Hydrogen

Occurrence

Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal

matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms (most of the mass of the universe, however, is not
in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected
forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy).[67] This element is found in great abundance in
stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a
vital role in powering stars through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear fusion.[68]
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are
quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together,
resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the sun and other
stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar
wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is
found in the neutral atomic state in the Interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in
the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of
the Universe up to redshift z=4.[69]
Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H 2 (for data see table).
However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight,
which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third
most abundant element on the Earth's surface.[70] Most of the Earth's hydrogen is in the form of chemical
compounds such as hydrocarbons and water.[36] Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a
natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.[

Compound
Covalent and organic compounds
While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Millions
of hydrocarbons are known, but they are not formed by the direct reaction of elementary hydrogen and
carbon. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (e.g., F,
Cl, Br, I);
Hydrides
Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride"
suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H −, and is used when hydrogen
forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested
by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group I and II salt-like hydrides
Isotopes
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H)
have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature
Beryllium
Occurrence
 The beryllium concentration of the Earth's surface rocks is ca. 4–6 ppm. Beryllium is a constituent of about 100
out of about 4000 known minerals, the most important of which
are bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2), beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18),chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4) and phenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious
forms of beryl are aquamarine, bixbite and emerald.[5\

Elemental form
Classification of the Beryllium Element
Beryllium is classified as an "Alkaline Earth Metals" which are located in Group 2 elements of
the Periodic Table. An Element classified as an Alkaline Earth Metals are found in the Earth’s
crust, but not in the elemental form as they are so reactive. Instead, they are widely
distributed in rock structures.
carbon (occurrence) –

Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon
is abundant in theSun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic
diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be
formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts. [31]
In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (approximately 810 gigatonnes of
carbon) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Around 1,900 gigatonnes of carbon
are present in the biosphere.Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well—
coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes, and oil reserves around 150 gigatonnes. Proven
sources of natural gas are about 175 trillion cubic metres (representing about 105 gigatonnes carbon), but it is estimated
that there are also about 900 trillion cubic metres of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas, representing about 540
gigatonnes carbon.[32]
Carbon is a major component in very large masses of carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marble etc.).
Coal is a significant commercial source of mineral carbon; anthracite containing 92–98% carbon[33] and the largest source
(4,000 Gt, or 80% of coal, gas and oil reserves) of carbon in a form suitable for use as fuel. [34]
Graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland,
and India.
Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are
in Africa, notably inSouth Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. There are also deposits
in Arkansas, Canada, the RussianArctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.
Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. However, though diamonds are
found naturally, about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically.
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of 9–15 km, by a reaction that is
precipitated bycosmic rays. Thermal neutrons are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14
and a proton.

Organic compounds
Carbon has the ability to form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called catenation.
Carbon-carbon bonds are strong, and stable. This property allows carbon to form an almost infinite number of
compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing compounds than all the compounds of the other
chemical elements combined except those of hydrogen (because almost all organic compounds contain
hydrogen too).
Inorganic compounds
Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen
or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; however the definition is not rigid (see
reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon
dioxide (CO2).

Physical properties
Beryllium has one of the highest melting points of the light metals. It has exceptional flexural rigidity (Young's
modulus 287 GPa). Themodulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50% greater than that of steel
Chemical properties
Beryllium metal sits above aluminium in the electrochemical series and would be expected to be a reactive
metal, however it is passivated by an oxide layer and does not react with air or water even at red heat. [19] Once
ignited however beryllium burns brilliantly forming a mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride.
[19]
 Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H2SO4, but not in nitric as this
forms the oxide and this behavior is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium, again similarly to aluminium,
dissolves in warm alkali to form the beryllate anion, Be(OH) 42−, and hydrogen gas.
.
Nitrogen

Occurrence
Nitrogen is the largest single constituent of the Earth's atmosphere (78.082% by volume of dry air,
75.3% by weight in dry air). It is created byfusion processes in stars, and is estimated to be the 7th
most abundant chemical element by mass in the universe.[9]
Molecular nitrogen and nitrogen compounds have been detected in interstellar space by astronomers
using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.[10] Molecular nitrogen is a major constituent of
the Saturnian moon Titan's thick atmosphere, and occurs in slightly appreciable to trace amounts in
other planetary atmospheres.[11]
Nitrogen is present in all living organisms, in proteins, nucleic acids and other molecules. It typically
makes up around 4% of the dry weight of plant matter, and around 3% of the weight of the human
body. It is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric
acid, ammonium compounds and derivatives of these nitrogenous products, which are essential
nutrients for all plants that cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen occurs naturally in many minerals, such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), Chile
saltpetre (sodium nitrate) and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Most of these are uncommon,
partly because of the minerals' ready solubility in water. See also Nitrate minerals and Ammonium
minerals.
Compounds
See also:  Category:Nitrogen compounds
The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH3), although hydrazine (N2H4) is also commonly
used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solutionammonia forms
the ammonium ion (NH+
4). Liquid ammonia (boiling point 240 K) is amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or
basic character) and forms ammonium and the less common amide ions (NH−
2); both amides and nitride (N3−) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and
quadruply substituted alkyl compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form
commercially and biologically important quaternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen,
and thus a water-soluble, or at leastamphiphilic, compound). Larger chains, rings and structures of
nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable.

properties
Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.04. It has five electrons in its outer shell and is
therefore trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen (N2) is the strongest. The
resulting difficulty of converting N2 into other compounds, and the ease (and associated high energy
release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental N2, have dominated the role of nitrogen in
both nature and human economic activities.

