together with cocoa powder and sugar it turns out to become a wonderful milkshake.
To rehydrate it without the help of a electrical blender, join sugar, cocoa and milk powder. Mix
it with a spoon. Add some droplets of water just enough to make a slurry. Mix well and add
the rest of the water. Premixing it before the whole water is added will avoid the mix to get
lumpy. You don’t need to heat it in case there is no electricity. It tastes good without heating.
Tomato cream: One cup part of tomato paste, or tomato powder, two cups of water and
half cup of milk powder. Make first a slurry of tomatopaste/powder and a slurry of the milk
powder. Remember: Have food for 3 days at home. You cannot have more, unless it gets very
bulky, turnover becomes difficult and you will for sure have hoarded the wrong things.
Cereals, rice, grains, legumes and pastas are good staple food with long shelf life, however
they need to be cooked. This requires electricity, gas or wooden fire, and time you don’t have
in an emergency. In case of radioactive fall out all food should be left behind and the region
must be evacuated as soon as possible.
The German preparedness recommendation [665]

The German government recommends a food supply for 15 days to counter emergency situa-
tion, providing 2000 Calories/day. www.bbk.bund.de
One person ration for 15 days

Cereals 4,5 Kg
Meat 2,0 Kg
Vegetables 2,0 Kg
Fruits 2,0 Kg
Fats 0,5 Kg
Milk 4,5 Kg
Water 21,0 Litres
The following distribution is being suggested:

Meat, fish and sausage 1 to 2 Kg
Canned ready-meals and soups 4 Kg
Canned fruits 3,5 Kg
Canned vegetables 5,5 Kg
Jam, honey 0,5 Kg
Evaporated milk 5 cans with 175 g
Milk powder 0,5 Kg
Cheese 0,25 Kg
Oil and fats 0,5 Kg
Bread, log shelf life, biscuits 5,5 Kg
Oat flakes, pasta 0,5 Kg
Sugar 0,5 Kg
Salt, spices 0,5 Kg
Koffee, cocoa, tea 0,5 Kg
Mineral Water 30 Litres
Fruit or vegetable juices 5 Litres
Vitamin supplements
Baby food according
Dairy products should total 3,5 Kg
A three days survival The above suggestions are not practical. Anyway, serious emergen-
cies comprise an evacuation of the region. The following suggested amount of foods are fit for
transportation and can be consumed on road.
Three days ration for 1 person:
• Three 875 g cans of your favourite ready to eat meals such as Chilli con Carne, Peas with
bacon or Ravioli in tomato sauce. Be sure they have a ring pull system, so you will not
be troubled with a missing tin opener.
• 3 litres mineral water
• 150 g milk powder

100 g tomato paste in tube.
Or change milk powder and tomato paste for one bar of chocolate or baby food if baby
on board.
This ration is fit for transportation and will keep you fed for three days. Milk powder and
tomato paste will be a welcome variation for kids.
1040
The William Bell and Cham Dallas report on nuclear threat [666]
Mass casualties from weapons of mass destruction have low probability scenarios, however they
are not completely unthinkable. Due to the combination of injury categories, death rates can
be exacerbated far beyond that expected for any one of the injuries taken alone. Victims
cannot move and could be consumed by fire or are simply left to die due to lack of resources.
Others fall victim to poor sanitation due to failure of the main power, water and waste facilities.
Lack of immediate (12 hours) or even intermediate (48 hours) health care often results in
the body going into shock or succumbing to infection, which would not have occurred had basic
health care been available.
Preparedness to treat thermal injuries Bell and colleagues expect that the total number
of affected population by thermal injuries due to the fireball of nuclear weapon detonation is
greater than that for blast injuries.
First aid: Kool with cold water. Cover of wounds with aluminium foil. Burn shock treatment
by drinking electrolyte, fruit juices. Be sure you have aluminium foil packages in your first aid
kit.
Most of the radioactive fallout is downwind from the explosion and up to 70 per cent is in
the larger particle portion, or ”early fallout” occurring within hours. One principle of note is
that the intensity of the radioactivity varies inversely with distance from the site of explosion.
With a steady wind, the pattern of accumulated dose of radioactivity assumes the shape of
nested cigar-shaped contours. Both early and delayed fallout result in the deposition of ra-
dioactive material in the environment, turning it necessary to evacuate the region.
The authors claim that looking to trees, the wind direction can be estimated. Driving up-
right to this direction avoids fallout.
Safe places occur 2 to 7 kilometres upright to wind direction, according to Bell and its col-
leagues.
Federal assistance The Department of Homeland Security has a number of ongoing initia-
tives such as the Radiological and Nuclear Countermeasures Program to enhance U.S. security
against unconventional attacks.
http://www.dhs.gov/xres/programs/
Should a real event occur, federal assistance can be provided by specialized teams, such as
the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education’s (ORISE) Radiation Emergency Assistance
Center (REAC/ TS). These teams can also provide pre-event nuclear and radiation training.
http://orise.orau.gov/nsem/exercises doe.htm
http://orise.orau.gov/reacts/pubs-resources.htm
Food terrorism and sabotage

Food terrorism ranges from financial sabotage to stock manipulation to jealousy from rival
companies. Even disgruntled workers can sometimes be moved into acts of food terrorism.
Russia: In 1997, more than 400 people, including 300 children under the age of 15, who
suffered food poisoning were hospitalised in Russia’s south territory of Krasnodar.
The victims suffered acute intestinal infection after consuming products of a milk factory. Al-
though the suspect was never caught, it was believed the products were poisoned by a factory
worker. The factory was temporarily closed and all its products were withdrawn from sale. As a
result, the company suffered huge financial losses. An official note, however, blamed two female
workers to be responsible for the poising as they were found positive for the bacteria in question.
Japan: The so-called Glico-Morinaga: A wealthy young executive of Glico, a leading candy
company, was kidnapped by two masked men.
It involved a series of assaults involving kidnapping, extortion and food poisoning targeted
at the dairy, meat and candy industries. Besides one billion yen, the kidnappers also demanded
100 kilograms of gold in nuggets.
A 17 month long series of extortion attempts aimed at Glico and other food companies followed
threatening to place poisoned foods in stores.
Germany: A series of food poisoning using herbicides were practised in Germany and even a
deadly poisoning of orange juice using thallium is reported.
Most food terrorists are never arrested and they appear to be highly sophisticated in what
they do.
A high sophisticated system of safety closures was the response of the food industry.
WHO Food Safety Response to Terrorist Threats

The contamination of food for terrorist purposes is a real and current threat. Sabotage on one
location could have global public health implications.
Outbreaks of both unintentional and deliberate foodborne diseases can be managed by the
same mechanisms. Sensible precautions, coupled with strong surveillance and response capac-
1042
ity, constitute the most efficient and effective way of countering all such emergencies, including
food terrorism[1134].
Establishment and strengthening existing communicable disease control systems to ensure that
surveillance, preparedness and response systems will both reduce foodborne illness and help to
address the threat of food terrorism. The Food Safety Department of the WHO published a
Guidance for Establishing and Strengthening Prevention and Response Systems to Terrorist
Threats to Food.
Prevention: Preventionis the first line of defence. The key to preventing food terrorism
is establishment and enhancement of existing food safety management programmes and imple-
mentation of reasonable security measures. Prevention is best achieved through a cooperative
effort between government and food industry.
Economic disruption: Deliberate contamination of food may have enormous economic im-
plications. Economic disruption may be a primary motive for a deliberate act, targeting a
product, a manufacturer, an industry or a country. Mass casualties are not required to achieve
widespread economic loss and disruption of trade.
Extortion threats directed at specific organisations, particularly those in the commercial sector,
are more common than is generally believed.
In an effort to damage Israel’s economy in 1978, citrus fruit exported to several European
countries was contaminated with mercury, which led to significant trade disruption.
An alleged contamination of Chilean grapes with cyanide in 1989 led to the recall of all Chilean
fruit from Canada and the USA, leading to a boycott by American consumers. The damage
amounted to several hundred million dollars, and more than 100 growers and shippers were
going bankrupt.
In 1998, a company in the USA recalled 14 million kilograms of frankfurters and luncheon
meat potentially contaminated with Listeria.
Disruption of trade: Consumer concern about consumption of meat potentially affected

by the agent responsible for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and linked to the new variant
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is still disrupting trade world-wide, with costs yet to be calculated
and a significant long-term impact on meat production in many countries. Retailer chains in
Germany wanting to avoid BSE scandals, changed all their meat products from beef to pork.
Sausages and even gyros products are today made of pork as a result of the BSE crisis.
The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the United Kingdom in 2000 is another exam-
ple of a major economic and trade dislocation.
In the same way a deliberate sabotage of food could have serious economic and trade repercus-
sions. Terrorism could therefore cause a significant damage to a country.
Motives: Terrorists may have a variety of motives, from revenge to political destabiliza-
tion They may target the civilian population to create panic and threaten civil order such
as happened in the USA mailing envelopes containing Bacillus anthracis showed that limited
dissemination of biological agents by simple means, causing few cases of illness, can cause con-
siderable disruption and public anxiety.
Chemical and biological agents and radionuclear materials that could be used in
food terrorism: Access to chemical and biological agents and radionuclear materials that
have been developed as weapons is limited, and their production and stockpiling are controlled
under specific treaties and agreements.
However, more readily available toxic chemicals, including pesticides, heavy metals and in-
dustrial chemicals as well as naturally occurring microbiological pathogens, could be used as
agents in terrorist threats to food.
Prevention, response and preparedness systems: The major strategies for countering
the threat of food sabotage are prevention, response and preparedness. The food industry has
the primary responsibility for assuring the safety of the food they produce. Already existent
systems of good agricultural practice, good manufacturing practice and ’hazard analysis and
critical control point’ (HACCP)can be used. Government agencies, working with the private
sector, have regulatory and advisory responsibility in promoting safe food measures by industry,
including good agricultural and good manufacturing practices [1135].
Surveillance, preparedness and response elements specific to food safety, should be included in
existing national emergency response plans to achieve balance between threats to food safety
and other threats.
Response: Response includes all measures to identify, contain and minimise the impact of
a food terrorist incident. Response to a terrorist attack must be speedy and effective. Plans
to respond to a food sabotage should incorporate laboratory capacity for analysing uncommon
agents in food and must be linked with food tracing and recall systems.
Globalization of food supply and food terrorism: An attack on one country’s food
supply cannot be seen in an isolated manner as global supply chains are involved. Close collab-
oration with United Nations specialised agencies such as WHO and FAO, and possibly other
international organisations are necessary.
1044
Prevention: The key to prevent food terrorism is enhancing existing food safety programmes
and implementing reasonable security measures on the basis of assessments of vulnerability
such as safeguarding chemical, biological or radionuclear agents.
A new threat for the food chain is the introduction of a chemical, biological or radionuclear
agent into food during production, processing, distribution or preparation of food. The re-
sponsibility to avoid this lies in the hands of the food industry. Many foods, such as fish,
meat, poultry, fruit and vegetables, are consumed with minimal processing. Others, such as
cereal products and cooking oils, undergo considerable processing before reaching the consumer.
Vulnerable to sabotage are the points where food changes hands. The potential for inten-
tional contamination of products is likely to increase as the point of contamination comes near
to production and distribution.
However, the potential for greater individual morbidity or mortality usually increases the closer
the agent is introduced to the point of consumption,such as the shelves of supermarkets. A
terrorist may, for instance, buy normal foods, protected by twist-off seals with the warranty
”only safe with the click when opened”, at home, the terrorist removes the caps, adds the
poison and seals it again under watersteam coming out of a water kettle of his oven, wearing
protective gloves to guard himself against the heat. After the head of the jar cools down, the
vapour collapses and vacuum is installed. The safe ”click” is back again. Now the terrorist
brings the bottle back to the supermarket, deposits it on its old place and buys another small
article and leaves the store
Other sophisticated safety locks of products can be bypassed in the same way. Ketchup bottles
are protected by a lock in the screw thread. Opening breaks this lock. However as the lock is
not visible to the consumer nobody cares about it.
Sources of raw materials and storage facilities and transport systems might have to be safe-
guarded. Access to all critical areas in production, processing, transport and storage could be
controlled and documented to minimise opportunities for contamination.
Employers could consider screening their staff to ensure that their qualifications and back-
ground are compatible with their work and responsibilities.
Sanitation, maintenance and inspection workers, who have access to critical areas, could also be
vetted from a security perspective. All staff could be encouraged to report suspicious behaviour
and activities to the appropriate authorities.
Agricultural production: Recent incidents of contamination of bovine feed with the causative
agent of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and contamination of poultry feed with dioxin il-
lustrate the national and international effects that inadvertent contamination has had on human
and animal health, consumer confidence and national economies.
In 1976 the industrial accident of Seveso with an airborn release of dioxin caused severe acne
symptoms which were similar to some intentional poisoning cases:
• 1997: Five employees of a textile institute were poisoned by an isomer of dioxin.
• 2004: Victor Yuscschenco as presidential candidate was poisoned with dioxin, suffering
from ulcers in stomach and intestines,problems with liver and spleen and disfiguring facial
cysts disfiguring him.
Animal feed:Many animal feed ingredients are important on the international market. Safety
assurance systems could be included in the control of animal feed and feed ingredients. Security
measures, such as control of access and tamper-resistant or tamper-evident systems should be
considered. Mechanisms for tracing and recall of animal feeds and animal feed ingredients must
be installed. The meat scandal due to tainted wheat of the weed-killer nitrofen in Germany in
2002 forced the government to introduce traceability in feed business.
Agricultural production areas are vulnerable to deliberate contamination with dioxin or pesti-
cides nitrofen alike. Attention should be paid to possible substitution of pesticides with more
toxic agents and contamination of irrigation water. Subsequent processing may include critical
control points for the detection and control of inadvertent or deliberate contamination.
As fruits and vegetables are consumed directly, with minimal processing, there are few critical
control points for detection or removal of contamination. The many incidents of inadvertent
contamination of meat, fish, poultry, and milk products with pathogenic microorganisms dur-
ing production are clear indications of the vulnerability of these commodities.
The point of introduction of raw materials into the processing stream is a critical control
point in most processing operations. Good agricultural practice (including use of HACCP-like
systems) is being implemented in many primary production areas.
Open-air drying: Open-air drying offers opportunities for deliberate contamination. Control-
ling access to and monitoring of agricultural production areas could be considered, particularly
in response to known or likely threats.
Processing: The possibility of deliberate contamination must be included in food safety pro-
grammes for food processing and manufacture. . The water used in food processing is an
important consideration, particularly for minimally processed foods such as fruits and vegeta-
bles, where washing is often the only processing step. Some tools may be helpfull to achieve
1046
processing safety, such as:
• Model Food Security Plans: FSI ( Food Safety and Inspection Services holds on its
homepage Model Security Plans for Egg Processing Facilities, Import Establishments,
Meat and Poultry Processing Facilities, Meat and Poultry Slaughter Facilities.
• FSI Industry Self-Assessment Checklist for Food Security
• FSI Directive 5420.1, Revision 1 (Food Security Verification Procedure)
The model food security plans are being issued in the form of guidance documents and are
voluntary. The USDA is strongly encouraging all establishments operating under federal and
state inspection programmes to develop plans to fit their particular needs. The USDA be-
lieves that security of food processing facilities can be enhanced through the implementation
of risk-management techniquesadapted to the needs of each business. Food security plans help
to identify preventive steps to avoid the risk of food tampering or other criminal act[1138].
Protection and inspection of facilities, including water sources for food industry use, are partic-
ularly important as they may be located in some distance from the food processing plant. Air
systems in processing plants could also be sources of inadvertent or deliberate contamination.
Storage and transport: Raw agricultural storage commodities range from the open air
to large elevators. Transport means range from human portage to large ocean-going vessels.
Fencing and locks, can be used to secure and prevent unauthorised access to storage facili-
ties and transport containers. On-site security personnel, intrusion detectors and silent alarms
linked to the authorities or remote-controlled television, tamper-resistant and tamper-evident
packagings should be considered. All returned products should be carefully examined before
reshipment.
Retail distribution: While tamper-resistant and tamper-evident containers have proved to

be extremely useful in reducing deliberate contamination, all such containers are vulnerable to
individuals who know how to penetrate the protective measures. Controlled access and greater
vigilance, including cameras and other types of surveillance, may be needed to increase security.
Bulk foods are particularly vulnerable to deliberate contamination. More secure containers
for bulk foods and use of pre-packaged materials could be considered to prevent deliberate
contamination. Wholesale and retail managers could use reliable suppliers. Buyers should be
suspicious of food being sold under unusual circumstances, e.g. at much lower prices than
normal or outside normal distribution channels.
Food Service: Food service operations have already been the target of criminal attacks.
Increased monitoring of salad bars and other communal food displays may be necessary to
deter deliberate contamination.
Washing and cooking food adequately before consumption can help to reduce inadvertent con-
tamination. Careful attention could be given to tamper-resistant or tamper-evident seals.
Reducing access to chemical and biological agents and radionuclear materials: Limiting access
to chemical and biological agents and radionuclear materials that could be used to contaminate
the food supply deliberately can contribute to counterterrorism. While some agents developed
as weapons by military forces could be used to contaminate food, relatively common chemicals
and pathogens may pose more significant threats to food. Highly toxic pesticides and industrial
chemicals, including chemical waste, are available in most areas of the world.
Pathogenic microbiological agents are present in clinical and other laboratories, including lab-
oratories involved in food control. University-level knowledge of chemistry or microbiology is
sometimes sufficient to make effective amounts of many agents. Radionuclear materials are
widely available for medical research.
Guidance already exists on the safety and security of laboratory materials. Governments and
commercial organisations should increase the security of stores of toxic drugs, pesticides, ra-
dionuclear materials and other chemicals and immediately report any theft or other unautho-
rised diversion to the proper authorities.
Greater effort should be made to control the availability of microbiological pathogens. It is

critical that clinical, research and food control laboratories be aware of this potential and take
appropriate security measures to minimise the risk that such materials are diverted.
Surveillance, Preparedness and Response

Surveillance: A number of Member States already maintain surveillance systems to detect
and investigate foodborne disease. Countries need to review their surveillance systems with
respect to their capacity to recognise emergencies rapidly. Countries with highly accurate but
slow systems should strengthen them to allow rapid detection of food terrorist incidents. In
some cases, deliberate contamination of food may reveal itself through disease clusters in ani-
mals.
Routine monitoring: routine monitoring for chemical, biological and radionuclear contami-
nants in food. Monitoring provides information on the baseline levels of contaminants in food
and can be a good source of information about unusual food contamination during the contin-
uum of farm-to-table.
1048
Preparedness: Preparedness should include:
• Surveillance systems to detect a public health incident
• Implementation of preparedness planning principles
• Testing preparedness plans for effectiveness
• Assessment of vulnerability to the specificthreat or incident.
Preparedness for response to food terrorist incidents need to be integrated within existing
general plans for emergency response, making maximum use of existing emergency response
resources. Suitable laboratory equipment and certification are also important requirements
for preparedness. In this regard, it may also e necessary to undertake specialised analytical
investigations. Protocols to ensure timely molecular typing and sub-typing of microbiological
isolates, prompt transport of isolates to reference laboratories and development of new molec-
ular techniques must all be addressed as part of preparedness planning.
Rapid testing for unusual agents, such as dioxin and anthrax, presupposes the existence of
specialised laboratories.
Response: Response to food terrorism depends on awareness of the possibility of a terror-

ist act and recognition of the incident as involving food. In many Member States, the overall
responsibility for response preparedness rests with an emergency management agency, and the
public health aspects are coordinated by the health department.
World Health Organisation and food terrorism

WHO is the only international health organisation with the primary mandate to protect public
health and to provide technical assistance and advice to Member States on all health matters
as an international response to food safety emergencies, including food terrorism.
International Health Regulations (IH R)

The IHR, agreed by the international community and adopted by WHO in 1969, represent the
regulatory framework for global public health security.
The capacities of the IHR include rapid detection and reporting of public health emergen-
cies, verification and preliminary control measures and response capacity, including notification
to WHO of events or risks of international significance.
Radionuclear incidents: The WHO Programme on Radiation and Environmental Health

coordinates responses to major nuclear and radiation emergencies, which would include delib-
erate contamination of food with radionuclear agents, with several international agencies.
Chemical incidents and emergencies: The WHO Programme on Chemical Safety serves
as the Secretariat for the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and provides
technical advice and assessments of the risks associated with exposure to certain chemicals, pro-
moting the prevention and treatment of poisoning and maintains the INTOX database which
is useful in cases of toxic exposure.
Biosecurity recordkeeping rules: [1139] [1177]

The Biosecurity Act places demands companies to keep records to allow inspectors to trace the
origins of a questionable product along the food chain. Specific records on their suppliers and
customers must be kept.
In case FDA has determined that a particular food product poses a serious health risk to
the public inspection of these records may become necessary.
Prior to such an inspection of the records kept by manufacturers, processors, packers, distrib-
utors, receivers, holders and importers of foods, FDA agents must send a written information
to the company to help them prepare in advance searches of their data by the inspectors. The
FDA Form 482c, ”Notice of Inspection - Request for Records” should be used for that.
The FDA’s authority to search does not apply to records excluded under section 414(d) of
the act. The exclusion applies to such records as recipes for food, financial data, pricing data,
personnel data, research data or sales data other than shipment records. Their right to demand
documents also excludes records from farms and restaurants.
The FDA released a separate guidance document relating to the implementation of its record-
keeping rule for the food industry.
Container Security Initiative [1178]

The Container Security Initiative (CSI) is a section of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection’s
(CBP) which develops antiterrorism programs after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001,
CSI proposes a security regime to ensure all containers that pose a potential risk for terrorism
are identified and inspected at foreign ports before they are placed on vessels destined for the
1050
United Sates. CBP has stationed teams of U.S. officers to target and prescreen containers and
to develop additional investigative leads related to the terrorist threat to cargo destined to the
United States.
The four core elements of CSI are:
• Identify high-risk containers. CBP uses automated targeting tools to identify contain-
ers that pose a potential risk for terrorism, based on advance information and strategic
intelligence.
• Prescreen and evaluate containers before they are shipped. Containers are screened as
early in the supply chain as possible, generally at the port of departure.
• Use technology to prescreen high-risk containers to ensure that screening can be done
rapidly without slowing down the movement of trade. This technology includes large-
scale X-ray and gamma ray machines and radiation detection devices.
• Use smarter, more secure containers, which will allow CBP officers at United States ports
of arrival to identify containers that have been tampered with during transit.
The World Customs Organization (WCO), the European Union (EU), and the G8 support
CSI expansion and have adopted resolutions implementing CSI security measures introduced
at ports throughout the world.
Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) [1179]

The Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) is a partnership between the
government and private sector. Forged after the terrorist events of September 11, its goal is to
improve supply chain and border security.
It is intended to encourage the implementation of security practices by companies through-

out their global supply chain. A creation of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the
C-TPAT program certifies known shippers through self-appraisals of security procedures, cou-
pled with customs audits and verifications.
Being approved C-TPAT shippers, the company will have their goods flow more quickly through
customs because of fewer inspections supply chain security initiatives.
Participate in the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) program is an

important step toward high secure logistic chain.
Participate in the Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) program is an

important step toward high secure logistic chain.
Securing the Global Supply Chain [1180]

Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) Strategic Plan
C-TPAT mission means improving security, at not only physical borders and ports of entry,
but globally in collaboration with the international trade community.
The multi-layered approach includes using information analysis and targeting, employing ad-
vanced inspection technologies, engaging the private sector to increase supply chain security
and expanding our borders by pre-screening shipments that pose a potential terrorist risk prior
to arrival in the United States.
CBP uses C-TPAT as a resource to designate certain companies as low risk and therefore
less likely to be examined. This designation is based on the company’s past Customs compli-
ance history, security profile and the validation of a sample international supply chain. C-TPAT
conducted domestic and foreign site visits to physically review companies’ security best prac-
tices and weaknesses along their international supply chains.
C-TPAT members developed and tested the Smart Container. C-TPAT has assisted CSI by
identifying and certifying companies that have improved security along their supply chain and
pose a lower risk and may rewarded with reduced number of examinations.
Future of the Strategic Plan [1180]

The goal of C-TPAT is that one day the strategy plan will become the domestic and interna-
tional supply chain security/cargo security platform all others are judged by. At the core of
this vision resides the concept of a green lane to speed secure low-risk shipments across United
States borders and through the ports of entry.
The green lane represents enhanced security along the supply chain, from a foreign manu-
facturer to the United States port of entry, along with a fully automated system requiring only
electronic documents from the trade community.
C-TPAT has succeded in a way that participant companies have made participation and/or
compliance with C-TPAT security standards by their business partners a requirement for doing
business.
1052
Chapter 28
Global Food Safety
Global food safety and global food trade
Introduction
Agriculture: The agriculture, the domestication of animals and the abandonment of nomadic
life made the formation of cities possible. Trade and interchange between one region and
another started. With rising productivity time was left to develope the arts, science and other
mankind activities. All great civilizations have rested on a food base, usually a single key staple
crop like rice, wheat, corn or meat.
Industralization: Depending on one single key staple foood such as rice, wheat, corn or meat
the control over food became more and more concentrated in organized trade busines. Foods had
to stored, transported and distribuited in a retailing system, this gave rise to industrialization.
Fears concerning safety matters: Industrialized food gave rise to fears about. Responding
to the rising control of food by corporations, the consumer became increasingly afraid of loosing
the control over his basic needs. Concerns about food safety resulted in sofisticated safety
systems.
Disenchantment of food: As meals are more and more no longer prepared and consumed
at home, their symbolic, religious and cultural importance are lost. They merely serve as a
mean of sustaining life and are a source of pleasure. Powerful corporations are taking over
world production of almost every food.
In order to coordinate the global trade the WTO was founded.
1053
1054
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was founded in 1945 with a
mandate to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living, to improve agricultural productiv-
ity, and to better the condition of rural populations.
Today, FAO is one of the largest specialized agencies in the United Nations system and the
lead agency for agriculture forestry, fisheries and rural development. An intergovernmental
organization, FAO has 187 member countries plus one member organization, the European
Community.
FAO works to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural development, improved
nutrition and the pursuit of food security, defined as the access of all people at all times to the
food they need for an active and healthy life.
Convention on Biological Diversity

Biological diversity is the variety of life on Earth, from the simplest bacterial gene to the vast,
complex rainforests of the Amazon. Human beings are an integral part of this diversity, as is
the food, medicine, clothing and other biological resources that sustain us.
Recognizing the importance of biodiversity to our daily lives and the pressure that human
activities are placing on our living world, governments adopted the Convention on Biologi-
cal Diversity in 1992 as an activity of the UN Environmental Program. From the start it was
understood that scientific knowledge and technological know-how would have a vital role to play.
The curse of overspecialization: Many developing countries rely on exports of a small

number of agricultural commodities for a large share of their export revenues. In many cases,
they even depend on one single commodity. As many as 43 developing countries rely on a single
agricultural commodity for more than 20 percent of their total export revenues and more than
half their revenue from agricultural exports.
Most of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa or Latin America and the Caribbean, and
depend on exports of coffee, bananas, cotton lint or cocoa beans.
FAO Anti-Hunger Program:

The program develops measures to increase the productivity and improve the livelihoods of
small-scale farmers and landless labourers. At the same time, it proposes immediate action to
give hungry people access to the food they need. The Anti-Hunger Program paper sets out
priorities and budgets for action in five areas:
• Improving agricultural productivity in poor rural communities
• Developing and conserving natural resources
• Expanding rural infrastructure and market access
• Strengthening capacity for knowledge generation and dissemination
• Ensuring access to food for the most needy.
The FAO paper also proposes costs to be divided equally between the governments of countries
where hunger is a problem and international donors. Ultimately the success of anti-hunger pro-
grams will depend on winning support and commitment at both the national and international
levels.
The International Alliance against Hunger: The International Alliance against Hunger
was created by FAO. It should unite national governments, the international community and
all civil society organizations to reduce the number of hungry by at least half by 2015.
A specific priority of the Organization is encouraging sustainable agriculture and rural devel-
opment, a long-term strategy for increasing food production and food security while conserving
and managing natural resources. The aim is to meet the needs of both present and future gen-
erations by promoting development that does not degrade the environment and is technically
appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.
Famines
Historical famines are always related to droughts and mismanagements. Centralizing control
in modern form of government, mismanagement and their increased dramatically. The British
mismanagement in its Empire, was responsible for the death of hungger of 10 to 30 million of
Indians in the 19.th century. They liberalized trade in grain, forcing the producers to sell on
an open market. Basic social and redistributive supports were destroyed. Grain traders and
elite groups made profits on the international liberal market, leaving the poor people starving.
Great famines
• 1845-50 The Great Irish Famine: Following the arrival of the potato blight in Ireland in
1845 and the consequent failure of the national potato crop (the staple food of the poor)
in that year and in 1846, an estimated one million people perished from starvation and
disease. In 1844, a new form of potato blight was identified in America. The American
1056
blight was first identified in France and the Isle of Wight in 1845. The summer of 1845
was mild but very wet in Britain causing best conditions for the spread of the fungus
’Phytophthora infestans’.
• 1873-4 Indian famine: due to droughts.
• 1876-9 Indian famine: due to drought.
• 1889-91 Famine: in India, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Ethiopia and Sudan due to droughts.
• 1896-1902 Droughts in tropics and northern China
• 1900 Great Irish famine
• 1919 Mislead informations: Following mislead informations a great funding for India was
initiated in Canada. The famine did not take place.
• 1943-4 Bengale famine
• 1993 Rwanda civil war: The food crisis suffered by refugees fleeing the Rwandan civil war
in 1993 has resulted in the partial or complete deforestation of parts of Virunga National
Park, prompting fears for the safety of endangered animal species living in the park.
Those endangered species already known to have been subjected to poaching in this park
include mountain gorillas, hippopotamuses and buffaloes. Meanwhile, Rwanda’s national
park at Akagera has also suffered badly since Tutsi revolutionaries took power in Rwanda.
Needing land to support the revolutionaries’ herd of 650,000 to 2 million Ankole cattle,
they occupied the park to use it as pasture land. The new government of Rwanda then
sent troops into the park to hunt down lions that attacked the cattle and slaughtered
large numbers of wild herd animals because these might transmit diseases to the cattle.
• 2003-2004 Famine in Central Africa and Horn of Africa.
Activities of the Third World

Third World governments trying to repaire the mismanagements of colonialism, founded the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in the 1976. in its meeting
in Nairobi. A system of price controls for sixteen major commodities, to balance the price
instability of an unregulated global market was introduced. According to this paper, domestic
investors ought to have more rights than foreign ones. The U.S. and Europe, used the next
UNCTAD meeting in 1980 to conter the liberalization of the Third World using the debt of the
Third World to restruct the Third World economies using structural adjustment programs.
The inclusion of agriculture in the Uruguay round of the GATT by the U.S. turned the UNC-
TAD irrelevant to protect the interests of the Third World in 1992.
To develop the principle of global solidarity of the UN, the FAO and the WTO, it is necessary
to hear international farmers movement like Via Campesina, and many other organizations of
small farmers, FIAN, the international human rights organisation for the right to food, the
global network of small peasants and landless people’s movements. Jose Bové has precious
knowledge about sustainability which should be used in order to get a balance between new
agrarian techniques and old inherited sustainable knowledge.
UN, FAO and WTO have the obligation to make pressure on governments of countries making
wealth with monocropping to sustain their small peasants. Brazil, on its way to become world
exporter number one of soy beans is one example where the poor rural population should profit
from such national gain. There are a lot of people which can say how the ”gente sem terra ”
could be helped. These activities must be local, driven by the inhabitants of the region and
will depend on local specific solutions.
Table 28.1: Gross national product/inhabitant in US$
Wealthy nations Poor nations

2000 1999 2000 1999
Luxenburg 42.060 44.640 Chad 200 200
Switzerland 38.140 38.350 Tadschikistan 180 280
Japan 35.620 32.230 Niger 180 190
Norway 34.530 32.880 Guinea-Bissau 180 160
USA 34.100 30.600 Eritrea 170 200
Denmark 32.280 32.030 Malawi 170 190
Iceland 30.390 29.280 Sierra Leone 130 130
Sweden 27.140 26.750 Burundi 110 120
Austria 25.220 25.970 Zaire 100 100
Finland 25.130 24.730 Ethiopia 100 100
Food sovereignty
Food Sovereignty is a guiding principle adopted by the NGO Via Campesina demanding the
right of the communities to decide the food policies that are ecologically, socially, politically
and economically appropriate for them.
Land: People need equitable and just access to land. Great monocropping agriculture should
be controlled in order not to deprive poor peasants of their land. This is happening in Brazil
where rural poverty is extreme.
1058
Social costs: They need subsidies for education, health care, agricultural extension and sup-
port services.
Seeds: It should be guaranteed that local seeds of ancient agricultural habits should be pre-
served and be given in sufficient amount to small peasants.
Prices: Stable pricing and support mechanisms are necessary to ensure that farmers and con-
sumers are in control of the food system, not corporations. As globalization takes over in
agrarian business, a central organization like the WTO, must protect small regions from the
influence of dumping prices.
Such as happened in Columbia where a global milk giant switched from domestic supplies
of fresh milk to imported milk powder from overproduction in Argentina which has generated
misery for small and medium dairy farmers and for peasants. The same corporation benefits
from the depressed market in coffee prices, which has been wreaking havoc in the coffee growing
areas.
Food sovereigntyr fom Via Campesina includes fair trade. Fair trade must be granted a new
framework, under the responsibility of the United Nations ensuring:
• Prioritizes local and regional production before export,
• Allows the Countries/Unions to protect themselves from too low priced imports,
• Permits public aids to farmers, provided these are not intended directly or indirectly to
export at low prices,
• Guarantees stable agricultural prices at an international level through international agree-

ments of supply management.
One united front against hunger: Via Campesina wants WTO out of agriculture forgetting
that it could become a valuable aid to support local agriculture by sponsoring sustainable small
farms with their surplus.
The rapidly increasing world population demands intensive agriculture, but also demands sus-
tainability of regions where conventional agriculture is not practicable. Only surplus can open
the door to funds for help. For the future we have only one united front against hunger: The
union of all technological, ecological and sociological know-how to come to global solutions
where all interests are observed.
To start with it, all meetings of all organizations should be attended by representatives of the
important governments and NGOs.
The AoA (Agreement on Agriculture) demands that countries open up their economies to
agricultural products, whose flood of heavily subsidized imports wipes out rural economies.
Mexico has experienced precisely this dynamic as a result of the agriculture provisions in the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
The opening of the Mexican market to US corn led to a massive influx of subsidized, and
hence cheaper, US corn. Corn prices are currently US$ 1.74 a bushel and the latest figures
of the US department of agriculture show production costs at about US$2.66 a bushel, the
difference being attributable to direct and indirect subsidy. What Mexico is experiencing is
termed dumping when the international price is lower than the domestic cost of production.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD:) The OECD has
been active in the development of rules for international investment, capital movements, and
trade in services. OECD member governments have established ”ground rules” for themselves
and for multinational enterprises based on their economies by means of legal instruments to
which Members must adhere.
Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS: The TRIPS Council

made WTO member governments decide on intellectual property protection and public health
agreeing on legal changes that will make it easier for poorer countries to import cheaper generics
made under compulsory licensing if they are unable to manufacture the medicines themselves.
WTO and the conference in Cancun
The Fifth WTO Ministerial Conference was held in Cancun, Mexico from 10 to 14 September
2003. The main task was to take stock of progress in negotiations and other work under the
Doha Development Agenda.
In the end the ministers could not summon the necessary flexibility and political will to solve
the pending problems. Failing of the conference was due to the emergence of the G20 coalition,
which demanded curbs on farm subsidies in exchange for a broader agreement on free trade
rules.
The future of WTO
Agricultural production worldwide is an economically, geographically and culturally diverse

affair. To protect this diversity, a one-size fits all policy of international trade cannot work.
Even when food production is not so efficient as heavy monoculture cropping it generates work
avoiding unemployment in local community and secures their subsistence.
The solution is to let WTO manage huge agriculture, but at the same time this organiza-
tion must support local small peasants practicing sustainable agriculture in the areas where
monocropping is not successful. This would support diversity of cropping.
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North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
NAFTA was negotiated between Canada, the United States and Mexico and came into effect on
January 1, 1994. It was an expansion of the idea of FTA (Canada-US Free Trade Agreement)
of 1989.
Some negative effects of global trade agreements will always be used by some corporations
to protect their activities or to consolidate their monopolistic worldwide enterprises. Regional
agreements and worldwide organizations like the WTO need time to develop the spirit of com-
munity to avoid such pitfalls. However, one should not forget the wonderful possibility to
regulate profits of Green Revolution and monocropping, protecting the diversification of agri-
culture by sponsoring small peasants.
Misuses of NAFTA:
Gasoline additive MTB and MMT: California decided to phase out MTBE from gasoline
because of its threat to groundwater. Taking advantage of NAFTA provisions Methanex Cor-
poration sued the US government in September 2000 to lift the ban or to pay nearly US$ 1
billion in compensation.
In 1998, Canada was forced to settle a NAFTA complaint filed by Virginia-based Ethyl Corpo-
ration over Canada’s ban on MMT,that may cause brain damage. Canada was forced to end
its ban on MMT and had to paid US $13 million to Ethyl, and declared publicly that MMT is
safe, despite the known risks.
PCBs waste import/export: In 2002 Canada had to pay US $ 50 million to S.D. Myers,
an Ohio-based toxic waste disposal company, which claims it was denied the right to import
hazardous PCBs from Canada for incineration in the United States.
US Metalclad corporation hazardous waste landfill: Mexico had to pay in 2002 US $
19 million to Metalclad in response to damages caused by environmental officials in the state
of San Luis Potosi blocking a planned hazardous waste landfill that threatened to pollute the
region’s water supply.
The NAFTA is to be claimed for this. The culprit resides in the philosophy of these cor-
porations which do not place ethics higher than their economic interests.
Standards Weakened: To increase international food trade, the WTO pressures countries to
lower their strong food safety standards to comply with weaker international standards. The
WTO ordered Europe to lift its ban on American beef treated with growth hormones which
are believed to cause breast cancer.
Under WTO rules, however, food safety officials must prove conclusively that a food product
is risky before they take action to protect the public. They can no longer take precautionary
measures based on preliminary scientific evidence to prevent an emerging risk.
Growth hormones and other chemicals in beef may be the link between male fer-
tility and high beef consumption during pregnancy [1141]
Shanna H. Swan and colleagues looked at possible long-term risks from anabolic steroids and
other xenobiotics in beef. They examined mens’ semen quality in relation to their mother’s
self-reported beef consumption during pregnancy.
The authors in a study published in March 2007, found that sperm concentration was in-
versely related to mothers’ beef meals per week . In sons of ”high beef consumers” (>7 beef
meals/week), sperm concentration was 24.3% lower than in men whose mothers ate less beef.
A history of previous subfertility was also more frequent among sons of ”high beef consumers”.
Sperm concentration was not significantly related to mother’s consumption of other meat (pork,
veal or lamb), fish, chicken, soy or vegetables, or to the man’s consumption of any meat.
The authors conclude that maternal beef consumption, and possibly xenobiotics in beef, may
alter a man’s testicular development in utero and adversely affect his reproductive capacity.
According to the authors, there were several possible explanations for the findings, includ-
ing pesticides and other contaminants in cattle feed and lifestyle factors during pregnancy.
Therefore they call to be cautious in the interpretation of the data because other factors like
pesticides and other contaminants in cattle feed and lifestyle factors during pregnancy could
influence results.
The authors say that in the period of 1949 and 1983 numerous chemical additives were used in
meat in the US, and it would have been difficult for women to avoid hormone residues. Dr. Swan
call to repeat the study in men born in Europe after 1988 (after the hormone ban in Europe)
to determine if prenatal exposure to anabolic steroids is responsible for a change in sperm count.
Anabolic steroids as growth promoters are still used in cattle-breeding in the USA. Six hor-
mones are commonly used in cattle. The use of diethylstilberstrol was banned in 1979 and in
1988 all growth promoters in cattle were banned in the EU.
Comment of the American Meat Institute (AMI): AMI strongly criticises the methodol-
ogy and conclusions, saying that the association of the observed effect with chemical compounds
in meat is purely speculative, noting that the study did not include any laboratory analysis
of compounds suggested to be contained in beef - nor of the actual beef reportedly consumed
decades ago. AMI questions that mother can tell what they have eaten 30 to 40 years back.
[1142]
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Mercosur and the South American Free Trade Area (SAFTA)

