Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience

The anode region of electric arcs: a survey

This article has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text article.

2010 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 023001

(http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3727/43/2/023001)

View the table of contents for this issue, or go to the journal homepage for more

Download details:
IP Address: 141.225.218.75
The article was downloaded on 08/06/2012 at 21:32

Please note that terms and conditions apply.

IOP PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 (31pp) doi:10.1088/0022-3727/43/2/023001

TOPICAL REVIEW

The anode region of electric arcs: a survey

J Heberlein1 , J Mentel2 and E Pfender1
1
Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St. SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
2
Fakultät für Electrotechnik und Informationstechnik, Ruhr University, Universitätsstrasse 150, 44801
Bochum, Germany

Received 1 May 2009

Published 15 December 2009
Online at stacks.iop.org/JPhysD/43/023001

Abstract
Electric arc anodes frequently determine functional performance and lifetime of a number of
arcing devices, ranging from discharge lamps to plasma spray torches. While there have been
numerous studies of the anode region of electric arcs, our understanding of the detailed
physical processes is still limited. The reason for this lack of detailed knowledge is that
numerous factors influence the arc–anode interaction, and that the plasma–solid interface in
high intensity arcs is in general not accessible to diagnostics and one has to rely on indirect
measurements. Throughout this survey, the emphasis will be on high intensity arc anodes, i.e.
on plasmas with temperatures of more than 10 000 K and electron densities exceeding
1022 m−3 outside the boundary layer, and heat fluxes exceeding 107 W m−2 . The plasma
parameters in the boundary layer as obtained with different techniques by a number of
investigators for a variety of conditions are presented, and the effect of macroscopic flow
conditions is discussed. Experimental and modelling results are presented. A brief comparison
with low current arcs is also given, and the areas that need further research are highlighted.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction Research over the past 50 years provided a solid

Electric arcs have been known for about 200 years and their
widespread and still growing application assured continuous
research interest and demand over the years. There is a vast
range of currents used in arc applications, covering more than
five orders of magnitude. A typical example for an extremely
high current application is the arc furnace used for steel
making with currents
100 kA. A wide variety of arc plasma
torches have been developed for scrap melting, alloying, iron
melting in cupolas and remelting technologies with arc currents
typically in the 10 kA range. Plasma torches in the 100 A–1 kA
range found extensive applications for plasma spraying and
plasma synthesis. Classical arc welding employs free-burning
arcs with currents in the range of 100 A to several hundred
amperes, and this current range is also found in arc cutting
applications where the arc is extremely constricted. Finally,
arc lamps represent one of the most important arc applications
(about 25% of the electricity generated in the US is consumed
for lighting and arc lamps are the most efficient light sources)
with currents typically in the 0.5–10 A range.
understanding of the arc plasma including non-equilibrium
effects, but the same is not true for the electrode regions
which represent the interface and the electric contact between
the relatively hot arc plasma and the electrodes. Results
of earlier studies are summarized in a number of textbooks
and reviews [1–8] which indicate that the anode region did
not attract as much attention as the cathode region. On the
other hand, anode erosion is frequently the lifetime controlling
mechanism in non-transferred arc applications such as, for
example, in plasma torches or arc lamps. In spite of research
efforts over the past 25 years [9–43], there are still gaps in our
understanding of the anode region of arcs. One of the reasons
for these gaps is the little understood interaction of the arc
with the anode surface which is governed by a large number
of effects, including those determined by the current and the
current density, and fluid dynamic effects. Different effects
dominate in different arc operating regimes, e.g. different arc
currents and gas type and gas flow rates. Consequently, no
predictive model exists covering the entire range of possible arc
parameters which are encountered in actual arc applications.

0022-3727/10/023001+31$30.00 1 © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UKR

J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Low current arcs are mainly used in high intensity

discharge (HID) lamps, and the anode effects in such arcs are
discussed in an accompanying paper. The principal differences
between such arcs and high intensity arcs are that the anode
is usually not water-cooled, i.e. sufficiently hot for thermionic
electron emission. Furthermore, in the case of HID lamps, the
operating pressures are much higher, usually exceeding 1 MPa,
and there is a periodic change of the electrodes from anode to
cathode.
This survey will summarize our present knowledge of the
anode region for high intensity arcs (I > 50 A). The next
section will provide a qualitative description of the physical
effects in the arc anode region, followed by a description of
the influence of fluid dynamics. A review of experimental
studies is divided into sections describing different types of Figure 1. Different length scales in the anode region.
measurements. Results of model descriptions of the anode
region follow, and a section comparing the effects observed regions may be distinguished: (1) a region adjacent to the arc
with high intensity arcs to those obtained with low intensity column governed by increased conduction losses to the anode
arcs leads to the general conclusions. resulting in temperature non-equilibrium Te > Ta , (2) a region
of composition non-equilibrium due to diffusion fluxes towards
2. General characteristics of the anode region the anode surface and (3) the Langmuir space charge region
directly in front of the surface. Obviously, the first region
The anode boundary layer is the region in front of the anode overlaps with the other two regions and the second region
surface where the plasma properties, e.g. electron and heavy overlaps with the third region. The thickness of these regions
particle temperatures, electron densities, electric field strength, is strongly dependent on the fluid dynamic situation and they
are different from their values in the arc column. The anode may overlap; temperature and composition non-equilibrium
region is characterized by an extremely steep temperature may extend to 0.5–2 mm from the anode surface, while the
drop from plasma temperatures in the order of 104 K to anode space charge zone is typically confined to a region of less
temperatures in the order of or below 103 K, over a distance of than 0.05 mm.
1 mm or less, depending on pressure and flow conditions [14]. The physical processes in the anode region can be
A similar situation exists for the electron density which may explained with an energy balance on a control volume
drop from values in the order of 1023 m−3 in the plasma column element in the thermal and fluid boundary layer (where local
to values many orders of magnitude less at the anode surface thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) is assumed to prevail), and
[9]. The interface between arc column and anode surface may with the generalized Ohm’s law for the non-equilibrium region,
be divided into the traditional boundary layer characterized by assuming rotational symmetry (with r the radial and z the axial
temperature and velocity gradients and strongly affected by coordinate):
the fluid flow situation, and into an electric boundary layer


∂h ∂h 1 ∂ ∂T
consisting of a sheath and pre-sheath adjacent to the surface. ρ u +v − rκ
∂z ∂r r ∂r ∂r
The sheath is the location of net space charges, resulting in

corresponding strong electric fields as described by the Poisson ∂ ∂T
+ κ + PR = j · E, (1)
equation, and it has an extent in the order of a few Debye ∂z ∂z
lengths [44].


Figure 1 shows some characteristic lengths in the anode dne dTe dni dTi
j = σ E + kµe Te + ne − kµi Ti + ni
boundary layer, indicating that the sheath is essentially dz dz dz dz
collisionless for electrons; however, ion collisions, in (2)
particular, charge exchange collisions may occur in the
electrical boundary layer. The potential drop across the sheath with  R
is sometimes identified as the anode fall which is not quite I = 2π j rdr = const. (3)
correct. Although the potential drop across the sheath may o

be the main contribution to the anode fall, the thickness
of the anode fall region has to extend beyond the sheath
thickness to meet the various tasks of the anode fall [45–47].
Accordingly, the anode fall is defined here as the difference
between the anode potential and the potential at the point where
the potential gradient changes from that in the arc column. This
change in electric field is the result of charge carrier losses and
energy losses to the anode surface. Following Nemchinsky and
Perett’s description of the anode region [44], three different
Here, ρ is the gas density, u and v are the axial and radial
velocity components of the gas, respectively, h is the gas
enthalpy, T the gas temperature, κ the gas thermal conductivity,
PR the volumetric radiation loss, j the current density and E
the electric field strength. In equation (2), σ is the electrical
conductivity of the gas, k is the Boltzmann constant, µe and
µi are the electron and ion mobilities, respectively, and Te and
Ti and ne and ni are electron and ion temperatures and number
densities, respectively.

