Course Facilitator:

Karryl Mae Chan

Ngina

Authors:
KMCNgina &
AHBKiwang

Psychology
Department,
College of the
Social Sciences,
Benguet State
University

SSP23 Gender & Society

Not for sale and not for uploading. For the use of SSP23 BSU students 2nd semester School
Year 2021-2022. For feedback contact the author @ karrylngina@gmail.com
 Lesson 7. Gender Theories (Part 2)
6 hrs. – April 4-20, 2022

“In the theory of gender, I began from zero. There is no masculine power or
privilege I did not covet. But slowly, step by step, decade by decade, I was
forced to acknowledge that even a woman of abnormal will escape her
hormonal identity.” – Camille Paglia

Engage and Explore:

Consider stories about gender such as the “Lesbian-Trans Love Story” featured by GMA
(Source: https://www.facebook.com/gmapublicaffairs/videos/831963900997071/)

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Activity 7.1&2. Graded Participation and Application: Why do you think Jackie and
Andeng’s love story is unique and eye-catching? Analyze their story by using at least
three gender theories in your reflection. Make sure to emphasize and identify these
theories and elaborate it in explaining Jackie and Andeng’s love story.
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Explain and Elaborate:

Time and time again the question of whether genes (nature) or environment (nurture)
causes sex and gender differences have always been addressed by people and social
scientists? For you what do you think causes these differences?

Among the many theories, majority of

the theories explain these differences
as a product of the environment.
Although there are theories explaining
that these differences are caused by
genetic factors. To start this module,
let us first look into theories that focus
on the genetic and biological causes
for sex and gender differences
followed by the theories explaining
the differences from a socio-cultural
perspective. Some theories are a combination of both nature and nurture cause.
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON GENDER
In biology, males have two different sex chromosomes x and y while females have two x
chromosomes. The Y chromosome determines sexual differentiations and the production
of testosterone hormone. Hormones are the chemical substances produced by our

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glands in our bodies and are carried through the blood stream. The testosterone
hormone is released in the womb for male fetus and causes development of male organs
and masculinization of the brave. This hormone is also associate with male behaviors such
as aggression, competitiveness, higher sexual drive and others. The assumptions of these
theory were done through animal experiments, neuroscience studies and the like.
SOCIOBIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND THE FORMATION OF GENDER
IDENTITY
Influenced by Charles Darwin, sociobiology theorizes that there are certain types of social
behavior that are adaptive because they contribute to an increase in reproductive
fitness while others are maladaptive because they lead to a decrease in reproductive
fitness.
Mothering or child rearing is one example of an adaptive social behavior. Socio-biologists
attempt to explain why the female species does most of the care work. Accordingly,
females invest more than males in their offspring. Female parental investment starts with
her egg cell which is produced only once a month. Compared to the egg cell, sperm
cells are smaller in size and are produced in large amounts. Hence, egg cells are
regarded by Sociobiologists as more precious than sperm cells. The female then
proceeds to carry the child for nine months before giving birth, a situation which may
cost her own life. Once the offspring is born, the female continues to nurse or breastfeed
the baby. Sociobiologists conclude that it is adaptive for the mother to continue caring
for the child because of her larger parental investment. Furthermore, they argue that
maternity is always certain while paternity is not. Caring for the child allows the mother to
ensure that her genes survive.
On the other hand, the father who invested less in the conception and birth of the
offspring, and whose paternity is not always certain can ensure his reproductive success
by impregnating as many women as possible, increasing the possibility of his genes to
survive. This theory attempted to explain the sexual double standard that allows men to
be philandering while punishing women who engage in promiscuous sex.
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY echoes the same biological explanations as Sociobiology.
According to evolutionary theory our behavior
is shaped behaviors that make us most likely to
reproduce and allow our genes to continue.
Men and women have faced different
evolutionary challenges which have resulted in
gender differences. Examples of these
differences are:
• Men are competitive and aggressive
because it helps attract a mate and
provide for their child.
• Women are caring and nurturing
because they need to raise a child and
care for a mand that will support them.