Mercosur has its origins in the political accord in 1985 which brought together Brazil and
Argentina united their merkets in 1985 under MERCOSUR. In 1991 Paraguay and Uruguay
joined the market forming the Common Market of the South with a combined population of
over 200 million becoming a Custom Union in January 1995.
There are now moves towards links between Mercosur and the European Union and between
Mercosur and other South American countries for a South American Free Trade Area (SAFTA).
The American Free Trade Area (AFTA)

According to the Brazilian Embassy in Washington, Brazil’s view is that AFTA, launched by
34 American countries at the Miami Summit in December 1994, will result from the gradual
convergence of all the integrationist processes in the hemisphere: Mercosur, the Andean Pact,
the Group of Three, the Central American Common Market, CARICOM and NAFTA.
This focus on building blocks, is the only way in our view to respect the proper pace of inte-
grationist plans which have already been successfully put into practice on the continent
textbfConclusion related to trade agreements: The formation of economic groups such as the
European Union, the Mercosur, the NAFTA and all the others have a great importance for
a better understanding between the countries. Europe had been shaken by so many wars. It
now comes together in deep friendship. Participating in a community brings the countries to
abandon their aggression toward their neighbour and opens the way to a better understanding
of FAO of the UN and the WTO. The way toward a global fair trade must go through these
regional groups which can present the problems and interests of their region in global decisions
levels such as the WTO and FAO.
It should be the job of a future WTO together with the FAO through its Agrarian Agree-
ments to determine the regions where heavy monocropping can be done and to protect the
diversified agriculture of smaller units.
Agriculture and plant protection

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is an international treaty whose pur-
pose is to secure a common and effective action to prevent the spread and introduction of pests
of plants and plant products, and to promote appropriate measures for their control.
The Convention extends to the protection of natural flora and plant products. It also in-
cludes both direct and indirect damage by pests, thus including weeds. The provisions extend
to cover conveyances, containers, storage places, soil and other objects or material capable of
harbouring plant pests.
Monocultures
Monocultures require increases in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, but the efficiency of ap-
plied inputs is decreasing and crop yields in most key crops are leveling off. According to a
theory, the decline of yields in some regions is caused by the maximum yield potential of cur-
rent varieties. Genetic engineering should redesign seeds. According to another theory, which
is backed by the agroecologists, unsustainable practices are eroding the productive base of agri-
culture. Excessive monoculture farming and agrochemicals inputs, pesticides and fertilizers are
the main cause of such a decline
Agroecology
Agroecology sees two groups of effects of excessive monocropping:
• Diseases of the ecotope: This includes erosion, loss of soil fertility, depletion of nutrient re-
serves, salinization and alkalinization, pollution of water systems, loss of fertile croplands
to urban development.
• Diseases of the biocoenosis: which include loss of crop, wild plant, and animal genetic
resources, elimination of natural enemies, pest resurgence and genetic resistance to pes-
ticides, high cost of inputs, chemical contamination, and destruction of natural control
mechanisms.
According to Agroecology, the first wave of environmental problems is deeply related to mono-
cultures, being an eological, a social and political-economic process.
The emerging biotechnology agriculture with products based on environmentally friendly agro-
chemicals and more profit for the farmer promises an improved agriculture. New developed
plants resistant to pests and adverser environmental conditions have been successful.
The present orientation and control by multinational corporations, further industrialization

of agriculture and the intrusion of private interests into public interest sector make it urgently
necessary global agrarian structure to be influenced by the WTO through its Agreement on
Agriculture as a steering advice, as well as the activities of the FAO and the Convention on
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Biological Diversity of the UN.
Old alternative sources of nutrients such as manures, sewage sludge and other organic wastes,
and legumes in cropping sequences to maintain soil fertility must be used. Rotation benefits are
due to biologically fixed nitrogen and from the interruption of weed, disease and insect cycles.
Advantages of Agroecology: Agroecology is founded on local farming knowledge and tech-

niques adjusted to different local conditions, differing from the one solution for the whole world
from plants of the Green Revolution. It restores degradaded agricultural lands, offering an
environmentally sound, and affordable way, for smallholders.
Principles of Agroecology: Agroecology is a scientific discipline that defines, classifies,

and studies agricultural systems from an ecological and socioeconomic perspective, integrat-
ing indigenous knowledge with modern technical knowledge. In contrast to the conventional
agronomic approach that focuses on the spread of packaged uniform technologies, agroecology
emphasizes vital principles such as biodiversity, recycling of nutrients, synergy and interaction
among crops, animals, soil, etc., and regeneration and conservation of resources.
Integrated Production Systems

Diversified farms in the Andenian Region use 0.5 ha model farms, which consist of a spatial and
temporal rotational sequence of forage and row crops, vegetables, forest and fruit trees, and
animals. Most vegetables are grown in heavily composted raised beds located in the garden
section. The rest of the 200-square meter area surrounding the house is used as an orchard,
and for animals.
Vegetables, cereals, legumes and forage plants are produced in a six-year rotational system
within a small area adjacent to the garden, dividing the land into as many small fields of fairly
equal productive capacity as there are years in the rotation.
Cuba agroecological example

In 1990 the trade relations of Cuba with the socialist bloc collapsed. Pesticide imports dropped
by more than 60 percent. The Cuban government was forced to introduce an IPM program
which focused on biological control (Rosset and Benjamin, 1994). Key components of their
strategy are the Centers for the Production of Entomophagae and Entomopathogens (CREEs),
where the centralised, ”artesanal” production of biocontrol agents takes place. By the end of
1992, 218 CREEs had been built throughout Cuba and were providing services to the State,
cooperatives, and individual farmers.
CREEs produce a number of entomopathogens (Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauvaria bassiana,

Metarhizium anisoplae, and Verticillium lecanaii), as well as one or more species of Tri-
chogramma wasps. Their production depends on what crops are being grown in the area.
Phillipines: Similar results were obtained in integrated rice-based systems with livestock,
aquaculture, tree and vegetable components have proven to be productive, efficient and prof-
itable.
Africa: In Senegal, for example, the Senegal Regenerative Agriculture Center is working to
promote sustainable agriculture based on soil regeneration for small-scale farmers who have suf-
fered from soil degradation. The cropping system is a millet-groundnut rotation, and legumes
and intercropped with cereals. Compost is also being used to restore soil fertility. Cows, goats,
and sheep are usually kept by each household, and their manure is collected for the compost
mixture.
Intelligent Pest Management (IPM Systems)

As long as the simplified structure of monocultures is maintained, pest problems will continue
because the process of ecological simplification that has been set in motion. Some IPM projects
withdrawing pesticides allowed beneficial fauna to recover.
Cases of insecticide-induced ecological disruption Peru: In the mid 1950s the Canete
Valley, organochlorinated insecticides were used with declining results in cotton fiels. Pest re-
sistence developed and new pest settled in the fields. Banning of synthetic organic pesticide, the
reintroduction of beneficial insects, crop diversification schemes, the planting of early maturing
varieties and the destruction of cotton crop residue was able to solve the problem.(Hansen, 1987)
Costa Rica: In 1954 United Fruit Company banana plantations were treated dieldrin granules
against banana weevil and rust thrips, killing natural enemies of banana stalk borer, Castiomera
humbolti. In 1958 outbreak of six Lepidptera pests, Ceramidia moth, owleye and the West In-
dian bag worm became a great problem despite increasing use of pesticides. Due to the oil crisis
in 1973 the use of pesticides was stopped. Stopping the use of pesticides sprays the natural
enemies of pests to take over reducing pests to neglectic number of cases.(Stephens, 1984).
Nicaragua: In 1971, a programme started by UN-FAO to solve the problem of boll weevil
and boll worm in cotton farms. Planting the cotton at seasons differing from the seasons where
natural enimeis were most abundant together with ”trap cropping” and killing the trapped
pests with selective insecticides solved the problems in Nicaragua.(Swezey et al., 1986).
Brazil: In 1974, Brazil adopted an IPM programme that relied primarily on monitoring pest
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damage and application of specific insecticides, reducing pesticides by 80-90%. In the 1980s
the Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus against the velvetbean caterpillar was introduced in soybean
farms using macerated sick larvae, containing the virus.(Campanhola et al., 1995).
Colombia: An IPM programme in the Cauca Valley implemented in 1985 in a tomato area
microbial insecticide derived from Bacillus thuringiensis combined with the release of natu-
ral enemies such as Trichogramma spp., and the encouragement of natural populations of the
parasite Apanteles spp., were particularly in order to control Scrobipalpula absoluta, a leaf
miner/fruit borer (Belloti et al., 1990).
Chile: In 1976, several aphidophagous insects and parasitoids were introduced in an IPM
program against two aphid species (Sitobium avenae and Metopolophium dirhodum) and the
Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus they transmit menacing wheat crops. Predators were introduced
from South Africa, Canada and Israel, and parasitoids of the families Aphidiidae and Aphe-
linidae rom Europe, California, Israel and Iran were introduced in the fields of wheat in 1975.
This controlled the aphid population. (Zuga, 1986).
Precision Farming Project

An important technical development in conventional agriculture is precision farming. Precision
farming is based on the combination of satellite-supported navigation systems (e.g. GPS -
Global Positioning System), geographical information systems (GIS), computerised control of
agricultural machinery, and corresponding software for farm management.
Precision farming is expected to result particularly in a reduction in inputs of production

factors (fertiliser, pesticides/plant protection agents).
A joint project promoted by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research ini-
tiated in 2002 Based on the present work, the TA project ”Potential of modern agricultural
technology and production methods” will probably cover the following key points:
• Status of and prospects for technological development and practical implementation
• Evaluation of diffusion processes.
• economic and agri- structural impact.
• Development of production inputs and production intensity, together with ecological im-
pacts.
• Significance for sustainable agriculture.
• Conclusions for research policy.

Traditional farming
Despite the increasing industrialization of agriculture, the great majority of the farmers in the
developing world are peasants, or small produce
Many of these agroecosystems are small-scale, geographically discontinuous, and located on

a multitude of slopes, aspects, microclimates, elevational zones, and soil types. They also are
surrounded by many different vegetation associations.
Many of the systems are surrounded by physical barriers (e.g. forests, rivers, mountains)
and therefore are relatively isolated from other areas where the same crops are grown in large
scale. This makes them so important and it is why they must be included in the new global
information systems like Precision Farming. In many areas, traditional farmers have developed
and/or inherited complex farming systems, adapted to the local conditions.
Some examples of these traditional farming methodes are:

Mixtures of cabbage and tomato reduce colonization by the diamond-back moth, while mix-
tures of maize, beans, and squash have the same effect on chrysomelid beetles.
The odors of some plants can also disrupt the searching behavior of pests. Grass borders
repel leafhoppers from beans and the chemical stimuli from onions prevent carrot fly from
finding carrots (Altieri, 1994).
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Chapter 29
Future of Global Nutrition
Global corporations
According to Peter Dicken ( University of Manchester, UK), most writers on globalization

project a highly simplistic conceptualization of the firm that spans the ideological spectrum:
from the hyper-globalist of the populist business literature to the anti-globalization movements:
The view of business: One of the center claims of hyper-globalists in business is that in-
ternational firms are inexorably and inevitably abandoning their ties to their country of origin
and converge towards a universal global organizational form[1208].
Kenichi Ohmaeś exhortation (1990:94) to business manager is usually invoked as the exem-
plar of such a position:
”Country of origin does not matter. Location of headquarters does not matter. The products
for which you are responsible and the company you serve have become denationalised.” Some
of these ideas were existent before Ohmae, such as the US Under-Secretary of State, George
Ball in 1967 coined the liable ” Cosmocorp”, describing what he saw as the emerging global
corporation. Barned and Muller (1974) gave examples of US corporate executives to transform
their forms to placeless global corporations.
Other quite bizarre ideas are that technological and regulatory developments in the world
economy have created a ”global surface”on which a dominant organizational form will develop
and inexorably wipe out less efficient competitors who are no longer protected by national or
local barriers. Such an organization is ”placeless” and ”boundry-less”.
This claims that the placeless corporation is becoming the norm amongst international firms
received a substantial boost in the 1990s with the persistence of the Japanese financial crisis
and the unexpected East Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998.
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The US corporation became model of the global corporation. The US-style corporation was
projected as being the most effective way of maximizing shareholder value. All other models
of business organization were not less efficient but would be vanquished.
The collapse of Enron, WorldCom and other high profile US companies in 2002 seriously threw
into doubt both the efficiency and incorruptibility of the US corporate model.
According to global executives and managers, the suggestion that multinationals were ”na-
tional companies with units abroad” was roundly rejected as old fashioned and not compatible
with the demands of the contemporary global economy. Most of them considered their cor-
porations to be in a transitional state between the multinational corporation and the global
corporation.
The view of the anti-globalizers: These groups like to compare TNCs ( transnational
corporations) with nation-states in order to demonstrate that TNCs have become more power-
ful than states. The Institute for Policy Studies in the US published Anderson and Cavanagh
(2000:3) stating:
Of the 100 large economics in the world, 51 are corporations and only 49 are countries (based
on a comparison of corporate sales and country GPDs).
General Motors is now bigger than Denmark, DaimlerChrysleri is bigger than Poland. Royal
Dutch/Shell is bigger than Pakistan. The 1999 sales of each of the top five corporation (General
Motors, Wal-Mart, Exxon Mobil, Ford Motor and DaimlerChrysler are bigger than the GDPs
of 182 countries).
These figures do not tell us much about the gobalness of corporations or even the extent
to which corporations are more or less oriented to domestic or foreign operations.
Analyzing all data Peter Dicken comes to the conclusion that contrary to many sayings, place
and geography still matter fundamentally in the way in which firms are produced and in how
they behave. The basic point of Dickens is that firms - including TNCs are produced through
an intricate process of embedding in which the cognitive, cultural, social, political and economic
characteristics of the national home base play a dominant part.
The view of Peter Dickens: Despite the unquestioned geographical transformations of the
world economy, driven at least in part by the expansionary activities of transnational corpora-
tions, the convergence to a single ”placeless” type did not take place yet. This is because, over
time, and under specific circumstances, societies have tended to develop distinctive ways of
organizing their economies, even within the broad, apparently unitary, ideology of capitalism
Not all capitalisms are the same and come in many different varieties. Forms of economic
coordination and governance cannot easily be transferred from one society to another for they
are embedded in social systems of production distinctive to their particular society.
Economic performance is shaped by the entire social system of production in which firms are
embedded and not simply by specific principles of management styles and work practices.
Dickens says that the differences of firms from different geographical context have enormous
implications for economic development policy at national, regional and local levels. He calls for
meticulous comparative international analysis of firm-place relationship. Transnational corpo-
rations are not placeless; ”global” corporations are, indeed, a myth.
Instruments of economic regulation

The three most important instruments of economic power are the World Trade Organization
(WTO), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
World Trade Organization ( WTO )

Established in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO), located in Geneva, Zwitzerland,
enforces a dozen separate trade agreements and serves as a forum for ongoing talks to develop
new trade agreements. The WTO is the product of the Uruguay Round (1986-1994) of negoti-
ations. Today, the WTO has 146 members.
It includes specific commitments by WTO member governments to improve market access and
reduce trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture. These commitments are being implemented
over a six year period (10 years for developing countries) that began in 1995. Participants have
agreed to initiate negotiations for continuing the reform process one year before the end of the
implementation period, i.e. by the end of 1999.
These talks have now been incorporated into the broader negotiating agenda set at the 2001
Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar Environmentally speaking, the most important new top-
ics under negotiation in the WTO are investment and services. Its Budget for 2003 was 154
million Swiss francs.
Functions of WTO
• Administering WTO trade agreements
• Forum for trade negotiations
• Handling trade disputes

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• Monitoring national trade policies
• Technical assistance and training for developing countries
• Cooperation with other international organizations
Agreements and other organizations resulting from WTO

WTO’s Agriculture Agreement
The WTO’s Agriculture Agreement wants to promote fairer competition, improving market
access and reducing trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture. These commitments are being
implemented over a six year period (10 years for developing countries) that began in 1995.
Participating governments have agreed to initiate negotiations for continuing the reform process
one year before the end of the implementation period, i.e. by the end of 1999. These talks have
now been incorporated into the broader negotiating agenda set at the 2001.
Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar

The Doha Declaration: The declaration reconfirms the long-term objective to establish a
fair and market-oriented trading system through a program of fundamental reform. The pro-
gram encompasses strengthened rules, and specific commitments on government support and
protection for agriculture. The purpose is to correct and prevent restrictions and distortions in
world agricultural markets.
Without prejudging the outcome, member governments commit themselves to comprehensive

negotiations aimed at market access and export subsidies that distort trade. The declaration
makes special and differential treatment for developing countries integral throughout the nego-
tiations, and should enable developing countries meet their needs, in particular in food security
and rural development.
The non-trade concerns, such as environmental protection, food security and rural develop-
ment will be considered in the Agriculture Agreement.
The Peace Clause of the Uruguay Round[1210]

The Peace Clause was introduced at the eleventh hour during the Uruguay Round as a ”take-
it-or-leave-it” condition for signing a deal. After protecting illegal subsidies for nine years, that
Peace Clause elapsed in 2003. While the details of a new Peace Clause are not known it is
almost certain that it would block developing countries from taking a raft of new cases to the
WTO.
The US said last week that it needs the Peace Clause to be renewed to protect itself from
litigation while it is in the process of reducing its trade-distorting subsidies. But Charveriat
said that members of the WTO should make a stand.
The US and EU currently pay at least $13bn worth of illegal subsidies for agriculture. If
the Peace Clause were reintroduced, no poor country would be able to take them to the WTO
court for this, for possibly up to 10 years.
Suspension of the Doha negotiations
[1291] The General Council, at its meeting on 27-28 July 2006, supported a recommendation
by Director-General Pascal Lamy to suspend the Doha negotiations. The Task Force on Aid
for Trade submitted its report and recommendations aimed at helping developing countries
increase exports of goods and services.
According to FAO, the Doha Round of international trade negotiations collapsed mainly because
of a fight for advantage in agricultural markets by large and powerful countries, corporations
and lobbies. [1292]
The approach adopted in the talks was flawed from the outset, FAO said. It failed to take
sufficient account of the interests of developing countries and focussed on ”free trade, rather
than fair trade.” China, a hope to resumption of Doha talks
Transatlantic free trade zone
The emerging financial markets in China and India force western countries to look after coun-
terweights. A free trade zone between Europe, USA and Canada would bring together financial
markets with similar social structures. In case of a total failure of the WTO, Germany’s Chan-
cellor Angela Merkel will try to relaunch a 1998 plan for a transatlantic free trade zone when
it takes up the rotating EU presidency in January 2007.
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures ( SPS )
Sanitary and phytosanitary of WTO wants to ensure that every consumers are being supplied
with food that is safe to eat, and at the same time, to ensure that strict health and safety
regulations are not being used as an excuse for protecting domestic producers. An agreement
on how governments can apply food safety and animal and plant health measures (sanitary and
phytosanitary or SPS measures) sets out the basic rules in the WTO.
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Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF)
The Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF) is a global program in capacity build-
ing and technical assistance to developing countries in trade and standards. The Facility builds
upon a Head of Agency communiquissued by the World Bank, the World Animal Health Orga-
nization (OIE), World Trade Organization (WTO), World Health Organization (WHO), and
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) at the Doha Ministerial of the WTO in 2001. Fund-
ing is initially provided through the World Bank’s Development Grant Facility, along with
support from the Doha Development Trust Fund of the WTO.
The activities of STDF relate specifically to food safety, plant, and animal health, and to
the standards developed by the FAO/WHO Joint Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex),
the FAO International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), and the OIE.
WTO is important and can turn out to be a good partner of the United Nations as soon
initial errors are amended. Learning from errors of the past, global control can be improved
using feedback from NGOs ( Non-Governmental Organizations.)
WTO: The World Trade Organization

The WTO is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between
nation. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct
their business.
It is located in Geneva, Switzerland. It had been preceded by GATT (General Agreement

on Tariffs and Trade) since 1948 and was established on 1 January 1995 by the Uruguay Round
negotiations (1986-94). A second WTO ministerial meeting was held in Geneva in May 1998.
146 countries are members of the WTO.
GATT had mainly dealt with trade in goods. WTO and its agreements now cover trade
in services, and in traded inventions, creations and designs (intellectual property) TRIPS.
Functions of the WTO
The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation, and further the
objectives, of
1. TRIPS
2. Multilateral Trade Agreements
3. Plurilateral Trade Agreements

The WTO provides the forum for negotiations among its Members concerning their multilateral
trade relations in matters dealt with under the agreements in the Annexes to this Agreement.
The WTO administers the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM). The WTO cooperates
with the International Monetary Fund and with the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development.
Administering WTO trade agreement

The World Trade Organization (WTO) deals with the rules of trade between nations at a global
or near-global level. These agreements are often called the WTO’s trade rules. These rules are
actually agreements that governments negotiated. These agreements and annexes deal with
the following specific sectors or issues:
For goods (under GATT)

• Agriculture
• Health regulations for farm products (SPS)
• Textiles and clothing
• Product standards (TBT)

• Investment measures
• Anti-dumping measures
• Customs valuation methods
• Preshipment inspection
• Rules of origin
• Import licensing
• Subsidies and counter-measures
• Safeguards
For services (the GATS annexes)
• Movement of natural persons
• Air transport
• Financial services
• Shipping
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• Telecommunications
Forum for trade negotiations: The WTO agreements are negotiated and signed by the
bulk of the world’s trading nations. These documents provide the legal ground-rules for inter-
national commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade
policies within agreed limits.
Handling trade disputes: The most harmonious way to settle these differences is through
some neutral procedure based on an agreed legal foundation. That is the purpose behind the
dispute settlement process written into the WTO agreements.
The Doha Development Agenda: The bulk of the WTO’s current work comes from the
1986-94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is currently the host to new negotiations,
under the ”Doha Development Agenda” launched in 2001.
The Ministerial Conference of WTO

The Ministerial Conference is composed of representatives of all the Members. The Ministerial
Conference carries out the functions of the WTO and take actions necessary to this effect.
The Ministerial Conference has the authority to take decisions on all matters under any of the
Multilateral Trade Agreements, if so requested by a Member. It meets every two years. The
General Council is composed of representatives of all the Members. It conducts the functions of
the Ministerial Conference during the intervals between meetings of the Ministerial Conference.
Decision-Making: The WTO continues decision-making followed the agreements of GATT

1947. At meetings of the Ministerial Conference and the General Council, each Member of the
WTO has one vote. The European Community has a number of votes equal to the number of
its member States. Decisions of the Ministerial Conference and the General Council are taken
by a majority of the votes cast.
WTO related Agreements
List of Annexes of the Agreement establishing the WTO

Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994
• Agreement on Agriculture
• Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

• Agreement on Textiles and Clothing
• Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
• Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures
• Agreement on Preshipment Inspection
• Agreement on Rules of Origin
• Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures
• Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures
• Agreement on Safeguards
General Agreement on Trade in Services
• Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
• Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes
• Trade Policy Review Mechanism
• Plurilateral Trade Agreements
• Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft
• Agreement on Government Procurement
• International Dairy Agreement
• International Bovine Meat Agreement
International standards: An annex to the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement

cites standards which are to be used in connection with trade matters:
• The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission for food
• The International Animal Health Organization (Office International des Epizooties) for
animal health
• The FAO’s Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention for plant health
• For matters not covered by the above organizations, appropriate standards, guidelines
and recommendations promulgated by other relevant international organizations open for
membership to all Members, as identified by the Committee can be added.
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Protection of life or health: Article 20 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) allows governments to act on trade in order to protect human, animal or plant life or
health, provided they do not discriminate or use this as disguised protectionism. In addition,
there are two specific WTO agreements dealing with food safety and animal and plant health
and safety, and with product standards.
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement (SPS): The Sanitary and Phytosan-
itary Measures Agreement sets out basic rules. It allows countries to set their own standards.
But it also says regulations must be based on science. They should be applied only to the extent
necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health. And they should not arbitrarily or
unjustifiable discriminate between countries where identical or similar conditions prevail.
Member countries are encouraged to use international standards, guidelines and recommenda-
tions where they exist. However, members may use measures which result in higher standards
if there is scientific justification. They can also set higher standards based on appropriate as-
sessment of risks so long as the approach is consistent, not arbitrary. And they can to some
extent apply the ”precautionary principle”, a kind of ”safety first” approach to deal with scien-
tific uncertainty. Article 5.7 of the SPS Agreement allows temporary ”precautionary” measures.
The agreement still allows countries to use different standards and different methods of in-
specting products. If an exporting country can demonstrate that the measures it applies to
its exports achieve the same level of health protection as in the importing country, then the
importing country is expected to accept the exporting country’s standards and methods.
Codex Alimentarius Commission

The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop food
standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO
Food Standards Programme.
The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring
fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work
undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organisations. The Codex
Alimentarius Commission published only voluntary standards for the hygienic and nutritional
quality of food, food additives, pesticide residues, contaminants, labelling and methods on anal-
ysis and sampling. The General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) transformed into a
formal organisation the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 1994.
The chloramphenicol ban that certain U.S. States placed in the mid 1980s and the current
hormone ban negotiations between Europe and the U.S. initiated the creation of the Sanitary
and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) WTO document which was written by the U.S. Codex del-
egation in 1987.
Chloramphenicol has been banned in Europe for use on animals since 1994.
Drugs such as chloramphenicol and sulfonamide are sometimes used to protect honey bees from
brood diseases. Honey with elements of chloramphenicol and sulphonamide were detected in a
UK honey brand which was composed of a blend of imported honey.The honey was recalled in
November 2005.
Exposure to chloramphenicol in food in any quantity is undesirable, but the level of risk will
depend on how much is consumed and how frequently. Chloramphenicol and sulphonamide in
food are illegal. Chloramphenicol can cause cancer and lead to aplastic anaemia in susceptible
people.
The importance of the Standards and Guidelines of the Codex Alimentarius Commission and
the WTO is growing with global trade and exchange of foods enforcing the ban of pesticides
and antibiotics in food worldwide.
The Codex Standards are now being recognized as scientific and they are being used as a point
of reference in cases of disputes over non-Tariff trade barriers and whether certain trade restric-
tions have a legitimate scientific basis by the WTO agreement on the SPS and the Agreement
on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). International Corporations and global trade organiza-
tions are becoming strongly interested in the Codex, as it helps to harmonize regulations on a
worldwide level.
Developing Countries and the WTO System

WTO Sanctions on US: The United States came under World Trade Organization penalties
failing to eliminate a tax break. It was declared an illegal export subsidy by the WTO. A 5
percent penalty tariff awaits U.S. exports such as jewelry and refrigerators, toys and paper. The
dollar’s sharp decline in value against the euro, the European Union currency, means American
goods are cheaper on European markets. That may protect U.S. Manufacturers.
Export Dumping
The practice of selling products at prices below their cost of production is one of the most
damaging of all current distortions in world trade practices.
The U.S. is one of the world’s leading sources of dumped agricultural commodities such as
wheat, maize, soybean, rice and cotton. Brazil is considering a case against U.S. cotton before
the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 2001, Canada briefly imposed both countervailing
and anti-dumping duties on U.S. corn imports.
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Three steps to address dumping: WTO wants to address dumping in agriculture fol-
lowing three steps
1. The elimination of visible export subsidies as quickly as possible.
2. A commitment from exporting countries to keep products priced below the cost of produc-
tion out of world markets.
3. The publication of annual fullcost of production estimates for OECD countries.
Developing countries need healthy agricultural sectors to eliminate poverty. To achieve this,
agricultural commodities must be priced fairly.
Definitions of Dumping: If a country determines that imports into their country are dumped,
and if they can establish that ”material injury” to domestic competitors is occurring, then an-
tidumping duties are a WTO-legal response. There are two common definitions of export
dumping contained in Article Six of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT):
First definition:The first definition describes the export of a product at a price below the
normal selling price in its domestic market. For example, if a Japanese car is sold in Japan at
a higher price as it is sold in an other country, this fact is called dumping.
Second definition The second definition of dumping contained in Article Six of the GATT
applies to situations where the domestic price is too distorted to provide a useful reference.
This happens when government regulation crowded out (or even prohibited) the functioning of
an open market through regulations, subsidies, price supports and other instruments. This is
the case when the export price into another market is less than the cost of production in the
country of origin plus a reasonable addition for transportation, handling and profit. Agricul-
tural production is often exported under these conditions.
Oligopolis: Market prices are also distorted by the presence of oligopolies. A few transna-
tional agri-business firms dominate all agricultural commodity production, transportation and
processing in the United States. Over 80 per cent of US corn is exported by three firms: Cargill,
ADM and Zen Noh. The top four beefpackers in the United States are Tyson (owner of Iowa
Beef Packers), ConAgra, Cargill (owner of Excell Corporation), and Farmland National Beef
Packing Company. They control 81% of the market.
Three of these four (Smithfield replaces Farmland) are also the top pork packers; two (Tyson
and ConAgra) are among the top poultry producers. Cargill ranks among the top three or four
companies across the sector, from beef and pork packing, to turkeys, animal feed, grain ter-
minals, corn exports, soybean exports, flour milling, soybean crushing, and ethanol production.
End Dumping: Visible export subsidies should be eliminated as quickly as possible via the
WTO or the OECD over the next few years. Countries must make a commitment to keep
products priced below the cost of production out of world markets. Since the exporting and
importing corporations that profit at present from this dumping are not likely to voluntarily
give up this practice, countries will need to take policy measures to gain corporate compliance.
By far the easiest and most WTO-legal approach is for the importing country to impose coun-
tervailing duties to bring the dumping prices up to the cost of production levels. The most
effective way to end dumping will be to work inside the United States, the European Union, and
other major grain exporters to secure legislation that ensures export prices capture the full cost
of production, including the cost of marketing and a reasonable profit. The OECD has to pub-
lish each year a full-cost of production estimate, including all producer paid costs, government
paid input costs, and the cost of marketing with a fair profit, as the GATT proposes in Article 6.
Governments could phase out dumping over five years through eliminating direct export sub-
sidies and using full cost of production prices to ensure fair prices.
Australia: Europe has used the so-called Peace clause that was put in place during the
Uruguay Round to protect many of its farm industries with hefty subsidies that adversely af-
fected Australian producers. The Peace clause is believed to be finished at the end of 2003.
Australia, together with Brazil use the end of the clause to particularly target subsidies such
as sugar.
Sugar world prices are low mainly because of the ten-fold increase in exports from Brazil
(to over 10 million tons) in the last 10 years aiming to expand its production even further to 50
per cent of the world sugar market. According to British Sugar Brazil has been able to expand
its exports of sugar to the world market only because of repeated massive devaluations of its
currency and has been supported by cross subsidy from their heavily government-supported
bioethanol industry. Danisco, big in business with sugar from sugar beet in Europe, is also
consternated about the matter.
With the failure of WTO talks in Cancun in September 2003, pressure has intensified on
Europe The three options for change the regime of sugar currently under discussion in Brussels
are: leaving the regime as it is; providing a price reduction; or alternatively full liberalization
for sugar.
While critics want to see a fairer regime with Europe flinging open the doors to imports from
developing countries, European sugar producers are concerned that full liberalization would
raze the industry to the ground killing about 75 per cent of the sugar production with massive
job losses. The European beet growers’ association (CIBE) estimates that 500,000 jobs in the
EU depend on the current common market organization (CMO) sugar regime, in place since
1968.
Full liberalization would mean abolishing the current domestic EU price support system, aban-
doning production quotas and totally removing import tariffs and quantitative restrictions on
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imports.
Meanwhile the struggle between EU and USA continues. The dispute arose over the so-called
Foreign Sales Corporation tax ruled illegal at the end of the 1990s.
The joint paper for Cancun

The joint framework of EU and US had been presented for the WTO negotiations Cancun
meetings, focusing on three areas: domestic support, market access and export competition.
For domestic support, the paper provides substantial cuts by all members who use trade dis-
torting subsidies. For market access, there is a formula which takes on board both the formulas
discussed to date (Uruguay Round and so-called ’Swiss’ formula), while fully preserving the
elements of flexibility and recognition of the existence of sensitive products.
The framework paper addresses export subsidies refunds and exports credits, provides partial
elimination of export subsidization for a common list of products of interest for developing
countries and provides a path for parallel reduction of export subsidization for the products
that are not eliminated.
Globalization benefits the shift of production from traditional countries to emerging markets,
bringing important consequences for the US soybean industry.
Peter Goldsmith at the University of Illinois says that the US share of world soybean production
has declined since the early 1990s from about 50 per cent to less than 40 per cent. During that
time, Brazil’s share increased to more than 25 per cent, and Argentina’s share rose to nearly
15 per cent. Similar changes are underway in the processing sector.
The staple food for over 500 million people, cassava is a good commercial cash crop and a
major source of food security, but it needs a competitive edge to thrive in the global starch
market. Competing in the mainstream commodity starch arena - maize, wheat or potato -
is ’extremely difficult’, particularly when it is not the commodities themselves that are the
competition, ’but rather the functional characteristics of the value-added products’.
Until recently, the starch markets of the world were virtually closed to foreign countries because
high import duties created barriers to trade for anything but the most basic of commodities.
But in April 1994 the GATT Uruguay Round paved the way for new trade opportunities.
In 2002 Nigeria came in as the largest producer of cassavain the world. But in 2003 despite
favorable weather conditions in the country, an outbreak of mosaic disease placed its cassava
crop under pressure.
Cassava is cultivated for its starchy, tuberous roots that can be processed into tapioca, ground
to produce manioc or cassava meal (Brazilian arrowroot), used as animal fodder or cooked and
eaten as a vegetable.
Thailand is the world’s leading exporter of aggregate dry cassava products, also known as tapi-
oca, in the form of pellets for the feed industry in USA under a low tariff rate preferential quota.
The three most important instruments of economic power - World Trade Organization (WTO),
the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) try to force the worldś acceptance
of genetically modified foods and crops. The American administration launched in May 2003 a
complaint with the WTO against the European Union for its five-year ban on approving new
biotech crops, claiming the European policy to be illegal, harming the American economy. The
WTO Agreement on Agriculture is being used to attack the European Union, which will be
forced to either alter its policy toward GM crops and foods, or face economic sanctions across
a range of sectors.
The US has so far opposed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety which entered into force
in September 2003 and has been signed by over 100 countries being intended to ensure through
agreed international rules and regulations that countries have the necessary information to
make informed choices about GM foods and crops.
The USA has also avoided to sign the Kyoto Protocol (Biosafety). Since the US has still
not ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), it has no need to follow the Carta-
gena Protocol and therefore will try to force the GM food to be accepted by all other countries.
With the biotech patents coming into force with TRIPs Agreement in 2005, agriculture re-
search in developing countries will not be possible any more.
Kyoto protocol
During the Kyoto summit, participating nations agreed to reduce the CO2 levels to 7% below
the levels found in 1990. It is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Con-
vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and was negociated in Kyoto in December 1997. It
entered into force on February 16, 2005. [1211] [1212]
Australia and United States have signed but, currently, refuse to ratify it.
The United States produces 20% of total carbon dioxide. To protectig its industry the USA
did not sign the protocol, proposing to plant forests in the USA and third world countries.
CO2 is not eliminated by photosynthese. It is released again once organism dies and decays.
Studying forestation it has been found that forests inherently warm the atmosphere by ab-
sorbing heat from light due to their non-reflective leaves.
An increase of number of trees means more fires, and this increases global warming. The only
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option for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide is by reducing the amount of gas released
from burning of fossil fuels.
Climate change makes near-surface fish grow faster

Ronald E. Thresher and colleagues (2007) studying the the biological impacts of the climate
change on marine species found that six of eight species show significant changes in growth
rates during the last century. In depths<250 m temperatures increases speeding growth rates.
Deep-water (>1,000 m) cool down and species register a decline in growth during the last cen-
tury. The authors conclude that marine life is growing faster nears the surface, but is slowing
down in deep water. The researcher used otolith analysis. [?]
Otoliths are calcified structures located in the inner ear just behind the brain that assist fish
with balance and hearing. In temperate waters seasonal growth periods appear on otoliths
asalternating opaque and translucent bands. This pattern looks much like the annual growth
rings present in the trunks of trees. Depending on the number of rings in these structures the
age of each fish can be determined. Similar seasonal bands can also be found in other hard
parts such as scales, fin rays, spines, and vertebrae. [1214].
However, Hans O. Prtner and Rainer Knust from the Bremerhavener Alfred-Wegener-Institute
for Polar- und Marine Research warn that a mismatch between the demand for oxygen and the
capacity of oxygen supply to tissues is the first mechanism to restrict whole-animal tolerance
to thermal extremes. The researchers studied the eelpout, Zoarces viviparus, a bioindicator
fish species for environmental monitoring from North and Baltic Seas (Helcom). Warm water
prevents an eelpout from absorbing enough oxygen to cope with a changing environment. Both
scientists found out how changes in temperature directly affect the fish physiology of fish, a
link between rising sea temperatures and declining numbers of fish. They concluded that decre-
ments in aerobic performance in warming seas will be the first process to cause extinction or
relocation to cooler waters. [1215]
Tobias Wang a zoophysiologist at the University of Aarhus in Denmark does not believe that
the species will go extinct necessarily, but they will move and a major impact on the distribution
of animals will take place. [1216]
Earth warming: Giant squids are becoming a plage for Californian coast [1217]
The Humboldt Squid, Dosidicus gigas , the fiercest of all the cephalopods, and for reasons un-
known to science, they are appearing in huge numbers along the West Coast, from the Gulf of
Mexico to Southeast Alaska, including the Monterey Bay. The squids are more than 2 metres
large and weigh up to 50 kilogram.
According to Louis Zeidberg from the University Stanford these giant squids had only be
seen at the region of the equator. Zeidberg believes that due to the earth warming the squids
now spread northward.
Other scientists , like Zeidberg and Robinson support this theory saying that this sustained
range expansion coincides with changes in climate-linked oceanographic conditions and a re-
duction in competing top predators. [1218]
Acidification of the North sea induced by atmospheric CO2 [1219]

Blackford and Gilbert 2007 describe a coupled carbonate systemmarine ecosystemhydrody-
namic model. According to the researchers the biological activity in the benthic, the region
near the ground, as well as pelagic, the deep water, is an important factor in this variability.
The acidification of the region due to increased fluxes of atmospheric CO2 into the marine
system is calculated and shown to exceed, on average, 0.1 pH units over the next 50 years and
result in a total acidification of 0.5 pH units below pre-industrial levels at atmospheric CO2
concentrations of 1000 ppm.
The potential for measurable changes in biogeochemistry are demonstrated by simulating the
observed inhibition of pelagic nitrification with decreasing pH. Scientists believe that further
decreased pH of the North Sea water will destroy corals and biological system of the coastal
and deeper regions.
No chance for DOHA no chance for climate control no chance to avoid nuclear war
EU leaders (Chancellor Angela Merkel) met with the Bush administration on May 2, 2007 and
debated co-operation, trade, climate change, energy security and climate control. Not a word
about US signing the Kyoto Protocol was heard.
The Transatlantic Economy Council [1220]