2
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 2. Illustration of anode voltage drops for diffuse and constricted attachments. uc is the potential at the column end and the dashed
line is an extrapolation of the column potential to the anode position, ua,d is the anode potential for a diffuse attachment with a negative
anode fall (ua,d < uc ), ua,c+ is the anode potential for a constricted attachment with a sheath potential drop and ua,c− is the anode potential
for a constricted attachment with a positive anode fall but a field reversal in the sheath region and a negative sheath potential drop. us
indicate the anode falls ua and the sheath potential drops us .
In the energy equation, the first term describes the
convective transport associated with macroscopic mass fluxes,
the second and third terms describe thermal conduction in
radial and axial direction, and the fourth term describes the
radiation loss. These energy losses are balanced by the
dissipation term on the right-hand side. In Ohm’s law, the first
term on the right-hand side describes the current flow due to
charge carrier drift due to the electric field, while the remaining
terms describe the charge carrier flux due to diffusion due to
density and temperature gradients.
If we consider an anode region without macroscopic flow,
the first term in the energy equation can be neglected, and
the increase in axial conduction losses must be met by an
increase in energy dissipation. Looking at Ohm’s law and
the condition of constant current, this increase in dissipation
requires a combination of increased electric field, decreased arc
radius and possibly increased diffusion fluxes. A decreased
radius, resulting in an increased current density, increases
the self-magnetic pressure, resulting in a macroscopic mass
flow away from the anode [48], resulting in cold gas in-
flow from the radial direction, enhancing the heat loss and
the necessary constriction (thermal pinch). Consequently,
macroscopic flows cannot be neglected in the treatment of
the anode boundary layer of high intensity arcs, and for the
constricted attachment, the first term in equation (1) is an
additional energy loss term.
If there is a superimposed flow towards the anode, e.g.
because of a cathode jet, the plasma will form a stagnation
layer over a larger region of the anode surface, i.e. an increase
in the arc radius R and a radial outflow of plasma from the
attachment zone. Consequently, the first term in equation (1)
represents a power increase in the energy balance, with a
reduction of the energy dissipation term on the right-hand side
as a consequence. The electric field will adjust, depending
3
Topical Review
on the area over which the plasma contacts the anode surface,
and according to the density and temperature gradients which
determine the current density (equation (2)), and it can be either
negative, zero or slightly positive.
A constricted attachment, in contrast will have first an
increase in the electric field due to the constriction; however,
very steep gradients immediately in front of the anode surface
could lead to a field reversal. The composite of the voltage drop
in the constriction region and that in the region immediately
in front of the anode will give the anode fall, which may be
positive or negative. The various potential distributions in front
of the anode are illustrated in figure 2.
In addition to the influences of the fluid flow conditions,
chemical reactions on the anode surface as, for example,
encountered in arcs operated in atmospheric air or in other
oxidizing fluids affect the anode attachment, and anode
evaporation at a specific location is another mechanism which
leads, in general, to spot formation [49, 50].
Current continuity requires a sufficiently high electron flux
from the arc column to the anode surface leading to substantial
deviation from LTE in the anode boundary layer [9, 44]. The
temperature of the heavy species approaches the temperature
of the anode in the immediate vicinity of the anode surface,
whereas the electron temperature remains sufficiently high
to ensure the required electrical conductivity as shown for a
typical example in figure 3 [9]. For the same conditions as in
figure 3, figure 4 [9] shows the electron density in the anode
boundary layer derived from a one-dimensional analysis.
A comparison with electron densities under LTE
conditions reveals increasing discrepancies as the anode is
approached [9]. This is a clear indication that there are not only
deviations from kinetic, but also deviations from composition
equilibrium in the anode boundary layer. The actual electron
density close to the anode may be more than a factor of two
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 3. Calculated heavy particle and electron temperature
distribution in front of the anode surface (at left boundary).
(Reprinted from [9] copyright 1980 American Institute of Physics.)
Figure 4. Electron density distributions in front of anode surface
calculated with Saha equation and considering diffusion fluxes.
(Reprinted from [9] copyright 1980 American Institute of Physics.)
higher than the equilibrium density according to the predicted
electron temperature. And even more important, the current
flow at the anode is primarily driven by electron diffusion. As
previously mentioned, this strong electron diffusion may even
lead to negative electric fields in front of the anode as shown
in figure 5 [9].
Figure 5 refers to the same conditions as figure 3.
The calculated electric field shows strong negative values
immediately in front of the anode (sheath), and by calculating
the potential drop across this sheath one finds a value of −1.8 V
which may be identified as the direct anode or anode sheath
fall [9]. A negative anode fall implies that there is a positive
space charge in front of the anode and the negative electric
field will drive an ion current to the anode, simultaneously
decelerating electrons. This ion current, also shown in figure 5,
has been confirmed by experiments which will be discussed in
section 4. In the case of a helium arc, a positive value for
the direct anode fall has been reported resulting from similar
one-dimensional calculations [44].
4
Topical Review
Figure 5. Electric field and ion current density distribution in the
anode boundary layer. (Reprinted from [9] copyright 1980
American Institute of Physics.)
3. Fluid dynamic effects
Fluid dynamic effects in high intensity arcs are either produced
by external flows superimposed to the arc or by flows induced
by the arc itself. The latter type of flow, induced by the
interaction of the arc current with the self-magnetic field, is
known as the Maecker effect [48]. Both types of flow may
exert a strong influence on the anode region. Throughout
this section, we will consider three different configurations:
a free-burning arc with a rod shaped cathode and an anode
perpendicular to the arc axis (see figure 6); a partially wall
stabilized arc, operating within a water-cooled cylindrical
channel, with a flat anode perpendicular to the arc axis and
with a gap between the channel assembly and the anode (see
figure 7); an arc between a rod cathode and the inside
of a cylindrical anode, serving as a nozzle for the flow
superimposed on the arc (see figure 8). These configurations
cover the majority of the geometries used in praxis.
3.1. Flow perpendicular to the anode
Plasma flows directed towards the anode are encountered with
the free-burning arc with a cathode jet and with the constricted
arc with a gap between the constrictor channel and the anode
and with superimposed flow towards the anode.
As discussed in the previous section, a flow directed
towards the anode will lead to electron density and temperature
gradients over a wide area, as well as to convective energy
transport towards the anode. The steep gradients of density
and temperature in front of the anode, as shown by calculations
and measurements in figure 9 [14], suggest that diffusion of
electrons to the anode will be an important or even dominating
transport mechanism [9]. The consequence is that an increase
in the electric field is avoided and a negative anode fall can be
observed.
However, a reduction of the plasma flow towards the
anode, e.g. by increasing the length of the arc and reducing
any parallel flow, will reduce the convective transport towards
the anode and lead to arc constriction. Under these conditions
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 6. Schematic of free-burning arc.
Figure 7. Schematic of wall stabilized arc with anode perpendicular
to the arc axis and a gap between the constrictor and the anode.
an increased field in the anode boundary layer and a positive
anode fall are expected even though a field reversal is predicted
due to the extremely steep gradients over the last few mean free
paths in front of the anode surface [32].
The dependence of the anode attachment on the plasma
gas flow rate towards the anode for a geometry of a wall
constricted arc with an anode perpendicular to the arc axis and
a 10 mm gap between the constrictor and the anode is shown
in figure 10 [51].
It can be seen how increasing axial gas flow rates push
the stagnation layer between the axial flow and the anode jet
towards the anode until the anode jet disappears and a diffuse
attachment exists. Figure 11 [51] shows the accompanying
changes in the arc voltage: a steep increase in the voltage
before the transition to the diffuse mode followed by a
voltage drop.
It should be noted that for arcs below 100 A, the lowest
voltage is with a constricted attachment, while for arcs at higher
currents a diffuse attachment provides a lower voltage and a
more stable operation. The stepwise change of the attachment
diameter with increasing axial gas flow is shown figure 12 [51].
5
Topical Review
3.2. Flow parallel to the anode
The situation of an arc exposed to an external flow parallel
to the anode is found in all types of arc plasma torches (see
figure 8). In addition to the externally superimposed flow, there
is also a self-induced flow in the same direction due to the
constriction of the arc at the cathode leading to the formation
of a cathode jet. Although the main arc is exposed to parallel
flow, the arc connection to the anode (anode column) is exposed
to cross flow. Wutzke et al [52, 53] analysed this situation
with an arc between a rod type cathode and two parallel plates
as anodes. If the superimposed flow rate surpassed a critical
value, the anode attachment became unstable and started to
move with a dark boundary layer between the arc and the anode
surfaces extending further and further downstream. Once the
voltage drop across this boundary layer at an upstream location
reaches a certain value, an upstream breakdown is observed
(restrike). The continuous repetition of this downstream
movement and restrike leads to the familiar sawtooth-like
voltage waveform. A linear relationship was found between
the arc current and the critical velocity at which the instability
started. While the forces acting on the anode attachment were
identified as the Lorentz force resulting from the changes in the
arc current density in the attachment region, and the drag force
of the cold gas acting on the low density attachment column
between the arc and the anode surface, a simple force balance
has not been able to describe the regions of arc stability [54].
The actual plasma torch with a cylindrical anode provides
a somewhat more complicated situation. From an analysis
of voltage traces obtained for such a torch as shown in
figure 8, Coudert et al [55] concluded that different types of
restrikes could occur, including downstream restrikes when
the boundary layer between the plasma jet and the anode
downstream of a momentary attachment became very thin. A
correlation has been found between the attachment residence
time and the arc current and the mass flow rate using a non-
dimensional analysis. Duan et al [56, 57] used the analysis
of the voltage traces to characterize the different modes of
the anode attachment: the ‘stable’ mode indicated by a steady
voltage, the ‘take-over’ mode characterized by random voltage
fluctuations and the ‘restrike’ mode with the sawtooth shaped
voltage trace. By using the values for the amplitude of
the voltage fluctuation, and for the slopes of the voltage
traces during voltage increases and decreases, an algorithm
was formulated describing the anode attachment stability for
any arc operating conditions, including ‘mixed’ modes, i.e.
modes showing characteristics of restrikes and of take-over.
Assigning a mode value of 2 to a pure restrike mode, a value
of 1 to a pure takeover mode and a value of 0 to a steady
mode, the correlations were obtained shown in figure 13 [57],
indicating a monotonic decrease in mode value with increasing
current and decreasing mass flow rate.
Through end-on observation of the arc inside the anode
nozzle, a boundary layer thickness could be defined between
the luminous region of the arc and the anode surface. Figure 14
[57] shows that there appears to be a clear correlation between
the boundary layer thickness and the mode value: a thicker
boundary layer promotes a higher mode value (i.e. more
restrike-like behaviour). Boundary layer thicknesses were
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 8. Schematic of a plasma torch with the flow parallel to the anode surface.
Figure 9. Measured and calculated temperature distributions in a
free-burning arc. (Reprinted from [14] copyright 1983 American
Institute of Physics.)
changed by changing the arc current and the gas flow rate.
It is at present unclear why one set of data deviates from
the correlation.
As indicated in figure 8, there is a relatively thick cold
boundary layer between the main arc column and the anode
surface and, as a consequence, the arc section across this