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Buss’s sexual strategies theory used the concepts of reproductive success or survival in
explaining preference of men for short term relationships and of women for long term
relationships. He even explained why men are jealous about their partners’ sexual
infidelity and why women are jealous if their male partners develop emotional
connection with another woman.
CRITICISMS. Many are critical of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology because
biology is used to justify existing gender dichotomy hence support status quo. By
emphasizing the discussion on reproductive success and sexual strategies, these theories
assume that all people are heterosexual thereby marginalizing the LGBT community.
Also, there are difference in gender roles between culture which cannot be exchanged
by evolutionary or sociobiology theories. In addition, as culture changes so do the gender
roles.
SOCIAL ROLE THEORY AND THE FORMATION OF GENDER IDENTITY
Also called structural theory, social
role theory is a reaction to
sociobiology and evolutionary
psychology. It acknowledges the
biological or physical differences
between men and women.
However, it also says that these
differences are amplified by
culture. Hence, a man who has
greater physical strength is tasked
by society to participate in warfare
which in turn gave him privileged
status and power, encouraging
him to be more dominant. Note
the extension of something
biological to cultural. In the same
manner, the woman whose
biological characteristics allow her
to give birth has been given the role of child rearing and homemaking. These roles
encouraged her to perform nurturing behaviors. This division of labor in the home has
been extended to the workplace, including religion and politics.
Social role theory points out that gender division of labor dictated all other gender
differences. It points out that in cultures or societies where gender division of labor is less
pronounced, gender inequality is also less observed. On the other hand, in places where
there is marked gender division of labor, gender inequality is also more widespread.
Going back to the topic on gender relations during the prehispanic period, one may
deduce that many indigenous communities, at least in the Philippines, practice simple
division of labor between males and females which may explain why gender inequality

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 is not a serious issue in these
communities. Hence, there is a
growing trend in the academic
community on the conduct of
researches focusing on
indigenous knowledge systems.
There is a need for the present and
future generation to “relearn”
important cultural values and
beliefs that are now becoming
relevant in achieving a better
quality of life. The significant role of
women such as the babaylans, for
instance, will teach us that women
can play an active role in
community building.
GENDER CONSTANCY THEORY.
Psychologist Kohlberg in 1966
developed this theory where
gender identity and gender
thinking is brought about by the child’s cognitive development as seen in three stages.
ON PARENTAL ATTACHMENT AND ENGAGEMENT
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES
Sigmund Freud’s concept of identification is an important process whereby a son
represses his fascination with his mother and overcomes his fear towards his father by
integrating in his self-concept the values and ethics of society he observes from his father.
These values and ethics form the child’s superego. Following this line of thinking, it can be
construed that a great part of an adult male’s gender identity is formed through his
interaction with his father. It must be pointed out however that identification is not simply
imitation. Imitation is a conscious act. Identification, on the other hand, is unconscious.
Furthermore, unlike imitation, identification requires an emotional attachment between
the child and his father.

Freud postulates that girls are envious of boys

because they do not have penis, and because
this conflict will never be resolved, girls’
superego are not developed; hence, they are
morally inferior. Freud even concluded that a
female’s maternal desire is an attempt to
compensate for her inferiority. Freud’s
discussion on the female gender identity
received stern criticism for being phallocentric
or male centered and penis centered.

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Feminist Psychoanalysis
Karen Horney, using Freud’s anatomical argument, claimed that men envy women
because of their reproductive potential – the ability to conceive and give birth. Calling
this womb envy, she suggested that men endeavor to achieve more than women in their
attempt to compensate for their anatomical inferiority.
Turning away from Freud and Horney’s biological point of view, Nancy Chodorow
pointed to a child’s intimate relationship with his mother as a critical factor in the
formation of a child’s gender identity. This relationship leads both daughter and son to
expect women to be nurturing, caring, sacrificing. For daughters, the desire for mothering
is reproduced. For sons, however, they may suppress this intimate relationship or
attachment to develop masculine identity. This happens specifically if the father is absent
or is uninvolved in childcare. In this scenario, the child thinks that caring is not masculine
leading him to devalue a person who does childcare. Nonetheless, the son attempts to
recapture his intimate relationship with his mother during his childhood years through
heterosexual relationships. If there is an important lesson from Chodorow’s theory, it is her
emphasis on the need for men to be involved in childcare.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND THE FORMATION OF GENDER IDENTITY

