Systematics, Natural History, and Conservation: Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-

Image Problem
Author(s): Harry W. Greene and Jonathan B. Losos
Source: BioScience , Jul. - Aug., 1988, Vol. 38, No. 7, Conservation Biology (Jul. - Aug.,
1988), pp. 458-462
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences

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 Systematics, Natural History,
and Conservation
Field biologists must fight a public-image problem

Harry W. Greene and Jonathan B. Losos

Fieldproblem
biology hasconser-
at a time when a public-image The importance of
ments, including interactions with oth-
er organisms. It encompasses changes
vation desperately needs the ex- in internal states insofar as they pertain
pertise of systematists and natural his- systematics and natural to what organisms do (e.g., chronolo-
torians. Recent anecdotes illustrate gies of reproductive events; Bartholo-
history for conservation mew 1986, Greene 1986).
this irony.
* The leader of a well-known lies in defining the Given increasingly limited resourc-
es, society must carefully articulate the
environmental group visited a re- boundaries of reasons for conserving nature, decide
search station in Costa Rica and
organismic diversity which places and species to protect,
asked pointedly, "When are you
and determine how to accomplish
scientists going to start doing
these goals. Much has been written on
something for conservation?"
activities (e.g., Janzen 1986a, Stebbins why we should preserve species (e.g.,
9 Animal rights advocates in the
and Cohen 1976), but the above Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981), but recog-
San Francisco Bay Area demand-
vignettes are symptomatic of wide- nition of the necessity for choosing
ed that the University of Califor-
spread misunderstanding of field biol- among species and potential refuges
nia prohibit all animal research
ogy among lay people, environ- for preservation is a recent phenome-
not directly related to human wel-
mentalists, and even biologists. This non (Conway 1980, Lovejoy 1980).
fare, and they objected specifically article is intended to summarize some
Such difficult choices require an eval-
to studies aimed at clarifying the
important roles of systematics and uation of sites and taxa, and necessar-
biological species status of certain
natural history in the preservation of ily will involve a "principle of relative
songbirds.
organismic diversity, suggest ways replaceability" (Colwell in press); dis-
* An employee of a major zoo-
those roles can be enhanced, and pro- tinctive and unique landscapes,
logical park congratulated one of
mote their discussion in classes, public biotas, and evolutionary lineages have
us (H. W. G.) on working with
lectures, governmental agencies, and greatest value. The importance of sys-
animals in the wild, "unlike most
conservation organizations. tematics and natural history for con-
herpetologists, who just kill them
and count scales." servation thus lies in defining the
boundaries and contours of organis-
Roles of systematics and
Even some laboratory biologists view mic diversity.
field research as simply an intellectual natural history
exercise and ask, "What good does itSystematics encompasses the charac- The nature and geography of genetic
do?" teristics, genetic status, and evolution- and phenotypic variation. The emer-
Academic scientists long have beenary history of organisms. Once simply gence of biochemical systematic tech-
involved in traditional conservation the description of obvious phenotypic niques has disclosed that genetically
variation and the application of for- distinct units are not always recogniz-
mal names, systematics now uses a able on the basis of traditional exter-
H. W. Greene is an associate professor of
variety of biochemical, multivariate nal characteristics. The North Amer-
zoology and associate curator of herpetol-
statistical, and other sophisticated ap- ican leopard frog, long used for
ogy and J. B. Losos is a graduate student;
both are in the Museum of Vertebrate proaches in explicit analytical frame- laboratory research, is an impressive
Zoology and Department of Zoology atworks (e.g., Gould and Woodruff example. What is called Rana pipiens
the University of California, Berkeley 1986, Wake and Yanev 1986). Natural in hundreds of papers actually com-
history focuses on where organisms are prises at least 20 species, some of them
94720. ?1988 American Institute of Bio-
logical Sciences. and what they do in their environ- with highly restricted distributions