boundary layer and the anode arc root will be constricted. With
increasing current, the main arc column expands, reducing the
thickness of the anode boundary layer. As this boundary layer
shrinks, a more diffuse anode arc root becomes feasible. This
fact led to a puzzling observation of the anode life in arc plasma
torches. By increasing the arc current, the anode life of a
given torch may be enhanced, in spite of the fact that the heat
transfer to the anode increases with increasing current (see
section 4.4). Anode melting and anode erosion, however, are
determined by the specific heat fluxes rather than by the total
heat fluxes [12]. Specific heat fluxes are substantially higher
in the case of constricted anode arc roots (section 4.4).
Several investigations of the anode boundary layer effects
were made with the wall stabilized arc arrangement with a
6
Topical Review
lateral gas flow parallel to the anode in the gap between the
constrictor and the anode (see figure 15). A gap between the
constrictor and the anode allows observation of the arc, and
cold gas can be introduced parallel to the anode surface. Inaba
et al [58] measured the deflection of the arc due to the lateral
gas flow and defined a ‘Young’s modulus’ and a stiffness for
the arc.
However, no physical explanation for the formulation was
offered. The same experiment was used to determine the effect
of the cross flow on the arc voltage [59] for an arc of up to 250 A
in argon with air as the lateral gas. The increase in voltage was
found to be uniquely dependent on the deflection of the arc root.
In a similar set-up and under similar conditions, Hartmann
and Heberlein [60] found that the arc attachment changes
from a diffuse attachment first to a constricted attachment,
possibly with several spots, then to a fluctuating constricted
attachment which is deflected from the original position, and
finally to a strongly deflected attachment with a restrike. The
thickness of the dark boundary layer outside the arc attachment
region increases at first stepwise during the change from the
diffuse mode to the constricted mode, then more slowly with
increasing deflection until a maximum is reached and further
increases in lateral gas flow do not change the boundary layer
any more (see figure 16) [60]. Further experiments with
essentially the same experimental set-up with current values of
75 and 100 A and argon as the plasma gas and argon or nitrogen
as the lateral gas confirmed these observed effects of increasing
lateral gas flow and found that nitrogen lateral gas flow will
result in stronger constriction [61, 62]. By using a segmented
anode and correlating arc attachment position (obtained with a
high speed video camera) with the current transfer and the heat
transfer to the different segments it was found that both current
and heat transfer followed the luminous attachment spot with
some current flow and heat transfer outside the spot [63].
Calorimetric and current measurements with a segmented
anode show that never all the current is transferred to
downstream segments, but that a certain percentage of the
current keeps flowing to the upstream anode segments with
increasing lateral gas flow, and that the heat transfer essentially
follows the current flow (see figure 17) [63].
Further increase in the lateral gas flow rate will lead to arc
instabilities, first some random movement of the attachment
with voltage fluctuations similar to those observed with the
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 10. Photographs of arc attachment mode changes with different plasma gas flows; current: 100 A, argon 1 atm, constrictor–anode
gap:10 mm. (Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)
Figure 11. Voltage change during transition from constricted mode to diffuse mode. (Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)
‘take-over mode’ in plasma torches, and then to actual restrike
conditions, i.e. a sudden move to an upstream attachment
spot. High speed movies showed that the frequency of the
restrike movement jumped at a certain threshold lateral gas
flow rate right away to 270 Hz, followed by a more gradual
increase. It was also observed that the location from which the
restrike occurred moved downstream with increasing lateral
gas flow rate, i.e. the length of the restrike to the same
upstream position increases (see figure 18) [63]. Schlieren
images of the arc attachment with lateral gas flow show that
the restrike is preceded by a fluid dynamic instability leading
to a reduction of the cold gas boundary layer thickness (see
figure 19) [64].
While the initial increase in power dissipation during the
constriction of the attachment is mostly transferred to the
anode, the increased power dissipation during the elongation of
the arc did not increase the heat transfer to the anode. One may
conclude that convective and radiative heat transfers are less
significant than conduction and the heat transfer mechanisms
associated with current flow.
The experimental observations may be summarized by the
following statements:
• The fluid flow influences the thickness of the thermal
boundary layer in front of the anode and consequently
the physical processes in the arc anode attachment.
• Two distinctly different attachment modes have been
observed, depending on the boundary layer thickness, the
constricted and the diffuse attachment.
7
Topical Review
• It appears that for low current arcs (<100 A) the
constricted mode is more stable while for higher currents
the diffuse mode provides lower voltages.
• Gas flow parallel to the anode surface favours a constricted
attachment and results in either a random oscillatory
movement of the attachment or in the periodic restrike
motion.
4. Experimental characterization of the boundary
layer
4.1. Electron temperature and density measurements
This section contains results of spectroscopic, Langmuir probe
and laser scattering measurements in the anode boundary
layer.
(a) Spectroscopic measurements. There have been numerous
spectroscopic measurements of the anode region of electric
arcs with the anode perpendicular to the arc axis. Free-burning
arcs as well as wall stabilized arcs with a gap between the
constrictor and the anode have been used. With free-burning
arcs, the principal experimental parameters that influence
the anode attachment are the arc current and the anode–
cathode gap. With the constricted arc, the anode attachment
is influenced by the arc current and the gas flow parallel to
the arc towards the anode. The latter arrangement has also
been used to simulate anodes with the arc parallel to the anode
surface by introducing a cold gas flow parallel to the anode
surface towards the arc attachment. In all cases reported here,
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
anode erosion and a strongly constricted anode attachment
with anode melting have been avoided. Furthermore, almost
all investigations have been carried out in argon at pressures
between 80 and 110 kPa, and deviations from these conditions
are noted. The difficulty with spectroscopic measurements is
the existence of non-equilibrium in the boundary layer, and
different approaches have been chosen to obtain results for
non-equilibrium conditions.
Dyuzhev et al [30] report results of spectroscopic
investigations of a free-burning arc in which the anode was a
rotating water-cooled copper cylinder. The current was varied
over a wide range, and reducing the current below 50 A led to
a change in the anode attachment from a diffuse attachment
to one consisting of several parallel branches, and eventually,
at a current of 15 A, to a single constricted attachment. The
electron density data derived from continuum measurements
and assuming partial local thermodynamic equilibrium (PLTE)
are 1.9×1022 m−3 at 0.5 mm in front of the anode for the diffuse
attachment, and for the constricted attachment, an electron
density maximum is observed close to 1023 m−3 at about 1 mm
in front of the anode.
The most complete measurements for free-burning arcs
have been reported by Tanaka and Ushio [36–38] for an arc
gap of 5 mm and arc currents ranging from 50 to 150 A. The
assumption of LTE existence has been avoided by using laser
scattering measurements, i.e. Rayleigh scattering for atom
temperatures and Thomson scattering for electron temperature
measurements. Rayleigh scattering was performed up to
distances of 50 µm from the anode with a roof type anode
arrangement sloping towards the observer. Langmuir probe
measurements with a probe embedded in the anode provided
additional data on electron temperatures. The results are given
in tables 1 and 2. If we consider the action of the cathode
jet and the proximity of the cathode to the anode (5 mm), the
results appear to be consistent with the other measurements,
except for the very high electron temperature value measured
with a Langmuir probe at the anode surface for the 50 A arc.
The effect of the anode state has been investigated by
Etemadi and Pfender [15] who compared temperature profiles
of a 150 A free-burning argon arc with a 10 mm gap, 1 mm in
front of a solid copper and a molten copper anode. A drop
in peak LTE temperature from 13 000 to about 12 100 K was
found when copper vapour was present, even though no strong
constriction was observed. Gleizes et al [33] extended these
measurements to different anode materials, copper, iron and
steel, all in their solid and molten forms, with a 90 A argon arc.
At a location 1 mm in front of the anode, LTE temperatures
of 11 500 K were measured for Cu anodes, compared with
10 750 K for steel anodes. For liquid anodes with carefully
controlled evaporation to avoid arc constriction, the data were
9600 K for a steel anode and 9000 K for the molten copper
anode. The lower temperatures in all cases of metal vapour
presence are explained by higher radiation losses and wider
arcs because of the higher electrical conductivity of the metal
containing plasma at lower temperatures in the arc fringes.
The differences of the results with different anode materials
were explained by different arc root diameters due to different
thermal conductivities of the anode materials.
8
Topical Review
Heberlein and Pfender [65] report spectroscopic measure-
ments with a 100 A argon arc using a constrictor assembly with
a gap of 3.5 mm between the constrictor and the anode. Results
were obtained for a diffuse attachment with the assumption of
PLTE, and measurements of several absolute line intensities
and continuum intensities yielded electron temperature and
density values at different axial locations (see table 1). Elec-
tron density values of 5 × 1022 m−3 or 6 × 1022 m−3 were ob-
tained using the PLTE assumption or the continuum coefficient,
respectively, at 2 mm from the anode, and of 0.9 × 1022 m−3
and 1.2 × 1022 m−3 at 0.5 mm from the anode. For a similar
set-up but with a gap of 10 mm and an arc current of 200 A,
Sanders et al [12] report similar values (see table 1). A com-
parison of temperature profiles for a diffuse and a constricted
attachment showed similar values at a location of 1 mm in front
of the anode; however, with the constricted attachment a tem-
perature maximum of 12 400 K approximately 2 mm from the
anode was found. These results lead to the conclusion that
beyond 2 mm from the anode LTE can be assumed without
causing too much of an error, and that the temperatures are in
the order of 12 000 K, a value which is supported by modelling
results.
Recent Thomson scattering measurements with a wall
stabilized arc and a gap in front of the anode resulted in
electron temperature and density distributions in the entire
anode region between 0.05 and 5 mm from the surface at 1 atm
in argon for currents between 60 and 120 A [64, 66]. Variation
of current and parallel gas flow allowed a controlled change
of the anode attachment type, and two transitional types of
attachment between the diffuse attachment and the constricted
attachment have been observed when the parallel gas flow was
reduced. Figures 20 and 21 show the electron temperature and
electron density distributions along the arc axis for varying
currents and axial mass flow rates [66].
For diffuse attachments (high axial gas flow rates) electron
temperatures and densities increase strongly with current at
both locations, 2 and 0.05 mm from the anode surface. When
the axial gas flow rate is decreased, electron temperatures and
densities initially decrease. However, at a certain flow rate a
transition is observed to a constricted attachment with higher
electron temperatures and densities, increasing at 0.05 mm in
front of the surface from 10 900 K with 5 slm to 14 400 K
at 0.7 slm, and from 0.8 × 1022 m−3 to 3.8 × 1022 m−3 ,
respectively. Both distributions show maxima in a region
between 2 and 0.05 mm from the anode. The change from
diffuse to constricted attachment is preceded by the formation
of a cold boundary layer between the arc plasma and the anode
surface in the arc fringes (lift-up mode) and by an increase in
current density in the central region of the attachment. This
mode is followed by the formation of several attachment spots
at different locations on the arc periphery (multiple attachment
mode). A more detailed description of this transition will be
presented in section 4.3.
The same arrangement has been used to characterize the
attachment with cold gas flow parallel to the anode surface,
simulating the parallel flow situation [63, 64]. Langmuir probe
and Thomson scattering measurements have been performed
for varying lateral gas flows, and the symmetric attachment
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Figure 12. Stepwise change of anode attachment diameter with plasma gas flow during the transition from constricted to diffuse attachment.
(Reprinted from [51] copyright 2001 IOP Publishing.)