This theory acknowledges the crucial role of a child’s immediate social relations in the
development of his/her gender identity. Through observational learning, a child takes
mental note of a parent’s behavior then imitates it at some future time. The parent then
serves as a model, showing to the child how men/women act. Conversely, a child who
does not see a parent perform a particular behavior may conclude that the behavior is
not associated with or appropriate to the parent’s gender. For instance, a child who
never or seldom sees his father do household chores like cleaning and washing clothes
or caring for sick members of the family may think that these chores are not done by
men. The child then associates these behaviors to the mother who always performs the
tasks; hence, the acquisition of gender-typed behaviors and learning of gender roles.
Cognitive Social Learning theory proposes that children are able to focus their attention
on behaviors that are relevant to them and that they tend to imitate same-gender
models.
Rewards also serve to reinforce certain types of behavior. A son who shows enthusiasm
in playing with cars or building with Legos may receive a clap or a smile from his parents.
A daughter who pretends to cook and take care of her dolls may receive a “good girl”
remark. These behaviors are reinforced more when parents buy similar types of toys.
Punishment is also critical. A son who starts playing with his sister’s dolls may hear his father
shout or a daughter who enjoys playing toy guns may get a stern look from her mother.
As children grow up, they gradually learn to regulate their own behavior (self-regulation)
using the gender norms they have internalized. These gender norms have profound
influence on a child’s self-efficacy - the belief in one’s ability to accomplish something to
produce a particular outcome. Girls who grew up observing women accomplish great

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things for themselves and for their community are more likely to believe in their own
abilities to be successful too.
Taking the cue from social learning theory, adults may help discourage gender
stereotyping by displaying diverse types of behavior to a child. For instance, a father may
show his children that a man can cook, clean the house and wash clothes and dishes
too. He may also care for his children when they are sick. A mother can show she is able
to fix some things around the house and can even play wrestling and boxing with her
children. Most of all, parents as well as the other adult members of the family can show
the children that working together and caring for each other, regardless of one’s gender,
are the most important things a family should do. This way a child moves out from the
home and into the society with an open mind and an unbiased thought and treatment
towards men, women and members of the LGBT community.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY AND THE FORMATION OF GENDER IDENTITY
Gender role learning is an important aspect of
cognitive development. Consistent with social
learning theory, cognitive developmental theory
likewise suggests that a child learns a set of rules
regarding what men do and what women do, and
behaves accordingly. This theory also supports the
concept of self-regulation, emphasizing that gender
role learning is not entirely dictated by external
factors but also by the child’s reflections about the
gender appropriateness of a behavior. Nonetheless,
this gender role acquisition is the result of the child’s
gradual learning of the society’s gender schema – a
set of gender-linked associations. This gender schema
then becomes part of the child’s self-concept.

Indeed, society and culture play a critical role in the perpetuation of gender stereotypes
and consequently, of gender issues. Conversely, the unlearning of gender stereotypes
entails societal change; hence, the need for gender advocates to work with
governments and international organizations in the formulation and implementation of
programs aimed at breaking gender stereotypes and putting a stop to gender
discrimination and gender-based violence. The inclusion of a general elective on gender
and society in the tertiary curriculum as well as in the senior high curriculum is one
important step towards educating the young generation about the significance of
exposing gender roles and stereotypes with the end goal of encouraging a mindset that
promotes gender equality.

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The video below briefly summarizes social learning theory and cognitive theory on
gender roles and schemas.

FEMINISTS THEORIES AND THEIR MAIN ARGUMENTS IN THE GENDER DISCOURSE

Gender as Status and Power. Sexism is pervasive in
the various social institutions – family, politics,
schools, economy. Men often enjoy a more
privileged status and greater power compared to
women as well as the LGBT community; hence,
men are viewed as the dominant group while the
rest comprise the subordinate group. Feminists
theorize that in this kind of relationship, the
dominant group has four sources of power: (1) the
threat of violence or the potential to do harm, (2)
economic power or control of resources, (3)
promotion of ideologies that tell others what they
should desire, (4) relational power in which one person needs the other more than the
reverse. A husband who does not allow his wife to pursue her own career, claiming that
he can provide for the needs of the family may sound romantic but may in fact be an
issue of power especially when the wife agrees reluctantly. When the wife becomes
financially dependent on the husband, the husband may use this to control the wife,
preventing the latter from participating in important family decisions and from pursuing
activities other than household duties. Furthermore, when men tell their wives or even