458 BioScience Vol. 38 No. 7

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(Hillis et al. 1983). Furthermore, there
is not always a single entity, "the
species," in nature. Instead, there may
be reproductive continuity among
populations over broad areas, varying
levels of hybridization and introgres-
sion within reproductively connected
populations, or complete isolation of
adjacent gene pools (Wake and Yanev
1986). Because a major goal of con-
servation is to preserve both genetic
and phenotypic diversity, comprehen-
sive, modern studies of local and geo-
graphic variation must be included in
the identification of "least replace-
able" biological entities at various
taxonomic levels.
Detailed comparisons among living
and fossil organisms are the only basis
available for inferences about their
origins and relationships. It is because
of phylogenetic systematics that we
can place special value on the coela-What good does it do to study snakes? This emerald tree boa, Corallus caninus, is a
canth, the tuatara, and other "living1.5-meter-long snake endemic to South American lowland tropical rain forests. Photo:
H. W. Greene.
fossils," and that we hypothesize that
chimpanzees, not gorillas, are our
closest relatives (e.g., Goodman et al. fornia salamanders (Marlow et al. on bird eggshells were first detected
1983). Such analyses indicate that ar-1979). In the early 1970s, a third with museum specimens; Foster
madillos, sloths, and anteaters are not species of living peccary was discov- 1982). Ideally, specimens (including
only a small group of strange animals, ered in the Chaco region of Paraguay, tissues and other nontraditional ma-
but also that they are one another'smore different from the two knownterial) would represent geographic
closest relatives (the Xenarthra) andspecies than they are from each otherand recent temporal variation in all
among the few survivors of one lin-(Wetzel et al. 1975). The proportions taxa. That goal will never be possible
eage of the earliest divergence event inof tropical biotas that are still unde-for most species, because of the gen-
the history of placental mammalsscribed are, of course, far larger thaneral difficulty in obtaining specimens
(Novacek 1986). in temperate regions, and the need for and the inadvisability of doing so in
In addition to the problem of un-understanding them is especially ur- the case of genuinely rare forms. These
recognized genetic diversity, it is not gent (Wilson 1984). factors make adequate representation
widely appreciated that even the best Research museum specimens, the of common, easily studied taxa all the
known parts of the earth still hold core of systematic biology, provide more important.
undiscovered organisms. Herpetolo-documentation for systematic conclu-
gists have explored California in great sions and future analyses; both are How organisms interact with the envi-
detail for more than a century, yet theynecessary because conservation often ronment and each other. The infor-
continue to uncover new amphibians resolves to political, legal, and eco- mation implicit in Joseph Grinnell's
and reptiles (Table 1). Recent fieldnomic confrontations (e.g., Dodd concept of an ecological niche, that
studies in arid regions have disclosed1982, Gallaway et al. 1985). Given "range of values of environmental
populations of three salamanders, a the ongoing environmental changes factors that are necessary and suffi-
toad, an alligator lizard, and a garternow occurring globally, repeated sam- cient to allow a species to carry out its
snake that are distinctive and new to life history" (James et al. 1984), will
pling is also imperative to assess short-
science.'1 term changes (e.g., the effects of DDT always be crucial to the management
Such discoveries are often not mere-
ly minor variants of known orga-
Table 1. Numbers of amphibian and reptilian taxa in three summaries of Califor-
nisms, but dramatically different. Just
nia herpetology, based on Stebbins (1954, 1966, 1985). A frog and a turtle, recently
over a decade ago, in a desert canyon, introduced, are not included in the 1985 counts.
scientists discovered Batrachoseps
Taxa 1954 1966 1985
campi, the largest and morphological-
ly most primitive living species in a Frogs 16 20 22
Salamanders 17 18 24
well-known genus of common Cali-
Turtles 4 4 4
Lizards 32 34 36
1T. J. Papenfuss,
Snakes 321988.
33 Pers
35
tion. Museum
Totalsof Vertebrate
101 109 121
sity of California, Berkeley.