Figure 13. Arcing mode for arc with flow parallel to the anode, for
different currents and different gas flow rates. (Reprinted from [57]
copyright 2002 ASM International.)
Figure 15. Schematic of wall stabilized arc with perpendicular
anode and lateral gas flow. (Reprinted from [63] copyright 2006
IOP Publishing.)

has been observed to become asymmetric with a higher

temperature gradient towards the cold flow, followed by
a movement of the attachment from the arc axis in the
downstream direction, with an eventual upstream restrike.
Thomson scattering measurements show that the restrike is
preceded by a high electron temperature cloud at the location
where the restrike will occur [64].
One may conclude from these reported results that for a
wall stabilized arc, the non-equilibrium boundary layer region
extends from the anode surface to a location of 1–2 mm in
front of it, depending on the flow configuration. Most results
indicate that the heavy particle temperatures drop rapidly
towards the anode surface, while the electron temperatures
remain high showing only a slight drop. In short free-burning
Figure 14. Dependence of arc mode on the boundary layer arcs with arcing gaps of 5 mm or less, it is unclear where
thickness. cathode jet non-equilibrium ends and anode boundary layer

9
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 16. Thickness of anode boundary layer as function of lateral (sheath) gas flow [60]; current 100 A, argon 1 atm, plasma gas flow
5 slm, constrictor–anode gap 10 mm.
Figure 17. Fraction of heat (top) and current (bottom) transferred to
different anode segments as function of lateral gas flow rate.
(Reprinted from [63] copyright 2006 IOP Publishing.)
non-equilibrium starts [67]. Higher temperature gradients are
seen in the anode boundary layer of these arcs. In particular the
extremely high heavy particle temperature gradients derived
from Tanaka and Ushio’s measurements (about 9000 K over
50 µm) pose questions if heavy particle temperature continuity
can be assumed, or if a temperature slip condition exists at the
anode surface. The anode material does affect the size of the
attachment and consequently the electron and heavy particle
temperature in the boundary layer; however, no data are
available on the effect of the non-equilibrium due to different
anode materials.
(b) Langmuir probe measurements. Langmuir probe
measurements have been performed for both arrangements
discussed in the previous sections, with a wall stabilized arc and
a gap between the constrictor channel end and the anode, and
with free-burning arcs. Measurements have been obtained for
diffuse and for constricted attachments. The probe consisted of
10
Topical Review
Figure 18. Restrike frequency (top) and distance (bottom) for
different lateral gas flow rates. (Reprinted from [63] copyright 2006
IOP Publishing.)
a tungsten wire surrounded by an insulating sleeve, embedded
in the anode. In most experiments, the probe was flush with
the anode surface; however in a few experiments, the probe
tip was raised up to 0.25 mm above the anode surface [68].
In all experiments, the arc was operated in a stainless steel,
vacuum tight chamber to ensure a pure argon atmosphere. The
pressure in the chamber is maintained at 100 kPa. Special
precautions were taken to prevent contamination of the probe
surface during measurements [68].
According to the spectroscopic measurements, we expect
for the measured electron temperatures and densities a Debye
length of about 0.1–1 µm (depending on the exact value of the
electron density), an electron mean free path of 10–20 µm and
an ion mean free path of about 0.5 µm. For determining the
electron temperatures from the electron retarding regime of
the probe characteristic, one can therefore use the collisionless
probe theory. However, it is more difficult to obtain values for
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Figure 19. Development of fluid dynamic instability leading to restrike [64]. The dark band indicates a high electron density gradient. The
white line is drawn into the figure at the border of the dark band to illustrate the arc boundary, and the anode surface is indicated as a straight
line. (Reprinted from [64] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)

Table 1. Results of spectroscopic measurements (all measurements in Ar at or close to 1 atm).