Agreements were made which lead to a stronger and more integrated transatlantic economy.
Particular focus is on removing barriers to trade, cooperation on regulations, intellectual
property, secure trade, financial markets and the automotive industry, and establishment of
a transatlantic economic council to monitor implementation of economic agreements. This
transatlantic economy council leaves out any cooperation with the third world. The spirit of
DOHA is being buried for sure.
Doha, food and agriculture

The agreements encourage further cooperation in the areas of agriculture, sanitary and phyto-
sanitary measures, and food safety are directed to increase traffic between rich countries which
can afford complex safety systems. With the talk of EU-US there can no commitment be seen
to bring the Doha trade talks to a positive conclusion. US as the main cause of the collapse of
the talks last July does not change its attitude.
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The outcome of the EC-US talks were mainly directed to develop the trade between both
powers in detriment to environment and directed against the development of the third world.
Climate change
No firm conclusions on action to combat climate change only a vague and ridiculous statement
of Merkel said that progress had been made and that both sides agreed on the urgency of action,
but the US continues to refuse to sign up to plan to cut greenhouse gasses by 20 per cent by 2020.
The so-called ”open skies” deal to remove restrictions on transatlantic flights was signed demon-
strating clearly that there is no commitment to combat climate change. Increasing air traffic
increases the most dangerous CO2 producer because it happens in high altitudes were the at-
mosphere is most vulnerable. On the way to a nuclear catastrophe.
President Bush said he would consider Merkel’s advice to include Russia in discussions re-
lated to a missile defence systems in Poland and the Czech Republic which brought back the
cold war between Russia and the rest of the world.
The four Uranium producers [1221]

The uranium business is going through an enormous boom because of high demand for military
uses and for power plants.
According to Handelsblatt Urenco has today 23% of world production of enriched Uranium.
The company wants to increase it up to 30% in the next 5 years. Incoming orders have doubled
since 2006. Urenco works with high speed centrifuges to enrich the uranium as the main cause
of their success in the uranium business, compared to less efficient method of gas diffusion
used in France and USA which consume four times more energy. The other three producers of
uranium are: Areva France, USEC U.S. and Tenex Russia.
The Anti-Urenco conference in Almelo looked at the dangers that the depleted Uranium (DU)
and Uranium hehafluorid (UF6) which may be used for military purpose or is being put to 90%
into permanent storage in Russia by Urenco. The actual booming uranium business is based
on the bad politic of the US which instigates a nuclear armament. [1222]
Conclusion
The agreements between the two powers concerning trade are everything but directed to a
commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, the Doha trade talks and there are no steps to avoid a
nuclear armament.
Global climate change is happening faster than previously believed and its impact is worse
than expected. According to Ogunlade Davidson,the co-chairman of the United Nations’ In-
tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) there are only eight years left for changes
[1223]. Actual activities of the leaders of the power nations China US and Europe go in the
wrong direction. They should reduce traffic, should spend efforts on solar energy (great success
in Spain, the Sahara could be used to produce energy as electricity and hydrogen.)
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

The General Agreement on Trade in Services is an agreement of the member states of the WTO
opening the world market to an unrestricted competition. The states lose most of the means
to regulate the market. The European Union has given its consent to the Agreement in the
name of all their member states.
In July 2002, the EU presented its requests for improved market access to WTO members
seeking a reduction in restrictions and expansion of market access opportunities for the Eu-
ropean services industry. The services sector is the most important economic activity in the
EU accounting for over two thirds of GDP and employment such as the telecommunication,
financial, business, and environmental services sectors, postal services, distribution, construc-
tion and related engineering services, tourism, news agency services and energy services.
The requests do not seek to dismantle public services, nor to privatize state-owned compa-
nies. No requests are being made on health services or audiovisual services to any country.
EU requests do not touch the access to water resources and in no way undermine or reduce
governments’ ability to regulate pricing, availability and affordability of water supplies.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is an international trade agreement

that came into effect in 1995 and operates under the umbrella of the World Trade Organization
(WTO).
Critiques on GATS: Negative impacts on universal access to basic services such as health-
care, education, water and transport. Fundamental conflict between freeing up trade in services
and the right of governments and communities to regulate companies, a one-sided deal, GATS
is primarily about expanding opportunities for large multinational companies.
Origin of GATT and other Agreements

Following the end of WWII, the allies decided that prosperous and lasting peace depended not
only on the creation of a stable international political order based on principles embedded in
the United Nations (UN) Charter, but also on the creation of a stable liberal international eco-
nomic order. The twin pillars of the international financial system, the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), emerged
1088
as the institutional alternative to the regionalism characteristic of international financial prac-

tices in the post-WWI era. From ITO to GATT: The International Trade Organization
(ITO), was negotiated in Havana, Cuba. Political disagreements ultimately spelled the end of
the ITO as a formal organization, yet participants considered trade issues important enough
to resurrect portions of the ITO charter and transform them into a less formal, free standing
trade agreement known as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. (GATT).
From GATT to WTO: During the first twenty odd years of its existence, members of GATT
focused almost entirely on negotiations aimed at reducing tariffs (taxes on imported goods),
one of the traditional barriers states enact to protect their markets from import competition.
Six rounds of negotiations, through the completion of the Kennedy Round in 1967 introducing
an anti-dumping code, accomplished substantial tariff reductions in the manufacturing sector.
Finally at 1986-1994(Uruguay Round) the GATT 1994 gave origin to the World Trade Orga-
nization.
By the 1970s, with tariffs on most goods substantially reduced, and the world falling into
a depression/hyper-inflation cycle due to the twin oil price shocks, states began implementing
other non-tariff policies as a way to protect their industries from import competition.
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs

Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds.
They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain
period of time.
There are two main areas of intellectual property rights:

Copyrights: The rights of authors of literary and artistic works (such as books and other writ-
ings, musical compositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs and films) are protected
by copyright, for a minimum period of 50years after the death of the author.
Also protected through copyright and related (sometimes referred to as ”neighboring”) rights
are the rights of performers (e.g. actors, singers and musicians), producers of phonograms
(sound recordings) and broadcasting organizations. The main social purpose of protection of
copyright and related rights is to encourage and reward creative work and computer programs.
Industrial property: These are signs, trademarks, geographical indications, design and the
creation of technology ( patents). Ideas and knowledge are an increasingly important part
of trade. Most of the value of new medicines and other high technology products lies in the
amount of invention, innovation, research, design and testing involved.
Creators can be given the right to prevent others from using their inventions, designs or other
creations and to use that right to negotiate payment in return for others using them. These
are ”intellectual property rights”.
TRIPSs and Software:

For the last few years the European Patent Office (EPO) has granted more than 30.000 patents
on rules of organization and calculation claimed in terms of general-purpose computing equip-
ment, called ”programs for computers” in the law of 1973 and ”computer-implemented inven-
tions” since 2000.
To legitimate this practice Europe’s patent movement is pressing by writing a new law. The
basic documentation, starting from the latest news and a short overview are available at
http://swpat.ffii.org/index.en.html.
According to US magazine Business Week (2003 December 16th) a group of ”left-leaning politi-
cians” upended a directive proposal in such a way that it actually bans software patents, thereby
creating an industry-specific exemption which violates the TRIPs treaty and erases billions in
intellectual property granted by the EPO.
The author gives Europe a lot of advice, demanding that Europe should set an example by
finding a formula that ”spurs innovation while safeguarding intellectual property”.
The European Patent office has already grated 30 000 patents and problems come up:
Some basic algorithms from software will be patented like:
Good algorithms featuring software:

With a click to next ”Top”
Save it on disc
Remember me later
Save before Quit
Useful technical algorithms:

” Boot directly from CD after insert.” Without such an algorithm some users will have trouble
in starting the CD depending on the system in use. They are in use in a wide range of software
such as:
Catalogues from Warehouses
Information CDs on a companyś products for distribution among its customers.
Training’s CDs for employees.
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Drop Down menus: Drop Downs are indispensable for an easy surfing of a program with
topics such as Format, Tolls, Edit or File.
Hyperlinks: Quick access to URLs or specific location in a text.
Search algorithms: No user can survive in the jungle of informations without these algo-
rithms. Software-controlled industrial production processes: Such as algorithms useful
for robotronics.
The European Commission and the US Trade Representative cites in favor of their software
patentability proposal:” Proprietary software directly remunerates those who write programs,
and it does this by means of ”intellectual property”, of which patents are one important kind.”
The mission of the United States of America to the European Union in the paper ”U.S. Com-
ments on the Draft European Parliament Amendments to the Proposed European Union Direc-
tive on the Patentability of Computer-Implemented Inventions” to members of the European
Parliament says that the US warns Europe falling afoul of the TRIPs treaty.
The US Mission warns that any failure to endorse patentability of software in the directive
might adversely impact certain sectors of the economy, because copyright does not protect the
functionality of the software, which is of significant value to the owner, and that lack of clarity
would lead to a continued need for negotiations with the US in WIPO.
The US Government promotes international harmonization of substantive patent law in or-

der to ”strengthen the rights of American intellectual property holders by making it easier to
obtain international protection for their inventions”.
The software engineers, however, say that the tools they work with and the basics of their
ideas are being patented. The originality of creative work and the freedom of the profession
will be destroyed by this regulation. So, I think, we have to say good by to a good trade which
had given support and satisfaction to a lot of software engineers which will in future seek their
fortune in the offices of the software giants.
NAFTA and FTA

The Trade Act 1979 called for study on the possibility of a free trade area around the Amer-
icas. Throughout the 1980s, economic problems, including heavy international debt burdens,
precluded trade liberalization policies in Mexico. U.S. trade negotiations turned north, and by
1989 a U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) was signed.
The Bush administration in 1990 signed an agreement with the Mexican government and in
1992 Canada joined the negotiations. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
came into life, entering into force an 1994.
The Clinton administration proposed expanding NAFTA to whole of Latin America in 1994.
The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) aims a comprehensive trading regime, reducing
both tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade among the thirty four democratic states of North
and South America.
Nine areas covered by FTAA:

Agriculture, Market Access
Investment
Government Procurement
Services
Dispute Settlement
Intellectual Property
Competition Policy
Subsidies, Anti-dumping
Countervailing Duties
NAFTA dates back as far as 1956. It just confirmed what has been going on for over 35
years. The U.S. government first sponsored and funded the moving of U.S. factories to Mexico
and Central America in 1956. In these regions very low pollution standards still exist. It was
supposed to be just a temporary program where the U.S. consumer could enjoy cheaper prices
while at the same time help saving the Mexican economy.
The Free Trade in the form it is now being practised bears danger not only to developing
countries, it also outbalances the home labour market of US as well all other places of well de-
veloped economy moving abroad not only jobs, but also whole agrarian and industrial segments
such as soybean moving to Brazil and clothing industry moving to Asia.
A conference from 4-5 November 2005 comprising 34 countries was held in Mar del Plata.
No agreement could be achieved to create The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). Op-
position to the FTAA was presented by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela.
These countries demanded that agarian subsidies of the United States should be stopped.
Alca, an organisation which tries to support the creation of FTAA, pledges to continue the
talks on agreemets and proposes to exclude the five counteracting countries from the free trade
area.
Trade once was based on trading products and not on moving of production and exporting
1092
of decent paid jobs to cheaper labor markets. It is a hard task of WTO to eliminate the un-
evenness between economic regions looking forward to a fair Free Trade. WTO will play the
keys of a humanitarian future world backed by its head office, the UN looking benevolently to
NGOS both should behave as partners working on the dissent between human groups.
Environment and trade

OECD: The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), a multilat-
eral organization composed of members from the industrialized nations looked after the impact
on environment caused by the industries on move.
To get pollution under control, the OECD Guiding Principles Concerning the International
Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies was issued in 1972. According to this Guiding,
containing the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP), all member states should cooperate.
Some other trade agreements include environmental protection, such as The Montreal Protocol
and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. It includes trade sanctions in
case of non-compliance.
In the 1990s, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) for Tuna/Dolphin dis-
sent. The WTO had ruled the US policy of banning imports of tuna from states that used
purse fishing techniques to catch tuna, and subsequently kill dolphins, violating the terms of
GATT, followed by the rule against US (1998) to ban on shrimp imports caught without Turtle
Excluder Devices.
Environmental treaties can be disrupted if WTO rules of trade are used to nullify those envi-
ronmental enforcement measures under the assumptions that they violate free trade principles.
The WTO has therefore the responsibility to look for a future balance between environmental
behalves as being part of good trade principles.
The Declaration of Doha on Trade and Environment 2001: The Declaration of Doha
wants to increment the relationship between existing WTO rules and specific trade obligations
set out in multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).
World Bank
The World Bank Group’s mission is to fight poverty and improve the living standards of people
in the developing world. It is a development Bank which provides loans, policy advice, tech-
nical assistance and knowledge sharing services to low and middle income countries to reduce
poverty.
Education: Education is central to development. The Bank has committed in loans and cred-
its for education.
HIV programmes: The World Bank is combating the spread of HIV/AIDS around the world.
Anti-corruption effort: The WB is a leader in the anti-corruption effort. It is committed to
ensuring that the projects it finances are free from corruption, setting up stringent guidelines
and a hotline for corruption complaints.
Debt reliefs: In 1996, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) launched
the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative reducing the external debt of the world’s
26 poorest, most indebted countries.
Biodiversity: The World Bank is one of the largest funders of biodiversity projects. The
greatest impacts are felt by rural people in developing countries.
Environmental assessment: In addition to environmental assessments and safeguard poli-
cies, the Bank’s environment strategy focuses on climate change, forests and water resources.
For example, to help to reduce the effects of global warming launching the new BioCarbon
Fund.
Organization of the World Bank Group: The World Bank Group consists of five closely
associated institutions, all owned by member countries that carry ultimate decision-making
power. Each institution plays a distinct role in the mission to fight poverty and improve living
standards for people in the developing world. The term ”World Bank Group” encompasses all
five institutions. The term ”World Bank” refers specifically to two of the five, IBRD and IDA.
IBRD: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) lends to de-
veloping countries with relatively high per capita incomes.
IDA: The International Development Association (IDA) provides assistance on concessional

terms to the poorest developing countries, those that cannot afford to borrow from the Inter-
national Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
IFC: The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes growth in developing countries by
providing support to the private sector. In collaboration with other investors, the IFC invests
in commercial enterprises both through loans and equity financing. IFC’s mandate is to further
economic development through the private sector.
MIGA: The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) helps encourage foreign in-
vestment in developing countries by providing guarantees to foreign investors against loss caused
by noncommercial risks, such as expropriation, currency inconvertibility and transfer restric-
tions, and war and civil disturbances.
ICSID: The International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) is an au-
tonomous international organization. However, it has close links with the World Bank. ICSID
1094
provides facilities for the conciliation and arbitration of disputes between member countries
and investors who qualify as nationals of other member countries.
IMF International Monetary Fund

The IMF is an organization of the United Nations. It was established to promote international
monetary cooperation, exchange stability, and orderly exchange arrangements; to foster eco-
nomic growth and high levels of employment; and to provide temporary financial assistance to
countries to help to ease balance of payments adjustment. The IMF is the central institution
of the international monetary system of international payments and exchange rates among na-
tional currencies that enables business to take place between countries.
The IMF works for global prosperity by promoting the balanced expansion of world trade,
stability of exchange rates, avoidance of competitive devaluations, and orderly correction of
balance of payments problems.
The work of the IMF is of three main types. Surveillance involves the monitoring of eco-
nomic and financial developments, and the provision of policy advice, aimed especially at
crisis-prevention. The IMF also lends to countries with balance of payments difficulties.
Surveillance: IMF in its work of surveillance developed internationally recognized standards

and codes covering government policy making and operations.
The IMF plays a key role as standard setter in this area. Such as the Special Data Dis-
semination Standard (SDDS), The Code of Good Practices in Fiscal Transparency, the Code
of Good Practices in Monetary and Financial Policies, and the Principles and Guidelines for
Insolvency and Creditor Rights Regimes.
Loans: A main function of the IMF is to provide loans to countries experiencing balance-
of-payments problems so that they can restore conditions for sustainable economic growth.
Technical Assistance: The IMF provides technical assistance in its areas of expertise, which
include fiscal policy, monetary policy, and macroeconomic and financial statistics.
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

The OECD groups 30 member countries sharing a commitment to democratic government and
the market economy. With active relationships with some 70 other countries, NGOs and civil
society, it has a global reach. Best known for its publications and its statistics, its work covers
economic and social issues.
Anti-corruption Instruments and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises The
Guidelines seek to promote and facilitate companies’ contribution to the fight against cor-
ruptionbribery, solicitation of bribes and extortion.
OECD Anti-corruption Activities :The core of the OECD’s action against corruption is dedi-
cated to curbing bribery in international transactions.
European Anti-fraud Office (OLAF):The European Commission, in close co-operation

with the European Anti-fraud Office (OLAF), Brussels Prosecution Service and French and
Dutch police arrested two officials at the Commission’s Directorate General for Agriculture on
21th October 2003 alleging corruption and insider trading in the cereal market. They had sup-
plied confidential information with major economic and strategic value for the cereals business
Paris and Rotterdam headquarters of two French and Dutch cereals groups. This demonstrates
how important the work on anti-corruption and anti-fraud is especially in inter-government and
international bodies.
Excessive trade endangers species

The trade in caviar endangers the population of sturgeon [1224]
Important sturgeon basins include the Caspian Sea, the Great Lakes of North America, the
Azov Sea and the Amour River. The number of sturgeons and their status have been affected
by such negative factors as regulation of water flow, decrease in natural spawning sites, poach-
ing and illegal trade in sturgeon caviar and other specimens.
In an attempt to assure sustainability of sturgeon (species in the order Acipenseriformes) the

FAO Committee in its Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES Bremen, 3-6
June 1998 presented considerations and recommendations on the ”Conservation of Sturgeons”
Important recommendations of the conference of 1998: [1224]
• Encourage scientific research particularly in the Eurasian region to promote the sustain-
ability of sturgeon fisheries through management programmes.
• Curtail the actual illegal fishing and export of sturgeon specimens by improving the
enforcement of existing laws regulating fisheries and export in close contact with the
CITES Secretariat, ICPO-Interpol and the World Customs Organization
• Enhance the participation of representatives of all agencies responsible for sturgeon fish-
eries in conservation and sustainable-use programmes for these species.
• Promote regional agreements between range States of sturgeon species aiming at proper
management and sustainable utilization of sturgeons
1096
To avoid depletion of sturgeons the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) publishes export quotas for caviar in
an attempt to assure the sustainability of sturgeon.
High levels of poaching and illegal trade in the Caspian Sea accounts for some 90 per cent
of world caviar trade. It is believed that for every registered 1,000 tonnes of caviar, there is
12-14,000 tonnes placed on the black market.
The 169 member countries of CITES have set strict conditions for permitting caviar exports.
Countries sharing sturgeon stocks must agree amongst themselves on catch and export quotas
based on scientific surveys of the stocks.
Importers in the European Union must ensure that all imports are from legal sources, and
they must establish registration systems for their domestic processing and repackaging plants.
However, many key importing countries have still not put these measures in place.
Further action is needed to regulate trade in caviar, meat and other Sturgeon products and to
ensure that fishing levels are sustainable: [1225]
• Standardized methodologies for assessments of stocks and the effectiveness of restocking
programmes.
• Market inventories to allow effective control of the domestic caviar and sturgeon meat
markets.
• Trans-boundary anti-poaching units
• Databank with reference tissue samples of all sturgeon species in order to assess the
legality of exports.
• Universal labelling system for caviar to include re-exports and local production.
Re population of European Riverswith Sturgeon [1226]
A fish specialist at Berlin’s Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB),
Frank Kirschbaum, along with his Polish colleague Jörn Gessner want to repopulate German
rivers with the Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhyncus) , which had been threatened with
extinction worldwide In 2007 young sturgeons will be set free in the river Oder , a river ending
in the Baltic Sea. This fish had been bred in aquariums in the Regional Center for Agriculture
and Fishery in the town of Born.
Other rivers such as Elbe and Weser ending in the North Sea, are difficult to repopulate with
sturgeon because of weirs blocking the sturgeon off to their spawning ground. There the Euro-
pean variety of sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) had its natural home a century ago. This variety of
sturgeon is being bred by Frank Kirschbaum using remnants from a tiny population still living
in the Gironde River, near Bordeaux, France.
The sturgeon lives in the sea and migrates upriver only to mate. Pollution from factories
and sewage from the cities and weirs caused the population of sturgeons to diminish.
Another variety of sturgeon is Hausen, the German name for the beluga sturgeon ( Huso
huso ). It is the largest species of the sturgeons and can weigh up to a ton. It is known because
of the Russian caviar. It lives in the Caspian, Black Sea and occasionally in the Adriatic Sea.
The Roadmap to Recovery of Marine Reserves

[1227] The high seas lie beyond the 200 nautical mile limits that define the extent of national
sovereignty by countries of the world. They cover 64% of the area of the oceans, and nearly
half the surface of the planet.
They are a global commons, under the stewardship of the United Nations Law of the Sea
for the benefit of all nations. However, the sustainability of this area is endangered.
Cod stocks in the North Sea, Irish Sea and west of Scotland, for example, remain well be-
low minimum recommended levels.
The International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES), preparing the Roadmap,
calls for a ban of fishing for cod in the North Sea for the fourth year running.
To avoid further depletion Callum M.Roberts and colleagues brought together many different
kinds of biological, physical and oceanographic data,enabling to identify hotspots of activity
of vulnerable species which include tunas and billfish, albatrosses, turtles, pinnipeds (seals and
sea lions) and penguins. The Roadmap includes maps of different biogeographical zones and
recommend areas for protection.
In order to reverse the precipitous decline of the life in our oceans and fulfil the targets set by
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Roadmap calls on the United Nations to
take urgent action to establish and protect a global network of marine reserves on the high seas.
The Roadmap is available at http://oceans.greenpeace.org/raw/content/en/documents-reports/roadma

to-recovery.pdf Law of the Sea (LOS) [1227] [1230]
The high seas are the least regulated and least protected places in the world. Lying beyond
the limits of national jurisdiction, they are governed by the United Nations Law of the Sea.
This convention only came into force in 1994, and has yet to be signed by some of the most
influential nations in the world.
1098
The Law of the Sea enshrines the right of access and use of the high seas for all. It allows
for nations to fish, lay submarine cables and pipelines, or create other installations such as rigs
and even artificial islands. Fishing operations are insufficiently being monitored, leaving fishing
fleets to exploit high seas resources unhindered.
U.S. arguments against the treaty of the Law of the Sea:

National sovereignty: The treaty limits US legal authority by granting power to a United
Nations-created agency.
War on terror: The treaty limits US military activities especially relevant to anti-terror opera-
tions, such as intelligence collection and submerged travel in coastal waters and the boarding of
ships for anti-terror purposes and limits the sea to ”peaceful purposes,” which is said to restrict
all military operations (Articles 88 and 301).
Redistribution of wealth: The treaty would force the US to pay taxes to the United Nations,
further increasing the UN’s power.
Redistribution of technology: The treaty would force US businesses to turn over economi-
cally and militarily relevant technology to other countries.
Undesirable precedent: The treaty paves the way for increased power of Non-governmental
organizations over the US and other nations.
Indicators of Sustainable Development for Scotland: Progress Report 2004 [1228]

Scotland, in its report Progress Report 2004 related to sea fishery analysed 21 species, of which
only five stocks were found within safe biological limits in Scottish waters in 2003. These safe
stocks were North Sea Norway Pout, North Sea Herring, North Sea Haddock, Saithe (VI, IV
& IIIa) and West of Scotland Haddock.
All other stocks were found to be outside safe biological limits. Some of them, such as Cod,
Haddock and Plaice for example, are particularly at risk (i.e. close to collapse).
Aquaculture increases for fish meal for feed [1229]

According to the Report to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds June 2004 aquacul-
ture has become the fastest growing sector in the world food economy. According to FAO,
aquaculture and marinculture will dominate in the next few decades, increasing the demand
for fish meal and oil for feed, derived predominantly from wild stocks of pelagic fish harvested
by ”industrial” fisheries.
Peru, Chile,China and EU are the largest manufacturer of fish meal. Within the EU, Den-
mark is the most significant producer of fish meal and oil.
Fish meal and fish oils are used internationally as feed for farmed animals and are considered
a high quality source of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Carnivorous fish require more protein
than herbivorous fish and the meal is produced accordingly. China is the largest consumer of
fish meals and takes approximately a quarter of world production.
Many industrial stocks are susceptible to collapse under intensive harvesting regimes, resulting
in a wider ecosystem effect of these fisheries and the impacts on commercial fish and wildlife
dependent on them. Many species of sea bird are dependent on small fish such as sandeels and
anchovies. Intensive fishery will endanger these sea birds and other species feeding on these
small fishes.
Alternate Protein and Oils Sources [1229]

Alternatives to animal feed produced from fish meal and fish oils are limited Fishmeal provides
a better balanced amino acids, vitamin composition, and lower cost compared with other pro-
tein sources
EU legislation on additives and GM ingredients constraining high levels of substitution limits

the substitutability of fish oils
Fatty acids and aminoacids profile are limiting barriers to substitution of omega-3 fatty acids
marine oils with plant oils rich in omega-6 fatty acids will weaken the immune system, making
fish more vulnerable to diseases and low oxygen levels. The report says also that higher plant
protein diets may increase particulate waste and organic pollution.
Soya is the main competitor product to fish meal. Soya is cheaper than fish meal but nu-
tritionally poorer.
Recommendations for improving the sustainability of feed fisheries [1229]

• Increased Use of Fish Waste and Discards
• Development of Alternative Protein Sources. Soya modified by biotechnology to comply

with aminoacid and fatty acid requirements for fish feed.
Destruction of the Amazon rainforest

In its report ”Eating Up The Amazon” Green peace illustrates the soya crisis through the
example of two key global players: Cargill (possibly the largest private company in the world)
in the Amazon and McDonald’s (the largest fast food company in the world) in Europe. Green
Peace documents the flow of soy from ilegally cleared farms, to Cargill and its competitors,
through the ports, processors and meat producers of Europe, and finally into the Chicken Mc-
Nuggets sold under the golden arches across the continent. According to this report Cargill
and ADM have been encouraging local farmers to cut down the rainforest and plant massive
1100
soy monocultures. [1231]
Ethical trade Other organisations are looking at the problem of the land workers which
are often used as slaves in the soy farms.
Ethical trade - or ethical sourcing - means the assumption of responsibility by a company

for the labour and human rights practices within its supply chain.
Ethical sourcing tries to ensure that decent minimum labour standards are met in the pro-
duction of the whole range of a company’s products. By contrast fair-trade is primarily con-
cerned with the trading relationship, especially those involving small producers in the South.
Fair-trade ensures that producers are paid a decent price that at least covers the true costs of
production, despite often serious fluctuations in world commodity prices.
Many consumers will always be prepared to buy special fair-trade products, while expect-
ing that mainstream products are safely and decently produced. [1232]
Cargill will support Conservancy efforts in Brazil’s Amazon region to increase awareness and
use of agricultural best practices among soya producers and help promote sustainable economic
development in a region that is experiencing rapid agricultural development. The Conser-
vancy has been working with farmers, along with governmental and private sector agricultural
partners, to encourage better management practices and conservation opportunities for critical
habitat located on private lands.
The Nature Conservancy www.nature.org:

The Nature Conservancy is a leading international, nonprofit organization that preserves plants,
animals and natural communities representing the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the
lands and waters they need to survive. To date, the Conservancy and its more than one million
members have been responsible for the protection of more than 15 million acres in the United
States and have helped preserve more than 100 million acres in Latin America, the Caribbean,
Asia and the Pacific. [1233]
Cargill, however, argues that it alone cannot ensure sustainable soy development throughout
Brazil.
Fermentation products
Alcohol and vinegar are typical products of fermentation. New fermentation of sugars of cere-
als, corn or wheat by bacteria or fungi produces antibiotics, amino acids such as monosodium
glutamate (MSG) threonine, tryptophan, and lysine, an ingredient of feed industry. Organic
acids , such as citric acid are another important part of biotechnology. [1234]
Enzymes, vitamin C as well as thickening agents like xanthan are being produced by fermenta-
tion. Ajinomoto , dominating the amino acid market of lysine and MSG, opened a production
facility of aminoacids in 2005, situated in Limeira, Brazil, where abundant main raw materials
are available. Amino acids are marketed for beverages, health foods, supplements and sports
nutritional such as glutamine and branch chain amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine)
used for maintaining and building skeletal muscle.
The global market for alternative sweeteners, currently leading growth in the food additives
market, holds considerable potential- growing 8.3 per cent year on year until 2008 according
to market analysts Freedonia - as rising health concerns drive consumers towards sugar free
products and food makers introduce zero-calorie or low-calorie sugar substitutes into their new
product formulations. Alternative sweeteners like aspartame, xylitol and other sweeteners are
won by fermentation.
Biotechnology can thus bring new fields of activities to developing countries.
Particulate Matter
PM represents a broad class of chemically and physically diverse substances. Particles can be
described by size, formation mechanism, origin, chemical composition, atmospheric behavior
and method of measurement. [1235]
Classification of particulate matter according to EPA:

PM can be principally characterized as discrete particles spanning several orders of magnitude
in size, with inhalable particles falling into the following general size fractions:
• PM10 (generally defined as all particles equal to and less than 10 microns in aerodynamic
diameter; particles larger than this are not generally deposited in the lung)
• PM2.5, also known as fine fraction particles (generally defined as those particles with an
aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less)
• PM10-2.5, also known as coarse fraction particles (generally defined as those particles with
an aerodynamic diameter greater than 2.5 microns, but equal to or less than a nominal
10 microns)
• Ultrafine particles generally defined as those less than 0.1 microns.

Fine particles are directly emitted from combustion sources and are also formed secondarily
from gaseous precursors such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or organic compounds. Fine
particles are generally composed of sulfate, nitrate, chloride and ammonium compounds, or-
ganic and elemental carbon, and metals. Combustion of coal, oil, diesel, gasoline, and wood,
1102
as well as high temperature process sources such as smelters and steel mills, produce emissions
that contribute to fine particle formation.
Fine particles can remain in the atmosphere for days to weeks and travel through the at-
mosphere hundreds to thousands of kilometers, while most coarse particles typically deposit
to the earth within minutes to hours and within tens of kilometers from the emission source.
Some scientists have postulated that ultrafine particles, by virtue of their small size and large
surface area to mass ratio may be especially toxic.
There are studies which suggest that these particles may leave the lung and travel through
the blood to other organs, including the heart. Coarse particles are typically mechanically
generated by crushing or grinding and are often dominated by resuspended dusts and crustal
material from paved or unpaved roads or from construction, farming, and mining activities.
There is a serious lack of information about the human health and environmental implications
of manufactured nanomaterials, e.g., nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanowires, fullerene derivatives,
and other nanoscale materials. Environmental and other safety concerns about nanotechnology
have been raised (Dagani, 2003; Masciangoli and Zhang, 2003; Service, 2003).
Nanoparticles
Nanostructures, their size, and material into which they may be formed, indicating the type of
application in which they may be used [1262] [1236]:
• Clusters, nanocrystals, quantum dots (Radius: 1-10 nm. Used in insulators, semiconduc-
tors, metals, magnetic materials)
• Other nanoparticles (Radius: 1-100 nm. Used as ceramic oxides)
• Nanowires( Diameter: 1-100 nm. Used as metals, semiconductors, oxides, sulfides, ni-
trides)
• Nanotubes (Diameter: 1-100 nm. Used as Carbon, including fullerenes, layered chalco-
genides)
Adapted from J.Jortner and C.N.R.Rao, Pure Appl Chem 74(9), 1491-1506, 2002. [1262]
Barbara Karn leads researches of the US EPA which address implications including studies
on the potential toxicity of quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, iron oxide nanoparticles; research
on the environmental fate and transport of carbon nanotubes and fullerenes; and studies on
how nanotechnology affects material flows. [1263]
Potentially harmful effects of nanotechnology might arise as a result of the nature of the
nanoparticles themselves, the characteristics of the products made from them, or aspects of
the manufacturing process involved.
The large surface area, crystalline structure, and reactivity of some nanoparticles may fa-
cilitate transport in the environment or lead to harm because of their interactions with cellular
material. In the case of nanomaterials, size matters, and could facilitate and exacerbate any
harmful effects caused by the composition of the material.
Some research has been done on inhalation exposure to nanoparticles. A related research
area that EPA research is addressing deals with the health effects of ultrafine (less than 100
nm) particles on lungs.
However, the current research on ultrafine particles may not be applicable to manufactured
nanoparticles because the ultrafine materials studied are neither a consistent size nor pure in
chemical or structural composition. Exposure may occur via the dermal and ingestion, as well
as inhalation routes. It is unknown whether nanomaterials bioaccumulate and, thereby, pose
human health and environmental risks because of this potential property.
Ecotoxic Effect of Photocatalytic Active Nanoparticles (TiO2) [1237] Kerstin Hund-

Rinke and Markus Simon from the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied
Ecology stress the potential impacts on the environment as large amounts of nanoparticles may
reach the environment. According to Hund-Rinke it is unknown if size, crystalline form, poros-
ity or the combination of all these structures may be responsible for the toxicity. For instance,
nanoparticles of titanium dioxide with 25 nanometres presented inhibition of the growth of
algae, particles with greater size then that does not present such toxicity.
The researchers studied the ecotoxic effect of photocatalytic active nanoparticles (TiO2) on
algae and Daphnids (8 pp), concluding that it is principally possible to determine the ecotoxi-
city of (photocatalytic) nanoparticles using methods comparable to the procedures applied for
assessing soluble chemicals. The ecotoxicity depends on the test organisms and their physiol-
ogy. The photocatalytic activity of nanoparticles lasts for a relevant period of time. Therefore,
pre-illumination may be sufficient to detect a photocatalytic activity even by using test organ-
isms which are not suitable for application in the pre-illumination-phase.
Hund-Rinke also stresses the problem of platinum being released as nano particulates from
tree-way catalysts using platinum palladium and rhodium alloys, and its possible toxic reac-
tions in the ecosystem.
1104
Nanotechnology and food
[1238] Nanoscience and nanotechnology are generally concerned with materials that are 10 -
100 nm in size or less (molecular or atomic level). A nanometre (nm) is one-billionth of a
metre. At this size range, the behaviour of materials begins to change, particles are so small,
they disperse evenly in products.
Nanoparticles are already on sale for use in food packaging and the manufacture of plastic
food containers. and distribuition. Synthetic nanoparticles of lycopene are an example of
nanoparticles that have been developed and tested, and are accepted as GRAS-affirmed by the
FDA for use in food in the USA. [1238]
Current use of nanotechnology in food

Embedding vitamin C , vitamin E or Q10 in nano micelles, hydrophilic and lipophilic sub-
stances can be integrated in the same system. It opens the way for some new functional foods
like water and other beverages containing CoQ10 with appealing appearance to address fat
reduction and alpha-lipoic acid for satiety targeting visceral fat. [1264]
The study was made by Dr Ute Gola of the Institute for Nutrition and Prevention in Berlin,
Germany, and Prof Dr Biesalski, head of the department of biological chemistry and nutrition
in Hohnheim, Germany. Christine from Foresight, however, calls to the attention that there
are no claims for weight reduction for CoQ10 been related. [1265]
Aquanova presents antioxidant nano structured micelles for vitamin C and vitamin E, intro-
duce antioxidants into food and beverage products easily and effectively.Antioxidant system for
essential oils and flavours are already presented. [1266]
Nanotechnology White Paper [1267]

The paper begins describes what nanotechnology is, what opportunities and challenges exist
regarding nanotechnology and the environment, potential environmental benefits of nanotech-
nology. The paper provides an extensive review of research needs for both environmental
applications and implications of nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology and regulations Some regulations concerning nano products in food prod-
ucts are contained in European Regulation (EC ) No.178/2002 [1268] The Institute of Food
Science and Technology (IFST) calls for labelling requirements and a separate evaluetion as
novel food.
Should nanoforms of materials such as TiO2 or SiO2 be employed in edible coatings on foods,
then there may be additional risk factors triggered by their ingestion.
According to IFS additives such as SiO2 and TIO2 and nano-sized clay particles are also avail-
able for use in food packaging material and food containers. A variety of other nanoparticles are
being considered for use in surface coatings. The bioavailability is likely to be enhanced, and
the toxicological data for the macroscopic form may no longer be valid, because the small size of
these particles may allow them to reach regions within cells or tissue that normal macroscopic
particles of the same composition could not reach. An appropriate pre-market safety evaluation
of nano products should be required even if the compound is already food-use approved. [1238]
Concerns about safety of Nanoparticles [1239]

Nanoparticles, ranging from 2 - 10 atoms, less than 100 nanometres, can potentially invade
body systems. Studies to date show that the human body’s normal defence mechanisms treat
nanoparticles like micro-organisms but nanoparticles could link together to form fibres that are
too large to be engulfed by macrophages.
Developments in gene therapies, targeted drug-delivery systems, microencapsulation in food

technology and other science fields rely on techniques that manipulate nanoparticles so that
they can bypass the human body’s defence mechanisms, but also unwanted nanoparticles could
also penetrate into cells or cross natural barriers.
The UK’s Medicine and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency MRHA stoped its participa-
tion in the British Standards Institute’s Nanotechnology Standardisation Committee arguing
that existing regulatory frameworks and trial safety procedures were sufficient to cover the use
of nanotechnologies in medicines and medical devices.
MRHA says that one of the conclusions of the many nanotoxicology reviews, is that there
isn’t yet enough data to derive systematic rules that govern toxicological characterisation of
the nanotechnology products. Another is that there might be new hazards associated with loose
nanoparticles. The main conclusion that MHRA has come to after reviewing this enormous
amount of data was: there is currently no evidence for the actual existence of any such new
hazard. [1240]
The MHRA members agree that the mechanisms of toxicity seen with healthcare nanopar-
ticles are not unique. The review on The Toxicology of Nanoparticles Used in Healthcare
Products does not currently indicate the need for nanotechnology specific regulations. The
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States has also concluded that the current
requirements for safety testing of medicinal products is sufficiently rigorous and are currently
believed to be adequate. MHRA concludes, however, if research identifies toxicological risks
that are unique to nanomaterials, additional testing requirements may be necessary. [1241]
1106
Life Cycle Assessment of nanotechnology using ISO 14040:2006 [1242] According

to a report summarising the workshop discussions, held in October 2006, among international
nanotech and LCA experts the impact on environment and human health can be accessed using
Life Cycle Assessment.
Life Cycle Assessment is a method for estimating and assessing the resource usage and environ-
mental impacts attributable to the entire life cycle of a product, from raw material extraction
and acquisition, through energy and material production and manufacturing, to use and end-
of-life treatment and final disposal (ISO 14040:2006). The environmental and resource impacts
include climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, toxicological stress on human health and
ecosystems, the depletion of resources, water use and many others. The report points out, that
confidentiality is also referred to as a major problem, as existing Life Cycle Assessment data is
often proprietary data of companies and even the exact composition of nanomaterials is strictly
confidential.
Renewable fuel in the City of Portland

USA and Biofuel
USA, trying to boost farming started many projects . National Renewable Energy Laboratory
claims that the production of ethanol from US corn has already reached the volume of the
Brazilian production. [1243]
The City of Portland, Oregon issued the Biofuel Requirements act, demanding that in the
City of Portland, on and after July 1, 2007 all diesel fuel shall contain 5Biodiesel for this act
is produced from used cooking oil and/or feedstock from the Genera Brassica (rape, mustard),
Caina, Helianthus (sunflower) or Carthamus (safflower).
Palmoil is excluded from this issue. [1597]
The sustainability of corn farming in the US corn belt [1245]

Tad Patzek, from the University of California looks at the thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol
biofuel cycle in 2004. He concludes that the minimum cumulative exergy consumption in restor-
ing the environment polluted and depleted by the industrial corn-ethanol cycle is over 7 times
higher than the maximum shaft work of a car engine burning the cycles ethanol.
The industrial corn cycle is not renewable, and is unsustainable by a wide margin. The limiting
factors, nutrient-rich humus and water that carries the dissolved nutrients to plant roots are
augmented by chemicals obtained in the linear, irreversible fossil fuel-based processes. Corn
yields demand continuously increases in fertilization rate of corn fields. Patzek writes that
the annual corn-ethanol biofuel production is a human assault on geologic processes and the
geologic time scale.
Ethanol became the salvation for Midwest corn growers struggling to make ends meet with
a saturated market and slumping prices. U.S. ethanol production is rising dramatically, thanks
to generous corn subsidies, American soils have been depleted for like 50 years or something.
The only reason we can get any good yeilds out of them is through massive fertilization. Fer-
tilizer that we synthesize using gasoline. It’s very inefficient to use the new bio-fuels, as they
ultimately require more fossil fuels to produce than enrgy they yeilds. [1246]
Bio fuel worldwide

Sugar cane: Sugar cane grows in regions with abundant rain all the year round growing season,
cheap land and not expensive labour. The product can be sold as sugar or as alcohol according
to the demands of the market. [1246]
Also there is great potential in ”enzimatic hydrolysis” for efficiency improvement of the conver-
sion The biomass wastes contain cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. Acids or enzymes are used
to break down the cellulose and hemi-cellulose.into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into
ethanol. The lignin is more resistant to these pre-treatment processes and is therefore burned
to produce energy for the system. [1247]
China stops bio ethanol production from food and starts using Lignin and cellulose
as raw material [1248]
Biofuels are currently manufactured from food crops including corn, wheat, sugar, cassava,
sweet sorghum, and oilseeds.The Chinese government fears shortage of food in these items due
to biofuel demand which could increase food prices and issued a moratorium on these sources.
China produces about one million tons of Ethanol annually from three million tons of corn.
Non-food crops, such as cassava and drought-tolerant sweet sorghum will now have to be used
for the production of bio-ethanol. Due to the great demand, China imports cassava from
Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.
Lignocellulose ethanol plant in China [1249]

Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from almost any organic matter, including agricultural
waste, grasses, sewage, sludge, switchgrass, plant stalks, trees and straw. Cellulose and lignin
cannot be digested by humans, the production of cellulose does not compete with the produc-
tion of food. Transforming them into ethanol using efficient and cost effective hemi(cellulase)
enzymes or other processes might provide as much as 30% of the current fuel consumption in
the US and probably similar figures in other oil-importing regions like China or Europe.
There are two ways to produce ethanol from cellulose:

- Cellulolysis processes which consist of hydrolysis on pretreated lignocellulosic materials fol-
lowed by fermentation and distillation.
1108
- Gasification that transforms the linocellulosic raw material into gaseous carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. They are then fed into a special kind of fermenter or to a catalyst bed.
They both include fermentation and distillation as final steps.
Wheat, sugar beet and rapeseed as biofuel in UK [1250]

ESRU at the University of Strathclyde made a survey of biofuel using setaside land in UK.
The paper stresses limitations.