Oxygen

Occurrence
Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element, by mass, in our biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen
is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. [1] About
0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.[4] Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass[2] and is
the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). [4] Oxygen gas is the second most
common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 21.0% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass
(some 1015 tonnes).[4][36][37] Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a
high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% O2 by volume) andVenus have
far lower concentrations. However, the O2 surrounding these other planets is produced solely by
ultraviolet radiation impacting oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

Cold water holds more dissolved O2.

The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle.
This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main
reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of
the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere.
Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while respiration and decay remove it from
the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of
roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year.
Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of O2 at
lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean life, as polar
oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content. [38] Polluted
water may have reduced amounts of O2 in it, depleted by decaying algae and other biomaterials
(see eutrophication). Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the
water's biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of O2 needed to restore it to a normal
concentration.[39]

Physical properties
Oxygen is more soluble in water than nitrogen is; water contains approximately 1 molecule of O2 for
every 2 molecules of N2, compared to an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of
oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L−1) dissolves at 0 °C
than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L−1).[25][26] At 25 °C and 1 standard atmosphere (101.3 kPa) of air, freshwater
contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, whereas seawater contains about 4.95 mL per
liter.[27] At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and
7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water.
Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (−182.95 °C, −297.31 °F), and freezes at 54.36 K (−218.79 °C,
−361.82 °F).[28] Both liquid and solid O2 are clear substances with a light sky-blue color caused by
absorption in the red (in contrast with the blue color of the sky, which is due to Rayleigh scattering of
blue light). High-purity liquid O2 is usually obtained by the fractional distillation of liquefied air;[29] Liquid
oxygen may also be produced by condensation out of air, using liquid nitrogen as a coolant. It is a
highly reactive substance and must be segregated from combustible materials. [30]

Compounds
Water (H2O) is the most familiar oxygen compound.
The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state −1 is found
in a few compounds such asperoxides.[91] Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very
uncommon: −1/2 (superoxides), −1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental,hypofluorous acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1
(dioxygen difluoride), and +2 (oxygen difluoride).

Oxides and other inorganic compounds

Water (H2O) is the oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound. Hydrogen
atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional
attraction (about 23.3 kJ·mol−1 per hydrogen atom) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate
molecule.[92] These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15%
closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces.[93][94]

Organic compounds and biomolecules

Oxygen represents more than 40% of themolecular mass of the ATP molecule.
Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an organic
group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-
COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (R-C(O)-NR2). There are many important
organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol,ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl
ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone ((CH3)2CO)
and phenol (C6H5OH) are used as feeder materials in the synthesis of many different substances. 

Fluorine
Occurrence Fluorine is obtained from two sources, mainly. The production of phosphate fertilizers
from apatitegenerates a byproduct of hydrogen fluoride that is collected. The other main source is the
mineral fluorite, CaF2, which is widespread.
Organofluorine compounds are naturally rare compounds. Though F 2 is too reactive to have any natural
biological role, fluorine is incorporated into compounds with biological activity. Naturally
occurringorganofluorine compounds are rare, the most notable example is fluoroacetate, which functions
as a plant defence against herbivores in at least 40 plants in Australia, Brazil, and Africa.

Chemistry of fluorine compounds

Noble gas compounds
The reactivity of fluorine toward the noble gas xenon was first reported by Neil Bartlett in 1962. Fluorides
of krypton and radon have also been prepared. Argon fluorohydride has been observed at cryogenic
temperatures.

[edit]Organofluorine compounds
The carbon-fluoride bond is covalent and very stable. The use of a fluorocarbon polymer,
poly(tetrafluoroethene) or Teflon, is an example: It is thermostable and waterproof enough to be used in
frying pans. Organofluorines may be safely used in applications such as drugs, without the risk of release of
toxic fluoride. In synthetic drugs, toxication can be prevented. For example, an aromatic ring is useful but
presents a safety problem: enzymes in the body metabolize some of them into poisonous epoxides. When
the para position is substituted with fluorine, the aromatic ring is protected and epoxide is no longer
produced.
The substitution of fluorine for hydrogen in organic compounds offers a very large number of compounds.
These compounds often feature single C-F units, but -CF 3 and -OCF3 group provide further variation, and more
recently the -SF5 group.[9]