Current Distance Temperature
Configuration (A) from anode (mm) Method (K) Reference
Wall stab. 100 2 Spectr., 11 500 [65]
0.5 PLTE 9 200
Wall stab. 200 1 Spectr., LTE 12 200–12 400a [12]
Wall stab. 60–120 0.05 Thomson 9 000–12 400 [66]
2 scatt. (diff)
11 000–13 450
Wall stab. 100 0.05 Thomson 14 400 (constr.) [66]
2 scat. 14 350
Free burning 150 1 Spectr, LTE 12 900b –12 400 [15]
(10 mm)
Free burning 90 1 Spectr., LTE 11 500 Cuc [33]
(18 mm) 10 750 steel
Free 50 1 Thomson 12 200 (Te ) [37]
burning 150 1 scatt. 17 000 (Te )
(5 mm) 50 1 Thomson 8 000 (Tn )
150 1 scatt. 13 000 (Tn )
Rayleigh scatt.
Rayleigh scatt.
Free 50 0.05 Rayleigh 1 500 [36]
burning 75 0.05 scatt. 2 500
(5 mm) 150 0.05 10 000
a
A slightly higher temperature value was observed for a constricted attachment.
b
Two different Cu anodes were used, one regular and one molten and resolidified.
c
Different anode materials were used, Cu giving the highest temperature value.

the electron density because in the electron saturation regime,
the probe will become the anode, and in the ion saturation
regime one has to consider collisions in the sheath.
Operating the probe in the electron retarding regime and
assuming that the electrons have a Maxwell–Boltzmann (MB)
distribution, the current density, je , collected by the probe will
allow derivation of electron temperature values.
Figure 22 shows an example of a Langmuir probe
characteristic with the probe biased with respect to the
anode [68]. The straight line in this semi-logarithmic plot
is an indication that the electrons retain a MB distribution
throughout the boundary layer.
Figure 23 shows electron temperatures at the anode
surface as a function of the arc current with the electrode gap
as parameter [68]. The electron temperature throughout the
boundary layer up to the anode surface stays above 104 K. It
should be pointed out that both an increase in the arc current
and a decrease in the electrode gap enhance the velocity of the

11
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Table 2. Results of Langmuir probe measurements in anode boundary layer (all measurements in Ar at or close to 1 atm).
Arc Te Te Te Te Te Te Te
Configuration current (A) z = 0 µm 50 µm 100 µm 125 µm 150 µm 200 µm 250 µm Reference
Wall 100 9 200 9 700 10 100 [13]
stab.— 150 8 800 9 700
diffuse 200 8 700 9 600 10 100
150 9 100 10 400 12 100
constricted 200 9 840 10 600 10 100
12 100
Wall stab. 80 9 600 [63]
100 9 200
80 10 250
Free 50 23 000 15 000 13 000 [36]
burning 100 16 000
(5 mm) 150 11 000 14 000 14 000
11 300 12 000
Free 75 11 200–11 400 [68]
burning 100
(7 mm) 150 12 900–13 200
14 000
Free 75 11 300 [68]
burning 100 12 600
(10 mm) 150 14 000

Figure 20. Axial electron temperature (a) and electron density (b) Figure 21. Axial electron temperature (a) and density (b)
distributions in the anode boundary layer for four different arc distributions in front of the anode for different axial gas flow rates.
currents; argon, 1 bar. The anode surface is on the left hand side. (Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)
(Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)

12
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 22. Langmuir probe data for deriving electron
temperatures [68].
Figure 23. Electron temperature values at the anode derived from
Langmuir probe data as function of current and arcing gap [68].
cathode jet in front of the anode, i.e. they reduce the thickness
of the anode boundary layer, resulting in a broader stagnation
region and a larger contact area between the plasma and the
anode.
Probe measurements on free-burning arcs and on wall
constricted arcs have been performed by Sanders and Pfender
[13] (see table 2), and electron temperatures have been derived
for diffuse and for constricted anode attachments and for
currents ranging from 100 to 250 A. In the case of free-burning
arcs, the attachment was changed by increasing the arc gap
(larger gaps leading to transitions to the constricted mode),
and with the wall constricted arcs by changing the axial gas
flow rate. Measurements were taken flush with the anode,
and with probe positions 0.125 and 0.25 mm above the surface
(the side walls of the probe were insulated). For the diffuse
mode, the electron temperature at the surface decreased with
increasing current, but remained constant at a higher value
above the surface. For the constricted attachment, electron
temperature values initially increased with increasing current,
but then appeared to remain steady or decline. The values also
increased with distance from the anode, as seen in table 2.
The Langmuir probe measurements performed by Tanaka
and Ushio [36] have already been mentioned. They report
13
Topical Review
a strong increase in the electron temperature values at the
anode surface when the current is decreased from 150 to
50 A (23 000 K at 50 A). While they explain the temperature
increase with an increasing negative space charge and a positive
anode fall for a 50 A arc current, it cannot be explained why
measurements under comparable conditions [13, 68] do not
show these high temperatures. It should be mentioned that
the anode in the experiments by Tanaka and Ushio was not
planar but raised towards the centre, which could change the
attachment conditions.
Very recent Langmuir probe measurements in which the
boundary layer thickness could be controlled by lateral gas flow
parallel to the anode surface in the gap between a constrictor
and the anode [62, 63] show similar values as those reported
by Sanders and Pfender [13] and by Leveroni-Calvi [68]. It is
interesting to note that electron temperature values with lateral
gas flow, at a location downstream of the arc attachment, are
lower than in the attachment region, while they are higher
upstream of the attachment, in particular when the attachment
is deflected from the axis due to the lateral gas flow. A
strong initial constriction is observed when nitrogen is used as
lateral gas accompanied by an electron temperature increase
of 2000 K to about 11 800 K.
In summary, all measurements show high electron
temperatures up to the anode surface with values at about
or above 9000 K. However, there are strong differences in
the electron temperature characteristics for free-burning arcs
and wall constricted arcs. Free-burning arcs with a short gap
(5–7 mm), i.e. a cathode jet domination, show a strong increase
in the electron temperatures with current, i.e. with the jet
action according to Leveroni-Calvi [68], or a strong decrease
with increasing current according to Tanaka and Ushio [36].
For wall stabilized arcs with moderate gas flows, a weak
constriction can be assumed, and the data by Sanders and
Pfender [13] and by Yang and Heberlein [66] are in agreement,
showing a decrease in the electron temperature with increasing
arc current. With this type of attachment, an increase in arc
current results in an increase in the attachment diameter. This
behaviour is in contrast to a strongly constricted attachment
where a strong increase in electron temperature is noticed [66].
Most measurements show an increase in temperature with
increasing distance from the anode surface, and reasonable
agreement with values derived from emission spectroscopy.
However, the probe measurements by Tanaka and Ushio show
a strong decrease in the electron temperature from the anode
towards the arc column for diffuse attachment conditions. This
discrepancy in the reported data cannot be explained at present.
4.2. Current density measurements
Langmuir probes can also be used to measure current densities
by measuring the current when the probe is at anode potential.
Because of the small probe diameter, it is permissible to divide
measured probe currents by the probe area to obtain current
densities. Typical results are shown in figure 24 [68] for a
free-burning arc with arcing gaps between 7 and 15 mm. The
results indicate a clear non-monotonic dependence on the arc
current, displaying a minimum which, for shorter arc gaps, is
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 24. Electron flux data derived from Langmuir probe data for
different arc currents and arc gaps [68].
Figure 25. Ion flux data derived from Langmuir probe
measurements for different arc currents and arc gaps [68].
very pronounced. The increase in je for arc currents, below
the value at which the minimum occurs, is due to a more
constricted arc root which is associated with a weaker cathode
jet at these lower currents. The arc constriction at the anode
at low arc currents appears to be more severe with narrower
arc gaps. As figure 24 indicates, the current density minimum
shifts to higher arc currents for larger electrode gaps which is
due to the weakened effect of the cathode jet at larger gaps [68].
As previously mentioned, for negative anode falls there
must be a positive space charge in front of the anode. The
reversed electric field as well as strong ion density gradients
in front of the anode will drive a positive ion current to
the anode as shown in figure 25 [68]. Although this ion
current is below or close to 1% of the total arc current for
arc currents below 100 A, the percentage of ion current to the
total current increases substantially with increasing arc current
and decreasing electrode gap. Figure 26 [68] shows the ratio of
electron to ion current densities as a function of arc current with
the electrode gap as parameter. There is a dramatic reduction
of this ratio with increasing arc current or equivalent, with
increasing attachment diameter.
Similar to the differences in electron temperature data
between results from free-burning arcs and wall constricted
14
Topical Review
Figure 26. Fraction of electron current arriving at anode surface,
derived from Langmuir probe measurements for different arc
currents and arc gaps; lower currents and larger gaps show a more
constricted attachment [68].
arcs, the current densities derived from spectroscopic
measurements for the wall constricted arcs in front of the
anode show significantly lower values than those shown in
figure 24. Heberlein and Pfender [65] report 200 A cm−2 ,
and Sanders and Pfender [13] measured 100 A cm−2 for
arc currents of 100 A, compared with 500–1400 A cm−2
(depending on arc gap) in the free-burning arc measurements.
The current densities derived from Langmuir probe and
Thomson scattering measurements by Yang et al [63, 66]
range from 120 to 160 A cm−2 with increasing degrees of
constriction, and exceed 500 A cm−2 for a fully constricted
attachment. In general, higher electron temperatures correlate
with higher current densities.
4.3. Anode fall measurements
Determination of the magnitude of the anode fall has been
of strong interest to researchers for a long time, because
knowledge of the electric field distribution in the boundary
layer in front of the anode will not only enhance our
understanding of the physical processes in this region, but it
will also facilitate control of the anode attachment which is
very important for the control of many plasma processes.
Busz-Peuckert and Finkelnburg [69, 70] measured the
potential of a tungsten probe swept across the arc 1 mm in front
of the anode using a free-burning arc, for arc gaps ranging from
2 to 10 mm and arc currents from 10 to 200 A. For all distances,
constricted attachments were observed at arc currents below
25 A and diffuse attachments for currents above 75 A. They
equated the potential difference between the floating potential
of the probe and the anode potential with the anode fall. The
results are shown in table 3. The data for the fall increased
with increasing arcing gap (lower cathode jet velocity) and
decreased with increasing arc current (increased cathode jet
velocity). The anode fall values reflect the potential drop across
the boundary layer and the sheath region, but no correction was
used for the probe sheath. Of interest is the comment that a
fall of 0 V should be expected for high ion flow into the anode
boundary layer.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Table 3. Results of sheath potential measurements (all measurements in Ar at or close to 1 atm).