Bioethanol produced from Sugar beet results in a much greater yield, but should not be used
as mono culture. When only one type of crop is grow on the same land for successive years
then this crop will become very susceptible to certain pests and diseases as well as causing
the depletion of certain minerals in the soil. The net result of these effects is a requirement
for increased use of pesticides and fertilizers which due to their production process results in
CO2 emissions. Sugar Beet yields are considerably higher than that of wheat and so fertilizer
requirements are likely to be higher also, again causing increased emissions.
U.S. corn ethanol neglects the problem of monoculture. Depletion of the region and envi-
ronmental destruction of the Gulf Region will be the result of U.S. ethanol agrarian politics.
ESRU suggests crop rotation to address this problem, stressing that it is necessary to use
at least two different crops for producing bioethanol. If rapeseed, which is the crop used to
produce biodiesel, is also added in then this will also help the problem. [1251]
ESRU says that total use of the 644.000 hectares of setaside land in UK could supply 9,7% by
volume and 5,5% by energy of fuel using sugar beet / wheat 50:50.
Yields Ethanol energy content

Tonnes/hectare m3 /Tonne
Wheat 7,74 0,336 Ethanol = 21,1 MJ/L
Sugar Beet 53,30 0,108 Petrol = 31,5 MJ/L
Rape seed 3,00 0,400 Rape oil = 35,6 MJ/L
Diesel= 37,9 MJ/L
Corn 2,00 [1251]
Biofuel leading to food-shortage [1252]

According to the United States Department of Agriculture the maize consume 2006 increased
by 20 Million Tonnes compared with foregoing year. 14 Million Tonnes were used for the pro-
duction of ethanol, only 6 Million Tonnes were used as food. Cereals which are used to produce
alcohol has tripled in five years from 2001. Filling a tank of 120 liters of a Landrower could feed
26 persons for one year. More than half of the harvest of maize from South Dakota is being
transformed in alcohol.
A reduction of US maize export which is two third of world export amount, could seriously
hamper the cattle and poultry industry in Japan, Egypt and Mexico. Biofuel from food crops
are being produced in Brazil (alcohol from sugar cane), USA ( alcohol from maize) and Europe
(biodiesel from rape). Sugar price doubled in Brazil since 2004.
The production of alcohol in China from maize in India from sugar cane, Thailand from cassava
is being pushed by the government. Malaysia and Indonesia invest in oilplants for biodiesel.
This will lead to a shortage of food and increasing prices.
On account of that it is irresponsible from the leaders of the nations which will meat at the G-8
Summit in Germany try to increase world traffic and global increase of energy consumption.
Polish meat and the EU-Russia Summit Samara, 18 May 2007 EU and Russian
leaders will meet on Friday 18 May in a resort near the city of Samara in central Russia. On
the agenda are the new EU-Russia agreement to replace the current Partnership and Coopera-
tion agreement, energy, climate change, Russian WTO accession as well as the entry into force
of the new visa facilitation and readmission agreements. [1253]
The Commission in intensive collaboration with Poland and Russia tries to lift the Russian
ban on on the import of polish meat and cereals. Solving this problem could open the way to
the EU-Russia Summit in Samara. [1254]
Accoding to ambassador Jan Tombiński, in an interview with Euractiv, said that Poland has
vetoed the negotiations due to an ongoing ban on Polish meat imports imposed by Russia in
2005 because of meat with falsified certificates. Inspectors of both Russia and the EU Commis-
sion visiting Polish factories found Poland to be in full conformity with EU rules. An EU-wide
embargo was avoided. There are no reasons to continue this Russian embargo. According
to the ambassador, export is a matter of the EU and Poland decided to make this a common
EU issue because it is a trilateral issue, with the European Commission as the third party. [1255]
The German role carrying the presidency of the EU, seen by Euobserver, is weak, because
it oversees fears of post-Communist’ countries that Russia is using trade and energy as political
weapons to try and divide the new model union. [1256]
1110
Chapter 30
Avoiding food scandals
Food borne diseases and food poisoning have always threaten humanity. Old writings report a
high ranking food poisoning in India. According to these reports Buddha Gautama died after
eating spoiled meat during his stay as a guest at the house of the metal-worker Cunda at Pava,
a village near Magadha capital Rajagraha [1269]
The cause of food scandals

The cause of a scandal is not the scandal in its itself, it is rather the fact that no necessary
conditions were consciously provided to avoid it.
Lack of knowledge and low level of ethics are the causes of food scandals.
Even nowadays food scandals cause high costs and loss of confidence of the consumer such
as scandals with organics, BSE threat and contaminants in food.
Due to heavy industrial processing some danger arise when precautionary activity fails to
protect the consumer. Caustic sodium hydroxide used to clean and sanitize manufacturing
equipment was left in Vanilla soymilk in White Wave Silk Brand cartons being recalled in early
2004 is an example of heavy losses due to technical failure.
Food processors are responsible to provide the conditions to avoid food poisoning and to control
its effectiveness.
1111
1112
Example of wrong location of level sensor resulting

in cleaning agent leftover
No leftover in the storage tank
Transboundary plant pests and animal diseases such as BSE and avian flue are of growing
economic and scientific complexity and consequently warrants priority attention.
Government are responsible to provide conditions to avoid transboundary pests and diseases
[1270].
Increasing Food Safety with Predictive Microbiology

[1271] [1272] The main sources of food scandals are caused by pathogenic bacteria. Predictive
Microbiology is a new tool for food producers to predict safety and shelf life of new products.
The common database can become an important step to avoid food scandals.
The ComBase Database

The ComBase Database is a combined database for predictive microbiology and is an outcome
from the Common Database for Predictive Microbiology which was launched in June 2003 cre-
ating a virtual environment for every food and every bacteria and should contribute to a more
rapid understanding of food safety and quality. Its purpose is to make data and predictive tools
on microbial responses to food environments freely available via web-based software.
The ComBase Database is an international collaboration between:
• FSA: www.food.gov.uk
• IFR: www.ifr.ac.uk
• USDA-ARS-ERRC: www.ars.usda.gov
• Australian Food Safety Centre of Excellence: www.foodsafetycentre.com.au
Everyone can create an environment by entering data such as the temperature, pH and salt
content - all the parameters relevant to his food product during processing, distribution, storage
and sale.
The database consists of thousands of microbial growth and survival curves that have been
collated in research establishments and from publications. They form the basis for numerous
microbial models presented in ComBase Predictor.
Different use of ComBase Browser and Combase Predictor [1273]
• ComBase database: The ComBase Browser searches a database of kinetics of spoilage

organisms and pathogens in broth and food. The data come from the scientific literature
or were produced by miscellaneous institutions.
• ComBase Predictor: The ComBase Predictor gives predictions from models based on
selected data of the ComBase database as a function of environmental factors such as
temperature, pH and water activity in broth.
ComBase Predictor
[1274]
ComBase Predictor is a tool for industry, academia and regulatory agencies. They can be used
in developing new food technologies while maintaining food safety; in teaching and research; in
assessing the microbial risk in foods or setting up new guidelines.
1114
The Internet version of the ComBase Predictor, developed by IFR, was launched in Febru-
ary 2006.
ComBase Predictor web-edition is a modified and improved version of the Growth Predictor
programme. It comprises a set of twenty three growth models and six thermal death models for
predicting the response of many important foodborne pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms to
environmental factors, including temperature, pH and salt concentration. Some of the models
also include an additional fourth environmental factor, such as the concentration of carbon
dioxide or acetic acid.
The Pathogen Modelling Program (PMP)[1290]
ComBase has developed a new set of predictive models known as ComBase-PMP, which will
produce predictions based on all the data on the site. The Pathogen Modelling Program (PMP)
is available at http://ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=6786.
The PMP is a package of models that can be used to predict the growth and inactivation
of foodborne bacteria, primarily pathogens, under various environmental conditions.
Other microbiologocal sites: [1275]
• Seafood Spoilage Predictor Software, Danish Institute for Fisheries Research

www.dfu.min.dk/micro/ssp/
• Microbial Risk Assessment of meat product-an output of the SMAS project

smas.chemeng.ntua.gr/miram/
• European Union Risk Analysis Information Network

www.eu-rain.com
• Food risk analysis clearing house

www.foodriskclearinghouse.umd.edu
• Sym’Previus (an integrated database and predictive software, in French)

www.symprevius.net
• Physical Properties of Food Database

www.nelfood.com
Links of interest: [1275]
• CEMMI - The ERRC Center of Excellence in Microbial Modeling & Informatics (CEMMI)
brings together researchers with diverse and complementary talents to advance the science
of microbial modeling.
• Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition - FDA CIFSAN - ensuring the security of
our country’s food supply.
• Foodsafe Archives - USDA / FDA Foodborne Illness Education Information Center.
• Food Safety Network - The agri-food risk management and communications web site.
• Food Safety Risk Analysis Clearinghouse - The aim of this site is to assist those profes-
sionals involved with any of the many aspects of risk analysis as it pertains to the safety
of our food.
• Joint Institute for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition - JIFSAN - a program of dynamic
partnerships.
• MEDLINE - A large database of scientific, technical, medical, and other scholarly content.
Search through 20 million citations and 10 million abstracts from over 30,000 journals.
• Medscape - Offers a large amount of information about medical information and education
tools.
• National Food Safety Database - An informative website providing food safety information
for consumers, educators and the food industry.
• ProMED - Global monitoring of emerging diseases.
• The Microbiology Network - The Microbiology Network serves as a communication re-

source for the microbiologist. The objective of this service is to encourage communication
within the microbiology and biotechnology community.
Sea water and irrigation water as cause of food born diseases

There is a growing concern linked to spread of agents through vegetables contaminated with
enterovirus and bacterial pathogens as Shigella from low-standard irrigation water, parasites
on tropical fruits and berries, and Vibrio cholera, other enteric bacteria and enteroviruses from
sea-foods harvested in polluted sea water.
Sea-food: Polluted water is of public concern. The government of bordering states and inter-
national organizations are responsible to issue warnings and to initiate measures to eliminate
the causes of the pollution.
Vegetables: Intervention must be on the communal level, a general improvement of hygiene

and pollution control.
1116
Animal product health threats
Husbandry [1276]
Many of the scandals of food safety in Europe the last decades have been linked to this in-
tensive husbandry system seen in Northern Europe. As there has also been incidents caused
by chemical pollution of feed (Belgium) or direct contamination of food (cooking oil in Spain),
most of the diseases in man have been caused by agents either transferred to man from animals
to man through animal products or agents form man spread through vegetables contaminated
by polluted irrigation water.
Due to the very low prevalence of many foodborne microbiological hazards in Norwegian prod-
ucts, an increased import of some foods to Norway from countries outside the Nordic area will
represent a potential Public Health risk.
Food trade
US CDC , analising concludes that certain aspects of food trade represent a considerable public
health hazard.
At the same time, the western consumer is today probably less exposed to some environmental
pollutants than some years ago.
A main pattern is that the main hazards are linked to animal products from the subsidized, in-
dustrialized western agriculture and some seafood and vegetables from poor/tropical countries.
As a last comment, it is worth reminding that the main food item traded is various forms
of grains, where trade represents a minor if any health hazard. It is also worth remembering
that the main trade routes of foods are linked to grains from rich countries to poor countries,
estimated to approximately 70 million metric tones each years and expected to increase dramat-
ically as most of the unexploited soils are found in countries like USA, Canada and Australia
and only middle-income countries like Argentina and Brazil may increase their contribution.
Trade in meat and bone meal and live cattle [1277]

FAO issued a press briefing on 26 January 2001 that urged countries around the world, not just
those in Western Europe, to be concerned about the risk of bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE) and its human form, the new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (nvCJD).
In a statement issued in Rome, FAO called for action to protect the human population, as
well as the livestock, feed and meat industries. It suggested that all countries which have im-
ported cattle or meat and bone meal (MBM) from Western Europe, especially the UK, during
and since the 1980s, can be considered at risk from the disease. It added that countries at risk
should implement effective surveillance for BSE in cattle and controls on the animal feed and
meat industries.
Along with the export and import of feed materials, trade in animal by-products has also
increased. BSE was first diagnosed in the UK in 1986. It was not until 1989 that it was sug-
gested that meat and bone meal was the probable source of the BSE infection in the UK. At
this time, meat and bone meal was banned from ruminant feeds in the UK. However, export to
Europe continued until 1996. It was in 1994 that the feeding of meat and bone meal was banned
in the European Union and not until January 2001 that a ban on the use of ruminant meat and
bone meal and certain other animal proteins in feedstuffs for all farm animals, to avoid risks of
cross-contamination, was introduced. At the same time, Europe effectively banned the export
of meat and bone meal to third countries for use in animal feed.
In the face of a wave of consumer doubt fuelled by new evidence of the spread of Bovine
Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in the European Community, the WHO, OIE and FAO
have jointly agreed to conduct a further consultation on BSE, Trade and Public Health in
June 2001. This meeting will review current evidence on the safety of bovine based foods, the
risk that BSE may be occurring in countries where no cases have yet been reported and make
recommendations on how to avoid an international epidemic of BSE and vCJD.
Examination of the trade data shows that meat meal was exported from the UK and Eu-
rope to more than 100 countries during the critical period from 1986 onwards. Besides the
export of meat meal to Europe from the UK until 1996, there was export from other European
countries which have subsequently been found to have BSE in their native herds.
Increased output from cattle was achieved by combined breeding and feeding programmes.
Cattle were bred that had high milk production when fed high protein feeds, so forage based
feed was supplemented with a high protein feed additive bought from feed manufacturers.
This supplemental protein came from both plant sources, such as soybeans, as well as ani-
mal sources. Meat and bone meal (MBM) from rendered carcasses, feathers, blood and fish
were all used in small amounts during the last century.
Animal protein sources had some advantages: it had better outcomes than soy, and it was
cheap. Animal by-products were plentiful, and recycling it back into feed created a market for
the waste.
Animal by-products are any part of an animal that is unfit for human consumption: bones, skin,
meat trimmings and offal. The raw material is sent from slaughterhouses to rendering plants
where it is then processed by crushing and heating it in order to allow moisture to evaporate.
The fat, also called tallow, is separated from the protein, also called greaves. The greaves are
processed further to create MBM.
1118
Within the EU over 10 million tonnes of animal by-products are produced annually. It has
been estimated that only 68% of a chicken, 62% of a pig, 54% of a bovine, and 52% of a sheep
or goat is consumed directly.
Conclusion
FAO is uniquely placed to make recommendations on how to avoid an international epidemic of
BSE and vCJD, given its scientific and technical expertise in animal nutrition, its computerized
Animal Feed Resources Information System, close collaboration with the Codex Alimentarius
Commission and experience in development programmes.
FAO has assisted other member countries to establish or to update animal feed legislation
and is in a position to provide technical support to improve current feed analysis and feed
tables and to create tables of nutrient requirements.
Salmonella Enteritidis in eggs [1278]

It was a pandemic which was spread through infection of centralized units for production of
day-old chicken and became pandemic by trade. The pandemic did not spread in Sweden and
Norway.
Stringent procedures for cleaning and inspecting eggs were implemented in the 1970s and have
made salmonellosis caused by external fecal contamination of egg shells extremely rare. How-
ever, unlike eggborne salmonellosis of past decades, the current epidemic is due to intact and
disinfected grade A eggs. The reason for this is that Salmonella enteritidis silently infects the
ovaries of healthy appearing hens and contaminates the eggs before the shells are formed.
Government agencies and the egg industry have taken steps to reduce Salmonella enteritidis
outbreaks. These steps include the difficult task of identifying and removing infected flocks
from the egg supply and increasing quality assurance and sanitation measures.
The Centers for Disease Control has advised state health departments, hospitals, and nurs-
ing homes of specific measures to reduce Salmonella enteritidis infection. Some states now
require refrigeration of eggs from the producer to the consumer. The U.S. Department of Agri-
culture is testing the breeder flocks that produce egg-laying chickens to ensure that they are
free of Salmonella enteritidis.
Eggs from known infected commercial flocks will be pasteurized instead of being sold as grade
A shell eggs. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has issued guidelines for handling eggs
in retail food establishments and will be monitoring infection in laying hens.
Research by these agencies and the egg industry is addressing the many unanswered ques-
tions about Salmonella enteritidis, the infections in hens, and contaminated eggs. Informed
consumers, food-service establishments, and public and private organizations are working to-
gether to reduce, and eventually eliminate, disease caused by this infectious organism.
Tracing the causes of Salmonella spread [1279]

According to Fábio Tavares Zancan and colleagues Salmonella Enteritidis may have reached the
farms by vertical transmission. In the hatchery, cross-contamination among contaminated and
non-contaminated eggs may occur and can be found in samples collected inside the hatchery
and inside transport boxes.
In Brazil, the outbreaks provoked by Salmonella Enteritidis appeared after the outbreaks in
Europe, USA and Japan, probably because grand-parent flocks came from the areas where
salmonellosis outbreak started.
The results of the study of Zancan indicate that, despite the efforts to control Salmonella
in poultry farms, they may still become contaminated through the vertical route by day-old
birds that are purchased in countries where outbreaks of salmonellosis were noticed.
Melamine in pet food and human consumption

In March 2007, there has been an outbreak of cat and dog deaths and illness associated with pet
food manufactured with vegetable proteins contaminated with melamine and melamine related
compounds imported from China. In response to this outbreak, FDA has been conducting an
aggressive and intensive investigation. Pet food manufacturers and others have recalled dog
and cat food and other suspect products and ingredients. [1280]
Products imported from China which, according to FDA, may be contaminated and are sub-
jected to detention without physical examination, including: Wheat Gluten, Rice Gluten,Rice
Protein,Corn Gluten, Corn By-Products, Soy Protein, Soy Gluten, Mung Bean Protein. [1281]
There does not seem to be any reported human case of acute intoxication directly caused
by melamine. There was no evidence of harm to humans associated with the processed pork
product from hogs fed with melamine contaminated feed, and therefore no recall of meat prod-
ucts were issued. [1282]
FDA and USDA have also traced contaminated feed to swine farms in several states. The
same procedures are being followed in relation to both swine and poultry; animals are being
quarantined by state order or voluntarily held by the owners and USDA is offering compensa-
tion for depopulation and disposal of both swine and poultry that have been fed contaminated
products. [1283]
1120
Melamine resin is often used in food packaging and tableware, melamine at ppm level in food
and beverage has been reported due to migration from melamine-formaldehyde resin products.
Small amounts of melamine have also been reported in foodstuff as a metabolite product of
cyromazine, an insecticide used on animals and crops. [1284]
A study by USSR researchers in the 1980s suggested melamine cyanurate which is formed
between melamine and cyanuric acid and is used as fire retardant could be more toxic than
either melamine or cyanuric acid alone. Current research has focused on the combination of
melamine and cyanuric acid in causing renal failure. [1285]
The use of ”melamine scrap”, described as leftover from processing of coal into melamine
for use in creating plastic and fertilizer, was described as widespread. Melamine is said to have
been chosen in order to inflate crude protein content measures and to avoid tests for other
common and illegal ingredients,such as urea. [1285]
The original Xuzhou Anying wheat gluten was ”human grade”, as opposed to ”feed grade”,
meaning that it could have been used to make food for humans such as bread or pasta. At
least one contaminated batch was used to make food for humans, but the FDA quarantined it
before any was sold. [1285]
South Africa, UK, Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands, Poland and Spain received suspicious rice
protein concentrate from China.
Chapter 31
Food Processing Innovations
31.0.2 Beta-glucan in food applications

[1286]
A preparation of beta-glucan, obtained from spent brewer’s yeast, was evaluated for potential
food applications. This material was autolysed and the cell walls that were obtained were ho-
mogenized, extracted firstly with alkali, then with acid, and then spray dried.
Fragmentation of the cell walls during homogenization is regarded responsible for higher viscos-
ity by Saowanee Thammakiti and colleagues. The beta-glucan obtained in this way had higher
properties as compared with commercial -glucan from baker’s yeast.
The authors suggest that beta-glucan obtained from brewer’s yeast can be used in food prod-
ucts as a thickening, water-holding, or oil-binding agent and emulsifying stabilizer.
Empty yeast cells to carry hydrophobic flavours [1287]

Infusion of flavours into empty yeast cells is being developed by Gregory Dardelle and coleagues.
The researchers say that loaded yeasts stay longer in mouth than conventional spray dry pow-
der. This is due to adhesive properties of yeast cells, which are thermally stable up to 240
0
C. Dardelle reports that the passive loading technique, achieved by infusion, is limited to hy-
drophobic flavours such as limonene. The release of flavour does not occur in pure fat, Only
water can open the external shell structure.
Beta-glucan as fat replacer in mayonnaise [1288]

Application of beta-glucan prepared from spent brewer’s yeast as a fat replacer in mayonnaise
was studied by Worrasinchai, and colleagues Fat was partially substituted by beta-glucan at
levels of 25, 50, and 75% achieving higher storage stability than full fat mayonnaise with accept-
able sensory with beta-glucan not more than 50%. The authors conclude that spent brewer’s
yeast beta-glucan may be used as a fat replacer in mayonnaise.
1121
1122
Carotinoids as coulorants in beta-glucan mayonnaise [1289]

Rujirat Santipanichwong and Manop Suphantharika studied the application of carotenoids beta-
carotene and lutein, as natural colourants in reduced-fat mayonnaise with 50% substitution of
oil using spent brewer’s yeast beta-glucan as a fat replacer.
Lutein was found to destabilize the emulsion resulting in significant variation of the oil droplet
size during storage and a spontaneous reduction of the viscoelastic properties.
Beta-carotene, however, did not change the stability of the emulsion. The authors concluded
that the addition of these colourants in the concentration range tested seemed to have no effect
on the textural properties of reduced-fat mayonnaise.
Chitosan as encapsulating agent [1548]

Chitosan used to encapsulate ingredients has improved stability to thermal processing, lipid
oxidation, freezing and thawing. It is one of the few food-grade polymers to have a positive
charge across a wide pH range and can be used in an electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition
method to encapsulate negatively charged particles.
Chitosan is alkaline deacetylated chitin (poly-b-1,4-D-N-acetylglucosamine). Chitin is pro-

duced from shellfish and seafood waste, like shells from crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs,
lobsters and krills. Chitin is deacetilated to chitosan by boiling it for several hours in a 50%
w/v alkali solution.
Chitosan microencapsulation and bioavailiability [1549]

Foregoing studies indicated that chitosan inhibits in vitro digestibility of lipids.
Yeonhwa Park and colleagues in a study using rats, suggest that encapsulation of lipids by
chitosan does not inhibit their in vivo digestibility. The researchers conclude that it should
be possible to use chitosan to microencapsulate lipids and lipid-soluble components such as
omega-3s or fat-soluble ingredients like certain vitamins without compromising their bioavail-
ability. According to the authors human studies should confirm this.
Tapioca (Cassava) starch as microencapsulating agent [1550]

Microencapsulation technologies are developed using gums arabic, hydrolyzed starches, emulsi-
fying starches whey proteins, sodium caseinate, and gelatin to avoid commodification , changing
prices and cope with new consumer demands.
Jarunee Loksuwan and colleagues from the Thammasat University in Thailand found in a
study in 2006 that acid-modified tapioca starch had better spray dried encapsulating proper-
ties than native starch and maltodextrin. Suphuric acid was used for the hydrolisation, and
neutralisation with sodium carbonate prior to steam pressure treatment.
Microencapsulation of fish oil using sugar beet pectin and spray-drying [1551]
Stephan Drusch from the University of Kiel microencapsulated 20% and 50% fish oil in a matrix
of 2,2% sugar beet pectin and glucose syrup obtaioning a good oxidative stability.
The authors found that the proportion of non-encapsulated fat was higher in samples with
50% oil compared to samples with 20% oil and may limit the maximum oil load of the micro-
capsules.
Transport of fruits, vegetables and fresh products under controlled atmosphere

Long transports of vegetables, fruits and other perishable products should be made under
controlled atmosphere with following composition [450]:
Atmosphere containing minimum of 95% CO2
It should contain at maximum 2% of oxygen. The humidity of the atmosphere should be 95%. It
is possible to get the CO2 from air compressing it and getting the CO2 using a special selective
membrane. To cary bottles of CO2 is also possible. Under these conditions the amount of
bacteria decreased in a period of 10 days from 200 millions to about 96% on salads. Anaerobic
bacteria must however be controlled carefully.
Avoiding poison in containers

The Asian Longhorned Beetle ALB (Anoplophora glabripennis) is an invasive beetle which
menaces trees It has spread from Asia to US and was found in Braunau am Inn (Germany)
and in Austria. [1579]
Experts fear that the beetle is still being imported among pallets and other wooden packagings.
Professor Jens-Georg Unger says that only 150 out of 300 000 Chinese containers pass phy-
tosanitary control each year. [1580] [1581]
The brown spruce longhorn beetle (BSLB), Tetropium fuscum (Fabr.), is native to Europe but
has recently been discovered in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where efforts are under way to eradicate it.
Heat treatment To avoid export of BSLB phytosanitary measure heat treatment 500 C for 30
minutes (or 550 C for 15 minutes) to ensure 100% mortality is being proposed by Lisa Mushrow
and colleagues. [1582]
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations calls for 560 C and 30 min-
utes of heat treatment to kill wood beetles. [1583]
1124
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency in its directive ”Canadian Heat-treated Wood Prod-
ucts Certification Program (CHTWPCP) for Export” demands for heat treatment of 560 C/30
minutes to ensure BSLB-free wood. [1584]
Fumigation Heat treatment is expensive, reinfestation can occur and most of the cargo does
not allow heating.
Fumigation of the loaded container is now being used, such as disinfectants, flammable gasses,
carbon monoxide (CO), phosphine, bromoethane (ethyl bromide), 1,2 Dichlorethane, Chloropi-
crin, sulfuryl fluoride.
Some fumigants are applied as solid or liquid formulations from which the toxic gases emanate:
methyl bromide [1586], sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane), formaldehyde, chloropicrin or phosphine.
Solid formulations like aluminium phosphide or magnesium phosphide are widely used because
they can release phosphine. Methyl bromide, phosphine producing materials, chloropicrin and
sulfuryl fluoride are most commonly used. Solid formulations are in tablets, plates, strips, and
blankets or sleeves. [1587]
Important recommendations are:
• Recommendations on the Safe Use of Pesticides in Ships, and its amendments [1585]
[1588]
• International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, Class 9, UN no. 3359. The
Code demands for approved warning sign affixed to the access door identifying the type
and amount of fumigant used and the date and time of fumigation. [1589]
Even cholpicrin, a deadly gas used in World War I has been found by health officials in con-
tainers to be unloaded in Hamburg (Germany). Veldman, a n experts from the harbour of
Rotterdam, says that the number of fumigated containers has grown five fold. Toxic remnants
are found in foods like rice or crackers, in toys, textiles and others. [1590]
Alternatives to poison fumigation Fumigation with carbon dioxide (CO2) displaces oxygen
and asphyxiate living vermin. However it does not kill eggs and is at odds with the environ-
ment. Eggs can produce larvae and reinfestation takes place.
Nitrogen from air kills all insects, pupae larvae and eggs. This technology is friendly to envi-
ronment because nitrogen is pumped from air. It can be used at warehouses, silos, for bulk
cargo, and containers. There is no danger for the personal and it does not contaminate food
because it is part of the air we breath. This technology was developed in Germany. [1591]
The function of trehalose during dehydration [1592]

Job Ubbink and colleagues studied the free volume in trehalose demonstrating that changes in
free volume are intimately connected with molecular organization and mobility of water in the
crystalline and amorphous states.
The study proposes a mechanism for bioprotection for the survival of (micro) organisms under
conditions of extreme temperature or dehydration, like baker’s yeast which can be successively
dehydrated and rehydrated without losing their viability. It is believed that during dehydra-
tion, baker’s yeast produces high levels of trehalose, a key factor in biopreservation.
According to the authors, organisms, under extreme drought, form an intracellular carbohy-
drate glass This glass state has high viscosity and hydrogen-bonding interactions and stabilizes
and protects the integrity of complex biological structures and molecules.
Trehalose as ingredient for dehydrated fruit products [1593]

Komes, Drazenka and colleagues found in a study that the best retention of aroma compounds
in dehydrated pear purees was noticed in the case when freeze drying and trehalose addition
were combined. In dehydrated pear cubes, previously dipped in trehalose solution, the highest
aroma retention was also determined.
This study showed possible application of trehalose as potentially beneficial food ingredient,
with the aim to improve the quality of dehydrated fruit products, especially their aroma, and to
produce superior dried fruit products or ingredients, which are widely used in food formulation.
The authors suggest that glass transformation properties of the material change from a crys-
talline (glass) to a liquid could prevent the loss of small volatile compounds such as esters during
drying and storage. Volatiles are encapsulated in the amorphous glass and low mobility leading
to the increased stability of the material being preserved. Above the glassy state, temperature
collapses and sometimes crystallization takes place and the encapsulated volatiles are released.
New RTDS non-GM plant breedings technology for sorghum, rice and canola
[1594]
According to Cibus, the Rapid Trait Development System RTDS process, is known as directed
mutagenesis. It works through the cell’s natural process of gene repair. Every time a cell copies
DNA, it makes ”scrivener” errors or spelling mistakes.
These variations happen all the time, which is how natural variation occurs. Cibus’ technology
harnesses the cell’s own natural DNA repair machinery to correct such spelling mistakes, thus
directing DNA repair enzymes to correct and repair the targeted gene in a specific way in order
to produce a desired trait. No foreign DNA is incorporated into the organism and no Marker
Assisted Selection is used.
1126
Gene expressing saturated fatty acids [1595]

John Shanklin and colleagues found that the gene beta-Ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP)
synthase II (KASII) elongates 16:0-ACP to 18:0-ACP in the plastid, where it competes with
three other enzymes at the first major branch point in fatty acid biosynthesis.
The authors conclude that early embryo development appears sensitive to elevated 16:0, whereas
at later stages, up to 53% of 16:0, i.e., a 7-fold increase over wild-type levels, is tolerated. Ac-
cording to the authors, the role of KASII in seed metabolism are herewith explained. They say
that the modulation of Arabidopsis KASII levels is sufficient to convert its temperate oilseed
composition to that of a palm-like tropical oil.
This knowledge may lead to transform oilseed plants growing in moderate climate to pro-
duce palm oil similar fats which do not require hydrogenation and are thus free of trans-fatty
acids. This could reduce the pressure on palm oil plantations.
Renewable fuel
USA and Biofuel
USA, trying to boost farming started many projects . National Renewable Energy Laboratory
claims that the production of ethanol from US corn has already reached the volume of the
Brazilian production. [1596]
The City of Portland, Oregon issued the Biofuel Requirements act, demanding that in the
City of Portland, on and after July 1, 2007 all diesel fuel shall contain 5% biodiesel (B5 fuel)
and on and after September 16, 2007, all gasoline shall contain a minimum blend of 10% ethanol
(E10 fuel), Biodiesel for this act is produced from used cooking oil and/or feedstock from the
Genera Brassica (rape, mustard), Caina, Helianthus (sunflower) or Carthamus (safflower). Pal-
moil is excluded from this issue. [1597]
The sustainability of corn farming in the US corn belt [1598] Tad Patzek, from the
University of California looks at the thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol biofuel cycle in 2004.
He concludes that the minimum cumulative energy consumption in restoring the environment
polluted and depleted by the industrial corn-ethanol cycle is over 7 times higher than the max-
imum shaft work of a car engine burning the cycle’s ethanol.
The industrial corn cycle is not renewable, and is unsustainable by a wide margin. The limiting
factors, nutrient-rich humus and water that carries the dissolved nutrients to plant roots are
augmented by chemicals obtained in the linear, irreversible fossil fuel-based processes. Corn
yields demand continuously increases in fertilization rate of corn fields.
He calls the annual corn-ethanol biofuel production a human assault on geologic processes
and the geologic time scale.
Ethanol became the salvation for Midwest corn growers struggling to make ends meet with
a saturated market and slumping prices. U.S. ethanol production is rising dramatically, thanks
to generous corn subsidies, American soils have been depleted for like 50 years or something.
The only reason we can get any good yeilds out of them is through massive fertilization. Fer-
tilizer that we synthesize using gasoline. It’s very inefficient to use the new bio-fuels, as they
ultimately require more fossil fuels to produce than energy they yields. [1599] [1600]
Bio fuel worldwide

Sugar cane: Sugar cane grows in regions with abundant rain all the year round growing season,
cheap land and not expensive labour. The product can be sold as sugar or as alcohol according
to the demands of the market.
The Unicamp University study shows that with no clearing of rain forests there are 2.5E8
hectares of reasonbly level land in Brazil with soil, rain, truck access, etc. for mechanical
cultivation of sugar cane. Also there is great potential in enzimatic hydrolysis for efficiency
improvement of the conversion.
Germans pep up the Burger, the new European gourmet feeling contributes to
revolutionize fast food!
Wener Theurich, German editor of Spiegel Online, calls for a gourmet movement to pep up the
Burger. Rome-Burger as he calls it, has a genial recipe:
Werner Theurich’s Rome Burger:
• 125 g lean meat is cut in very fine stripes, seasoned with salt, fresh grounded pepper and
fried.
• 60 g fresh rasped Italian Provolone or Swiss Greyerzer is added and heated until everything
sticks together in form of a disc.
• Hamburger bread or a small baguette is cut and light-brown under a grill. Put the
meat/cheese between the halves of the bread, joined with onion rings or cubes which had
been glazed by heating it in butter.
The gourmet-guru Theurich recommends to serve Rome Burger with a French vin du pays,
such as from Minervois or from the Rhone.
Sounds good, but please don’t change any ingredients as the fine gourmet feeling will be lost
1128
and you will have an ordinary everyday Burger.
The whole revolutionary fast food story in the German edition of Spiegel Online, together
with the picture of the author and of the Rome Burger you find at
http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,444478,00.html
New applications for protein from pea and soy in texturised foodstuffs [1601]
According to Christian Schfer and colleagues vegetable protein is a valuable alternative to an-
imal proteins in texturised foodstuffs, but has poor gelling properties.
Using a microbial transglutaminase to build isopeptide bonds cross-linking the proteins, im-
proved the gel characteristics from protein of pea and soy. With the use of microbial transglu-
taminase so as being suggested by the authors, leguminous protein may become an alternative
to animal protein in the production of texturised foodstuffs.
New starter cultures for better yoghurt and cheese [1602]

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), together with associated
cas genes, provided resistance against phages, and resistance specificity is determined by spacer-
phage sequence similarity.
This knowledge opens the way to modify the genetic structure of starter cultures for more
resistance to the attack of bacteriophages. Food industry, mainly dairy production, depends
on bacterial cultures which sometimes are changed or killed by these bacterial viruses.
According Philippe Horvath and colleagues working for Danisco and Nestlé, the findings of
this research will enable researchers to select bacteria which have developed natural resistance
against the bacteriophages. New starter cultures may thus be selected without artificial genetic
modification of the bacteria and may present high resistance to bacteriophages.
New process for texturizing whey protein isolate (WPI)

New products incorporating WPI, such as sports drinks are being developed, however, inclusion
of WPI in sufficient amounts to boost the nutritional profile of extruded foods and snacks is
difficult.
Onwulata 2004 extruded WPI in a twin screw extruder at about 40% moisture content and
100o C. He found that WPI texturized by extrusion at different pH values produced stringy
products, showing that texturized WPI ingredients with defined functionality can be created.
He concluded that these products have potential as ingredients to boost protein contents of
products ranging from extruded snacks to meat analogs. [1603]
Ingredients with new functionalities were proposed for whey protein concentrates (WPC) and
isolates (WPI) by Onwulata and colleagues (2003) in order to increase their utilization. They
described extrusion of WPC, WPI, and whey albumin (WA) in a twin screw extruder To im-
prove the nutritional profile of crunchy snack foods, whey proteins, whey protein isolate (WPI),
whey protein concentrates (WPC), or whey albumin (WLA) , concentrated forms of whey, were
extruded with corn meal.
It was determined that addition of WPI adversely affected the crunchiness, color, and tex-
ture of extruded snack foods. They found that all gel strength were lost after 75 degrees C.
Denaturation at these melt temperatures had minimal effect on foaming. Similar results were
obtained for extruded WPC and WA. Varying melt temperature at the extruder die allowed
a controlled rate of denaturation of texturized ingredient with a predetermined functionality.
[1604]
Health snack products, using extrusion technology, that includes whey proteins and low-
glycemic starches such as cassava, cashew pulp, and barley as alternate sources of starch are
being developed by Onwulata and colleagues. [1605]
Tara gum improves gelling of whey protein [1606]