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girlfriends or live-in partners to maintain a sexy body and to look beautiful all the time and
these women feel the need or feel pressured to oblige, there is an issue of power. When
a man uses physical or sexual harm over a woman or even just the threat to do so, there
is an issue of power. Note that marriage does not justify a man to force his wife to have
sex; hence, there can be cases of marital rape. Also, an offer of marriage by the rapist
to his victim does not excuse him from his criminal liability. Moreover, a teacher who
demands sexual favor from his/her students in exchange for passing or high grades is a
manifestation of power.
Power implies inequality. In politics, for instance, if there are more male than female
lawmakers, the kind of legislation that are passed may turn out to be biased in favor of
men or against women. This can be illustrated by the definition of adultery and
concubinage in the revised penal code of the Philippines. In the said code, adultery is
defined as a crime committed by a woman who engages in sexual intercourse with a
man other than her husband. On the other hand, concubinage is a crime committed by
a man who engages in sexual intercourse with a woman other than his wife under any of
the following circumstances: 1) keeping a mistress in the conjugal dwelling, 2) having
sexual intercourse under scandalous circumstances, 3) cohabiting with her in any other
place. These two provisions clearly show that the weight of evidence to convict a man
for concubinage is heavier compared to the evidence needed to convict a wife. For
adultery, the husband only needs to prove that his wife had sex with a man. And the wife
can be held liable for every act of sexual intercourse committed even with the same
paramour. Hence, if the husband can prove that the wife engaged in sex with her
paramour three times, she is liable for three cases of adultery. For concubinage, however,
the wife will not only prove that his husband had sex with another woman. She also needs
to prove that the sexual activity happened in any of the three (3) circumstances
mentioned. Furthermore, even if the wife can prove that her husband had sex 50 times
with the same paramour, the husband is liable only for one (1) case of concubinage.
Still in politics, the Ladlad partylist sued COMELEC when the latter rejected the former’s
application for registration as a partylist. The main argument of COMELEC is that Ladlad
condones and promotes immoral acts; hence, cannot claim to represent a marginalized
sector of Philippine society. In this case, the Supreme Court of the Philippines ruled that
the Philippine constitution expressly stated the separation of the state and the church.
COMELEC, therefore, cannot use religious beliefs to support or justify a political decision.
COMELEC, as a government agency, abused its power when it rejected Ladlad’s
application on the basis of the COMELEC officials’ personal and stereotypical beliefs
about the LGBT community.
Feminists are extremely critical of patriarchal cultures which consist of cultural norms,
beliefs and practices that justify power and even abuse of men over women and the
LGBT. Women’s problems are attributed to external factors (culture), not personal factors.
When a woman is raped, for instance, she was raped because her rapist was raised in a
culture which gave him the idea that he can do that kind of behavior to a woman, not
because she was wearing shorts. Feminists are against “victim shaming” or “blaming the
victim”.
The video below shows how gender and power is perpetrated in the family and society.

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 INTERSECTIONALITY. This concept emerged
to capture situations when a person is at a
disadvantaged position based on various
categories such as gender, race, ethnicity,
class. For example, a woman who is black
and poor may have a totally different
experience compared to a woman who is
also black but wealthy. An LGBT who is white
may have a better experience compared to
an LGBT who is black or Asian.
Some women or LGBT members say that
there is no gender discrimination in today’s
times. They say this because they are
speaking based on their own experience
which is not the same as the experience of
all other women in the world especially if we
consider these interlocking categories.
Below is a short video that explains intersectionality.

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QUEER THEORY. This theory proposes that gender
is fluid and dynamic rather than stable, fixed or
biological. Queer theory combines theory and
political action. It summarizes oppressive power
of dominant norms especially on sexuality. This
theory grew out of feminism and gender studies
in 1990s. The word queer does not necessarily
mean gay but rather a position that rejects
conventions or mainstream expressions of all
types of behavior including sexuality and gender.
The video below explains what queer theory and how
queer theory came about.

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 Closing Question to ponder: With the multiple theories introduced, which
resonates with you? What theory has progressed and has many studies to prove
itself worthy of explaining sex and gender differences?

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Evaluate: (Activities have a separate link in the google classroom. The quiz can
be answered via google forms. Check your google classroom).

7.3. Quiz. Check your understanding, take the short quiz. (20 points-2 points each)
Do this in the google form link.

True or False

____________1. Gender fluidity means that a male who becomes a gay means he will
be like that until the end of his life.

____________6. Intersectional theories are only applied to black women.

____________2. According to Kohlberg, gender labeling is the first phase.

____________3. Increase of testosterone hormone increases aggressive and male-like

behaviors.

____________4. Sexual mating strategies differences among males and females can be
explained by biological theories.

____________5. Queer theory only applies to gays only.

____________7. Feminist theories involve explanations of power struggles in relation to

gender.

____________8. Gender schema is one of the central concepts in cognitive

developmental theory.

____________9. Nancy Chodorow pointed to a child’s intimate relationship with his mother as a
critical factor in the formation of a child’s gender identity

____________10. Social learning theory emphasizes the roles as parents as models to their
children

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