Distance from
Configuration Method anode (mm) I (A) U (V) Reference
Free-burning Probe swept 1 25 12 [70]
arc (10 mm) through arc
Free-burning Probe swept 1 25 7.5 [70]
arc (2 mm) through arc 1 200 4
Free-burning Energy 50 5.9 [71]
arc (6 mm) balance 100 4.5
Free-burning Energy 100 4.5 [72]
arc (6 mm) balance 150 3
Free-burning Gap change from 10 3 [74]
arc 4 mm–0 mm
Free-burning Probe 0, 0.25 100 −2.44, −3.4 [13]
arc/wall stab. in anode 150 −2.1, −3.1
arc— 200 −2.1, −2.7
Constricted
0, 0.25 150 −2, −3.87
Diffuse 200 −2.35, −4.0
Free-burning Probe 0 60 −3 [68]
arc (10 mm) in anode 100 −3 to −4
Wall Thomson 0.05 to 2 100 −0.7 diffuse [66]
stabilized arc scattering −0.1 in lift off

Schoeck and Eckert [71] and Schoeck and Maisenhälder
[72] derived anode fall values from an energy balance of the
anode of a free-burning arc for pressures from 1 to 50 bar.
The heat transfer to the anode was assumed to consist of
convection and radiation from the arc column, and of the terms
associated with the current transport (see section 4.4), namely
electron condensation, electron enthalpy flow and electron
energy gained in the fall region. Values of 4.5 V at 100 A
and 3 V at 150 A are reported, and the values decrease with
increasing pressure. Convective and radiative heat transfer
contributions were determined through calculations using
simplifying assumptions, and relatively minor errors in these
values could significantly change the anode fall values.
A recent study by Hemmi et al [73] also derives
electrode fall values from electrode energy balances, i.e.
from material evaporation rates from un-cooled electrodes.
Heat conduction/convection and radiation from the arc are
neglected. For a silver anode and an air arc with one half wave
of an ac current, with peak values varied from 350 to 1200 A,
an anode fall voltage of about 4.5 V is found, independent of
peak arc current.
Dickson and von Engel [74] measured the voltage change
of a free-burning arc when the anode approached the cathode.
Two steps are visible in the voltage trace, the first one was
associated with the collapse of the anode sheath and merging
with the cathode sheath (the anode fall voltage), the second
one when the two electrodes met (the cathode fall voltage).
Different values are reported for different anode materials, with
a value of 3 V for a 10 A argon arc between copper electrodes.
Values for a nitrogen arc were significantly higher (∼10 V).
Oberth and Jahn [75] determined fall voltages in high
current MPD arcs with a potential probe 1 mm in front of the
anode surface. They corrected the measured potential for the
sheath drop, and determined the current density distribution
with magnetic probes. Anode fall values of 10–12 V for
current densities of 100 A cm−2 and of approximately zero at
900 A cm−2 are reported. The point was made that sufficiently
high electron densities in front of the anode will result in high
diffusion currents and eliminate the need for ion production in
the anode sheath. It must be noted that these MPD discharges
are quite different from arc discharges with quite high ion
temperatures, and that the pressure at the anode is not given.
But the fall value for a current density of 100 A cm−2 is
comparable to that reported by Busz-Peuckert and Finkelnburg
[70] for similar current densities.
Several of the cited publications mention that anode
fall values of zero or even negative fall values should be
possible; however, all report positive voltage drops in the
anode boundary layer. In contrast, Sanders and Pfender [13]
and Leveroni-Calvi [68] report negative anode fall values for
atmospheric pressure argon arcs under all conditions they have
considered. Sanders and Pfender used the Langmuir probe
arrangements described in section 4.1, the probe tip being
either flush with the anode surface or protruding 0.25 mm
into the plasma. Both free-burning arcs and wall stabilized
arcs were investigated, and the conditions were adjusted to get
either a diffuse or a constricted attachment. The floating probe
potential Vf was corrected to give the plasma potential Vs in
front of the anode using a collisionless sheath assumption and
neglecting the ion temperature difference:
Vs = Vf + (kTe /2e) ln(2mi /π me ). (4)
Electron temperature values derived from Langmuir probe
measurements were used. Two voltage drops were
distinguished, the drop across the boundary layer derived from
the probe measurements at 0.25 mm in front of the anode and
the ‘direct anode fall’ measured with the probe flush with the
anode surface, i.e. the drop across the collisionless sheath. The
results are shown in table 3. We see, that
(1) in all cases the direct fall voltage as well as the total fall
voltage are negative;
(2) the direct fall voltages do not vary strongly between
a diffuse and a constricted mode; however, the total

15
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
fall voltages are higher (more negative) for a diffuse
attachment, indicating a stronger positive space charge
in the boundary layer in front of the sheath;
(3) the fall voltage increases with increasing current
(becoming more negative) for the diffuse attachment while
it decreases with increasing current for the constricted
attachment;
(4) in the diffuse attachment, about half of the (negative)
anode voltage drop occurs in the sheath, while the other
half occurs in the boundary layer in front of it, whereas
in the constricted attachment, the majority of the drop
occurs in the sheath. The potential drop in the boundary
layer raises the question whether in these experiments a
constriction actually existed.
Leveroni and Pfender [76] and Leveroni-Calvi [68]
present results of measurements with a Langmuir probe
embedded in the anode of a free-burning arc, and the boundary
layer thickness was varied by changing the arcing gap between
7 and 15 mm and the current from 60 to 250 A. The voltage drop
across the boundary layer, i.e. across the region of a significant
temperature drop, is derived by considering diffusion fluxes in
the analysis. The values are shown in table 3. These values
are comparable to those reported by Sanders and Pfender [13].
However, in both cases a collisionless sheath was assumed for
the derivation of plasma potential values from the measured
probe potential data. While the Debye length for the described
conditions is shorter than the electron mean free path, the mean
free path for the ion–neutral charge exchange is shorter than
the Debye length. At present it is unclear how collision effects
will change the presented data.
Comparison of the temperature measurements and the
potential measurements lead to a few definite conclusions:
(1) The fluid flow in the anode boundary layer affects the
temperatures as well as the potential distributions; probes
mounted flush with the anode show a slight decrease in
electron temperature and in the potential drop across the
sheath with increasing current for a diffuse attachment,
and an increase with increasing current for the constricted
attachment, very likely primarily following changes in the
current density.
(2) While there is for the most part an agreement between the
electron temperature measurements by different authors,
significant differences exist between the different potential
measurements. Agreement exists only in so far that
the potential drop in the sheath is negative for a diffuse
attachment as measured by probes flush with the anode
surface.
Indirect determination of the potential distribution in the anode
boundary layer has been pursued by Yang and Heberlein [66].
The Thomson scattering data have been used to determine
the distributions of electron partial pressure and electron
temperature in the boundary layer. Neglecting the ion current
and the thermodiffusion current, an estimate of the electric field
has been obtained using equation (2) and current conservation
for the different attachment modes.
Figure 27 [66] shows maps of the electric field magnitude
and direction on the right-hand side of the anode region for
16
Topical Review
a diffuse and a lift-up mode attachment for a 100 A argon
arc. The distributions of the electric potential parallel to the
arc axis at three different radial locations are also shown, at
the centreline, r = 3 mm and r = 5 mm (6 mm for lift-up
mode). It can be seen that for the diffuse mode, a field reversal
(potential maximum) occurs at about 2 mm from the anode
surface, and slightly closer at larger radii. It also must be
noticed that strong radial field gradients exist. For the lift-
up mode, a second field reversal is visible at the r = 6 mm
location approximately 0.4 mm in front of the anode, resulting
in a positive sheath potential drop. Electric field distributions
in constricted attachments show strong radial variations of the
field, but slightly positive slopes as well as slightly negative
slopes are seen in the attachment region. Figure 28 [66]
summarizes the axial potential distributions for the different
attachment modes.
Based on these data, one may arrive at the following
conclusions:
(1) In a diffuse attachment a negative potential drop towards
the anode surface exists over the entire attachment region;
there is sufficient energy transport from the arc column
into the anode region to maintain a large enough contact
area of the plasma with the anode surface to carry the
current.
(2) Reducing the energy flux from the arc column, the heat
loss to the anode first manifests itself in a reduced high
temperature region in front of the anode; while the current
density in the attachment region increases, it is insufficient
to carry the current, and in order to transport the current
through the cooler fringe regions, a positive potential drop
is needed.
(3) An instability analysis indicates [77] that a positive
potential drop can lead to an electron-thermal instability,
which will result in multiple constricted attachments and
local anode heating and evaporation in the arc fringes
where the positive potential drop is initially seen; these
local spots surrounding the attachment have been observed
in experiments [78].
(4) A constricted attachment is characterized by an increase
in electron temperature in the region immediately in front
of the anode, and by a maximum in the electron density
distribution close to the anode, resulting in steeper electron
density gradients and likely also in steeper ion density
gradients. While these results should indicate an even
higher fraction of arc current being driven by electron
diffusion, the ion flux would reduce the total current. A
positive anode fall voltage can exist increasing the ion
current contribution to the total current by reducing the ion
flux towards the anode, and by accelerating the electrons
towards the anode. However, the steep radial gradients
of electron density and temperature result in electric field
distributions strongly distorted by diffusion fluxes, and
a one-dimensional analysis of the constriction region is
likely not appropriate.
(5) In the case of a highly constricted attachment, the electron
saturation current density may be approached (in the order
of 108 A m−2 ), and the ion flux away from the anode is
required to transport the total current. A positive sheath
potential should be the consequence.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Figure 27. Electric field distributions in the right half of the anode boundary layer of an 100 A argon arc (top); the arc axis is on the
left-hand side and the anode surface is at z = 0. The potential values as function of distance from the anode surface are shown below for
three different radial locations. (Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP Publishing.)