The tara gum E417, a galactomanan of the endosperm of the seeds of the tara tree (Cesalpinia
spinosa lin), is used to boost the gelling activity of agar and carrageenanwas.
This gum was now found in 2007 by Sittikijyothin, Sampaio and Goncalves to affect the rate of
gelation of beta-lactoglobulin with gels formed under heat of 80o C at lower pH (pH4.6) being
stronger than the gels formed at neutral pH. This is important, as many food formulations are
heated in an acidic environment.
The authors say that the addition of non-gelling tara gum affected the heat-set gelation be-
haviour of a solution of beta-lactoglobulin which is considered to be the primary gelling agent
of whey.
Antimicrobial silver as antimicrobial agent in packaging materials [1607]

To increase shelf life of food products a line of styrene copolymers using silver-based antimi-
crobial ingredients from Agion were developed by BASF providing continuous protection from
microbes by releasing silver ions to the surface of the product at a slow and steady rate.
Silver is already being incorporated in plastics, such as used in refrigerators, water filtration,
cutting boards, cellphones, keyboard and clinical devices turning the surfaces self sanitising.
1130
Cheese coating with silver ions [1608]

According Ag POLYMER an antimicrobial cheese polymer coating with silver-ion zeolite ist
intended to coat cheese and protect it from microbes in the European dairy industry.
Agion’s silver antimicrobial ingredient has been approved for food and water contact by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Food Safety Agency.It is a notified
existing substance under the EU’s directive European Biocidal Products Directive (BPD) and
listed for use as an indirect food contact substance with the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). [1609]
Protein and vaccines from methane from the North Sea fields [1610]
The Norway company Norferm in Tiedbergodden expands its capacity 8 000 to 40 000 t/year
of bioprotein using methane gas from Heidrun field in the Norwegian Sea as raw ware.
The BioProtein from Norferm is produced by fermentation of methane, oxygen, ammonia and
minerals together with methanotrophic bacteria Methylococcus capsulatus. The resulting prod-
uct contains 70 % of crude protein and can be used as feed for chicken, swine, pets an fish. [1611]
The University of Bergen, together with Norferm developed the technology of the fermenter
of methane. Other projects are running to bring Methylocuccus capsulatus to produce oral
vaccines. [1612]
Methane a greenhouse gas [1613]

Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas that remains in the atmosphere for approximately 9-15
years. Methane is over 20 times more effective in trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon
dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year period and is emitted from a variety of natural and human-
influenced sources. Human-influenced sources include landfills, natural gas and petroleum sys-
tems,agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion, wastewater treat-
ment, and certain industrial process.
Methane is also a primary constituent of natural gas and an important energy source. As a
result, efforts to prevent or utilize methane emissions can provide significant energy, economic
and environmental benefits.
Gellan film enhancing stability of vitamin C [1614]

Paula Leona and Ana Rojas found that an edible film based on 1% gellan and glycerol in water
enhanced the stability and non-enzymic browning resistance of vitamin C having an application
as antioxidant in various formulations. Natural antioxidants like ascorbic acid are increasingly
used in place of synthetic ones.
Seed flours derived from Chardonnay grapes and black raspberries improving sta-
bility of fish oil [1615]
Fish oil is highly susceptible to oxidation, resulting in a fishy taste and smell. Aside of mi-
croencapsulation Marla Luther and colleagues 2007 suggest ethanol extracts of Chardonnary
grape and black raspberry seed flours to suppress lipid oxidation and rancidity development of
omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil.
The black raspberry and Chardonnary seeds flour extract also exhibited bacteriocidal activity
against E. coli and inhibited the growth of Listeria monocytogenes at a level of 165 µg seed
flour equivalents/mL. According to the authors, the flour of these seeds may become a natural
preservative and antioxidant omega-3 fatty acids added to a variety of canned foods, bread,
dairy products and confectioneries.
Research on exposure and toxicological/ecotoxicological effects of nanoparticles

[1616]
Nanotechnology describes the manufacture, examination and use of structures, molecular ma-
terials, inner interfaces with at least one critical dimension below 100 nm.
Nanoparticles are understood as being engineered granular particulates, tubes and fibres with
a diameter <100nm (including their agglomerates and aggregates) for at least one dimension
which have been shown to have low solubility in biological systems. Based on knowledge ac-
quired so far these particles are particularly toxicologically relevant.
It is expected that the importance of nanotechnology will continue to grow and that work-
ers and consumers will be increasingly exposed to it.
According to present knowledge, the insoluble and poorly soluble nanoparticles2 are partic-
ularly toxicologically relevant.
As the exposure of humans and the environment as well as the toxicological and ecotoxico-
logical properties and risks have not yet been characterised, there is a general need to conduct
further studies and to close the gaps in knowledge through research and assessment activities.
Chemical legislation does not specify any obligation to test (e.g. toxicological studies) or as-
sess widespread nanoparticles like for instance titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, silicon
dioxide or ”carbon black” that involve a nanoscale modification to a high production volume
existing substance with the same CAS Number
Nanoparticles as food additives

Up to now there has been no specific regulation for nanoparticles in the areas food, consumer
1132
goods or cosmetics. For instance, no particle sizes are stipulated in the purity criteria for the
approved food additives silicon dioxide (E551) and titanium dioxide (E171).
Public acceptance of nanotechnology

In order to promote the acceptance of nanotechnology by the public, accompanying social scien-
tific research should be conducted and there should be transparent discussion of the risks with all
interested stakeholders in society (cf. for instance http://www.dialognanopartikel.de/downloads.html).
The Goal of the research

The main goal of this research strategy is to structure the research area, to develop the measure-
ment of particles (metrology), to record information on exposure and toxicological/ecotoxicological
effects, to promote the development of a sophisticated risk related test and assessment strategy,
safety and risk management.
Technology reducing lactic acid during production of probiotic cultures [1617]

Living bacterial strains of probiotics will be produced using a new technique which continu-
osly removes lactic acid during fermentation by electrodialyses. Lactic acid limits the bacterial
growth. Removig it from the system, as it is being formed, improves yields and quality of the
probiotic culture.
The Reverse Electro-Enhanced Dialysis (REED) system was developed by the Danish firm
Jurag Separation and can be combined with traditional or bipolar membrane electro dialysis
processes using continuously .changing the direction of electrical current. It avoids thus foul-
ing of the membrane. The system is a continuous ion-exchange across selective ion-exchange
membranes without the use of resins.
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[1595] Pidkowich, Mark S.; Tam Nguyen, Huu; Heilmann, Ingo; Ischebeck, Till; and Shanklin,
John: Modulating seed beta-ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein synthase II level converts the
composition of a temperate seed oil to that of a palm-like tropical oil. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Science of the United States of America PNAS March 13,
2007 vol. 104 no. 11 4742-4747 Doi:10.1073/pnas.0611141104
[1596] USA National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Innovation for Our Energy Future.
http://www.nrel.gov/
[1597] City of Portland, Oregon, USA: 16.60.020 Biofuel Requirements (Amended by Ordi-
nance No. 180671, effective .)
http://www.portlandonline.com/Auditor/index.cfm?a=begbac&c=cigai
[1598] Patzek, Tad W.:Thermodynamics of the Corn-Ethanol Biofuel Cycle. Department of

Civil and Environmental Engineering 425 Davis Hall University of California, Berkeley,
CA 94720 Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 23(6):519-567 (2004)
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[1599] Sciforum: Alcohol fuel - The obvious answer, Yes or No?
http://www.sciforums.com/Alcohol-fuel-The-obvious-answer-Yes-or-No-t-50183.html
[1600] Gulf Ethanol and the Environment
http://www.gulfethanolinc.com/gulf ethanol environment.htm
[1601] Schäfer, Christian; Zacherl, Christian; Engel, Karl-Heinz; Neidhart, Sybille; Carle,
Reinhold: Comparative study of gelation and cross-link formation during enzymatic
texturisation of leguminous proteins. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technolo-
gies (Elsevier). Doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2007.01.005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2007.01.005
[1602] Rodolphe Barrangou, Christophe Fremaux, Helene Deveau, Melissa Richards, Patrick
Boyaval, Sylvain Moineau, Dennis A. Romero, and Philippe Horvath: CRISPR Provides
Acquired Resistance Against Viruses in Prokaryotes. Science 23 March 2007, Vol 315:
1709-1712.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/315/5819/1709
[1603] Onwulata, C.I.: High Moisture Extrusion of Whey Protein. IFT Annual Meeting, July
12-16, 2004. Las Vegas, NV. Paper nr.41-4.
[1604] Onwulata, C.I., Konstance, R. P.; Cooke, P. H. and Farrell, Jr.,H. M.: Functionality of
Extrusion-Texturized Whey Proteins. 2003. Functionality of extrusion-texturized whey
proteins. Journal of Dairy Science. 86:3775-3782.
http://jds.fass.org/cgi/content/abstract/86/11/3775
[1605] USDA ARS: Research Project: Protein-Enriched Low Glycemic Snack Products that
mitigate Childhood Obesity and Hidden Hunger.
http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN NO=409218
[1606] Sittikijyothin, W.; Sampaio P. and Goncalves, M.P.: Heat-induced gelation of beta-
lactoglobulin at varying pH: Effect of tara gum on the rheological and structural prop-
erties of the gels Food Hydrocolloids (Elsevier) Volume 21, Issue 7, Pages 1046-1055
doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.07.019
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science? ob=ArticleURL& udi=B6VP9-4M1DB60-
1& user=10& coverDate=10%2F31%2F2007& rdoc=6& fmt=summary& orig=browse& srch=
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[1607] Agion Antimicrobial: BASF forms exclusive partnership with Agion Technologies. Press
release May 25, 2007.
http://www.agion-tech.com/NewsAndEvents.aspx?id=776
[1608] Agion Technologies and AgPOLYMER Introduce Antimicrobial Cheese Coating Poly-
mers Press release April 24, 2007
http://www.agion-tech.com/NewsAndEvents.aspx?id=742
[1609] Agion: Regulatory guidance

http://www.agion-tech.com/CustomerPrograms.aspx?id=120
[1610] Robert Winder: Methane to biomass. Cheistry and Industry 06 Septempmber 2004
Issue 17 p 19
http://www.chemind.org/CI/searchresults.jsp
[1611] Norferm: BioProtein. A single cell protein from methane

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08GOIWzcutQE9-Ehg
[1612] University of Bergen: Exploiting a gaseating bacteria

http://www.uib.no/elin/elpub/uibmag/en02/bacteria.html
[1613] US EPA: Methane

http://www.epa.gov/methane/
[1614] Leona, Paula G. and Rojas, Ana M.: Gellan gum films as carriers of l-(+)-ascorbic acid.
Food Research International (Elsevier). June 2007, Volume 40, Issue 5, Pages 565-575.
Doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2006.10.021
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[1615] Luther, Marla; Parry, John; Moore, Jeffrey; Meng, Jianghong; Zhang, Yifan; Cheng,
Zhihong; Yu, Liangli (Lucy): Inhibitory effect of Chardonnay and black raspberry seed
extracts on lipid oxidation in fish oil and their radical scavenging and antimicrobial
properties. Journal of Food Chemistry (Elsevier) Doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.01.034
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.01.034
[1616] Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin: Nanotechnology: Health and

Environmental Risks of Nanoparticles. Research strategy.
http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/220/nanotechnologie gesundheits und umweltrisiken von nanopar
[1617] Jurag Separation: REED System

http://www.jurag.dk/index.asp
[1618] Frossard, Christophe P.; Steidler, Lothar; Eigenmann, Philippe: Oral administration
of an IL-10-secreting Lactococcus lactis strain prevents food-induced IgE sensitization.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (Elsevier) doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2006.12.615
[1619] Eigenmann, Philippe; Frossard, Christophe P: IL-10 transfected lactoccocus lactis pre-
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Ege, M; Riedler, J.; Schram-Bijkerk, D.;. Brunekreef, B.; van Hage, M.; Lauener,
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Europe Clinical and Experimental Allergy Clinical and Experimental Allergy May 2007,
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[1621] Perkin, M.R.Unpasteurised milk: health or hazard ? Clinical and Experimental Allergy
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[1622] EFSA: Opinion of the NDA Panel related to a notification from Cognis, ADM and
Cargill on natural mixed tocopherols (E306), natural D-alpha tocopherol, natural
D-alpha tocopherol acetate and natural D-alpha tocopherol succinate from soybean
sources pursuant to Article 6, paragraph 11 of Directive 2000/13/EC. 6.6.2007
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/nda/nda opinions/food allergy/ej485 tocopherols.html
[1623] EFSA: Opinion of the NDA Panel related to a notification from Cognis, ADM and
Cargill on vegetable oils-derived phytosterols and phytosterol esters from soybean
sources pursuant to Article 6 paragraph 11 of Directive 2000/13/EC. 6.6.2007
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/nda/nda opinions/food allergy/ej486 phytosterols.html
[1624] EFSA: Opinion of the NDA Panel related to a notification from AAC on wheat-based
glucose syrups including dextrose pursuant to Article 6, paragraph 11 of Directive
2000/13/EC. 6.6.2007.
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1290
[1625] Codex Stan 118 Standard for Gulte-Free Foods 1983

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[1626] Federal Institut for Risk Assessment: Chromium (VI) in leather clothing and shoes
problematic for allergy sufferers! 10/2007, 02.07.2007
http://www.bfr.bund.de/cms5w/sixcms/detail.php/9575
Chapter 32
testtest
Consensus Action on Salt and Health: This organization urges consumers to boycott
foods that contain either more than 1.25g of salt (0.5g of sodium) per 100g or more than 2.4g
of salt per serving, forcing manufacturers to reformulate excessively salty foods. World Action
on Salt and Health (WASH) was established in 2005 and is a global group with the mission to
improve the health of populations throughout the world by achieving a gradual reduction in
salt intake. [562]
Labels
Sodium is usually listed in the nutritional information on food labels. If salt is listed, sodium
chloride is meant.
Conversion Salt to sodium and sodium to salt

• Salt = sodium X 2.5
• Sodium = salt X 0,4
Conversion Potassium chloride and potassium Salt replacer [?]
• Potassium chloride = potassium X 2

• Potassium = potassium chloride X 0,5
Blends of KCl (potassium chloride), sugar, yeast extract, and flavours are being developed to
hide the bitterness of potassium chloride,with salty perception but does not work against the
active yeast of a dough system.
Table 32.1: Daily Recommended Intakes of Fiber, Sodium, and Potassium by Age and Gender
1291
1292
Gender/Age Fibre, g Sodium, mg Potassium, mg

1-3 y 19 <1500 3000
4-8 y
Female 25 <1900 3800
Male 25 <1900 3800
9-13 y
Female 26 <2200 4500
Male 31 <2200 4500
14-18 y
Female 29 <2300 4700
Male 38 <2300 4700
Dietary fibre recent studies on colorectal cancer
Denis Burkitt proposed in 1971 the link between colorectal cancer and dietary fibre. Inconsis-
tent results of studies could not back this theory.
A new study of Elizabeth Jacobs from the Arizona Cancer Center , however considered the
sex of the participants and found a significant benefit of fibre for men, but not for women. This
may explain the discrepant results of the Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention
Trial. [636]
The Wheat Bran Fibre Trial assessed the effect of a high wheat bran fibre supplement against
a low wheat bran fibre supplement men and women, randomly assigned to the supplements.
The Polyp Prevention Trial studied the effect of a low-fat, high fibre diet, rich in fruit and
vegetables on the recurrence of pre-cancerous polyps in the colon and rectum.
Both studies reported that the high-fibre diets had no effect of the recurrence of colorectal
polyps.
The Arizona researchers from the Arizona Cancer Center re-evaluating the data of both studies
observed statistically significant reduced odds of recurrence for men, but no significant associ-
ation for women. [636]
The recently published results of the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) trial also reported no
link between a diet low in fat, and high in fruit, vegetables and whole-grain intake. This study
was restricted to women and appears to agree with the results from Arizona. Poor compliance
with the dietary intervention in the WHI trial do, however, raise questions about the validity
of these results. [637]
Limitations of the two studies (Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention Trial): 1.-
Both had very short follow-up periods of only two to four years The latency period of the cancer
is between 10 and 20 years, 2.- The use of polyps as a marker for actual cancer was criticized
as questionable by Dr. Arasaradnam from Northern General Hospital in Sheffield in 2004. [638]
Concorde grape:
Vitis labrusca (Fox grape) is a specific grape native in the northeast of the United States. It is
the source of many grape cultivars, including concord grapes. The characteristic ”foxy” musk
of V. labrusca is inherited by the Concorde grape. [639]
A study performed by lead author Barbara Shukitt-Hale the Human Nutrition Research Center
on Aging at Tufts University relate improved results on behavioural tests and enhanced motor
performance on rats fed with Concorde grape juice, which is rich in polyphenoles. The study
suggests that the effects of Concorde grape juice may be more effective than any one single
Hopes are rising that component of grape juice may reverse brain aging. [640]
Concord grapes may have many health benefits such as reducing hypertension and the neg-
ative effects of second-hand smoking, but these results are tentative. [641]
Cardiovascular protection of red wine and white wine

[642] M. Falchi and colleagues found that the flesh of grapes are equally cardioprotective as skin,
and antioxidant potential of skin and flesh of grapes are comparable with each other despite of
the fact that flesh does not possess any anthocyanin activities.
Recent studies have documented that grapes and grape juices are equally cardioprotective
as red wine. despite vastly differing polyphenol content.
Several studies have linked regular consumption of red wine to reduced risk of heart disease.
The skin of red grapes is a rich source of red coloured anthocianine. Red grapes are usually
crushed whole, meaning the anthocyanines are transferred to resulting wine and juice, on the
contrary, most white wine or white grape juices are prepared by discarding the grape skin,
nourishing the belief that red wines and red grape juice are healthier than white.
M. Falchi fed three groups of rats with water only (control), grape skin extract, or grape
flesh extract. The increase of malondialdehyde (MDA), a reactive carbonyl compound related
to oxidative stress, was measured under ischemic and myocardial infarction conditions.
No difference was observed between the flesh and skin extracts, both groups had significantly
reduced heart attack size compared with water control group.
Quantification of the polyphenol content confirmed that, while the skins had anthocyanin con-
centrations of about 128 milligrams per 100 grams, the flesh contained no such compounds.
1294
However, the radical scavenging abilities of both the flesh and skin extracts were found to
be the same. The flesh of the grapes did contain polyphenols but not of the anthocyanin type
of grape skin. Furthermore caffeic acid, caftaric acid, and coutaric acid have been reported
which are also present in white grape varieties.
Red wine and reduction of atherosclerosis [643]

Tony Hayek and colleagues studied the effect of consuming red wine, or its major polyphenol
constituents catechin or quercetin, on the development of atherosclerotic lesions, in relation to
the susceptibility of plasma LDL to oxidation and to aggregation in mice.
They found that the inhibition of LDL oxidation by polyphenols could be related, at least
in part, to a direct effect of the polyphenols on the LDL, since both quercetin and catechin
were found to bind to the LDL particle via the formation of an ether bond.
The authors conclude that dietary consumption of red wine or its polyphenolic flavonoids
quercetin and, to a lesser extent, catechin leads to attenuation in the development of the
atherosclerotic lesion, and this effect is associated with reduced susceptibility of their LDL to
oxidation and aggregation.
Concentrated red grape juice reduces risk of cardiovascular disease [644]

The aim of the study was to study the effects of dietary supplementation with concentrated
red grape juice, a source of polyphenols, on lipoprotein profile, antioxidant capacity, LDL oxi-
dation, and inflammatory biomarkers.
The authors concluded that dietary supplementation with concentrated red grape juice im-
proves the lipoprotein profile, reduces plasma concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers and
oxidized LDL, and may favor a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk.
Nutrition claims in the Philippines The US company Procter & Gambler has launched
on the Philippines market a concentrated orange powder ”NutriDelight”. This orange juice in
form of a dehydrated powder is enriched with vitamin A, iron and iodine.
This product is claimed to ” let children grow stronger, taller, and smarter.
According to P&G director Durk Jager the undersupply of these three elements is one of the
most outstanding problem of worldwide nutrition. The ”Nutridelight” according to Jager has
been developed in cooperation with Health departments and UNICEF and was tested in Tan-
zania. This product may have importance in the nutrition of a wide population in case of
undersupply during catastrophes where international associations try to feed people of a lim-
ited region to overcome a short period of calamity. It not suitable for the nutrition at normal
times. The population which has no money to buy a balanced natural nutrition will certainly
have not the possibility to achieve orange juice powder enriched with food supplements from
Procter & Gambler.
Health authorities should try to get the population educated in a way to get a well balanced
nutrition with local fruits,vegetables, fish and meat.
Getting back to the elementary balanced nutrition helps although the local industry, fishery
and agriculture bringing jobs and the most important of all: It gives thousand and thousand
all other components which are necessary to our nutrition avoiding synthetic food from pills
and pharmacy.
Complete low caloric servings Low caloric serving ”pro figur” are servings of 250 g of
yoghurt enriched with vitamins, pineapple, cereals vitamins and minerals. The servings are to
small to avoid hunger. Artificial sweetener are used not being in consent to an organic food.
The amount of cereals should be increased. the flavouring of the product is very intensive
turning it very soon to be felt awful. Intensive flavouring should always be avoided in products
which are supposed to be used over a long time.
It is advisable to go back to the recommendations of the health departments and associations
like the DGE in order to reduce or to avoid overweight:
1.- Increase the amount of vegetables and fruits.
2.- Reduce fat
3.- Eat fish
4.- Practice sport to burn excessive calories.
These recommendations lead to normal weight without synthetic modified foods. The main goal
which Nestlé tries to achieve with ”profigur” is to boost sails taking out sails from drugstores
where low caloric ready servings are well sold. However even there these servings have proven
to bring no success on lasting weight reduction.
Low fat nutrition [481] Low fat nutrition has proved to be suitable to reduce body weight.
The Ernärungsphychologische Forschungsstelle in Göttingen[481] (Nutrition Psychology Re-
search Center in Göttingen) has made a study related to body weight reducing diet changing
from high fat to low fat nutrition. High fat sausages and cheese types were exchanged by low
fat foods. Milk and yoghurt with 1,5 % fat were taken in the nutrition plan. Whipped-cream
gateau was exchanged with fruit tart with a bottom of yeast pastry. Foods based on carbohy-
drates such as vegetables and fruits were unlimited allowed.
The result of this study was successful. In 8 weeks weight reduction of 1,5 up to 2,9 Kg took
place. This nutrition should be used to body weight reduction instead of pills or special foods
which cannot be consumed a whole life.
The low fat nutrition keeping the old nutrition habits can be followed for an unlimited period.
It is therefore an alternative to the reduction diets which can be followed only during short
1296
time ending in the jo-jo effect.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
History of RDA [66]

The RDA was developed during World War II by lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling and
Helen S. Mitchel under the auspices of the National Research Council. The National Research
Council determined that a set of dietary standards were needed, especially given the possibility
that rations would be needed during the war.
The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civil-
ians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell
surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances, and submitted them to experts
for review. The final set of allowances were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to
provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a ”margin of
safety.”
The RDA was established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the (US) National Academy of
Sciences.
In 1997 at the suggestion of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy RDA be-
came one part of a broader set of dietary guidelines called the Dietary Reference Intake used
by both the United States and Canada.
RDA inclusion in DRI family [67]

The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) had been valid from 1941 until 1989, the RDAs
to evaluate and plan menus that would meet the nutrient requirements of groups as well as
other applications such as interpreting food consumption records of populations, establishing
standards for food assistance programs, establishing guidelines for nutrition labelling, to name
a few. The RDAs were created to prevent nutrient deficiencies. They were not intended to
evaluate the diets of individuals.
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) family In 1997, the Food and Nutrition Board of the
National Academy of Sciences created the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) after a extensive
revision of the RDAs. The new family of nutrient reference values is organized in four types of
DRI reference values:
1. Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): A daily nutrient intake value that is esti-
mated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a life stage and gender
group. EAR is used to assess dietary adequacy and as the basis for the RDA.
2. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA):The average daily dietary intake level

that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98%) healthy
individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.
3. Adequate Intake (AI): a recommended intake value based on observed or experimen-

tally determined approximations or estimates of nutrient intake by a group (or groups)
of healthy people, that are assumed to be adequate. AI is used when an RDA cannot be
determined.
4. Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): The highest level of daily nutrient intake that
is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for almost all individuals in the general
population. As intake increase above the UL, the potential risk of adverse effects increases.
These dietary reference values were intended to prevent nutrient deficiencies and to reduce the
risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
Critical Issues in the Application of Dietary Reference Intakes [68] [69]

Dr. George Beaton, University of Toronto, examining application of the Dietary Reference
Intakes (DRI) among individuals and groups comes to the conclusion that the RDA lacks an
acceptable scientific basis and suggests that dietary advice for both groups should be achieved
through critical DRI reference values.
According to Beaton, tradition and the DRI reports themselves have created an erroneous
impression that the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is intended for use with individ-
uals, while the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is to be used with populations.
He concludes that the median requirement and Tolerable Upper Limit (UL) are the critical
reference values for both individuals and populations. The RDA is both unneeded and lacking
a sound scientific basis.
Defending RDA [70]

According to Murphy, Barr, and Yates, Dietary each DRI category has specific uses in dietary
assessment and/or planning for groups or individuals. For example, the RDA is ”intended to
be used as a goal for daily intake by individuals as this value estimates an intake level that
has a high probability of meeting the requirement of a randomly chosen individual.” The DRI
paradigm is being used as a model for nutrient standards worldwide. The authors argue in
favour of keeping the present thinking about it the uses of nutrients.
Beaton replied that we now live in an era of increasing demand for evidence-based nutrition
and stresses the necessity of revising previous thinking and approaches as it becomes apparent
that they lack evidence of validity.
1298
Actual dietary references set from US Food and Drug Administration FDA
DVs (Daily Values): The use of Dvs on the food label started in 1994, following the US
Nutrition Labelling and Education Act of 1990. [71]
It is made up of two sets of references, DRVs and RDIs. But, according to Paula Kurtzweil
from FDA, these two sets are ”behind the scenes” in food labelling; only the Daily Value term
will appear on the label to make label reading less confusing.[71]
The labelling act from 1990 requires nutrition label information to be conveyed in a way
that enables the public to observe and comprehend the information readily and to understand
its relative significance in the context of a total daily diet. [71]
According to Christine Lewis from FDA’s Office of Food Labelling, the DV does that in two
ways: First, it serves as a basis for declaring on the label the percent of the Daily Value for
each nutrient that a serving of the food provides. [71]
For example, the Daily Value for fat, based on a 2,000-calorie diet, is 65 grams (g). A food that
has 13 g of fat per serving would state on the label that the ”percent Daily Value” for fat is
20 percent. Second, it provides a basis for thresholds that define descriptive words for nutrient
content, called descriptors, such as ”high fibre” and ”low fat.” For example, the descriptor
”high fibre” can be used if a serving of food provides 20 percent or more of the Daily Value for
fibre - that is, 5 g or more. [71]
URLs (Daily Reference Values): a set of dietary references that applies to fat, saturated
fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, protein, fibre, sodium, and potassium.
RDIs (Reference Daily Intakes): a set of dietary references based on the Recommended
Dietary Allowances for essential vitamins and minerals and, in selected groups, protein. The
name ”RDI” replaces the term ”U.S. RDA.”
RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances): a set of estimated nutrient allowances es-
tablished by the National Academy of Sciences. It is updated periodically to reflect current
scientific knowledge.
References on dietary references and dietary supplements For more informations on

US FDA dietary references, please go to their homepage of http://www.fda.gov/fdac/special/foodlabel/d
For more informations on dietary supplements please go to http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/d̃ms/supplmnt.html

Vitamins and essential elements The WHO (World health Organization of the United
Nations) has recommended the Daily Allowance(RDA) of vitamins and minerals given in the
table below.
Linus Pauling and a group of his followers claim higher doses.
The table draws a comparison between WHO and other recommended doses.
The recommendations of WHO should be followed as the doses marked ***are likely to be
considered as overdose when used for long time.
You may find the table of RDA useful to compare with the labeling of your food complements.
Table 32.2: Recommended Daily Allowance(RDA) of vitamins and minerals

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 60 mg 500 2000 10.000
Vitamin E (d-alfa tocopherol) 10 I.U. 400 600 1.000
Beta carotene 0 mg 15 15
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) 1,0-1,4 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) 1,2-1,7 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B3 (niacinamide) 18 mg 10 50 100
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) 2,2 mg 10 50 50
Pantothenic acid 4-7 mg 50 100 200
Folic acid 400µ 1.000 5.000
Biotin 100-200µg 0 300 3ßß
Vitamin D 200-300 I.U. 0 200 400
Vitamin K 70-120µg 0 0 120
Selenium 100µg 150 200
Chrome picolinate 200µg 200 400
Zinc 15 mg 15 30
Calcium 500 mg 1.000 1.500
Magnesium 200mg 400 600
Iodine 150µg 150 150 300
Bioflavonoid 0 200mg 1.000
Garlic 0 600 mg 900
Concentrated fish oil 0 1.000 mg 2000
Glutathione 0 50 mg 100
Glutamine 0 2.000 mg 8.000
Coenzyme Q10 0 30 mg 240
Ginkgo Bilobe Egb 761 0 120 mg 120
Iron 0-18 mg 0 0 5
1300
Copper 2-3 mg 0 2 3
Manganese 2,5-5,0 mg 0 2,5 5,0
Molybdenum 0,15-0,5 mg 0 0,15 0,5
Fluor 0mg 0 0
Vitamin B6 overdose Heavy overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine can cause alterations of

mobility, psychological alterations and reactions like those of Contergan in new born.
The Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment
(COT) gives the advice not to exceed daily 10 mg. Supplier of vitamin B6 are meat, fish, eggs,
cereals and some vegetables.
Some food complements contain dose up to 100 mg. COT tries to establish a voluntary limit of
vitamin B6 in food complements between manufacturers and include more informations on the
label. The commission has great concern with possible about damages of the nervous System
in case of over dose[72].
Other components of nutrition
The nutritional value of fats Oils and fats have high nutritional value as they are rich
in energy and act as transport medium of liposoluble vitamins. Some fatty acids cannot be
synthetize by human body, they are called essential fatty acids (arachidonic acid, linoleic acid
and linolenic and linolenic acid) . They are important parts of the synthesis of the hormone
prostaglandin and are part of the structure of cell membrane[73].
The intake of fat, however is to high. Adults should reduce the intake of fat
There is a connection between the amount of fat consumed and arterial diseases, as well as
duodenal cancer and mammal cancer.
It is advisable to reduce fat an to chose fat with high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Daily intake of fat The European population has a daily intake of 130 to 150 gram/person/day.
This should be reduced to 60 gram with maximum of 90 gram.
Recommended composition of fats According to the DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für

Ernährung) and WHO the intake of fat should be constituted by on third of saturated fatty
acids, one third of monounsaturated fatty acids and one third of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
(This rule is called ”The one third rule”.
The amount of saturated fatty acids in nutrition is to high.
The main source of saturated fatty acids is found in meat, sausages milk product, cakes and
biscuits. This should be reduced.
Total fat intake: should not be over 30% of total energy by people with light manual work,
and not over 35% of total energy by people for people with heavy manual work.
Long chain saturated fatty acids: should not be over 10% of total energy.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids: should be about 7% of total energy and up to 10% when the
amount of saturated fatty acids lies over 10%.
Relation between linoleic acid (n-6) and linolenic acid (n-3): the relation should be 5:1.
Monounsaturated fatty acids: can fill up to the total amount of total energy. Trans-fatty
acids: should be less than 1% of total energy[685]
Recommended intake of Cholesterol The European daily intake is 500 to 800 mg/person/day.
This should be reduced to a maximum of 300 mg/day.
Every health organization supports the theory of an excess of animal food rich in cholesterol
and saturated fatty acids being the main cause of high levels of blood fats and arteriosclerosis.
Saturated fatty acids rise thae blood cholesterol, accelerating the formation of arteriosclerosis.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids may help to reduce blood cholesterol.
Blood levels of Cholesterol
• HDL cholesterol should be at least 45 mg/dl for females and 35 mg/dl for
male.
The maximum of cholesterol for adults allowed is 200 mg.
• Values of cholesterol between 200 and 250 mg/dl have to be controlled. They can
be tolerated if the bad LDL is low and the good HDL is high and there are no secondary
risks (high arterial pressure, smoke, diabetes, excessive body weight, no sports are made
and continuous stress). The higher secondary risks are more cholesterol values have to be
reduced. According Lancet 1996 every third person with more then 40 years, smoking,
with high arterial pressure and cholesterol over 230 mg/dl of blood will suffer an infarct.
In Germany 261000 persons die of infarct each year.
• Values of cholesterol over 250 md/dl are always coronary risks. Everyone should
know his values of blood cholesterol. Values over 200 mg/dl should be reason enough to
change the way of life, the nutrition and the physical constitution.
With a modification of nutrition indicated by a dietician blood cholesterol may be reduced
by 20%. (250 mg/dl may be brought down to 200 mg/dl without medication.)
It is therefore important to stop smoking, to have a healthy nutrition and practice sports.
According to the WHO healthy nutrition should have 45 to 55% complex carbohydrates, 30%
of oils and fats having more than half of her fatty acids unsaturated. (Some say 10% saturated,
10% monounsaturated and 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids.) The intake of cholesterol should
be under 300 mg/day and less than 5 gram of salt /day. This means nutrition rich in pasta,
1302
fish, olive oil, vegetables and fruits. The daily sport should be 30 minutes biking or walking.
Infarct risk and diabetes II can so be reduced significantly. It is important to consider the fat
intake not in percentage of calories but as grams of fat.[136]
Salt intake, Recommendations of the American Heart Association [135]

According to the American Heart Association physicians recommend keeping salt intake below
2,300 milligrams sodium (mg)(one teaspoon of salt) per day. for people with heart failure,
recommended sodium intake is no more than 2,000 mg per day.
Sodium is present not alone in salt also in sodium alginate, sodium sulfite, sodium caseinate,
disodium phosphate, sodium benzoate, sodium hydroxide, monosodium glutamate, sodium cit-
rate and other ingredients.
High salt intake is the major reason of raising blood pressure, responsible for strokes and
heart attacks.
Current intake in Europe varies between 10 and 15 grams/day,WHO which recommends no

more than 5 grams of salt intake per day for every adult in the world.
The Consensus Action on Salt and Health, together with the UK’s Specialist Advisory Commit-
tee on Nutrition, which advises the FSA, say that consumers should reduce their consumption
to 6g a day.
About 80 per cent of salt is consumed through the consumption of processed food. Salt makes
the product cheap, tasteless food edible, and more water to products can be added because it
acts as a binder.
Robert Speiser, director of EuSalt , however, says that there is scientific evidence to sug-
gest that reducing salt may not necessarily be in the interests of all consumers.
He says that two recent studies that concluded that there was no need to reduce salt among
healthy people were neglected by regulators. According to Speiser the UK Food Standards
Agency (FSA) is the only official authority to propose a signposting initiative that says it is
necessary to reduce salt. The scientific evidence for this doesn’t exist. Salt intake should remain
determined by the needs of the individual.
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys ( NHANES)1960 to 1994 shows that
the intake of fat in percent has decreased but the average body weight has increased. This was
caused by a steady increase of all other components of food.
The NHANES paper shows that lowering fat intake lowers total cholesterol, lowers low density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, reducing cardiovascular risks, but it also reduces the high density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, increasing cardiovascular risk if it drops below 35 mg/decilitre.
Trevor Smith says that a blanket condemnation of saturated fats is unwise. [136]. It has been
shown by Scott Grundy that stearates (saturated fatty acids) does not raise blood cholesterol.[137]
Lowering fat intake often lowers HDL cholesterol.
According to Trevor Smith it is sufficient to limit the fat intake to an average of one gram per
kilogram of body weight, or target body weight per day. There is no need to count calories hav-
ing a normal balanced diet. In addition one should limit animal fat intake avoid hydrogenated
fats entirely, pefer olive and rapeseed oil, increase the consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole
grains and prevention of excessive weight increasing physical activity like walking three miles
a day at least five days a week, or an hour a day [138].
Salt consumption [221]

The UK Food Standards Agency recommends for adults not to eat more than 6 gram salt a
day. The daily recommended maximum for children depends on their age:
• 1 to 3 years - 2 g salt a day (0.8g sodium)
• 4 to 6 years - 3g salt a day (1.2g sodium)
• 7 to 10 years - 5g salt a day (2g sodium)
• 11 and over - 6g salt a day (2.5g sodium)
These are the recommended maximums for children. It is better for them to have less.
The Agency advises to look at the nutritional information on the label:

High salted foods have 1.25g salt or more per 100g (0.5g sodium or more per 100g).
Low salted foods have 0.25g salt or less per 100g (0.1g sodium or less per 100g
The FSA classifies foods between high and low, as moderate salted foods.
Salt calculatorhttp://www.salt.gov.uk/salt calculator.shtml
Nutritional habits
According to FSA, the taste buds get used to high levels of salt and may not notice the saltiness
of some foods. Getting used to eating less salt the taste buds become more sensitive and can
find out how salty foods taste which had been considered as not salty before.
Eating foods with less salt one gets used to this nutritional habit and they will become more
tasty because lots of salt can hide more subtle flavours.
If children have too much salt, this could affect their health and give them a taste for salty
food, being more likely to continue eating too much salt when they grow up. [222]
1304
Blood LDL cholesterol should be treated in order to level with:

• LDL cholesterol > 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l)
• LDL cholesterol > 130 mg/dl (3,36 mmol/l) with two or more secondary risks and HDL
cholesterol > 35 mg/dl=0,91 mmol/l Secondary risks are: Arterial hypertension, smoke,
overweight, Diabetes mellitus, peripheral arteriosclerosis and cerebral sclerosis
• Arterial hypertension:
Blood pressure up to 140/90 mmHg is considered as normal.
Blood pressure from 140/90 mmHg up to 160/95 should be put under medical supervision.
Blood pressure higher than 160/95 is considered as hypertension which needs medication.
• LDL cholesterol > 100 mg/dl (2,6 mmol/l) in case of manifested coronary diseases
• LDL cholesterol > 110 mg/dl (2,8 mmol/l) in children and juveniles
Traditional blood cholesterol values Isolated values of total blood cholesterol does not
give safe informations for therapy control. Below values are cited as being traditional:
Table 32.3: Blood values of cholesterol traditional considered as normal

Adults < 30 years total cholesterol < 180 mg/dl (4,66 mmol/l)
Adults > 65 years total cholesterol < 240 mg/dl (6,21 mmol/l)
Children total cholesterol < 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l)
Diet necessary total Cholesterol < 200 mg/dl (5,17 mmol/l)
LDL/HDL quotient < 5,0
Dietary measures to lower blood cholesterol The following measures lower the blood
cholesterol in great number of cases.
• Reduction of calories
• Reduction of fat in nutrition
• Change of nutrition related the composition of fatty acids, substituting saturated fatty
acids
• Reduction of cholesterol in nutrition. An interesting way to reduce cholesterol in nutrition
is made with the introduction of a low-cholesterol egg. These eggs are produced in
Malaysia and also in Germany feeding chicken with monounsaturated fatty acids, maize
and palm oil. They have 100 to 160 mg cholesterol which is 25 to 50% below normal
[223].
The omega-3 egg In Germany there are being made efforts to produce eggs with high
level of omega-3 fatty acids. Hens are being fed with a special type of grains. This
gets eggs rich on polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 type. The daily intake of
omega-3 fatty acids should be 0,5% of total calories ( with a diet of 2.200 kcal/day =
approximately 1 g omega 3 fatty acids)(information from EIVIt Fischer Weppler GmbH
PB 100572 76486 Baden-Baden).
• Rise of amount of fibres in nutrition
• Reduction of the amount of meat in nutrition
• Reduction of Broca Index below 1,0.