July/August 1988 459

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of wild and captive animals, as well as netic compatibility must be assessed The future: What's
to assess ecological divergence as a for management of captive popula-needed now?
measure of relative replaceability. Ide- tions and reintroduction programs to
ally, we need to characterize in detail avoid the deleterious effects of in- Three widespread fallacies downplay
the geography of organism-environ- breeding depression (Ralls and Ballouthe importance of field biology. The
ment interactions for each species of 1983), outbreeding depression (Tem-first is that field guides and other
interest (Grinnell 1917), so that pre- pleton et al. 1986), and production of popular nature books are miraculous
dictions can be made about unstudied ecologically inappropriate pheno-gifts to humanity; a corollary is that
sites. types. For example, when ibex from television nature programs convey in-
Although detailed ecological and Sinai and Turkey were introduced toformation gained fresh by the narra-
behavioral inventories are impossible Czechoslovakia, they gave birth in tor, or perhaps the filmmaker. The
for many species because of their rar- winter; then introgression from local second fallacy is that we now know
ity and the difficulty of study as well asstock led to hybrids that also bred outeverything about nature that will be
the sheer magnitude of the task, often of season, and the entire populationnecessary to save it; less extreme ver-
extrapolation from a few investiga- perished (Greig 1979). sions are that we do not require pre-
tions is useful. Jaguars (Panthera on- cise information in cases where it is
ca) occurred within historic times Why and how nature should be ap- lacking, or that this information can
from the southern United States to preciated. For conservation to suc- be gained on short notice. The third,
temperate South America, but they areceed, wild organisms and places must perhaps most cherished, fallacy is that
now extinct in some areas and so rare
have value in human society. Thewe can still devote ourselves primarily
as to be essentially unstudiable in myriad interactions among plants and
to ideals of pristine ecosystems. Con-
many others. However, four projects animals hold countless examples of servation then would be simply a mat-
in divergent habitats show that certain novel solutions to problems with an-ter of buying large tracts of land, and
generalities characterize their ecology: alogues in human welfare (Colwell inthere would be no need for extensive
knowledge and management.
these cats typically are associated with press, Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981, Wil-
watercourses, even in xeric regions, son 1984). Field biology can enhance The realities are stark and unam-
and their diet is always both broad those values and their cultural accept-biguous. However far back one could
and focused on a few especially com- ance, in that knowledge exposes thetalk of pristine ecosystems-a century
mon, moderately large, prey species practical applications and inspires es-or several millennia-it was long
(Table 2). thetic rewards. Indeed, since ethno-enough ago to be of limited relevance
biological research incorporates sys-today (Martin and Klein 1984). A
Areas to be saved. After more than a tematics and natural history (e.g.,
global extinction crisis is fast upon us,
decade of debate, it is clear that no Patton et al. 1982), those disciplinesthe impact continues to accelerate in
simple relationship between area, spe-also can assist the transfer and evalu- many quarters-especially in the rich-
cies richness, and endemism can guideation of cultural knowledge among est and most fragile ecosystems, and
the design of refuges (Soule and Sim-human societies. the solutions must be largely in place
berloff 1986, Zimmerman and Bierre- Television nature programs are in- within our lifetimes. Even the world's
gaard 1986). Criteria for establishing creasingly popular, and a visit to any largest parks are inevitably embedded
refuges must vary with goals and local major bookstore confirms the enor- in adjacent human cultures and will
circumstances, but systematics and mous public demand for field guides require active management (e.g., Carr
natural history provide crucial raw and books about wilderness. The in- 1988, Chase 1986, Janzen 1986b).
data on the geography and underlying formation sought focuses on identifi- Unfortunately, we still know little
mechanisms of species richness. Thosecation and the interactions among about the lives of many large, popular
disciplines delimit areas and compo- free-living organisms and environ-vertebrates in those reserves, and we
nents of high endemism (Prance 1982) ments, all of it based on field biology.know nothing about most species of
and point to critical ecosystem factors A nature tourist's questions about gar-small animals beyond their existence.
(e.g., "keystone mutualists," Gilbert ter snakes at a pond in California can The political forces opposing conser-
1980, Terborgh 1986; inclusion ofbe answered with more accuracy to- vation are powerful and clever, and,
peccary wallows as breeding pondsday because herpetologists continuedespite our ignorance, the best possi-
for certain frogs, Zimmerman andto struggle with this difficult group ble data must be used to counter them.
Bierregaard 1986). They thereby de- (Stebbins 1954, 1966, 1985). Exam- Tellico Dam was not delayed for years
fine potential gains and losses in alter- ples of convergent evolution, such as because of some casual observer's in-
native conservation strategies. tuition that a small, nondescript,
gliding adaptations in diverse reptiles
and mammals, are widely used in snail-eating fish might be new to sci-
How organisms should be managed.environmental education. Usually left ence and endangered by its construc-
The importance of systematics andunstated is the fact that we could not tion. Instead, careful studies on a tax-
natural history in effective captive marvel at the striking resemblances of onomically difficult group disclosed
maintenance is obvious (e.g., Kleiman unrelated organisms from distant, that a new and unusual species of
et al. 1986, Murphy and Collins similar environments without phylo- darter inhabited the Little Tennessee
1980), and these disciplines also help genetic evidence that the similar traits River.
zoos define critical taxa on which to were indeed independently acquired Unfortunately, systematics and nat-
focus scarce resources. Potential ge-(Luke 1986). ural history are misunderstood, and

460 BioScience Vol. 38 No. 7

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Table 2. Geographic variation in habitat and diet of jaguars, Panthera onca, based on detailed studies at four sites. Percent oc-
currence and total number of items in diet samples in parentheses.
Location Habitat Diet Reference