(6) Very steep ion temperature gradients in a strongly

constricted attachment will decrease the ion current
contribution to the total current because of a stronger
increase in ion diffusion fluxes towards the anode due to
the temperature gradients (see equation (2)). In contrast,
the electron temperature gradients remain low or are even
negative. This increased ion flux towards the anode may
require a positive potential drop to reduce the ion flux and
assure current continuity. An atomistic model is required
to determine the dominant effects under these conditions.

4.4. Heat flux measurements

Anode heat transfer and the distribution of heat fluxes at the
anode of high intensity arcs is, to a large degree, determined
by the properties of the anode boundary layer, in particular,
by its thickness. High anode specific heat fluxes may be
detrimental for the lifetime of anodes in dc arc devices,
but they are very important for arc welding and plasma
cutting and for some applications in plasma metallurgy [79].
Because of the significance of anode heat transfer for arc
applications, there have been numerous anode heat flux
measurements performed. Most of these measurements have
been calorimetric total heat transfer measurements, coupled
with some additional characterizations yielding information
on the different contributions to the energy flux to the anode.
Schoeck and Eckert [71] and Schoeck and Maisenhälder
[72] determined calorimetrically the total heat flux and spectro-
scopically the temperature distribution for a free-burning argon
arc. The temperature distribution allowed calculation of the
radiative heat transfer and, with an assumed heat transfer coef-
ficient, the convective heat transfer, and the electron enthalpy
Figure 28. Axial potential distribution for a 100 A argon arc at
different attachment modes indicating positive anode falls for the
constricted and multiple attachment modes, and a negative anode
fall for the diffuse mode. (Reprinted from [66] copyright 2007 IOP
Publishing.)
transfer (assuming LTE). The difference between the measured
heat transfer and the calculated values were attributed to the
energy transfer associated with the anode fall. At 100 A and a
pressure of approximately 200 kPa, the total heat transfer rate
was about 1.4 kW, with about 38% attributed to electron en-
thalpy flow, and 31% to the anode fall heating, about 21% to
convection and 10% to radiation.
Sanders and Pfender [13] used a somewhat similar
approach; however, they separated heat conduction and heat

17
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

convection terms. The convection term was determined by

measuring the difference in total heat transfer for the cases
of a constricted attachment (with anode jet) and of a diffuse
attachment. The contributions associated with the electron
flux were calculated from electron temperature measurements
using a Langmuir probe, the radiative flux was estimated from
published values and the conduction flux was determined as
the difference between the individually determined fluxes and
the total measured flux value. Total fluxes were measured
of approximately 1 kW and 2 kW for an atmospheric pressure
argon arc at 100 A and 200 A, respectively. The individual
contributions in the constricted attachment case were 83% from
electron flux associated energy transfer mechanisms, 5% from
radiation, 12% from conduction. For the diffuse attachment the
contributions were 51% from the electron flux, 5% radiation,
11% conduction and 33% convection (i.e. all of the additional
heat transfer). It must be pointed out that the total current was
the same for the constricted and the diffuse attachment. The
strong increase in total anode heat flux in the diffuse mode
contradicts the modelling results by Jenista et al [80] (see
section 5.3), where the total heat transfer value remained about
the same for the diffuse and the constricted modes, while the
heat flux distributions changed significantly. This discrepancy Figure 29. Heat flux probe for anode heat flux measurements [87].
may be due to different conditions assumed for the model.
Cronin [62] measured the anode heat transfer for the wall
heat conduction probe is to transfer the heat impinging on the
stabilized arc configuration with varying flow parallel to the
sensing surface through the probe without any heat exchange
anode, finding for no lateral flow a total heat flux ranging
with the surrounding anode, i.e. to create a one-dimensional
from 1.3 to 2 kW for a 100 A argon arc, depending on the
heat flow field in the trunk of the probe. By measuring the
amount of flow directed towards the anode. Similar values are
temperature at two different locations within the trunk of the
reported by Iwao et al [61]. It has also been reported that an probe using thermocouples, the heat flux can be calculated with
increase in lateral gas flow lead to an attachment constriction the known thermal conductivity of the material (Cu) making
with an increase in arc voltage, and that the increased energy up the trunk of the probe.
dissipation lead to an increase in anode heat transfer. As an example, figure 30 [87] shows measured heat fluxes
From the measured heat transfer results one may at the anode of a free-burning argon arc (I = 200 A) at
conclude that p = 100 kPa, including a comparison with results from Nestor
(1) the energy transport associated with the electron flux is [81] obtained with a split anode arrangement and referring to
the dominating term in the anode heat transfer and an arc gap of 0.63 cm with the other parameters identical. The
(2) the change in total heat transfer when the attachment mode results of Nestor fall, as expected, between data for a gap of
is changed depends on the overall fluid dynamics more 1.0 and 0.5 cm. As the gap increases beyond 0.5 cm, the arc
than on the flux density distribution, i.e. it is important tends to be non-symmetric [87]. The heat fluxes presented in
how the mode change is accomplished, e.g. to constriction figure 30 are total heat fluxes composed of contributions due to
by reducing the flow directed towards the anode or by electron condensation at the anode, enthalpy transport by the
cooling the arc through lateral flow. electrons, heat conduction from the plasma to the anode, etc.
The Thomson scattering data of electron temperature and
What concerns the measurements of heat flux distribution, density fields previously described have been used to derive
for many years, a widely accepted approach was the split the heat fluxes associated with electron fluxes, i.e. electron
anode arrangement [81–86]. By splitting the anode in half and condensation, electron enthalpy and electron conduction (see
putting a thin (0.1 mm) electrically and thermally insulating section 5.3) [88]. The heat flux distribution over the anode
material between the two halves, the heat flow to each half surface are shown in figure 31 [88] for four different anode
can be measured calorimetrically. Measurements were made attachment modes: a diffuse mode, a lift-off mode, a multiple
by moving the split anode relative to the axis of a rotationally spot mode and a constricted mode.
symmetric arc. From the heat flow to each half of the anode as It is evident that for all attachment modes of the 100 A
a function of arc position, the heat flux profile may be obtained argon arc the electron condensation term is dominant, and
using the Abel inversion. that the peak heat flux increases from about 900 W cm−2 in
A later approach made use of a miniature heat conduction the diffuse mode, to about 1200 W cm−2 in the lift-off mode
probe shown schematically in figure 29 [87]. The probe area indicating higher current densities at the centre of the arc,
exposed to the arc is less than 1 mm in diameter, i.e. it provides to about 4 kW cm−2 in the constricted mode. Numerical
a high spatial resolution. The underlying principle of this integration of the experimental distributions for the rotationally