Broca Index Body weight in Kg = Body length in cm-100
• Body Mass Index < 25

Body Mass Index = Body weight in Kg : (Body length in meters)2
Before medication is used a 6 month cholesterol lowering diet should be tried.

An immediate medication together with a diet is needed when LDL-cholesterol >
350 mg/dl= 9,1 mmol/l.
Approval of products in EU: Regulation (EC) No 258/97 concerning novel foods

and novel food ingredients
Before any new food product can be introduced on the European market it must be rigorously
assessed for safety. In the UK the assessment of novel foods is carried out by an independent
committee of scientists appointed by the Food Standards Agency, the Advisory Committee on
Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).
UK novel foods committee

The Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP ) is an independent group
of experts who advise the Agency on any matters relating to novel foods and novel processes.
Varied fruit juices have been subjected to approval, some o them enriched with plant sterols.
[224]
Index
(, 83 Acetylated starch, 658

1,2-dibromoethane (EDB), 119 Acetylcholine, 380
2,3,7,8-TCDD, 222 Acetylsalicylic acid, 168
2,4,5-T, 119 Achromobacter, 137
2,4-D Amine Liquid, 99 Achromobacter anitratus, 173
2,4-D Granular , 99 Acid rain, 987
35S promoter, 467 Acidity regulators, 636
471 Mono- and Diglyceride of fatty acids, 639 Acidulants, 636
Acinetobacter, 136
, 657, 840, 896 Acryamide, formation from wheat gluten, 394
americanus, 1018
Acrylamide in foods, 391
Dodecyl gallate, 638
Acrylamide, reduction with green bamboo leaves
Enrichment broth for coliforms and Escherichia
and green tea, 396
coli, 175
Acrylamide, reports and statements, 393
RT-PCR, 479
Actinida chinensis, 310
A-C-E drinks, 304 Active metabolic rate, 899
Abrin, 1035 Addictive drugs,classification according to their
Abrus precatorius , 1035 harm, 86
Absidia, 748 Adenine, vitamin B4, 358
Acesulfame K, 651 Adenosylmethionine-S (SAMe), 309
Acetaldehyde, 86 Adenovirus, 259
Acetic acid, 636 Adenoviruses, 268
Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of Adesin, 144
edible fatty acids, 648 Adipex, 896
Acetobacter pasteurianus, 136 Adipex N, 895
Acetobacter xilinum, 136 Adipic acid, 642
Acetobacteraceae, 135 ADM, Archer Daniels Midland Co, 470
Acetoin, 746 Adrenalin, 379, 382
Acetomonas, 136 Adventists of 7 Days, 875
Acetosulfame, 651 Aerobacter nitrofigilis, 149
Acetosyringon, 466 Aerobacter skirowii, 149
Acetylated distach phosphate, 658 Aerobic bacteria, 998
Acetylated distarch adipate, 658 Aeromonads,culture, 142
1306
Aeromonads,historical classification of , 138 Alcohol, carcinogenic, 85

Aeromonas, 137, 170 Alcohol, haram, 881
Aeromonas caviae, 138 Alcohol, use and abuse in pharmacy, 87
Aeromonas hydrophila, 138, 170 Aldrin, 119
Aeromonas hydrophila in refrigerated milk, 293 Alexandrium spp, 73
Aeromonas salmonicida, 142 Alexandrium spp., 72
Aeromonas sobria, 138 Alfa lactalbumin, 49
Aeromonas, growth on VRBD, 173 Alfa-tocopherol, 933, 1299
Aflatoxin B1 , 81 Alfafa mosaic (Alfamo), 835
Aflatoxin B1, 112 Alga, classification, 67
Aflatoxins, 81, 743 Algae, 67, 310, 863
AFPA (Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus Agar), Algae, thickening agents, 684
744 Algaecides, 98
AFPA= Aspergillus flavus parasiticus agar, 753 Algal toxins, 70
AFTA, 1090 Alginic acid, 642
Agar Agar, a gelling agent, alternative to gelatin, Allergenic potentials of GMO plants, guideline,
205 480
Agent Orange, 108 Allergens, 36, 742
Agreement on Agriculture, 1058 Allergies, 476
Agreement on Agriculture AoA, 602 Allergies, biochemistry, 46
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT),Allergies, cross-reactivity, 48
602 Allergies, diagnosis, 30
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Allergies, ELISA kits to detect food allergens,
Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), 602 47
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intel- Allergies, flavonoids, 310
lectual Property Rights, 1088 Allergies, Food Sensitivity Panel, 31
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intel- Allergies, gut microflora and immune system,
lectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 602 35
Agrobacter tumefaciens, 466 Allergies, medication, 37
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 467, 470, 836 Allergies, reduction of risc by ingestion of un-
Agrobacterium tumefaciens,strain CP4, 480 pasteurised milk from farm, 55
Agrobacterium vitis, 836 Allergies, RIST test), 31
Agroecology, 1063 Allergies, rotation diet, 37
Al Azhar University of Cairo, 882 Allergies, test diets, 30
Alantoine, 666 Allergy and rumenic acid, 701
albicans ID medium, 749 Allergy and soybean, 480
Alca, 1091 Allergy, Allergen-specific IgE testing RAST, 31
Alcaligenes, 136 Allergy,sources, 741
Alcaligenes eutrophus, 1011 Allura red AC, 630
Alcaligenes faecalis, 137, 340 Alpha-tocopherol, 638
Alcohol as addictive drug, 86 Altern, 655
1308
Alternaria, 84 Anthocyanes, 977

Alternaria alternata (tenuis), 337 Anthocyanide, 978
Alternaria kikuchiana, 337 Anthocyanin, 632
Alternaria longipes, 337 Anthocyanin from blackberries, 912
Alternaria solani, 337, 843 Anthocyanins, 362
Alternaria tenuissima, 337 Anthracnose fungus, 842
Alternaria tomato, 337 Anthrax, diagnosis, 64
Aluminium, 632 Anthrax, identification, 61
Aluminium potassiumsulphate, 650 Anthrax, pulmonary anthrax, 63
Aluminium silicate (kaolin), 647 Anthrax, skin anthrax, 62
Aluminium sodiumsulphate, 650 Anthrax,intestinal anthrax, 62
Aluminium sulphate, 650 Anthroposophic lifestyle, 55
Amaranth, 629 Anthroposophical nutrition, 872
American Study, 972 Anti-Age, 686
Amflora, GM potato, 551 Anti-Hunger Program, FAO, 1054
Aminoplaste, 990 Antibac, a natural keeping and preserving com-
Aminorex, 896 pound, 389
Ammonium alginate, 642 Antibiotic, 624
Ammonium carbonate, 649 Antidiapositum X-112, 895
Ammonium chloride, 649 Antifungal on citric fruits, 635
Ammonium hydroxide, 650 Antigenic drifts, 264
Ammonium phosphatides, 639 Antigenic shifts of viruses, 265
Ammonium quaternary-compounds, 723 Antimicrobial agents, 107
Ammonium sugar colour, 631 Antioxidant drinks A-C-E, 304
Ammonium sulfite-sugar colour, 631 Antioxidant vitamins and their protective func-
Ammonium sulphate, 650 tion, 968
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning)(ASP):, 72 Antioxidants, 633, 667
Amphetamines, 895 Antioxidants in dietary supplement, 685
Ampicillin, 478 Antioxidants in nutrition, 968
Amygdalin, vitamin B17, 358 Antocyanes, 977
Amylopectic potato starch, 205 Antrax, pathogenesis, 63
Amylose, 407 ANZFA, 608
Ancylostoma duodenale, 1018 Ao-nori, 311
Ancylostomideans, life cycle, 1018 AOX reduction using chlorine-dioxide, 723
Anglerfish, Lophius piscatorius, 348 AOX-compounds, 722
Animal feed directive, European directive, 223 Apigenin, 310
Animal oils and fats, 329 Apo-8-carotenal, 630
Anisakis, 352 Apo-8-ethyl ester of carotene acid, 630
Anisakis simplex, 352, 1030 Apocarotenal, 890
Anise, 382 Appetite depressant, 863
Annatto, 630 Appetite, suppressor of, 897
Apple diet, 858 Aspartame-acesulfame-salt E962, 654

Approved List, 132 Aspergillus, 81, 580
Aquatic herbicides, 98 Aspergillus candidus, 743
Arachidonic acids, 934, 1300 Aspergillus fischerianus, 743
Arame, 311 Aspergillus flavus, 247, 743, 744
Archer Daniels Midland Co ADM, 470 Aspergillus flavus and parasiticus Agar (AFPA),
Arcobacter, 143 744
Arcobacter butzleri, 148 Aspergillus flavus parasiticus agar (AFPA), 753
Arcobacter cryaerophilus, 148 Aspergillus fumigatus, 744
Arcobacter Selective Medium ASM, 148 Aspergillus glaucus, 744
Arcobacter spp.,occurrence in Food, 147 Aspergillus nidulans, 744
Arcobacter, culture, 148 Aspergillus niger, 744
Arcobacter,diseases caused by Arcobacter spp., Aspergillus niger, on AFPA, 744
148 Aspergillus nomius, on AFPA, 744
Arcobacter,genus, 147 Aspergillus ochraceus, 745
Arcobacter-Selective-Broth (ASB), 148 Aspergillus oryzae, 745
Argon, 651 Aspergillus parasiticus, 744
Armillaria mellea, 842 Aspergillus penicilloides, 745
Aroma, 664 Aspergillus tamarii, 745
Aroma, natural, 664 Aspergillus terreus, 745
Aroma,artificial, 664 Aspergillus versicolor, 745
Aroma,identical with natural aroma, 664 Aspergillus wentii, 745
arrowroot, 1082 Aspirin, 968
Arsenic, 89 AstraZenca plc, London, 468
Arsenics, 100 Astrovirus, 259
Arterial hypertension, 938, 1304 Astroviruses, 268
Arteriosclerosis prevention, 401 ATBC Study of Finland, 972
Arteriosclerosis, classical advises of prevention, Atkins diet, 859
168 Atkins diet, the potential risks, 866
Arteriosclerosis,studies of Finland and Sweden, Atopy, 34
167 Atopy, vacination, 34
Arteriosclerosis,treatment, 168 ATP, 716
Asbestos, 119 Atrazine, 93, 104
Ascaris, 580 Avian influenza A, 249
Ascaris lumbricoides, 1019 Avian Influenza, food safety, 254
Ascorbic acid, 638 Avian influenza, signs, 252
Ascorbic acid, RDA, 933, 1299 Avian influenza, WHO recommendations, 253
Ascorbic acid, vitamin C, 358 Awo-nori, 311
ASEAN, 22 Azinophos-methyl, 104
Asparagine, 391 Azitomicin, 168
Aspartame, 652 Azo dyes, 629
1310
Azorubine, 629 Basal metabolic rate, 898

Basel Study, 972
b.t.corn, 477 BASF-Knoll, 897
Baby food, contaminants, 292 Basil, 382
Baby food, content of fumonisin, 83 Batiste, 875
Baby foods, contaminated with fusaria toxins, BCYE - Agar - Plate, 172
83 Becquerel (Bq), 732
Bacillary white diarrhoea, 270 Bee, David, 200
Bacillus anthracis, 59, 133, 231, 246, 579, 581 Beech bark disease, 841
Bacillus anthracis, culture , 60 Beech scale, 841
Bacillus anthracis, identification, 61 Beeswax, 651
Bacillus cereus, 64, 79 Benecol, margarine, 315
Bacillus hydrophillus fuscus, 140 Benzafibrate, 340
Bacillus punctatum, 138, 170 Benzoic acid, 633
Bacillus ranicida, 138 Benzpyrene hydroxylase, 327
Bacillus stearothermophilus, 191 Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
Bacillus stearothermophilus, biochemical char- (1984), 138
acters , 191 Beta glucan, 694
Bacillus stereatothermophilus Donk 1920, 138 Beta-carotene, 890, 933, 1299
Bacillus thuringiensis, 470 beta-D-galactosidase, 175
Bacillus-shaped DNA (Badna), 835 beta-D-glucuronidase, 175
Bacteria transmitted by cockroaches, 579 beta-lactoglobulin (beta-lg), 40
Bacteria transmitted by flies, 581 Betaine, 683
Bacteria transmitted by rodents, 577 Betanin, 632
Bacteria,aerobic, 998 Beth Din, kosher food certification, 877
Bacterial infections, 238 Betonit, 647
Bacteriophages, 262 BFDGE, 114
Bacterium anitratum, 173 BFDGE in canned food, 292
Bacterium cassava, 853 BgVV (Bundesinstitut für Gesundheitlichen Ver-
Bacterium solanacearum, 853 braucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin),
Bactident E.coli, 180 299
BADGE, 114 BHA Butylhydroxyanisole, 638
BADGE (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether), 291 BHT Butylhydroxytoluene, 638
BADGE, maximum allowed amount in foods, Bifidobacterium bifidum, 390
114 Bifidobacterium infantis 35624, 365
Bakelite, 990 Bifidobacterium longum, 375, 390
Balantidium coli, 580, 1018 Bifidus bacteria, 205
Bamboo leaves extract, 917 Bigeye tuna, Thunnus obesus, 348
Bananas and chemicals, 98 Bile-Chrysoidin -Sorbitol-Agar with MUG, 181
Bang, 137 Bilge water, 187
Barley yellow mosaic (Bymo), 835 Binapacryl, 118
Biochemical pesticides, 104 Blueberries, 398

Biocontrol Detection of E.coli EHEC 0157:H7, Bluebottle, 580
Listeria and Samonella, 180 Bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, 348
Biodegradable plastics, Innovations, 1003 Bluetong, 267
Biodegradable plastics, plasticiser from hard- Bluetongue virus, 266
ened castor oil, 1003 BMI, Body Mass Index, 939, 1305
Biodegradable plastics, polylactic acid (PLA), BMP, Business Process Management, 591
1003 Body Mass Index (BMI), 939, 1305
Bioflavonoid, 933, 1299 Boric acid, 636
Bioflavonoids, vitamin P, 358 Borlaug, Norman, 767
Biofuel, food-shortage, 1108 Boron, 100
Biogenic acids, 337 Borrelia, 171, 578
Biogenic amines in cheese, 289 Botrytis cinerea, 748
Biolistic transformation, 465 Botulism, 246
Biological hazards, 561 Bové, Jose, 1057
Bioluminescence, 716 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, 197
bioMérieux, COLI ID medium, 175 Bovine Tb, 231
Biopesticides, 104 Bq (Becquerel), 732
Bioplastic blends, 1014 Brand Community, 455
Bioterrorism, biological agents, 1035 Brazil nuts, 288
Bioterrorism, chemical agents, 1035 Brazilian arrowroot, 1082
Bioterrorism, economic disruption, 1042 BRC (British Retail Consortium standard), 568
Bioterrorism, prevention, 1042 BRC/IoP Packaging Standard and ISO 22000:2000,
Biotin, 933, 1299 605
Biotin, vitamin H, 358 Breast cancer and high fat diet, 300
Biphenyl, 635 Brevetoxin, 1035
Birch pollen, 49 Brie cheese, 742
Bircher-Benner diet, 870 Brilliant black BN, 629
Bixin, 630 Brilliant blue FCF, 629
Black fin tuna, Thunnus atlanticus, 348 Brilliant green acid, 632
Black moulds, 752 British Retail Consortium standard ( BRC ),
Black scurf, 843 568
Black sole, Solea vulgaris vulgaris, 348 Broca Index, 939, 1305
Black Tea and post-stress recovery, 919 Broca normal-weight, 857
Black tiger, Panaeus monodon, 348 Broca-Index, 858
Blackberry, C3G compound, 911 Broccoli, 363
blackmailer, 985 Brome mosaic (Bromo), 835
Bladder worm, 1026 Bromelain, 864
Blood flukes, 1023 Bromide, methyl, 581
Blood pressure, high, 402 Brown FK, 630
Blood-Trimethoprim-Agar, 61 Brown HT, 629
1312
Brown shrimp, Crangon crangon, 348 Cadmium, 89

Brucella, 137 Caffeine and newborn infants, 374
Brucella abortus, 137, 581 Caffeine and pregnancy, 367
Brucella melitensis, 137 Caffeine content of one cup of coffee, 374
Brucella suis, 137, 581 Caffeine content of one cup of tea, 374
Bruchus pisorum, 501 Caffeine, genotype F1, 369
Brusone disease, 839 Caffeine, polymorphic cytochrome P450 1A2
BSE auditing, 608 (CYP1A2) enzyme, 369
BSE, infection from pastures, 209 Calciferol, vitamin D, 358
Calcium, 361, 933, 1299
BSE, the role of health and nutrition authori-
ties, 209 Calcium acetate, 637
BSE-risk, Germany in level two, 205 Calcium alginate, 642
BSE/TSE Statement of the EFSA 2004 on goats Calcium aluminium silicate, 647
milk, 213 Calcium ascorbate, 638
Bt 176 maize Novartis, 470 Calcium benzoate, 633
Buddhists, 875 Calcium bisulphide, 634
Buell, Robin, 492 Calcium Carbonate, 632
BUND, Bund für Natur und Umwelt, 986 Calcium chloride, 649
BUND, German environment organization, 482 Calcium citrate, 641
Calcium diphosphate, 646
Bundesinstitut für Gesundheitlichen Verbrauch-
Calcium disodium metylendiamin tetraacetate,
erschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV),
299 642
Buprofezin, 100 Calcium ferrocyanide, 651
Burgmans, Antony pledging for an EURO-FDA, Calcium Formate, 635
224 Calcium glutamate, 666
Burkholderia caryophylli, 836 Calcium guanylate, 667
Burkholderia solanacearum, 836 Calcium hydroxide, 650
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, 842 Calcium lactate, 637
Butter fat, vitamin E, 326 Calcium malate, 638
Butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), 638 Calcium malate, i) calcium malate, ii) calci-
Butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), 638 umhydrogen malate, 642
Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, 700 Calcium oxide, 650
butzleri, 170 Calcium phosphate i) monocalcium phosphate,
Byssochlamys spp, 747 ii) dicalcium phosphate, iii) tricalcium
phosphate, 641
C-reactive protein, 168 Calcium propionate, 636
CA packaging, Controllen Atmosphere packag- Calcium silicate, 647
ing, 999 Calcium sorbate, 633
ca-MRSA, 80 Calcium stearyl-2-lactylate, 640
Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), 982 Calcium sulphate, 650
Cadaverine, 290 Calcium sulphide, 634
Calcium tartrate, 641 Canine parvovirus, 259

Calcium, bio availability, 286 Cannabinoids, 919
Calcium, content in food, 287 Canned food spoilage, 140
Calcium, daily intake, 287 Canthaxanthin, 631
Calcium, fortification of soymilk, 330 Capsanthin , 630
Calici - group, 261 Capsid, external protein shell of viruses, 263
Caliciviridae, 258 Capsomeres, subunits of capsids of viruses, 263
Calliphora sp., 580 Capsorubin, 630
Calories, daily intake, 894 Captafol, 119
Calorimetry, 894 Caraway, 382
Cambridge-diet, 893 Carbamid, 651
Camembert cheese, 742 Carbon black, 889
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research, 181 Carbon dioxide, 637
Campilobacter, 79 Carbon footprint labelling in UK, 461
Campylobacter, 142 Carbon monoxide, EU ban, 1000
Campylobacter in organic poultry, 811 Carboxymethyl cellulose, 646
Campylobacter infections, complications, 144 Carcinogenic activity,chemicals with, 623
Campylobacter jejuni, 170, 245 CARET Study, 974
Campylobacter spp, culture using filter tech- Cargill, 22, 1099
nique from the Veterinary Department Carla Pruzzo, 260
of Münster,1998, 152 Carnation latent (Carla), 835
Campylobacter, DNA based diagnostics, 146 Carnation mottle (Carmo), 835
Campylobacter,prevention of infection, 151 Carnauba wax, 651
Campylobacteraceae,family of, 143 Carnitin, 861
Campyslide (BBL, 151 Carnitine, 297
CamV promoter, 487 Carnitine and sport, 298
CaMV, Cauliflower Mosaic Virus, 467 Carnitine, byosynthesis, 297
Cancer, the medicine flop. A statement of the Carnitine, food as source, 297
president of the German Cancer Soci- Carnitine, vitamin Bt, 358
ety, 300 Carob seed, 335, 644
Candelilla wax, 651 Carotene, 669
Candida, 761 Carotenoids, 362
Candida albicans, 36, 81, 232, 249, 580 Carp herpes virus, 259
Candida albicans, identification, 750 Carragee, 312
Candida albicans, selective culture, 749 Carrageen, degraded, 643
Candida antarctica, 701 Carrageenan, 642
Candida boidinii, 755 Carrefour, against genetic modified food, 493
Candida intermedia, 755 Carrefour,French retail group, 20
Candida parapsilosis, 755 CART, Classification and regression trees, 909
Candida tropicalis, on candida ID medium, 750 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 1083
Canine distemper, 232 Carton, 988
1314
Cassava, 1082 Chirashi, 314

Cassia gum, 693 Chladosporium, 751
Cassia occidentalis, 694 Chlamydia and arteriosclerosis, 167
Cataracts, 362, 365 Chlamydia pneumoniae, 165, 166
Catechin in bitter chocolate, 979 Chlamydia pneumoniae, cell culture technique,
Catechin in chocolate, 303 166
Catechines, 977 Chlamydia psittaci, 164, 165
Catecholamine, 379, 969 Chlamydia trachomatis, 165
Cauliflower mosaic (Caulimo), 835 Chlamydia trachomatis serotype A-K, 165
Cauliflower Mosaic Virus CaMv, 467 Chlamydia trachomatis serotype D-K, 165
CCK hormone, 901 Chlamydia, possible cause of arteriosclerosis,
CCP, 568 164
CCP,how to identify a CCP, 563 Chlamydia,diagnosis of human infection, 167
Celluloid CN, 991 Chlamydia,reproduction, 165
Cellulose, 646 Chloramphenicol ban, 1078
Cellulose acetate CA, 991 Chlordane, 119
Cellulose from algae, 684 Chlordimeform, 119
CEN , European standardisation organisation, Chlorella, 340
597 Chloridric acid, 649
CEPAA (Council on Economic Priorities Ac- Chlorine, 361
creditation Agency), 599 Chlorine and their compound, 722
Cephalosporin, 477 Chlorine, taste level, 188
Ceratitis capitata, 839 Chlorine, water disinfectant, 187
Cercospora musae, 838 Chlorine,neutralization, 188
Cereals, contamination with Fusarium gramin- Chlorine-dioxide disinfecting procedures, 723
earum and Fusarium culmorum, 753 Chlorobenzilate, 119
Cereus-Ident-Agar, 61, 62 Chlorogenic acid, 977
Cestodes, 1018, 1025 Chlorogenic acids, 364
Cetacean Cetacea spec., 348 Chlorophyceae, 312
Change of ecology and toxic food, 89 Chlorophyll, 630
Cheese, 289 Chlorophyll-Cu, 630
Chemical contaminants, 92 Chlostridium welchii type A, 579
Chemical disinfection of drinking water, 187 Chocolate and chocolate products, Codex Stan-
Chemicals in hatcheries, 85 dard 87-1981, Rev. 1-2003, 388
Cherry juice, sports drinks, 365, 366, 689 Chocolate as functional food, 388
Chicken soup and therapy of colds, 391 Chocolate, labeling, 383
Chicory, 863 Chocolate, labeling family milk chocolate, 383
Chilly, 383 Chocolate, labeling of milk chocolate, 383
Chinese restaurant syndrome, 666 Chocolate, the new EU Directive 2000/36, 383
Chinolin yellow, 629 Cholera, 245
Chirac, Jacques, French president, 293 Cholesterol, 696
Cholesterol absorption, 317 Classification of microorganism according Stre-

Cholesterol, blood levels, 935, 1301 ble, 69
Cholesterol, low cholesterol egg, 938, 1304 Classification of omega-3 fatty acids, 307
Cholesterol, recommended daily intake, 935, Clavibacter michiganensis, 837
1301 Clavulane acid, 477
Cholesterol-reducing claim, 377 Clean room technology, 724
Choline, 358, 382 Cleaning agents, 721
Chondrus crispus, 312 Cleaning and disinfection, Standard method,
Chromated Copper Arsenate, 108 718
Chrome picolinate, 933, 1299 Cleaning methods, 720
Chromium, 361 Cleaning with CO2, 717
Chromocult, coliforms agar, 175 Clenbuterol, 117
Chromocult-agar, composition, 176 CLimate change and fish growth, 1084
Chronic Wasting Disease, 210 Clinical signs of BSE in cows, 207
Chymosin, 469, 474 Clofentezine, 100
Ci, Curie, 732 Clonorchis sinensis, 1024
Clostero virus, 835
Cianocobalamin, 358
Clostridium, 170
Cibus, non-GM breeding technology, 1125
Clostridium botulinum, 79, 578
Cigarette smoke, exposure to, 730
Clostridium botulinum, D-value, 192
Cinnamon, 383
Clostridium perfringens, 79, 246
CIP (Cleaning in Place ), 720
Clostridium perfringens,Fluorocult TSC-Supplement,
CIP improving technology, 723
169
Citric acid, 641 Clostridium sporogenes, D-value, 192
Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum, D-value,
edible fatty acids, 648 192
Citrinin, 82, 743, 745, 754 Clove, 383
Citrosuco, 22 cMRSA, contamination, 81
Citrus canker, 852 Cobalamin, 358
CLA acids and allergy, 701 Cobalt, 361
CLA acids, claims, 701 Cobalt-60, 729
CLA, Conjugated Linoleic Acid, 700 Coca Cola Company,one-way PET bottles, 987
Cladophora, 684 Cockroach, transmission of viruses, 580
Cladosporium fagi, 84 Cockroach,transmission of bacteria, 579
Claim to lower risk of heart disease with soy Cockroaches, 579
products, 958 Cockroaches, transmission of Protozoa and ne-
Claims for functional food, 375 matodes, 580
Clandosan(r), 101 Cockroaches, transmission of yeast and molds,
Classification and regression tree (CART), 909 580
Classification of bacteria related to food sci- Cocksackie virus type B5 and B12, 580
ence, 131 Cocoa and chocolate EC Directive 2000, 384
1316
Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBE), 383 Concorde grape, 927, 1293

Cocos nucifera, 648 Conference in Cancun, 1059
Codex Alimantarius, publications relating Feed- Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), 700
stuffs, 601 Conjugated linoleic acid production in gut, 702
Codex Alimentarius, 567 Conservation agriculture, 799
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1078 Contaminants in baby food, 115
Codex Alimentarius, Code of Practice Food Contamination of food with pathogens, origin,
Hygiene CAC/RCP 1, 603 724
Codfish, 349 Contergan, 670, 934, 1300
Coeliac disease, 879 Controlled atmosphere for transport of fresh
Coenzyme, 304 products, 1123
Coenzyme Q10, 933, 1299 Controlled atmosphere Packaging, CA Packag-
Coffee drinking reduces hepatocellular carci- ing, 999
noma risk, 368 Controlling, 562
Coimbra, 22 Convention on Biological Deversity, 1054
Cola associated with osteosporosis, 361 Conventional pesticides, 104
Colchicine, 1035 Copper, 101, 361, 934, 969, 1300
Colchineal,E 120, 889 Copper beech, 840
Coleophora laricella, 840 Copper chlorophyll complex, 632
COLI ID, medium for the detection of Col- Copyrights, 1088
iforms and identification of E.coli, 175 Corn fibre gum, replacing acacia gum, 644
COLI ID, typical colonies, 175 Corn, genetic modified, 469
Coli-Aerogenes Group, 173 Coronary diseases, secondary risks, 935, 1301
Coli-Aerogenes group in water,foods and dairy Corrosion caused by bacteria, 187
products, with VRB-agar; Violet Red Cortisol, 969
Bile Agar, 174 Cotils, Alphonse, 243
Coliform bacteria, 173 Cottage cheese, 999
Coliforms on COLI ID, 175 Cowpea mosaic virus (Como), 835
Coxiella burnetii, 578
Coliforms, detection and enumeration with impedance
technology, 182 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 197
Colletitrichum lindemuthianum, 842 Critical Control Point, 568
Colletotrichium coccodes, 338 Critical Point, 568
Collier,LIMS, 596 Crocidolite, 121
Colorants, 628 Cryolite, 100
Colorants found in nature, 630 Crypthecodinum cohnii, 308
Columbia Agar, 145 Cryptococcus fagi, 841
ComBase Database, 1113 Cryptococcus neoformans, on albicans ID medium,
Common shrimp, Crangon crangon, 348 750
Common sole, Solea vulgaris vulgaris, 348 Cryptosporidium, 1017
Competitive PCR, 479 Cryptosporidium parvum, 244
Complex virus particles, 264 Cucumber mosaic (Cucumo), 835
Culture media for moulds and yeasts , 743 Delhaize Le Lion, alliance against GMO , 493
Culture methods for Enterobacteriaceae, 172 Delta tocopherol, 638
Culture of heat-resistant moulds, 747 Deming, W. Edwards, 609
Curare, 79 Denaturient gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE),
Curie (Ci), 732 293
Curry, 382 Desertification, 845
Cutrale, 22 Desmopan, 990
Cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis, 348 Desoxynivalenol, 83
CWD, 210 Desulfotomaculum nigrificans, D-value, 192
Cyanamid Canada, 494 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, 187
Cyclamate, 655 Detection of GMO in food, 478
Cyclamate and the EU Directive 2003/115/EC Detection of GMO soybean, 480
amending Sweeteners Directive 94/35/EC, Deuterium, 727
656 Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 85
Cyclamic acid, 656 Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Hygiene und Mikrobi-
Cyclobutone, 730 ologie, 191
Cyclohexylsulfamate, 655 Dexfenfluramin, 898, 901
Cyclopiazon acid, 746 DFG, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 85
Cyclospora cayetanensis, 244 DG 18 (Dichloran 18% glycerol agar), 752
Cynarine, 863 DG18= Dichloran, 18% Glycerol, 753
Cysticerci, 1026 DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung, 934,
Cytophaga, 170 1300
Czapek Iprodione Dichloran Agar(CZID, 745 DGGE (Gradient gel electrophoresis), 293
DHA, docosahexaen acid, 308
D-Cycloserin, 169 Diabetes II, 936, 1302
D-value, 192 Diacetyl, 746
D-value (Decimal reduction time, 139 Diamond,Harvey: Fit for Life, 867
Daidzein, 296 Diantho virus, 835
Daily intake of energy(calories or Joules), 894 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning)(DSP), 72
Daimler-Chrysler automobile group, 21 Diaspidiotus (Quadraspidiotus) perniciosus, 841
Dairy cream, 999 Dibenzofuran PCDF, 89
Dairy products, 285 Dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG 18), 752
Dandelion, 1023 Dichloran rosebengal yeast extract saccharose
Day-fit, 893 agar (DRYS), 753
DDT, 119 Dichloran, 18% Glycerol (DG18), 753
Debaryomyces, 762 Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloramphenicol-agar, 752
Debaryomyces hansenii, 755 Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloranphenicol-Agar(DRBC),
Decimal reduction time, 192 753
Deep-sea prawn, Pandalus borealis, 348 Dichlorovos, 124
Definitions, 92 Dickens, Peter, 1069
Dekorit, 990 Dickhuth, Hans Hermann, 687
1318
Dicots, water treatment, 99 Dioxin, in foods, 224

Dicyandiamid DD, 990 Dioxin, tolerable daily intake, 221
Didymella lycopersici, 338 Dioxins, bioaccumulation, 225
Dieldrin, 119 Dioxins, health risk, WHO consultation 1998,
Dientamoeba fragilis, 1016 224
diet plans, the cause of failure and how to do Dioxins, tolerable daily intake, 225
it better, 860 Dioxins,chemical structure of dioxins, 222
Diet, low fat - 30, 865 Diphenylamine, treatment to reduce scald, 824
Diet, step-I to reduce blood fat , 340 Diphosphates, 646
Dietary ingredients, definition, 299 Diphyllobotrium latum, 1027
Dietary fibre, 909 Dipylidium caninum, 1028
Dietary fibre and inflammation, 910 Diquat dibromide, 99
Dietary fibre, colorectal cancer, 926, 1292 Diseases in plants, evolution, 831
Dietary fibre, mango, 909 Diseases spread by food, 574
Dietary fibre,recommended daily intake, 909 Diseases transmitted by water, 170
Dietary supplements, 299, 669, 686, 687 Diseases, the ten most dangerous ones, 190
Dietary Supplements, definition according FDA, Disinfectants, 108
299 Disinfection, 721
Dietary supplements,calcium, 286 Disinfection of water using heat, 187
Diets with Serotonin, 899 Disinfection, steam, 721
diets, formula, 893 Disinfection,chemical, 721
Diets,psychology, 859 Distarch phosphate, 658
Dietylstilbestrol, 116 DNOC, 119
Digitalis, 1036 Documents and forms, head, 587
Dikerogammarus villosus, 391 Doha Declaration, 1072
DIL, (Deutsches Institut für Lebensmitteltech- Doha Development Agenda, 1076
nik), 340 Doha negotiations, suspension, 1073
Dill, 382 Dominoinic acid, 72
Dimethyl carbonate, 635 Dopamine, 379
Dimethyl polysiloxane, 651 Dover Sole, Solea vulgaris vulgaris, 348
Dinestrol, 117 Dow Chemical, 221
Dinoflagelata, 72 Downcycling, 989
Dinoseb, 119 DRBC (Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloramphenicol-
Dioxin, 89, 221 agar), 752
Dioxin in discarded motor oil , 221 DRBC= Dichloran-Rosebengal-Chloranphenicol-
Dioxin in feed, 88 Agar, 753
Dioxin in fish oil, 115 Drinking water, chemical disinfection, 187
Dioxin in kaolinite, 221 Drinking water, diseases transmitted by, 170
Dioxin in milk, 88 Drinking water, ozonization, 188
Dioxin levels in oil and fats, 101 Drinks,antioxidants, 304
Dioxin, accidental exposure, 225 Drugs of addiction, 85
Drugs to fight bodyweight, 895 E104 Chinolin yellow, 629

Dry rot of potato, 842 E110 Yellow-orange S, 629
DRYS= Dichloran rosebengal yeast extract sac- E1105 Lysozyme, 657
charose agar, 753 E1200 Polydextrose, 657
DSD, Duales System Deutschland, 989 E1201 Polyvinylpyrrolidon, 657
DSP (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning), 72 E1202 Polyvinylpropylpyrrolidon, 658
Du Pont do Brasil,GM seeds in Brazil, 495 E122 Azorubine, 629
Duales System Deutschland (DSD), 989 E123 Amaranth, 629
Dublin Bay prawn, Nephrops norvegicus, 348 E124 Cochineal red A, 629
Dulse, 312 E127 Erythrosine, 629
Dumping,definitions, 1080 E128 Red 2G, 629
Dunaliella salina, 311 E129 Allura red AC, 630
DuPont, 470 E131 Patent blue V, 629
E132 Indigotin I, 629
E 104 Quinoline yellow, 889 E133 Brilliant blue FCF, 629
E 120 Colchineal, 889 E140 Chlorophyll, 630
E 153 Carbon black, 889 E1404 oxidised starch, 658
E 251 Sodium nitrate, 635 E141 Chlorophyll-Cu, 630
E 302 Calcium ascorbate, 638 E141 Copper chlorophyll complex, 632
E 304 Fatty acid esters from ascorbic acid, i) E1410 Monostarch phosphate, 658
ascorbyl palmitate, II)ascorbyl stearate, E1412 Distarch phosphate, 658
638 E1413 Phosphated distarch phosphate, 658
E 363, 642 E1414 Acetylated distach phosphate, 658
E 402 Potassium alginate, 642 E142 Green S, 629
E 404 Calcium alginate, 642 E1420 Acetylated starch, 658
E 471 Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids, 889 E1422 Acetylated distarch adipate, 658
E 472 (a to e) Acetic ,lactic, citric, tartaric E1440 Hydroxypropyl starch, 658
acid esters of mono and diglycerides of E1442 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate, 659
fatty acids, 889 E1450 Starch sodium octenyl succinate, 659
E 476 Polyglycerol esters of polycondensated E1505 Triethyl citrate, 659
fatty acids, 889 E150a Sugar colour, 631
E 540 Calcium diphosphate, 646 E150b Sulfite-sugar colour, 631
E Numbers, 628 E150c Ammonium sugar colour, 631
E.coli 0157:H7 antigen, detection in food with E150d Ammonium sulfite-sugar colour, 631
thin layer chromatography and immuno- E151 Brilliant black BN, 629
logic analysis, 180 E1518 Glyceryl triacetate, 659
E.coli O 157:H7 strain, 152 E154 Brown FK, 630
E100 Turmeric, 628 E155 Brown HT, 629
E101 Lactoflavin, 628 E160b Bixin,Norbixin, annatto orleana, 630
E101a Phosphate-5-riboflavin, 628 E160c Capsanthin, 630
E102 tartrazin, 629 E160d Lycopene, 630
1320
E160e beta-Apo-8-carotenal, 630 E228 Potassium bisulphide, 635

E160f beta-Apo-8-ethyl ester of carotene acid, E230 Biphenyl, 635
630 E231 Orthophenylphenol, 635
E161 Xanthophyll, 631 E232 Sodium orthophenylphenol, 635
E161a Flavoxanthin, 631 E233 Thiabendazol, 635
E161b Lutein, 631 E234 Nisin, 635
E161c Kryptoxanthin, 631 E235 Natamycin, 635
E161d Rubixanthin, 631 E236 Formic acid, 635
E161e Violaxanthin, 631 E237 Sodium Formate, 635
E161f Rhodoxanthin, 631 E238 Calcium formate, 635
E161g Canthaxanthin, 631 E239 Hexamethylene tetramine, 632
E162 Betanin, 632 E239 Hexamethylentetramin, 667
E163 Anthocyanin, 632 E242 Dimethyl carbonate, 635
E170 Calcium carbonate, 632 E249 Potassium nitrite, 635
E171 Titanium dioxide, 632 E250 Sodium nitrite, 635
E172 Iron oxides and hydroxides, 632 E252 Potassium nitrate, 635
E174 Silver, 632 E260 Acetic acid, 636
E175 Gold, 632 E261 Potassium acetate, 636
E17Aluminium, 632 E262 Sodium acetate, 637
E180 Lithol rubine BK, 629 E263 Calcium acetate, 637
E180 Rubin BK pigment, 632 E270 Lactic acid, 636
E200 Sorbic acid, 633 E280 Propionic acid, 636
E202 Potassium sorbate, 633 E281 Sodium propionate, 636
E203 Calcium sorbate, 633 E282 Calcium propionate, 636
E210 Benzoic acid, 633 E283 Potassium propionate, 636
E211 Sodium benzoate, 633 E284 Boric acid, 636
E212 Potassium benzoate, 633 E285 Sodium tetraborate (borax), 636
E213 Calcium benzoate, 633 E290 Carbon dioxide, 637
E214 Ethyl-p-hydroxi benzoate, 634 E296 Malic acid, 637
E215 PHB-ethyl ester sodium salt, 634 E297 Fumaric acid, 638
E216 PHB-propyl ester, 634 E300 Ascorbic acid, 638
E217 PHB-propyl ester, 634 E301 Sodium ascorbate, 638
E218 PHB- methyl ester, 634 E306 Heavy tocopherol bearing extracts, 638
E219 PHB-methyl ester,sodium salt, 634 E307 Alpha-tocopherol, 638
E220 Sulphur dioxide, 634 E308 Gama-tocopherol, 638
E221 Sodium sulphide, 634 E309 Delta tocopherol, 638
E222 Sodium hydrogen sulphite, 634 E310 Propyl gallate, 638
E223 Sodium metabisulfite, 634 E311 Octyl gallate, 638
E224 Potassium metabisulfite, 634 E312 Dodecyl gallate, 638
E226 Calcium sulphide, 634 E315 Isoascorbic acid, 638
E227 Calcium bisulphide, 634 E316 Sodium isoascorbate, 638
E320 Butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), 638 E400 Alginic acid, 642