Pantanal, Brazil Swamp, gallery forest, Various vertebrates, but predomi- Schaller and Vasconcelos (1978)
savanna nantly one species of large ro-
dent
Manu, Peru Seasonally flooded Various vertebrates, but turtles Emmons (1987)
primary rain forest and caimans were prominent
items (33%, N = 40)
La Selva, Costa Rica Primary rain forest Various vertebrates, but sloths H. W. Greene, H. E. Braker,
(46%) and green iguanas pre- and M. A. Santana (unpub-
dominated (N = 59) lished data)
Cocksomb, Belize Secondary rain forest Various vertebrates, but armadil- Rabinowitz and Nottingham
los predominated (54%, (1986)
N = 185)

their progress impeded athealth Field biologists,

of populations; without
the very con- especially those
sideration
time when they should play of the benefits of
a crucial research
with talents for communication, can
role in global conservation. and Species seek
provision of alternatives, opportunities
that op- to explain the
position
are literally going extinct before amounts to fiddling
they methods
whileand ramifications of system-
the
can be formally described, biosphere
let alone burns. Governmental atics and natural
con- history. We should
trols
studied and legally protected on field biology should
(Wilson be
include implications for conservation
1984). What we know about nature to avoid redundant
streamlined pa-
and management in primary research
represents the accumulation perwork
of dec- papers, write
and actively encourage re- popular articles, talk
ades of painstaking researchsponsible
by thou- research. A good with visitors at study sites, interact
yardstick
sands of people with diversewould be, "Is this legislation's
expertise. with local agencies, explain our re-
overall
The missing information willeffect comeon nature conservation search to undergraduates, and insist
posi-
much harder, yet the tasktive?"
is increas- that the media integrate the role of
Given the magnitude and
ingly burdened with bureaucracy. scientific
urgencystudies in their reports. Ed-
Field biologists now must fill out
of nature ucators should
conservation problems, gov- treat systematics and
ernmental funding for basic
mountains of redundant paperwork, natural history as important, modern
research
in systematics
try to persuade institutional animal- and naturaldisciplines-if
history is monoclonal antibodies
use committees that accurate informa- inadequate (Ehrlich
pitifully deserve 1986,
a special, explanatory box in
Wilson
tion is important, and pay fees to1985).
wait Massive increases in textbooks, so do museum curation
financial
months for research permits that support
may for field biology are techniques and cladistics. Farmers,
needed,
never materialize. Ironically, the is appreciation by funding bankers, and biochemists cannot be
as dis-
covery of new species often agencies of the connections between expected to appreciate automatically
under-
basicprotec-
scores areas that need special biology and conservation. the roles of systematics and natural
tion (e.g., the Chaco peccary and
Training new systematists through- history in society. If we do not take an
of its
world is especially important active part in educating the public,
out theimpact
habitat), whereas the negative
(Foster 1983, Wilson 1985). In this who will?
of research on most wild populations
regard
is trivial compared with that it is heartening that the Na-
of human
tional Science Foundation is consider-
greed, technology, and population Acknowledgments
ing formal
growth. Of the almost 62 million birdsupport for such interac-
tions (Anonymous 1987).
deaths annually from human-related This article was drafted while
causes in the United States, 61.5% of course, is partly of
The problem, H. W. G. was on sabbatical leave at
our own
result from hunting, 32% result making. Many field biolo-
from the University of Arizona Desert Lab-
gists derive
collisions with manmade objects, immense personal satis- oratory, thanks to the hospitality of B.
and
faction
only 0.01% are from scientific from the activity itself, and, and D. L. Hardy, P. S. Martin, and
collect-
ing (Banks 1979). therefore, some see little need to com- R. H. Robicheaux. R. K. Colwell, L.
municate formally
We need broader understanding by with lay people. Ford, E. C. Losos, C. Millar, J. A.
Even textbooks
society of the obligate roles of field written by organismal Miller, J. L. Patton, and M. H. Wake
biology in environmental rarely discuss systematics as offered helpful comments on the
apprecia-
biologists
tion, education, and conservation.
a modern scientific discipline, let alone manuscript.
its relationship
Gratuitous, divisive polemics from to broader societal
issues.
other environmentalists (as in the Cinematographers
an- and jour- References cited
nalistsarticle)
ecdotes described early in this routinely rely upon scientists
waste time and energy that for information
could beand direct assistance Anonymous. 1987. Conserv. Biol. 1: 94.
Banks, R. C. 1979. Human related mortality of
devoted to solving seriousbut,
problems.
beyond listing names in the cred-
birds in the United States. US Department of
Opposition from animal-rights
its, the underlying research activities Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Special
groups emphasizes the livesusually
of aarefew
not reflected in the final Science Report-Wildlife (215), Washington,
DC.
individual animals, ratherpublic
than the
product.

July/August 1988 461

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