E321 Butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), 638 E401 Sodium alginate, 642
E322Lecithin, 639 E402 Potassium alginate, 642
E325 Sodium lactate, 637 E403 Ammonium alginate, 642
E326 Potassium lactate, 637 E405 Propylene glycol alginate, 642
E327 Calcium lactate, 637 E406 Agar-Agar, 642
E330 Citric acid, 641 E407 Carrageenan, 642
E331 Sodium citrate, 641 E407a Processed Euchema algae, 644
E331 Sodium citrate i) Monosodium citrate, ii) E410 Carob seed, 644
disodium citrate, iii) trisodium citrate, E412 Guar gum, 644
637 E413 Tragacanth, 644
E332 Potassium citrate, 641 E414 Gum arabic, 644
E333 Calcium citrate, 641 E415 Xanthan, 645
E334 Sodium tartrate, 641 E416 Karaya, 645
E334 Tartaric acid, 641 E417 Tara seed, 645
E335 Sodium tartrate, 637 E418 Gellan, 645
E336 Calcium tartrate, 641 E420 Sorbit, ii) sorbit syrup, 645
E337 Sodium and potassium tartrate, 641 E421 Mannit, 645
E338 Phosphoric acid, 641 E422 Glycerin, 645
E339 Natrium phosphate i) monosodium phos- E425 Konjac, 645
E432 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monolaurat (Polysor-
phate, ii) disodium phosphate, iii) trisodium
phosphate, 641 bate 20), 645
E340 Potassium phosphate, i) monopotassium E433 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monooleat (Polysor-
phosphate, ii) dipotassium phosphate, bate 80), 645
iii) tripotassium phosphate, 641 E434 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monopalmitate
E341 Calcium phosphate i) monocalcium phos- (Polysorbate 40), 645
phate, ii) dicalcium phosphate, iii) tri- E435 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monostearate (Polysor-
calcium phosphate, 641 bate 60), 645
E343 Magnesium Orthophosphate, 641 E436 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan tristearate (Polysor-
E350 Sodium malate, 637 bate 65, 645
E351 Calcium malate, 638 E440 Pectine, 645
E352 Calcium malate i) calcium malate, ii) cal- E442 Ammonium phosphatides, 639
ciumhydrogen malate, 642 E444 Sacharoseacetate isobutyrate, 645
E353 Metatartaric acid, 641 E445 Glycerinester of root resin, 646
E354 Calcium tartrate, 641 E450 Sodium and potassium diphosphate, 646
E355 Adipic acid, 642 E451 Triphosphate, 646
E356 Sodium adipate, 642 E452 Polyphosphates, 646
E357 Potassium adipate, 642 E460 Cellulose, 646
E380 Triammonium citrate, 642 E461 Methylcellulose, 646
E385 Calcium disodium metylendiamin tetraac- E463 Hydroxymethyl cellulose, 646
etate, 642 E464 Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, 646
1322
E465 Ethylmethyl cellulose, 646 E510 Ammonium chloride, 649

E466 Carboxymethyl cellulose, 646 E513 Sulphuric acid, 649
E470a Sodium,potassium and calcium salts of E514 Sodium sulphate, ii) Sodium hydrogen
fatty acids, 639 sulphate, 650
E471 Mono and diglycerids from edible fatty E515 Potassium sulphate, ii) Potassium hydro-
acids, 648 gen sulphate, 650
E472a Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglyc- E516 Calcium sulphate, 650
erides of edible fatty acids, 648 E517 Ammonium sulphate, 650
E472b Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglyc- E520 Aluminium sulphate, 650
erides of edible fatty acids, 648 E521 Aluminium sodiumsulphate, 650
E472c Citric acid esters of mono- and diglyc- E522 Aluminium potassiumsulphate, 650
erides of edible fatty acids, 648 E523 Aluminium ammoniumsulphate, 650
E472d Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglyc- E524 Sodium hydroxide, 650
erides of edible fatty acids, 648 E525 Potassium hydroxide, 650
E472e Mono- and diacetyl tartaric acid ester of E526 Calcium hydroxide, 650
mono- and diglycerides of edible fatty E527 Ammonium hydroxide, 650
acids, 648 E528 Magnesium hydroxide, 650
E472f Mixture of tartaric and acetic acid es- E529 Calcium oxide, 650
ter of mono- and diglycerides of edible E530 Magnesium oxide, 650
fatty acids, 648 E535 Sodium ferrocyanide, 651
E473 Sucrose ester of edible fatty acids, 648 E536 Potassium ferrocyanide, 651
E474 Sucroglyceride, 649 E538 Calcium ferrocyanide, 651
E475 Polyglycerol ester of fatty acids, 640 E541 Sodium aluminium phosphate, 646
E477 Propylene glycol ester of fatty acids, 640 E541 Sodium aluminium phosphate , 651
E479b Thermally oxidised soybean with mono- E551 Silicon dioxide, 647
and diglycerides of fatty acids, 640 E552 Calcium silicate, 647
E481 Sodium stearyl-2-lactylate, 640 E553a i)Magnesium silicate, ii) Magnesium trisil-
E482 Calcium stearyl-2-lactylate, 640 icate, 647
E483 Stearyl tartrate, 640 E553b Talcum, 647
E491 Sorbitan monostearate, 640 E554 Sodium aluminium silicate, 647
E492 Sorbitan tristearate, 640 E555 Potassium aluminium silicate, 647
E493 Sorbitan monolaurate, 640 E556 Calcium aluminium silicate, 647
E494 Sorbitan monooleate, 640 E558 Betonit, 647
E495 Sorbitan monopalmitate, 641 E559 Aluminium silicate (kaolin), 647
E500 Sodium carbonate, 649 E570 Fatty acids, 647
E501 Potassium carbonate, 649 E574 Gluconic acid, 647
E503 Ammonium carbonate, 649 E575 Glucono delta-lactone, 647
E504 Magnesium carbonate, 649 E576 Sodium gluconate, 648
E507 Chloridric acid, 649 E577 Potassium gluconate, 648
E508 Potassium chloride, 649 E578 Calcium gluconate, 648
E509 Calcium chloride, 649 E579 Iron-II gluconate, 648
E585 Iron-II lactate, 648 Echinococcus granulosus, 1028

E620 Glutamic acid, 666 Echinococcus multilocularis, 1029
E621 Sodium glutamate, 666 Echinococcus multiocularis, 579
E622 Potassium glutamate, 666 Echinostoma ilocanum, 1025
E623 Calcium glutamate, 666 Echinostoma spp., 1025
E624 Monoammonium glutamate, 666 ECHO virus type 6, 580
E625 Magnesium glutamate, 666 Ecocert, 473
E626 Guanylic acid, 667 Ecstasy, 86
E627 Sodium guanylate, 667 Effect of global transport on local fauna, 391
E628 Potassium guanylate, 667 Egg allergy, 33
E629 Calcium guanylate, 667 Egg, low cholesterol, 938, 1304
E630 Inosinic acid, 667 Eggs and egg products, storage and handling,
E631 Disodium inosinate, 667 572
E632 Dipotassium inosinate, 667 EHEC, Escherichia coli, 176
E633 Calcium inosinate, 667 EHEC, ways of infection, 155
E634 Calcium 5ŕibonucleotid, 667 EHEC,measures to avoid contamination, 155
E635 Disodium 5ŕibonucleotid, 667 EIEC,Escherichia enteroinvasiv, 153
E640 Glycine and salts, 667 Eisenia bicyclis, 311, 312
E900 Dimethyl polysiloxane, 651 Elaeis guineensis, 648
E901 Beeswax, 651 Elaidinic acid, 954
E902 Candelilla wax, 651 Elastomoll, 990
E903 Carnauba wax, 651 Electromagnetic force, 727
E904 Shellac, 651 Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, 411
E912 Montan ester, 651 ELISA, Enzyme Linked immuno-sorbent assay,
E914 Polyethylen waxoxidate, 651 479
E927 Carbamid, 651 Elm sapwood beetle, 840
E938 Argon, 651 Emerofortine, 746
E939 Helium, 651 Emulsifier, 639
E941 Nitrogen, 651 EMV, Equine morbillis virus, 262
E950 Acesulfame K, 651 EN 29000, 596
E951 Aspartame, 652 Endamoeba coli, 1016
E952 Cyclamate, 655 Endamoeba gingivalis, 1016
E954 Saccharin, 656 Endamoeba hartmanii, 1016
E955 Sucralose, 654 Endamoeba histolytica, 1015
E957 Thaumatin, 656 Endamoeba histolytica, cyst passers, 1015
E959 Neohesperidin DC, 657 Endemic, 78
E967 Xilit, 657 Endolimax nana, 1016
E999 Quillaia extract, 657 Endorphin, 380
Energy dose, 732
Early Nutrition Programming Project EARNEST,
907 Energy drinks, 364
EARNEST, 907 Energy, daily intake, 894
1324
Enkephalin, 380 Escherichia coli , enteropathogenic (EPEC), 154

Entamoeba hystolytica, 580 Escherichia coli EHEC, ways of infection, 155
Enterobacter, 579 Escherichia coli enterohaemorrhagic EHEC,culture,
Enterobacteriaceae, culture method in food bac- 176
teriology, 172 Escherichia coli enterotoxic ETC, 171
Enterobacteriaceae, detection and enumeration Escherichia coli, fluorescence methods, 177
with impedance technology, 182 Escherichia coli, indicator of faecal contamina-
Enterobacteriaceae,bacteria found under this tion, 152
denomination, 173 Escherichia coli, VTEC, 153
Enterobius vermicularis, 1020 Escherichia coli,Bactident E.coli rapid test of
Enterococci, 241 colonies isolated on non selective me-
Enterococcus, 170 dia, 180
Enterohemolisine-agar, 153 Escherichia coli,enterotoxic(ETEC), 154
Enteromorpha intestinalis, 312 Escherichia coli,enterotoxines thermolabiles (LT),
Enterotoxines thermostable (ST), 154 154
Enveloped viruses, 264 Esselunga, alliance against GMO , 493
Enzone(r), 100 Essential fatty acids, 934, 1300
Enzymes, 304 Estradiol, 117
EPA, eicosanpentaen acid, 308 ETEC,Escherichia coli enterotoxic, 154
Ephedra sinica, 696 Ethyl-p-hydroxi benzoate E214, 634
Ephedrine, 863 Ethylene dichloride, 118
Epicatechin in cocoa, 983 Ethylene oxide, 118
Epicladosporic acid, 84 Ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH), 988
Epidemic, 78 Ethylmaltol, 667
Epigallocatechin gallate, 396 Ethylmethyl cellulose, 646
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), 917 EU Food Safety Directive 93/43 EEC, 605
Epoxy resines EP, 991 Eupenicillium spp, 747
EPSPS, 480 Euro glass, 991
Equine morbilli virus EMV, 262 EUROMIC Study, 954, 972
Eremascus spp., 747 European Novel Food Directive, 205
Ergosterol, 336, 358 European Co-operation for Accreditation, 607
Ergosterol in Tomato paste, 79 European guideline 94/62/EG, 993
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning, 596 European Influenza Conference in Malta, 390
Erucic acid, 331, 332 European Standard EN45011, 606
Erwinia amylovora, 832, 836 European Union, 22
Erysiopelothrix rhusiopathiae, 581 EuroPrevall, 29
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, 578 Evers diet, 871
Erythritol, 657 EVOH (Ethylene vinyl alcohol), 988
Erythrosine, 629 Export dumping, 1079
Escherich,Theodore, 142 Extreme xerophylic moulds, 747
Escherichia coli, 79, 152, 241 Extruded products, content of fumonisin, 83
Faba virus, 835 Fish oil supplements, dioxins, 115

Fagicladosporic acid, 84 Fish oil, concentrated, 933, 1299
Familial Hypercholesterollaemia, 940 Fit for life, Harvey Diamond, 867
Family milk chocolate, 383 Five basic ideas of HACCP, 562
Famines, 1055 Flavanole, 978
Fannia canicularis, 580 Flavanone, 978
FAO, 1054 Flavobacterium, 136, 170
FAO Anti-Hunger Program, 1054 Flavone, 978
Fasciola hepatica, 1023 Flavonoids, 362, 977
Fasciolopsis buski, 1025 Flavonole, 977
Fast Food, 323 Flavour enhancer, 666
Fast food, 298 Flavour enhancers, 663
Fast-food healthy?, 922 Flavours, 663
Fat, daily intake, 934, 1300 Flavours, Flavour enhancers:, 663
fat-burner, 861 Flavoxanthin, 631
Fats, dilatation values, 321 Flavr tomato, 470
Fats, her nutritional value, 934, 1300 Flies, 580
Fats, NMR-values, 321 Flies, transmission of bacteria, 581
Fats, recommended composition, 934, 1300 Flood catastrophe, hygiene and infections, 190
Fatty acid esters from ascorbic acid, i) ascorbyl Flukes, 1018, 1022
palmitate, II)ascorbyl stearate, 638 Fluor, 934, 1300
Fatty acids, 647 Fluoride, 100
Fatty acids, essential fatty acids, 934, 1300 Fluorine, 361
Fatty acids, trans configuration, 954 Fluoroacetamide, 119
Fatty acids, vitamin F, 358 Fluorocult Brila-broth, 178
FDA, Food and Drug Administration, 897 Fluorocult DEV-lactose-broth, 179
Feed ingredients, 683 Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7 Agar, 179
Feline leukaemia, 231 Fluorocult E.coli 0157:H7-agar, 176
Fenfluramine, 863 Fluorocult ECD, E.coli Direct Agar, 179
Fennel seed, 382 Fluorocult Lauryl-Sulfate-Broth, 179
Ferulic acid, 317 Fluorocult LMX-broth according to MANAFI
Fescue meadow pollen, 50 and OSSMER, 175
Festuclavine, 746 Fluorocult MacConkey-Agar, 180
Fibers, soluble and insoluble, 364 Fluorocult VRB-Agar, 180
Fibrocapsa japonica, 71 Fluorocult, typical growth of E.coli 0157:H7,
Field pea weevil, 501 177
Figs, aflatoxins on dried figs, 743 Fluoroplate Candida -Agar, 749
Filtration, 187 Fluridone, 98
Finger Food, 298 Foam cleaning, 720
Finland study, 970 Folic acid, 294, 300, 933, 1299
Fish and chips, 349 Folic acid, vitamin Bc, 358
1326
Folic acid, vitamin M, 358 Fruits and vegetable allergies, 33

Folin-Ciocalteau, 979 FTAA (Free Trade Area of the Americas), 1091
Food additive additive List FDA, 411 Fucus vesiculosus, 863
Food additives and nervous cells, 675 Fugoa N, 895
Food Allergens, EuroPrevall, 29 Fugu-toxin, 73
Food allergens, Incidence, 32 Fulvia fulva, 338
Food allergens, labelling, 26 Fumaric acid, 638
Food allergens, major serious food allergens, Fumigants, 97
25 Fumigatin, 744
Food allergies, egg allergy, 33 Fumigation, 581
Food allergies, milk allergy, 32 Fumonisin in baby foods, 83
Food allergies, skin prick tests, 31 Fumonisin, content in maize, 82
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 1054 Fumonisins, 82
Food and Drug Administration, 897 Functional Food, 353
Food chain steps, 559 Functional food, 353
Food colour, Brilliant Blue, 680 Functional Food in USA, 357
Food genomics, uses, 556 Functional food,Mood Food, 377
Food intolerance, 37 Functional foods, 293
Food poisoning, 89 Functional foods, claims, 375
Food safety, 293 Functional foods, Hard claims, 298
Food sovereignty, 1057 Functional foods, Soft claims, 298
Food supplements, 299, 389 Functional foods, targets, 377
Food terrorism and sabotage, 1041 Fungus-transmitted rod shaped virus (Furo),
Food terrorism, WHO, 1048 835
Foot and Mouth disease, 227 Fusaria diverisporum, 82
Foot and mouth disease, clinical signs, 230 Fusaria sporotrichiella, 82
Formic acid, 635 Fusaria toxins, 82
Formula, 687 Fusaria toxins in baby foods, 83
Formula diets, 893 Fusarium, 81
Formula diets for weight reduction according Fusarium culmorum, 745, 753
to Codex Alimentarius, 893 Fusarium dry rot, 842
FOSHU:Functional Foods in Japan, 354 Fusarium graminearum, 753
Foster, Paul, 502 Fusarium lateratium, 84
Fowl cholera, 270 Fusarium mycotoxins, 755
Francissella tularensis, 577 Fusarium oxysporum, 338, 745
Franklin, Michael, 200 Fusarium poae, 84
Fraunhofer-Institut fr Verfahrenstechnik und Fusarium sporotrichoides, 84
Verpackung (IVV), 986 Fusarium tricinctum, 82
Fremann, 294 Futomaki, 314
Frozen food, 585
Fruit tree red spider mite, 842 Gadus spec, 349
Galanin, 897 Gluconic acid, 136, 647

Gama-tocopherol, 638 Glucono delta-lactone, 647
GAP, 248 Gluconobacter oxydans, 136
Garlic, 382, 933, 1299 Glucosinolates, 363
Garlic, comparison with Benzafibrate, 340 Glucuronidase, 177
Gastrointestinal alterations, 377 Glutamic acid, 666
GATS annexes, 1075 Glutamine, 933, 1299
GATT, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Glutathione, 933, 1299
1074 Glutathione peroxidase, 668
GATT, goods under GATT, 1075 Gluten-free, 205
GATT, Protection of life or health, 1078 Glycemic Index Databank, 410
Gelatin,alternatives to, 205 Glycemic Index, labelling, 409
Gelatine, 389, 880 Glycemic Load, 410
Gelatine as dietary supplement, 390 Glycerin, 645
Gellan, 645 Glycerinester of root resin, 646
Gemini virus, 835 Glyceryl triacetate, 659
Genetic modification, 624 Glycine max, 480
Genetic modification, technology, 465 Glycine maxima, 648
Genetic modified food,labeling in Europe, 468 Glycitein, 296
Genetic modified potatoes, 492 Glyphosate, 480
Genetic modified seeds in Brazil, 495 Glyphosate, aquatic use, 99
Genistein, 296, 912 GMO (Genetic Modified Organism), 469
Genistein, phytoestrogen of soybeans, 862 GMO and worldwide famine, an interview with
Genomics, food genomics, 555 Ian Wilmut, 495
Genomics, nutritional genomics, 555 GMO corn, 477
Genscher, Hans-Dieter, 22 GMO labeling EU directive, 493
Gente sem Terra, 1057 GMO maize seeds, recall, 482
Gerolsteiner mineral water, PET bottle, 986 GMO soybean oil and allergenity, 482
Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Syndrome, 197 GMO Sugar beets in Germany, 498
Ghrelin, 873 GMO tomatoes approved by EU Commission,
Giardia intestinalis, 580 468
Giardia lamblia, 1017 GMO, Genetic Modified Organism, definition,
Gibberella fujikuroi, 838 465
Gibberella zeae, 82 GMO-free cereals, Northland seed and Grains,
Ginger, 382 483
Ginkgo Bilobe Egb 761, 933, 1299 GMP, 567
Glass, as package, 985 Goethe, 787
Gliocladium species, 747 Gold, 632
Global corporations, 1069 Good Manufacturing Practice, 567
Global food safety, 1053 Good Manufacturing Practice and food aller-
Global food trade, 1053 gens, 26
1328
Gossipium barbadense, 648 HACCP, pipeline diagrams for cheese dairies,

Gossipium hirsutum, 648 589
Gottwald, Franz-Theo, 294 HACCP, Static hygiene conditions:Building, 570
Granox TB, 118 HACCP, timetable to install an HACCP sys-
GRAS , General Regarded as Safe, 482 tem, 562
Gravitational force, 727 HACCP, types of specifications, 616
Gray (Gy), 732 HACCP, water in cheese dairies, 590
Green Dot, recycling organization, 992 HACCP, what is CP, 563
Green laver, 311 Haemaglutining spikes, 264
Green Nori, 311, 312 haemolitic uraemic syndrome,HUS, 153
Green peach aphid, 845 Haemorrhagic colitis, HC, 153
Green Revolution, 767 Halaal slaughter, 891
Green S, 629 Halaal (lawful,permitted), 888
Green tea, 364 Halaal chocolate, 892
Green tea, polyphenols, 911 Halaal experts, 882
Growth stimulating hormones in beef, 116 Halaal Food,definition according to the Codex
Grunfeld, 877 Alimentarius, 890
Guanylic acid, 667 Halaal, basic food according to the Codex Al-
Guar gum, 644 imentarius, 890
Guar meal, alternative to gelatin, 205 Halobacteriaceae, 135
Gucomannan, 645 Hanseniaspora, 763
Guidance standards , 607 Haraam animal food, 890
Guide and warning standards for Foods, 191Haraam additives, 891
Guillain-Barre syndrome, 145 Haraam beverages, 891
Gulf Cooperation Council, 22 Haraam vegetable foods, 891
Gum arabic, 644 Haram ingredients, 882
Gummer, John, Minister or Agriculture, UK,Haram ingredients, list, 887
200 Hare Krishnas, 875
Gut microflora, 35 Harmful algae blooms buoy, 71
Gy, (Gray), 732 Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB), 71
Gymnodinium breve, 72 Harvey Diamond, Fit for Life, 867
Haveg, 990
HAA, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines, 92 Hay fever, 46
HACCP basic documents, 587 Hazard, 568
HACCP for cheese dairies, 589 HCH, 119
HACCP, basic Documents, 564 HDL cholesterol, 318
HACCP, definition, 567 Head of documents and forms, 587
HACCP, Dynamic hygiene conditions: Clean- Health Food, 377
ing, disinfection,handling, 571 Health Professional Study, 974
HACCP, five basic ideas of, 562 Healthy nutrition according to the WHO, 935,
HACCP, history, 561 1301
Heaney- Study, 688 Histoplasma capsulatum, 232

Heart infarcts, clinical reports, 167 Hizikia, 312
Heart UK and Coronary Heart Diseases, 940 HMC, Howard mould count, 337
Heat as disinfectant, 721 Hoffmann la Roche, 895
Heavy density polyethylene (HDPE), 988 Hop mildew, 840
Heavy metals, 89, 112 Hordei virus, 835
Heavy tocopherol bearing extracts, 638 Hormones in food, 624
Helical symmetry of viruses, 264 Hormoorientin, 396
Helicobacter, 143 Hosomaki, 314
Helicobacter pylori, 167, 205 Howard mould Count, 337
Helium, 651 Howard Rees, 200
Helminthosporium solani, 843 Huffnagle, gary, 35
Helminths, 1018 Hunger, physiology, 896
Hemophilus gallinarum, 270 HUS,hemolytic uraemic syndrome, 153
Hendra virus, 262 Hydatid cyst, 1028
Henipavirus, 262 Hydrocyanic acid, 92
Hepatitis A - virus, 260 Hydroperoxydes, 325
Hepatitis E - virus, 260
Hydroxymethyl cellulose, 646
Hepatitis virus B, 580
Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate, 659
Heptachlor, 119
Hydroxypropyl starch, 658
Heptachlor in feed with fishmeal, 119
Hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, 646
Herbal metabolism boosters, 864
Hygiene regulations in Germany, 567
Herbalife, 893
Hygienemonitoring, 715
Herbicides in rainfall, 103
Hygienic training of the staff, 717
Herbicides, aquatic, 98
Herbicides, important, 93 Hylobius abietis, 840
Herring, 306 Hylurgopinus rufipes, 840
Herring worm, 1030 Hymenolepis diminuta, 579, 1028
Hexachlorobenzene, 119 Hymenolepis nana, 579, 1028
Hexachlorophene, 81 Hyperlinked Management, 596
Hexamethylene tetramine, 632 Hyperlinked Management, over lapping man-
Hexamethylentetramin, 667 agement system, 593
Hexestrol, 117 Hypertension, 402
Hexosaminidase, identification of Candida al-
bicans, 750 IBS Irritable Bowel Syndrome, 44
High fat diet and breast cancer, 300 Iceberg lettuce, 853
High-Barrier-Layer, 988 Icosahedral symmetry of viruses , 263
Hijiki, 312 Identity preserved (IP) non-GM soy bean lecithin
Himanthalia elongata, 312 and maize, 473
Hindus, 875 IFMA (International Federation of Margarine
Histamine, 290 Association, 954
1330
IFST, Institute of Food Science and Technol- Integrated Pest Management (IPM), 102
ogy, 26 Integrated Production Systems, 1064
IgE testing RAST, 31 Intelligent Pst Management (IPM Systems),
IHR (International Health Regulation, 1048 1065
IMACE (Association of the Margarine Indus- International Alliance against Hunger, 1055
try of the EC Countries), 954 International Council for Exploration of the
Imidazolinon, herbicide, 494 Seas (IREM), 350
Immuneglobulines and CLA acids, 701 International Dairy AssociationIDFA, 29
Immunoblotting method, 481 International Federation of Margarine Associ-
immunoglobulins, 46 ation (IFMA), 954
Impedance, 183 International Health Regulation (IR), 1048
Impedance technology for detection and enu- International Numbering System for Ingredi-
meration of bacteria, 182 ents, 628
Impedance technology, Bactometer, bioMieux, International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC),
184 1062
Impedance technology, BacTrac, 185 International Standards and Sanytary and Phy-
Impedance technology, capacitance, 183 tosanitary Measures Agreement, 1077
Impedance technology, conductance, 183 International Table of Glycemic Index, 410
Impedance technology, detection time, 183 International trade of pesticides, 117
Indigotin I, 629 International Trade Organization ITO, 1088
Indulgent food, 404 internet, 596
Industrial Property, 1088 Intestinal anthrax, 62
Infant formula, definition Codex, 416 Intestinal flukes, 1025
Infant formula, essential composition, 416 Intranet, 596
Infant formulae, 420 Inulin, 205
Influenza virus, 264 Inulin and flavonoids, 400
Influenza, avian, 249 Iodameba bütschlii, 1016
Ingredients, International Numbering System Iodine, 300, 361, 863, 933, 1299
INS , 628 Iodophore, 723
Inherited high cholesterol, 940 IPM (Integrated Pest Management), 102
Inorganic Insecticides, 100 IRCA, International Register of Certified Au-
Inositol, 358 ditors, 603
INS, 628 IREM International Council for Exploration of
Insect repellents, 98 the Seas, 350
Insecticides, natural, 97 Irish Famine, 1055
Insoluble fibers, 364 Iron, 361, 933, 1299
Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST),Iron hydroxides, 632
26 Iron oxides, 632
Instruction of Procedures, 598 Iron-II lactate, 648
Instruction of Procedures (IP), 598 Irradiation of food, 729
Instructions of Work (IW), 598 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 365, 376
Isaria species, 747 Kashrus, 877

ISO 14040:2006, 1106 KASII gene, 1126
ISO 15161:2002, 603 Kefir, 45
ISO 1561:2001, alternative standards, 603 Kelp, 311
ISO 22000, 604 Kennedy Round, 1088
ISO 9.000, a quality control, 591 Ketemfe, 656
ISO 9000 Quality Assurance System, 568 Ketogenic diet, 869
ISO 9001, 597 Ketogenic diet, medium-chain triglyceride diet,
ISO 9002, 597 870
ISO 9003, 597 Ketone bodies and Alzheimer’s and Parkin-
ISO 9004, 597 son’s disease, 870
ISO norms dealing with quality management, Ketosis, 869
597 Kiwi, 310
ISO, auditable standards, 607 Kiwi fruit, 49
Isoascorbic acid, 638 Kiwi fruit allergy, 33
Isoflavone, 978 Klebsiella pneumoniae, 579
Isoflavone intake amounts, 862 Klingella, 136
Isoflavones, 296 Kluyveromyces, 763
Isoflavonoids, 301 Koji acid, 744
Isomalt, 333 Kombu, 312
Isomeride, 898 Konjac, 645
Isometric labile ringspot (Ilar), 835 Kosher food, certification, 877
Isotopes, 727 Kosher food, what is it?, 876
Itai-Itai disease, cadmium poisoning, 89 Kosher Foods, 876
Ivermectin, 348 Kosher laws, 877, 878
IVV (Fraunhofer-Institut fr Verfahrenstechnik KOVAKS-indol regent,identification of E.coli
und Verpackung, 986 and coliforms, 179
Kryptoxanthin, 631
Jasmonic acid in tomato plants, 337 Kuna people, cocoa, 983
Jews, 876 Kuru, 197
Jo-Jo-effect, 893 Kyoto Protocol, 1083
Joules, daily intake, 894 Kyoto protocol, 1083
Judge ruling, 445
Jungbauer, Walter, 986 Lösch, describing Endamoeba histolytica in 1875,
1016
Kanagawa reaction, 163 Labeling of Halaal food according to the Codex
Kaolinite, source of dioxin, 221 Alimentarius, 892
Karaya, 645 Labella, Tony, 243
Karaya gum, Sterculia urens, 909 Labelling, US reglations, 437
Karlsberger brewery,beer in PET bottle, 986 Lactalbumin, 49
Kaschin-Beck-disease, 84 Lactic acid, 636, 637
1332
Lactic acid bacteria,detection and enumeration Lethal Familiar Insomnia, 197

with impedance technology, 182 Liberty Link (LL) rice 601, 488
Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of Life Cycle assessment, 1106
edible fatty acids, 648 LIMS, Collier, 596
Lactobacillus buchneri, 290 LIMS, Wilab, 596
Lactobacillus delbrueckii, 290 Lindane, 119
Lactobacillus gasseri, 390 Linoleic acid, 934, 1300
Lactobacillus lactis in fresh milk, 293 Linolenic acid, 934, 1300
Lactoflavin, 628 Linseed, 308
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste, 555 Linxian Study, 974
Laminaria, 312 Lipid peroxides, 326
Laminaria hyperborea, 312 Lipstatin, 895
Laminaria japonica, 312 Listeria monocytogenes, 79, 244, 579
Langoustine, Nephrops norvegicus, 348 Listeria spp in refrigerated milk, 293
Larch sawfly, 841 Lithol rubine BK, 629
Lard, vitamin E, 326 LMHV, Food Hygiene Regulations in Germany,
Laxatives, 863 567
Layer yeasts, 755 LMX-broth according to MANAFI and OSS-
LDL cholesterol, 315, 318, 958 MER, 175
Lead, 89
Locust bean gum, 644
Lead intoxication, 101
Lolitrem B, 755
Lecithin, 471, 639
Long finned albacore, Thunnus alalunga, 348
Lecithin from brains and nervous system ma-
Lophius piscatorius, 348
terial, 206
Low caloric servings, 929, 1295
Lecithin of Soya, 330
Low fat nutrition, 929, 1295
Lecithin of rape oil, 330
Low-carbohydrate diets, the potential risks, 866
Lecithinase, 79
Legionella, 171 Lowcarb diets, 859
Legionella bacteria, 259 Lucarotin, 304
Legionella pneumophila in water, method, 171 Lucilia, 580
Leguminosae, 330 Lupeol, 911
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 842 Lutein, 365, 631
Leptin, 873, 901 Luteo virus, 835
Leptosphaeria maculans, 838 Lutzenberger, José, 294
Leptospira, 171, 190 Lycopene, 363, 630
Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Canicola, 578 Lycopene, tomato products, prostate cancer,
Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Grippotyphosa, 414
578 Lysin, 861
Leptospira interrogans, serogroup Pomosa, 578 Lysozyme, 657
Leptospira interrogans,serogroup Icterohaem-
orrhagiae, 578 Müller-Wohlfahrt, 687
Machines and other utensils for processing of Marker gene, 467

food, 571 Marks and Spencer, alliance against GMO ,
Mackerel, 306 493
Macrobiotic nutrition according M.Kushi, 872 Mass-Energy relation of Einstein, 733
MAFF, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Matzo, Jewish unleavened bread, 879
Food, 200 Max-Plank-Diet, 858
Magnesium, 361, 382, 668, 933, 969, 1299 Mayo Clinic Study, 318
Magnesium carbonate, 649 Mayo diet, 858
Magnesium glutamate, 666 Mayonnaise with fatty acids and juices, 365
Magnesium hydroxide, 650 McDonald’s branding, 428
Magnesium orthophosphate, 641 MEA= Maltextract-agar, 753
Magnesium Roche, 287 Meat and environment, 339
Magnesium salt of edible fatty acids, 639 Meat, minced, 585
Magnesium salt of fatty acids, 639 Meat, storage and handling, 573
Magnesium silicate), 647 Mediterranean fruit fly, 839
Magnesium trisilicate, 647 Mediterranean fruit fly, USA key program, 839
Magnesium, anti stress function, 969 Medroxyprogesterone, 117
Magnesium, undersupply, 969 Melamine resin MF, 990
Maize 59122, 532 Melanin, 752
Maize Mon 863, 500 Melatonin, 352
Maize oil, vitamin E, 326 Meldrum, chief veterinarian of UK, 200
Maize,content of fumonisin, 82 Melissa, 383
Majoram, 382 Menadione, vitamin K, 358
MAK,Maximale Arbeitsplatzkonzentration, 86 Menangle virus, 262
Maki-Sushi-roll, 314 Menaquinones, 359
Malacosoma pluvialis, 840 menopausal disorders, natural dietary approaches,
Malic acid, 637, 638 862
Malt extract agar, 752 Merck Fluorocult LMX- Broth (Laurylsulfate-
Malt extract agar, 50% glucose (MY5G), 753 MUG-X-Gal):, 179
Maltextract-agar (MEA), 753 MERCOSUR, 22
MALTHUS,conductivity detection and enumer- Mercosur, 1062
ation of bacteria , 185 Mercury compounds, 119
MANAFI and OSSMER, LMX-broth, 175 Mercury levels in blood and hair, U.S. EPA
Management system, Hyperlink, 593 recommendation, 953
Manganese, 361, 934, 969, 1300 Mercury, origin in the Amazon region, 90
Mannit, 645 Meridia, 897
Marcam Software Solutions, 596 Merluce, Merluccius merluccius, 347
Mareks Disease, 270 Metabolome, 556
Margarine with Omega-3 fatty acids, 365 Metabolomics in human blood, 557
Margarine, allergy risk, 314 Metachlor, 93
Margarine, texture, 321 Metallocenes, 988
1334
Metatartaric acid, 641 Modified starch, 638

Methamidophos, 120 Modified starch, 658
Methionine, 382, 861 Molds transmitted by rodents, 578
Methyl bromide phaseout, 582 Moltopren, 990
Methyl bromide, fumigation, 581 Molybdenum, 361, 934, 1300
Methyl-parathion, 121 Monarch butterfly and the Bt maize, 499
Methylcellulose, 646 Monitoring, 562
Meticillin, 80 Monkfish, Lophius piscatorius, 348
Mice, 577 Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids, 889
Mice, extermination of, 577 Mono and diglycerids from edible fatty acids,
Microarray, 181 648
Microbial pesticides, 104 Mono- and diacetyl tartaric acid ester of mono-
Microbial transglutaminase, 1128 and diglycerides of edible fatty acids,
Microcystis, 70 648
Microencapsulation offish oil with sugar beet Mono- and Diglycerides of fatty acids , 639
pectin , 1123 Monoammonium glutamate, 666
Microorganism, spoiling food, 78 Monocots, water treatment, 99
Microorganisms causing infections, 80 Monocrotophos, 118, 121
Microorganisms, producing toxins, 79 Monocultures, 1063
Microsporum gypseum, 745 Monostarch phosphate, 658
Migros, alliance against GMO , 493 Montan ester, 651
Milk allergy, 32, 48 Mood Food, 378
Milk and milk products, 285 Mood Food as Functional Food, 377
Milk Calcium, 285 Mood, behavior, cognitive and physical perfor-
Milk chocolate, labeling, 383 mances, 377
Milk products, risk of transmission of BSE, 207 Moonbird, 840
Milk, radioactive pollution, 113 Mop-top furovirus, 843
Minamata disease in Japan, 89 Moraxella, 136
Minamata disease in Tapajós, 90 Moraxella lacunata, 136
Minamata, mercury poisoning, 89 Morganella morganii, 290
Mineral water, exposure to, 730 Mormons, 875
Minerals, 361 Mortierella elongata, 308
Minerals and vitamins, recommended daily al- Moslems, 880
lowance (RDA), 933, 1299 Moslems,Haraam(unlawful)food, 888
Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar 2001, Moulds, 247, 741
1071 Moulds, heat-resistant, 747
Mixture of tartaric and acetic acid ester of mono- Moulds,detection and enumeration with impedance
and diglycerides of edible fatty acids, technology, 182
648 Mouse-Bioassay, 72
Model Food Security Plans, 1046 MPN method, 163
Model SA 8000 (Social Accountability), 599 Mucopolysaccharides, 868
Mucor, 338, 748 Nectria galligena, 842

Mucorales, 748 Nectria ochroleuca, 842
Mufti of the Al Azhar University of Cairo, 889 Negative staining of viruses, 263
MUG (4-Methylumbelliferyl-beta-D-glucuronid.)Neisseria, 136
to the sample., 177 Neisseriaceae, 136
MUG (glucuronidase methode), advantages, 177 Nematode-transmitted polyeder (Nepo, 835
Mugwort pollen, 50 Nematodes, 1018
Multilayer bottles, 989 Nematodes transmitted by rodents, 579
Multivitamine, 686 Neosartorya fischeri, 747
Multivitamines, 688 Neosartorya spp, 747
Mumps virus, 264 Nestlé, PET jars, 992
MUP, 169 Neuropeptide Y, 901
Musca domestica, 580 Neuropeptides, 380
Mushbooh ingredients, list, 885 Newcastle disease, 249
Mussel scale, 842 Niacin, 358, 670
MY50G = Malt extract agar, 50% glucose, 753 Niacin equivalent, 670
Mycobacterium leprae, 579 Niacin, sources, 671
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 578, 579 Niacin, toxicity, 671
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, 270 Niacinamide, 358, 670, 933, 1299
Mycoplasmosis:, 270 Niacinamide, vitamin Pp, 358
Mycotoxin, 337 Niacitine, 671
Mycotoxin in cereals, prevention, 248 Nicotinamide, 670
Mycotoxines, 112, 288 Nicotine, 1036
Mycotoxins, 81 Nicotine, food poisoning, 1033
Mycotoxins, contamination of food, 81 Nicotinic acid, 670
Mykosteroles, 318 Nigiri-Sushi, 314
Nipah virus, 262
NAFTA, 1090 Nisin, 635
NAFTA North American Freed Trade Agree- Nitrates in food, 624
ment, 1060 Nitrogen, 651
Nanoparticles, 1102 Nitzschia pungens, 72
Nanosilimagna, 688 NLEA, Nutrition Labeling and Education act,
Natamycin, 633, 635, 667 357
National Integrated Managemen Network, 102 No-effect-level, 623
Natrium phosphate i) monosodium phosphate, Non-typhoid salmonellosis, 243
ii) disodium phosphate, iii) trisodium Non-volatile chemicals with environmental im-
phosphate, 641 pact, 103
Natural Weight Program, 865 Nonfood plastics, 990
Naturland, 473 Nonylphenol in food, 996
Nectria coccinea var.faginata, 842 nonylphenolethoxylate, 996
Nectria fungi, 841 Nopales, 982
1336
Nopalin, 466 Oestrogen, 296, 382

Noradrenalin, 379 OGY (Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract agar,
Norbixin, 630 752
Norephedrine, 863, 895 OGY= Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract
Normal weight, 857 agar, 753
Norovirus, 257 Ohmae, Kenichi, 1069
Norovirus in Oysters, 259 Oil plants, 328
Nortestosterone, 116 Oils and fats, raffination, 319
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), Oistershell scale, 842
1060 Okada acid, 72
Northland Seed and Grains, Minnesota, 483 Olipolis, 1080
Norwalk virus, 258 Olive oil, 315
Norwalklike virus, 258 Olive oil and the RES (reticular endothelian
Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus, 348 system, 315
Novel Food, 293 Omega-3 fatty acids in Eggs, 939, 1305
Novel Food Decree, 467 Omega-3 fatty acids levels in fresh beef from
Novel Foods Committee UK, 939, 1305 feedlots, 946
Nuclear force, 727 Omega-3 fatty acids microencapsulated to sup-
Nuclear fusion, 734 plement foods., 306
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 412 Omega-3 fatty acids, brain function, 959
Nucleons, 727 Omega-3 fatty acids, claims, 958
Nurses Health Study, 974 Omega-3 fatty acids, depression, 943
Nutmeg, 383 Omega-3 fatty acids, emulsifyed fish oil, 309
Nutraceuticals, 298, 309, 352 Omega-3 fatty acids, Oxford-Durham Study,
Nutriceuticals, 294 958
Nutrition, 294 Omega-3 LCPs, 365
Nutrition claims in the Philippines, 928, 1294 Omega-3 PUFA, structure, 307
Nylon, 991 Omega-3-fatty acids,in functional Food, 365
Onions, 383
oat beta-glucan, cholesterol lowering, 696 Open Sky air traffic, agreement 2007, 819
Oat fibre, 696 Open-air drying , 1045
Ochratoxin A, 84, 745, 746 Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, 832
Ochratoxin A, sources, 85 opine, 466
Ochratoxin and other mycotoxins in cereals, OPP (Oriented polypropylene), 988
inactivation, 85 Opportunists, facultative pathogenic bacteria.,
Ochratoxin in coffee, in cocoa and chocolate, 78
741 Optifast, 901
Ochratoxins, 82 OPTILIP Study, ischemic heart disease, 940
Ochrobactrum anthropi, 340 Orange juice, 22
Octyl gallate, 638 Orange peel pellets, 88
OECD, 1092, 1094 Orf, poxvirus of lamb or kid goats, 264
Organic agriculture, nitrogen fertilizer, 812 PAK Polycyclic Aromatic Carbon, 92

Organic farming, milk substitute, 202 PAL, Panton-Valentin-Leukozidin toxin, 80
Organic food, definition, 389 Palmaria palmata, 312
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Palmoil, maximum level of lead, 101
Development, 1059 Panaeus monodon, black tiger, 348
Organohalogens and vitamin A, 115 Panama disease of banana plantations, 838
Oriented polypropylene (OPP), 988 Pandalus borealis, deep-sea prawn, 348
Orleana, 630 Pandemic, 78
Orlistat, 895 Pangamic acid, vitamin B15, 358
Ornithosis, 165 Panorama, 688
Orotic acid, vitamin B13, 358 Panton-Valentin-Leukozidin (PAL) toxin, 80
Orthophenylphenol, 635 Pantothenic acid, 933, 1299
Otolith, 1084 Pantothenic acid,Vitamin B5 , 358
Overspecialization, 1054 Papain, 864
Overweight, 900 Paprika, 383
Overweight equation, 898 Para-aminobenzoic acid, vitamin Bx, 358
Overweight, classification, 858 Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), 72
Overweight,classification, 900 Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning(PSP), 70
Ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets, 870 Paramyxoviridae, 262
Oxalate, 286 Paramyxovirus, 232
Oxano, 686 Parasites, 1015
oxidised starch, 658 Parasitic worms, 1018
Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract agar (OGY),Parathion, 118, 121
753 PARSIFAL study, 55
Oxytetracyclin glucose yeast extract agar (OGY),Particulate matter, 1101
752 Parvovirus, 259
Ozone, 188 Parvoviruses, 232, 269
Ozone stressed tomato plants, 337 Pasteurella multocida, 270
Pasteurization of fruit juices, 754
PABA, 691 PAT Protein, 489
PAC, polyciclic aromatic carbon, 89 Patent blue V, 629
Pacific albacore, Thunnus alalunga, 348 Patents on GMO-plants, 498
Pacific hake, Merluccius productus, 347 Pathogen Modelling Program (PMP), 1114
Pacific whiting, Merluccius productus, 347 Patulin, 82, 745, 746, 754
Packaging recycling,European regulation, 993 Patulin, TDI, 247
Packaging under controlled atmosphere, 997 PCB in fish from the North Sea, 92
Packaging Waste Recovery Notes (PRNs), 1009 PCB, Polychlorated biphenil, 222
Packaging, estrogenic effect, 1009 PCBs, 114
Packaging, migration of components, 114 PCDD Polychlorated dibenzodioxin, 89
Paecilomyces species, 747 PCDF, dibenzofuran, 89
PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrogen, 92 PCR reaction, 478
1338
PCR, Polymerase Chain Reaction and impedancePET bottle, Gerolsteiner mineral water, 986
methods, 145 PET bottle, Karlsberger beer, 986
PE (Polyethylen), 987 PET bottles, Coca Cola Company, 987
peach allergy, 33 PET-multilayer bottle with EVOH barrier, 987
Peanut, atopy, 34 Petachlorophenol, 119
Peanuts allergies, 33 Petunia hybrids, 480
Pectin, 910 Phaeophyceae, 312
Pectine, 645 Phages, 262, 264
Pectinesterase, 754 Phalera bucephala, 840
Pemphigus bursarius, 841 PHB- methyl ester, 634
Penicillium, 81 PHB-ethyl ester sodium salt, 634
Penicillium aurantiogriseum, 745 PHB-methyl ester,sodium salt, 634
Penicillium aurantiogriseum on DRYS, 746 PHB-propyl ester, 634
Penicillium brevicompactum, 745 Phenfluramine, 896
Penicillium camemberti, 746 Phenoplaste PF, 990
Penicillium chrysogenum, 746 Phenylalanine, 380
Penicillium expansum, 746, 754 Phenylethylamine, 290
Penicillium glabrum, 746 Phenylketonuria, 652
Penicillium hirsutum, 746 Phitochemicals, 301
Penicillium italicum, 746 Phoma destructiva, 338
Penicillium roquefortii, 746 Phosphamidon, 121
Penicillium verrucosum, 746 Phosphate fertilizer, radioactivity, 730
Penicillium verrucosum on DRYS (Dichloran Phosphate-5-riboflavin, 628
rosebengal yeast extract sucrose agar Phosphates in food, 646
), 746 Phosphinothricin - N - acetyltransferase (PAT)
Penicillium viridicatum, 746 protein, 489
Peplomers, 264 Phosphoric acid, 641
Pepper, 383 Phosphorus, 361
Pepper mince, 383 Phtalate DBP and DEHP, 292
Perchlorethylene, 88 Phthalat in baby foods, 115
Perlon, 991 Phthalates, medical devices, 997
Pernicious scale, 841 Phycomyces, 748
Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids, 325 Phylloquinone, 359
Pertinax, 990 Physician Health Study, 974
Pest control, 574 Physiology of hunger, 896
Pest control, general consideration, 577 Phytase, 475
Pesticides, 92, 288 Phytate, 286
pesticides, 624 Phytium, 832
Pesticides in tomatoes, 339 Phytium spp., 842
Pesticides, Regulations, 93 Phytochemical activity of fruits and vegeta-
PET (Polyethylene terephthalate), 988 bles, 361
Phytocystatin, 50 Polybrominated biphenyls (Hexa-, Deca-, Octa),

Phytomonas manihotis, 853 121
phytonadione, 359 Polychlorated biphenyl (PCB), 111
Phytopathogenic viroids, 199 Polychlorated dibenzodioxin PCDD, 89
Phytophthora infestans, 338, 843, 844 Polychlorinated bephenyls (PCB), 121
Phytophtora infestans, 1056 Polychlorinated Terphenyls (PCT), 121
Phytoreo virus, 835 Polyciclic aromatic carbon, PAC, 89
Phytosteroles, 318 Polydextrose, 657
Pichia, 763 Polyester, 991
Pichia pastoris, 760 Polyester resines, unsaturated UP, 991
Pichia pastoris, human glycosylation, 760 Polyethylen (PE), 987
Picornaviridae, 260 Polyethylen waxoxidate, 651
Pidolic acid salts, saftey and bioavailability, Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 988
714 Polyglycerol ester of fatty acids, 640
Pimaricin, 633 Polyhydroxibutirate PHB, 1010
Pine bark as a source of bioflavonoids, 303 Polylactic acid (PLA), 1014
Pinnworm, 1020 Polymer, abbreviations used, 995
Polymerase Chain Reaction, 478
Pioneer maize seeds, 482
Polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ), 152
Piricularia oryzae, 839
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)identifying mi-
Planing HACCP, 569
croorganism, 181
Plant damage, cause, 833
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA, 991
Plant louse, 841
Polymyxa, 832
Plant sterol esters, 315
Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monolaurat (Polysor-
Plant sterols, average intake, 316 bate 20), 645
Plant-Incorporated-Protectans (PIPS), 104 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monooleat (Polysorbate
Plasticisers, possible cancer-causing agents, 116 80), 645
Plastics as packaging material, 985 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monopalmitate (Polysor-
Plastics used as packaging material, 994 bate 40), 645
plastics, nonfood, 990 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan monostearate (Polysor-
Plexiglas, 991 bate 60), 645
Point diet, 859 Polyoxyethylen-sorbitan tristearate (Polysorbate
Poison of heated foods, 92 65), 645
Poliomielitis virus type 1, 580 Polyphenol, catechin, quercentin, 928, 1294
Poliovirus, 263 Polyphosphates, 646
Polish meat, EU-Russia summit Samara 2007, Polypropylene (PP), 988
1109 Polytetrafluorethylene PTFE, 991
Pollutants in milk , 110 Polyurethane PUR, 990
Pollutants in milk and Dairy products, 291 Polyvinylacetate PVAC, 991
Pollutants in milk and dairy products, 287 Polyvinylchlorid (PVC), 987
Polluter Pays Principle (PPP), 1092 Polyvinylpropylpyrrolidon, 658
1340
Polyvinylpyrrolidon, 657 Potato virus X (Potex), 835

Pomegranate juice, reversion of proatherogenic Potato virus Y (Poty), 835
effects, 939 Potato water rot, 842
Pontania vesicator, 841 Potato, net necrosis, 844
Pork, 880 Potatoes, Diseases, 842
Porosyn, 990 Potatoes, genetic modified, 492
Porphyra laciniata, 312 Potatoes, Ranger Russet, 507
Porphyra tenera, 312 Potatoes, Russet Burbank, 507
Porphyre tenera, 311 Poultry, infectious coryza, 270
Potassium, 361, 668 Poultry, infectious laryngotracheitis, 270
Potassium acetate, 636 Powdery mildews, 100
Potassium adipate, 642 Poxviruses, 264
Potassium aluminium silicate, 647 PP (Polypropylene), 988
Potassium benzoate, 633 PPLO, 134
Potassium bisulphide, 635 Prebiotics, definition, 377
Potassium carbonate, 649 Predictive analytics, 909
Potassium chloride, 649 Prehypertension, 402
Potassium citrate, 641 Preparedness, 1048
Potassium ferrocyanide, 651 Preservatives, 633
Potassium glutamate, 666 Preservatives and allergies, 743
Potassium guanylate, 667 Preserving compound, 389
Potassium inosinate, 667 Preston- Broth, 152
Potassium lactate, 637 Prevention, 1044
Potassium metabisulfite, 634 Prevention, response and preparedness systems,
Potassium nitrate, 635 1043
Potassium nitrite, 635 Priones, 197
Potassium phosphate, i) monopotassium phos- Pristiphora erichsonii, 841
phate, ii) dipotassium phosphate, iii) pro figure, low caloric servings from Nestlé,
tripotassium phosphate, 641 929, 1295
Potassium propionate, 636 Probiotic bacteria Lp299v, 44
Potassium sorbate, 633 Probiotic yoghurt, 364
Potassium sulphate, ii) Potassium hydrogen sul- Probiotics in farming, 403
phate, 650 Probiotics, definition, 376
Potato bacterial ring rot, 843 Probiotics, prevention of diarrhoea, 376
Potato blight, 1055 Problems with the new institutions:, 1058
Potato early blight, 843 Processed Euchema algae, 644
Potato late blight, 843 Procter & Gambler, nutrition claims in the
Potato late blight prevention, 844 Philippines, 928, 1294
Potato leaf roll virus, 844 Product specification form, 585
Potato leak, 842 Profilin, 51
Potato virus X, 264 Promoter, 467
Promoter-gene, 493 Pyridoxine, 933, 1299

Prophylaxis of amebiasis, 1016 Pyridoxine, vitamin B6, 358
Propionic acid, 636 Pyriproxyfen, 100
Propyl gallate, 638 Pyrrilizidine alkaloids in feed and food, 127
Propylene glycol alginate, 642
Qibla cola, 892
Propylene glycol ester of fatty acids, 640
Quakers, 892
Prostaglandin, 934, 1300
Qualified Presumption of Safety QPS, 195
Proteases, 868
Quality Management Handbook, 598
Protective factors, fruits and vegetables, 294
Quality Management Manual, 597
Protein Power Plan, 868
Quality Management QM, 597
Proteus vulgaris, 581
Quarternary ammonium herbicide, 99
Protoplasts, 466
Quercentins, 977
Protoplasts transformation, 466
Quillaia extract, 657
Protozoa and nematodes transmitted by cock-
Quinoleine, 680
roaches, 580
Qumram, 890
Protozoa, pathogenic, 1015
Quran, 880
Provitamin A, 669
Provitamin A, red color, 304 Rabies, 578
Pseudoallergy, 37 RABIT (Rapid Automated Bacterial Impedance
Pseudomonas, 135, 170 Technique), 184
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 135, 170, 579 Radiation hazards, 731
Pseudomonas fluorescence, 135 Radioactive pollution of milk, 288
Pseudomonas fluorescens, 993 Radioactivity, artificial, 734
Pseudomonas fragi, 993 Radioactivity, history, 728
Pseudomonas pseudomallei, 578 Raffination of oils and fats, 319
Pseudomonas savastanoi, 836 Ramadan, the fast-month, 888
Pseudomonas spoiling red meat, 997 Rancidness, 988
Pseudomonas syringae, 836 Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD),
Pseudoterranova decipiens, 1030 151
Psitacosis, 165 Rape oil, 331
PSP (Paralytical Shellfish Poisoning), 72 Rape seed, 468
Psychology of diet plans, 859 Rapeseed oil, 315
Psyllium, 295, 298 Rapeseed, GMO in Europe, 498
Pteropus vampyrus, 262 Rapeseed,imidazolinon herbicide resistant, 494
Ptycodiscus brevis, 72 Rapid Trait Development System RTDS Cibus,
Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici:, 832 1125
Pulmonary anthrax, 60, 63, 133 Rats, 577
Pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), 151 Rats, extermination of, 577
Putrescine, 290 Raucher Vitamine, 686
PVC (Polyvinylchlorid), 987 RDA, recommended daily allowance of vita-
Pyrenochaeta lycopersici, 338 mins and minerals, 933, 1299
1342
Reactors, graphite moderated, 734 Riboflavin, vitamin G, 358

Real-time PCR, 479 Rice, sequencing, 491
Recall of GMO maize seeds in France, 482 Rich-oleic sunflower seeds, 315
Recommended Daily Allowance of vitamins and Ricin, 1036
minerals (RDA), 933, 1299 Risks which might endanger the health of con-
Recormon, 475 sumer, 567
Recycling organization, 992 Ritual slaughter, 887
Red 2G, 629 RLU, 716
Red beech, 840 Robot, food safety, 617
Red Bull,energy drink with caffeine, 367 Roche, 895
Red grapefruits, 400 Roche Vitamins, 365
Red leg disease, 142 rodents, 577
Red meat under modified atmosphere, 997 Rodents, bacteria transmitted by, 577
Red wine and reduction of atherosclerosis, 928, Rodents, transmission of bacteria, 577
1294 Rodents, transmission of molds, 578
Reductil, 897 Rodents, transmission of nematodes, 579
Redux, appetite suppressant, 898 Rodents, transmission of viruses, 578
Refrigeration and shelf life, 169
Rodoxanthin, 631
Regenon, 895
Roquefort cheese, 742
Regulation (EC)No 258/97, 939, 1305
Roquefortine A and B, 746
Relative biological effectiveness, 731
Roques-Report, 86
Relative Light Units, 716
Rosacrucis, 892
rem, 732
Roseburia spp production of CLA, 702
Reo virus, 259
Reoviruses, 266 Rosemary, 383
Resartglas, 991 Rotavirus, 259
Response to food terrorism, 1048 Rotaviruses, 268
Retina and omega-3 fatty acids, 365 Rotterdam Convention, list of banned or severely
Retinol, 305, 974 restricted chemicals, 118
Retinol, vitamin A, 357 Round Up Ready Soybean, 479
Rhabdo virus, 835 Roundup Ready Soybean, 493
Rhabdovirus, 261 Roundworm, 1019
Rhisopus, 748 Roundworms, 1018
Rhizobium, 501 Roxitromicin, 168
Rhizoctonia Canker, 843 Rubin BK pigment, 632
Rhodococcus erythropolis, 340 Rubixanthin, 631
Rhodophyceae, 312 Rubulavirus, 263
Rhychaenus fragilis, 840 Rumenic acid, 700
Ribavirin, 262 Rye grass mosaic (Rymo), 835
Riboflavin, 357, 933, 974, 1299 Rye pollen, 50
Riboflavin, for food color, 309 Ryegrass staggers, 755
SABOURAUD culture medium, 749 SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, 269
Saccharin, 656 Sashimi, 314
Saccharomyces, 764 Saturated fatty acids, physiology, 958
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, on albicans ID medium,Savory, 382
750 Savrtomato, 470
Sacharoseacetate isobutyrate, 645 Saxitoxin, 71, 73, 1036
Safflower oil, vitamin E, 326 Scald on organic apple, 823
SAFTA, 1062 Scale insect, 841
Sage, 383 Schöller ice-cream, peel pac, 988
Sainsbury, alliance against GMO , 493 Schistosoma haematobium, 1023
Salbutamol, 117 Schistosoma japonicum, 1023
Salicilates, foods high in, 37 Schistosoma mansoni, 1023
Sally Obesity Conference, 903 Schizochrytium, 308
Salmo salar, 348 Schizoneura lanuginosa, 841
Salmon, 306 Schizosaccharomyces, 764
Salmonella, 242, 577 Schrempp, Jürgen, head of the board of direc-
Salmonella serotype Enteritides in poultry and tors of the Daimler-Chrysler, 21
in Eggs, 156 Scolytus scolytus, 840
Salmonella bongori, 242 Scombroid poisoning, 38, 291
Salmonella enterica, 242 Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, 747
Salmonella enteritides, 79 Sea Grass, 312
Salmonella gallinarum, 270 Sea lettuce, 311
Salmonella prophylaxis, 242 Seat worm, 1020
Salmonella pullorum, 270 Sections,classification of bacteria, 132
Salmonella typhi, 243 SELECT study, 343
Salmonella typhimurium, 79 Selenium, 361, 364, 668, 933, 969, 970, 1299
Salmonella, major reservoir, 243 Selenium position statement of Australian Can-
Salmonella, nomenclature, 242 cer Council, 347
Salmonella, old nomenclature, 242 Selenium, where does it come from?, 342
Salmonellosis, 231, 243 Senna occidentalis, 694
Salmonellosis,, 243 Serotonin, 378, 896
Salovaara,Hannu, 294 Serotonin in diets, 899
Salt intake, Recommendations of the American Serratia marcescens, 579
Heart Association, 936, 1302 Sesamin, 896
SAMe ( S-adenosylmethionine ), 309 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS),
Sanford, 465 269
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), Seveso, 1045
1073 Shadow casting, staining of virus, 263
Sanitizers, 108 Shellfish allergies, 33
Sanitizers, food contact, 108 Shigella, 244, 577
Sanitizers, non-food contact, 108 Shigella dysenteriae, 79, 244
1344
Shigella sonnei, 79, 244 Sodium citrate, 641

Shigella, common causes of contamination, 244 Sodium citrate i) Monosodium citrate, ii) dis-
Sibutramin, 897 odium citrate, iii) trisodium citrate, 637
Sievert (Sv), 732 Sodium cyclohexylsulfamate, 655
Sigatoka disease of banana plantations, 838 Sodium ferrocyanide, 651
Sikhs, 892 Sodium formate, 635
Silage, 840 Sodium gluconate, 648
Silica aerogels, 100 Sodium glutamate, 666
Silicon dioxide, 647 Sodium guanylate, 667
Silver, 632 Sodium hydrogen sulphite, 634
Silver hake, Merluccius bilinearis, 347 Sodium hydroxide, 650
Silver scurf, 843 Sodium inosinate, 667
Simon, Hogan, 502 Sodium isoascorbate, 638
Sinorhizobium meliloti, 501 Sodium lactate, 637
Sitka spruce, 841 Sodium malate, 637
Sitosterol, 316 Sodium metabisulfite, 634
Skin Anthrax, 62 Sodium nitrate, 635
Skin anthrax, 59, 133 Sodium nitrite, 635
Skin Prick tests, 31 Sodium orthophenylphenol, 635
Slimfast, 893 Sodium propionate, 636
Small fox tapeworm, 1029 Sodium stearyl-2-lactylate, 640
Small molecule inventory, 556 Sodium sulphate, ii)sodium hydrogen sulphate,
Smallpox, 264 650
Smoke flavourings, Regulation EC 2065/2003, Sodium sulphite, 634
664 Sodium tartrate, 641
Smoke food flavourings, 664 Sodium tartrate i) monosodium tartrate ii) dis-
Snacks, 298 odium tartrate, 637
Snook, Merluccius vulgaris, 347 Sodium tetraborate (borax), 636
Snow Brand, intoxication due to milk contam- Sodium tetrathiocarbonate, 100
ination, 590 Sodium,potassium and calcium salts of fatty
Sodium, 361 acids, 639
Sodium acetate, 637 Software to handle Global Hyperliked Manage-
Sodium adipate, 642 ment, 596
Sodium alginate, 642 Solid-phase microextraction (SPME), 412
Sodium aluminium phosphate, 646, 651 Soluble fibers, 364
Sodium aluminium silicate, 647 Sorbic acid, 633
Sodium and potassium tartrate, 641 Sorbit, sorbit syrup, 645
Sodium ascorbate, 638 Sorbitan monolaurate, 640
Sodium benzoate, 633 Sorbitan monooleate, 640
Sodium borate, 100 Sorbitan monopalmitate, 641
Sodium carbonate, 649 Sorbitan monostearate, 640
Sorbitan tristearate, 640 Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF),

Sorbitol-macConkey-agar with MUG , 181 1074
South American Free Trade Area (SAFTA), Standards, frozen food, 402
1062 Stanoles, 316
Southern bean mosaic (Sobemo), 835 Staphylococcus aureus, 79, 246, 579, 581
Southwood,Richard, 200 Staphylococcus aureus, penicillin resistant, 80
Soy hydrolysates, 984 Starch derivates, 408
Soy isoflavones, reduce cholesterol, 863 Starch sodium octenyl succinate, 659
Soy protein, 984 Starch, chemical modification, 405
Soy proteins, 958 Starch, microencapsulation, 406
Soya bean, 330 Starch,cross-linking, 405
Soybean as protein supply for animal feed, 472 StarLink, GMO maize recalled, 499
Soybean curd, 331 Steam as disinfectant, 721
Soybean lecithin allergy, 45 Stearyl tartrate, 640
Soybean, GMO, 479 Steiner, Rudolf, 787
Soybean, Roundup Ready, 493 Step-I diet to reduce blood fat , 340
Soybeans, 468 Sterigmatocystin, 744, 745
Sterility testing, 183
Soymilk, fortification with calcium, 330
Sterol esters, 315
Specifications, types, 616
Sterol esters in margarine, 315
Spermidine, 290
Steroles, classification, 318
Sphaerotheca mors-uvae, 832
Sterols, 353
Spices, content of fumonisin, 83
Sterulia urens, karaya gum, 909
Spices, moulds and bacteria, 755
Stillman diet, 869
Spikes, 264 Stock cubes and BSE, 206
Spinox T, 118 Storage and handling of raw materials, 572
Spirillum, 134 Streptococcus faecalis, 80
Spirillum minus, 578 Streptococcus sp, 579, 581
Spirillum volutans, 134, 170 Strogyloides stercoralis, 1019
Spirochaeta, 132 Strong interaction, 727
Spongiform encephalopathies, 199 Structure of virus particles, 263
Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Commit- Strychnine, 1036
tee (SEAC), 200 Sturgeon endangered by excessive trade:, 1095
Spongospora subterranea, 843 Sturgeon, re population of European rivers, 1096
Sporicides, 107 Styrol, 291
Sporofusariogenin, 84 Succinic acid in egg yolk, 79
Sport drinks, cherry juice, 365, 366, 689 Sucralose E955, 654
Sprat, Sprattus sprattus, 348 Sucroglyceride, 649
Squid, Sepia officinalis, 348 Sucrose ester of edible fatty acids, 648
SSTI, Skin and Soft Tissue Infection, 81 Sudden changes of nutrition, danger, 872
Stachybotrys chartarum, 746 Sugar beet fiber, 205
1346
Sugar Beets , GMO, 498 Tara seed, 645

Sugar beets, GMO, 495 Tartaric acid, 641
Sugar Buster, 869 Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides
Sugar colour, 631 of edible fatty acids, 648
Sugar free products, 333 Tartrazin, 629
Sulforaphane, 401 Taurine, 382
Sulfur, 100, 361 Tazobactame, 477
Sulphorophane, 363 TCDD, dioxin, 222
Sulphur dioxide, 634 Telesept, 686, 688
Sunflower oil, vitamin E, 326 Temaki-Cornet, 314
Sunflower, high oleic, 315 Temporal temperature gel electrophoresis, 293
Sunna, 880 Tenuazonic acid, 337
Superquina, alliance against GMO , 493 Tenui virus, 835
Supplementation during pregnancy, 557 Terminator biotech technology, 484
Supplemented foods, 700 Terminator NOS, 467
Supplements, dietary, 299 Terminator signal, 467
Surfactants, 723 Terminator-gene, 483
Surveillance, 1047 Termitin, vitamin T, 358
Sushi, 313 Terrorism and globalization, 1043
Sushis, 311 Terrorism, response, 1043
Sweet corn, content of fumonisin, 83 Terrorism, WHO, 1048
Swine, 881 Tessenderlo, 88
Symbiotic,definition, 377 Testosterone, 117
Symptoms of the foot and mouth disease., 227 Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 222
Syndrome of Wilson, 632 Tetraethyl lead, 118
Systemic herbicide, 99 Tetramethyl lead, 118
Tetrodotoxin, 1036
Table of the American life insurance compa- Tetrodotoxin TTC, 73
nies, 858 TGY= Tryptone glucose yeast extract agar,
Taenia pisiformis, 1029 753
Taenia saginata, 1025 Thallium, 1033
Taenia solium, 1025 Thaumatin, 656
Taenia sp, 580 Thaumatococcus daniellii, 656
Tagatose, 403 The Bodymass Index BMI, 858
Takifugu sp., 73 The Green Dot, recycling organizations, 992
Talaromyces spp, 747 The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study,
Talcum, 647 923
Tamarack moth, 840 The separation diet of Dr. Howard Hay, 864
Tannin, 367, 977 Theobroma cacao, 979
Tapeworms, 1018, 1025 Thermally oxidised soybean with mono- and
Tapioca, 1083 diglycerides of fatty acids, 640
Thiabendazol, 635 Toxicology of heated fat, 325

Thiamine, 357, 933, 1299 Toxoplasma gondii, 580
Thickening agent Xanthan, 135 TQM, Total Quality Management, 591
Thin layer chromatography with immunologic Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property
analysis to detect E.coli 0157:H7 anti- Rights TRIPS, 1059
gen, 180 Traditional farming, 1067
Three mile fishery zone,treaty England-Denmark Tragacanth, 644
1901, 350 Trans fatty acids, daily intake, 957
Thrichophyton mentagrophytes, 746 Trans fatty acids, physiology, 956
Thrombin, 205 Trans fatty acids, recommended maximum amount
Thyme, 383 in margarine, 955
Thyphoid fever, 190 trans-fatty acids, 972
Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformism, 840 Transfer-DNA, 466
Ti-plasmids, Tumor inducing plasmids, 466 Transgene organism, 470
Timothy pollen, 50 Transglutaminase, 672
Tin cans, 985 Transporter IRTI, 492
Tioman virus, 263 Travellers diarrhoea, 154
Titanium dioxide, 632 Tree nuts allergies, 33
Tobacco mosaic (Tobamo), 835 Trematodes, 1018, 1022
Tobacco necrosis (Necro), 835 Trembolone, 117
Tobaco rattle (Tobra), 835 Tress, most frequent hazards, 840
TOC, Total Organic Carbon, 340 Triammonium citrate, 642
tocopherol, 968 Tributyltin oxide, 118
Tocopherol isomers, biological activity, 326 Trichinella spiralis, 579, 1021
Tocopherol isomers, of oils and fats, 327 Trichlorogalactosucrose, 654
Tocopherol, vitamin E, 358 Trichoderma species, 748
Tofu, 331 Trichophyton, 578
Toilets, 571 Trichophyton rubrum, 580
Tomato bushy stunt (Tombus), 835 Trichophyton schoenleinii, 578
Tomato paste, origine, 339 Trichotecene, 754
Tomato pulp, analytic, 335 Trichotechenens, 82
Tomato pulp, double concentrated, 335 Trichothecene mycotoxins, 1036
Tomato spotted wilt (Tospo), 835 Trichothecium roseum, 747
Tomato, GMO Flavr and Savr, 470 Trichuris trichiura, 1019
Tombiński, Jan, 1109 Triethyl citrate, 659
Torutinin, vitamin T, 358 Triglycerides, 340
Total count of bacteria with impedance tech- Trimedlure, 839
nology, 182 Triphosphate, 646
Total Quality Management, 591 TRIPS, 1059
Toxaphene, 118 TRIPs, 1088
Toxicity Equivalence (TE), 222 TRIPs and Software, 1089
1348
Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, 121 Ustilago segetum var. hordei, 832

Tritium, 727
Trolitan, 990 Vanadium, 361
Trolitax, 990 Vanilla, 383
Tropic conserves, 192 VC (vinilchlorid), 987
Troxerutin, vitamin P4, 358 Vectors of phytopathogenic agents, 832
Tryptone glucose yeast extract agar (TGY), Vegetable phenols, 977
753 Vegetarian nutrition, 923
Tryptophan, 379, 899 Vegetarians, possible deficiencies, 792
TSC-Agar (Tryptose-Sulfit-Cycloserin), detec-Velogenic Newcastle Disease, 253
tion of Clostridium perfringens, 169 Venturia inaequalis, 832
Tschernobyl, 288 Verification, 562
TTGE (Temporal temperature electrophoresis), Verotoxine, 153
293 Verticillium albo-atrium, 855
Turmeric, 628 Verticillium dahliae, 854
Turmeric oleoresin, 630 Verticillium wilt, 853
Turnip yellow mosaic (Tymo), 835 Via Campesina, 1057
Two hundred miles territorial waters, 351 Vibrio cholerae, 80, 171, 245, 578, 579
Tylan, 134 Vibrio felinus, 142
Tyler,Damien, 867 Vibrio fetus, 142
Tylocine, 134 Vibrio jejuni, 142
Types of antimicrobial Products, 107 Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 80, 579
Types of plastic packaging, 993 VIDAS, 184
Typhoid fever, 243 Vikings and the codfish fishery, 349
Typhoid Mary, 243 Vinegar produced from alcohol, Halaal, 885
Tyramine, 290 Vinegar, halaal food, 888
Tyrosine, 302, 380, 861 Vinylchlorid (VC), 987
Tyrrell,David, 200 Violaxanthin, 631
Violet Neutral Red bile Dextrose Agar, 172
Ultraviolet disinfection of water, 187 Viomellein, 746
Ulva lactuca, 311 Viosterol, 358
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade Viral diseases, measures to avoid, 266
and Development, 1056 Virion proteins VP , 263
Unilever, 317 Virus, definition, 261
United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS), Virus, pathogenic, 835
606 Viruses transmitted by cockroaches, 580
Ura-Maki-Inside Out, 314 Viruses transmitted by rodents, 578
Urea resin UF, 990 Viruses, groups , 261
Uruguai Round negotiations, 1074 Vitamin B6, overdose, 934, 1300
Uruguay Round, 1071 Vitamin A, 305
Uruguay Round, Peace Clause, 1072 Vitamin B10 (PABA), 691
Vitamin B1, 670, 933, 1299 VTEC-bacteria, 153

Vitamin B12, 670 Vulkollan, 990
Vitamin B2, 670, 933, 1299
Vitamin B3, 933, 1299 Waerland diet, 872
Vitamin B6, 670, 933, 1299 Wal- Mart,US retail enterprise, 20
Vitamin C, 968 Warning of allergenity on label, 481
Vitamin C and arteriosclerosis, 168 Water chestnut, 1025
Vitamin C, RDI, 975 Water cress, 1023
Vitamin D, 933, 1299 Water in disaster areas, 170
Vitamin D, supplementation, 660 Water treatment, chemicals, 98
Vitamin E, 933, 1299 Water, bacterial filter, 590
Vitamin E in edible oils, 325 Water, diseases transmitted by, 170
Vitamin E, in safflower oil, 326 Water, role during flood catastrophes, 190
Vitamin E, maize oil, 326 Water,bilge, 187
Vitamin E, sunflower oil, 326 Watercress, 363
Vitamin E, wheat germ oil, 326 Weak interaction, 727
Vitamin E,in lard, 326 Weight reduction ingredients, 696
Vitamin K, 359, 933, 1299 Weiach, Lothar, president of the German Can-
Vitamin K1 , 359 cer Society, 300
Vitamin L, necessary for lactation, 358 Werstern tent caterpillar, 840
Vitamin T, growth-promotion substances, 358 Western Blot, 479
Vitamin U, 358 Weybridge, central veterinarian laboratory, UK,
Vitamins, 357, 364, 659 200
Vitamins and their protective function against Whale, Cetacea spec., 348
free radicals, 968 Wheat germ oil, 326
Vitamins as dietary supplements, 668 Wheat, drought and fungal resistant, 503
Vitamins, recommended daily allowance RDA, Whey, 290
933, 1299 Whey permeate, alternative to chlorine, 722
VITEK, 184 Whipworm, 1019
VND Velogenic Newcastle Disease, 253 WHO Programme on Radiation and Environ-
Volatile chemicals with environmental impact, mental Health, 1049
102 WHO, food terrorism, 1048
Volutin, 134 WHO, healthy nutrition, 935, 1301
VRB-Agar, composition, 174 Whole grain, cardiovascular diseases, 456
VRB-agar,Violet Red Bile Agar, 174 Wilab LIMS, 596
VRBD-Agar, 172 Willow sawly, 841
VRBD-agar plate,Violet Red Bile Dextrose Agar,Wolf, Doris, 865
173 World Trade Organization (WTO), 1071
VRBD-agar, composition, 173 Worms, parasitic, 1018
VTEC (verotoxin producing Escherichia coli), Wort agar, 752
176 Wrap, 1008
1350
WTO related Agreements, 1076 Yersinia enterocolytica, 80, 577

WTO, Agreement on Agriculture AoA, 602 Yersinia pestis, 579
WTO, Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, 577
(TBT), 602 Yersinia, growth on VRBD, 173
WTO, Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Yoghurt, probiotic, 364
Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS),
602 Zearalenon, 82, 754
WTO, SPS Agreement, 602 Zeaxanthin, 365
WTO, World Trade Organization, 1074 Zeranol, 116
WTO,functions, 1074 Zero-tillage, 799
WTO,handling trade disputes, 1076 Zinc, 361, 364, 933, 1299
WTOś Trade Rules, 1075 Zone diet, 868
Zoonose Directive, 158
X rays, 728 Zoosteroles, 318
X-ray crystallography, 263
Xanthan, 135, 645
Xanthomegnin, 746
Xanthomonas, 135
Xanthomonas axonopodis, 836
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. Citri, 852
Xanthomonas campestris, 135
Xanthomonas hortorum, 836
Xanthophyll, 631
Xanthophyllomyces, 765
Xathomonas campestris, 836
Xenical, its use, 900
Xenical, medical prescription, 901
Xenical, the antifat drug, 895
Xenical, the drug of the rich society, 901
Xeromyces bisporum, 747
Xilit, 657
Xylella fastidiosa, 832
Yeast and molds transmitted by cockroaches,

580
Yeasts and moulds, measures to reduce the risk
of contamination, 755
Yeasts,detection and enumeration with impedance
technology, 182
Yellow-orange S, 629
Yersinia enterocolitica, 244

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OurFood

Database of Food and Related Sciences

Karl Heinz Wilm

August 21, 2007

Conventional pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5 General bacteriology 131

The ten most dangerous diseases of the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

8 Foot and Mouth Disease and other animal infections 227

9 Food-borne diseases 237

10 Food, what is it? 285

Acid Value: AOAC pH-Metric Determination in Vegetable Oils without

11 Baby Food and Infant Formulas 415

12 Food Advertising 425

UK Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

13 Genetic modification of food 465

14 Nutritional Genomics 555

15 HACCP and ISO 9000 559

17 Food Supplements 685

19 Radioactivity and food 727

20 Moulds and yeasts 741

21 Organic food 767

Water for agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795

23 Phytopathology, diseases of plants 831

Drugs to fight bodyweight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

Industrial processing of cocoa discards epicatechin in commercial cocoa

26 Parasites and Pathogenic Protozoa 1015

28 Global Food Safety 1053

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054

29 Future of Global Nutrition 1069

No chance for DOHA no chance for climate control no chance to avoid

30 Avoiding food scandals 1111

31 Food Processing Innovations 1121

Why a database on food ?

You cannot avoid contaminants and other dangers of modern food.

Globalization of trade and industry: Globalization of multinational companies destroys

Table 1.1: The great top 10 food giants (1998)

Company Home based Turnover food

Wal-Mart is interested to buy the Carrefour group.

Wal-Mart has an enormous knowledge concerning its customers.

Table 1.2: Retailers and their turnover 1999

Metro Germany,Zwitzerland 46 West and East Europe, China,

Rewe Germany 36 Austria, Cherchenien, Slowakia,

Royal Aholda Netherlands 35

The French group Intermarché has the majority of Spar enterprises.

It is therefore important to furnish information about other cultures in our schools.

”Russia will remain a part of the power of the world.

You cannot avoid globalization.

OUR FOOD wishes you success on your researches.

First signs of an allergic reaction to food:

Food allergens are part of a wide group of adverse reactions to foods.

Table 2.1: Frequency of food allergies

dures so as to prevent cross-contact of products by ”foreign” allergens.

Allergic reactions of mustard: Mustard is known to trigger allergic reactions or intoler-

In addition, allyl isothiocyanate is a major skin-sensitizing agent (non IgE-mediated mech-

Directive 2005/26 EC [1176]

May contain...warning [1171]

EuroPrevall: EuroPrevall is an EU-funded multidisciplinary project aiming to improve qual-

The partner organisations of the project will:

Document No. 00P-1322 International Dairy Foods Association: International Dairy

1- Review formulations to identify the presence, if any, of the 8 major allergens.

Food allergy diagnosis:Food allergy is diagnosed by a process of elimination.

Evaluation of the Allergic State

Allergen-specific IgE antibody testing (Radioallergosorbent RAST testing: The