18
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 30. Anode heat flux distributions for two different anode
gaps [87]; the middle distribution was measured by Nestor with a
split anode arrangement [81].
symmetric diffuse mode gave total heat fluxes due to electron
transport of 735 W, which is about 50% of the total measured
heat flux, in agreement with the earlier results by Sanders and
Pfender [13].
5. Modelling results for the anode region
The anode region, as any other part of an electrical discharge,
is governed by the conservation equations including the
current conservation and Maxwell’s equations. Unfortunately,
any attempt to solve these equations for the anode region
faces several major problems. First of all, the conventional
conservation equations apply only as long as the continuum
approach is valid. Since the extent of the direct anode fall
is in the order of one or a few mean free path lengths of the
electrons, the continuum approach is no longer valid for that
part of the anode region. Secondly, the application of the
conservation equations is more difficult because the plasma
is not in LTE and non-equilibrium properties are required.
Furthermore, the specification of realistic boundary conditions
at the anode surface requires assumptions which in the end
have a strong effect on the calculated results. In addition, a
numerical problem is encountered in calculating the potential
distribution in the sheath because solution of the Poisson
equation together with the conservation equations is difficult
for small differences between electron and ion densities. Most
modelling approaches use a one-dimensional sheath model
together with a two- or three-dimensional model for the arc.
The sheath model can therefore be applied to any arcing
configuration. However, since most calculations have been
performed for free-burning arcs, the sheath model is discussed
in the section describing modelling approaches for the arc with
flow perpendicular to the anode.
19
Topical Review
5.1. Flow perpendicular to the anode
As previously mentioned, the shape of the anode arc root
depends strongly on the energy balance in the anode boundary
layer. For example, energy transport by convection into the
anode boundary layer will encourage a diffuse anode arc
root. In contrast, if the arc has to generate sufficient energy
in the anode boundary layer to ensure the proper electrical
conductivity for passage of the current, the resulting arc root
will be more constricted.
The principal assumptions and results of the sheath model
by Dinulescu and Pfender [9] have been described in section 2.
Further developments have been pursued by Lowke and
his co-workers, in particular with improving the calculation
methodology [89–91]. In their approach, electron and ion
densities are calculated from balance equations including
ambipolar and regular diffusion. A constant electric field is
assumed when integrating from the arc column towards the
anode surface until the difference between electron and ion
densities exceeds a specified value. This way the difficulty is
avoided of solving Poisson’s equation for small space charges.
The electron density is assumed to be zero at the anode
surface, and constant values are assumed for the mobilities
and electrical conductivity throughout the boundary layer. The
results for a 200 A free-burning argon arc show a field reversal
approximately 0.1 mm in front of the anode and an anode fall
of approximately −2 V. In this approach, the effect of mass
transport and, therefore, differences between constricted and
diffuse attachments could not be described. A modification of
this sheath model has been used in the unified two-dimensional
description of an arc including cathode and anode [90]. Based
on the results of the earlier study, space charge effects have
been neglected in the calculation of the current and energy
transfer for a free-burning 200 A argon arc, and an effective
electrical conductivity including the diffusion terms is used.
The results for this configuration agree well with experiments
justifying the assumptions, but no information on the potential
distribution in the sheath region is obtained, and only a diffuse
attachment is described. Tanaka et al [38] attempt to describe
the conditions for different attachment forms by specifying
current density values for a free-burning argon arc at a location
1 mm in front of the anode. By specifying a higher current
density for a 150 A arc than for a 50 A arc they obtain the result
that the 150 A arc is constricted while the 50 A arc is diffuse,
contrary to experimental observations with free-burning arcs.
The model by Lowke et al [90] has been used for describing
the arc–anode interaction for the case of a molten metal anode
of a free-burning argon arc. The heat transfer and the drag on
the surface are calculated as well as the various forces leading
to mass transport in the molten metal pool, including the effect
of varying viscosity and surface tension. Heat transfer to
the anode by electron enthalpy flux and by thermodiffusion
has been neglected. In this model, a negative anode fall is
implicitly assumed because the dominating electron diffusion
fluxes in the boundary layer require the field reversal [91].
A recent model by Lago et al [92] assumes LTE throughout
the boundary layer and gets around the problem of current
transport through a cold gas layer by assuming an electrical
conductivity of copper in the boundary layer, but the other
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 31. Radial distributions for the different components of electron heat flux to the anode for (a) a diffuse attachment, (b) a lift-off
attachment, (c) a multiple spot attachment and (d) a constricted attachment [88].
properties remain that of the gas. A positive anode fall of 3.5 V
is assumed for a free-burning 200 A argon arc. The boundary
condition for the electron density at the anode surface has been
addressed by Cappelli and by Meeks and Cappelli [20, 21], as
well as the effects of fluid flow on the attachment in a stagnation
flow model. Electron recombination at the anode surface at
various rates is assumed as the dominant electron loss term,
and a strong effect on the electric field near the surface is
demonstrated. While the assumptions for this model are more
consistent with those for a low current arc (e.g. free stream
temperatures of 4000 K), it is concluded that the convective
ion flux into the boundary layer must compensate for the ion
losses by diffusion and recombination, or a constriction and
increased Joule heating will be needed for ion production.
The constriction of the arc in front of the anode has
been modelled with an equilibrium approach and with a two-
temperature non-equilibrium approach by Chen and Pfender
[10, 93], and the ‘thermal pinch’ is demonstrated by these
modelling results for the configuration of a wall constricted
arc with a 10 mm gap between the constrictor and the
anode. However, the details of the processes in the sheath
are not described in these models. The results of this
model are compared with experimental results in figure 9
[14]. The agreement between calculations and measurements
20
Topical Review
is acceptable considering the assumptions made for the
calculations. A further development of a similar model
included the introduction of electron density non-equilibrium,
i.e. calculation of electron densities with balance equations
including diffusion, and space charge sheaths calculated from
the Poisson equation [32, 80]. Both configurations have been
considered, that of a free-burning arc with the results of
the model by Hsu and Pfender [94] providing the boundary
condition at the arc column, and that of a wall constricted
arc with a gap in front of the anode. Different mass flow
rates towards the anode have been assumed to demonstrate
the effect of the fluid dynamics. This model has been used
to demonstrate the effect of fluid dynamics by Amakawa et al
[35]. The following results taken from these models illustrate
the physical processes in the anode boundary layer.
Figure 32 [32] shows that the electron temperatures start
deviating from the heavy particle temperatures about 0.2 mm
in front of the anode surface for a diffuse attachment, and
that they remain above a value of 10 000 K up to the anode
surface. Figure 33 shows the calculated streamlines for both
the diffuse and the constricted mode for a 200 A argon arc [35].
With a superimposed mass flow rate of 0.2 g s−1 , the plasma
emanating from the confinement tube impinges on the anode
and is forced to flow out in the radial direction. A relatively
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 32. Electron and heavy species temperature distributions in
front of the anode (right border) of a 200 A argon arc. (Reprinted
from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
small amount of gas from the surroundings is entrained into
the arc fringes (figure 33(a)). By drastically reducing the
superimposed mass flow rate (0.01 g s−1 ), the arc constricts
in front of the anode and an anode jet is formed.
The latter leads to a strong entrainment of gas from the
surroundings and this gas flow opposes the superimposed
flow (figure 33(b)), forming a stagnation point close to the
end of the confinement tube (approximately 9 mm above
the anode surface for a 10 mm spacing between the end of
the confinement tube and the anode surface), whereas the
stagnation point in figure 33(a) is essentially at the anode [35].
Referring to the same configurations as in figure 32, the
potential distributions on the axis of the arc between the
end of the confinement tube and the anode surface (gap of
10 mm) have been calculated, considering a 200 A arc in
argon at atmospheric pressure [32]. With the anode potential
as reference (V = 0), figure 34 [32] shows the potential
distributions across this gap for the diffuse mode (curve A)
with a superimposed mass flow of 0.165 g s−1 and for the
constricted mode (curve B) with the superimposed mass flow
rate reduced to 0.008 g s−1 . The constricted mode shows
a substantially higher overall voltage drop between the end
of the constrictor and the anode (∼5 V) compared with the
diffuse mode (∼2.4 V). This higher voltage drop is due to arc
constriction and the associated entrainment of cold gas which
extends to more than 5 mm from the anode [32].
At a distance of ∼2 mm from the anode, the plasma
potential starts to exceed the anode potential, indicating that
a positive space charge is being formed. This leads to an
electric field reversal which occurs ∼0.5 mm from the anode
surface (curve B), i.e. there is a negative voltage drop in front
of the anode of ∼1.4 V, a result which had not been expected.
This result points to the difficulty of defining and measuring
anode falls, because the voltage drop in front of the anode
does not only depend on the location of the measurement
point, but also on the mode of the anode arc attachment which
is determined by the flow. If the anode fall was defined as
the potential drop immediately in front of the anode (over
a distance 0.1 mm from the anode which is essentially the
thickness of the sheath), the anode fall is negative as seen
21
Topical Review
in figure 34 for both the constricted and the diffuse mode.
On the other hand, if the potential curves are extrapolated
from the arc column to the anode with a constant slope, and
the anode fall is defined as the potential difference between the
intersection of the extrapolated potential curve with the anode
and the anode potential (see figure 2), we obtain for the diffuse
mode (curve A) a negative fall, whereas the anode fall for
the constricted mode (curve B) assumes now positive values.
In the latter case, the anode fall includes the arc constriction
region, i.e. it extends over more than 5 mm from the anode
surface. One of the main distinctions between the diffuse
and the constricted modes is the current density at the anode
which is substantially smaller for the diffuse mode. The higher
current density leads to an increase in the axis temperature in
the constriction region.
Calculations of the centreline profiles of the electrical
potential in the anode region for three different currents
are shown in figure 35 [32]. This figure refers to a
partially confined argon arc at atmospheric pressure with a
superimposed flow of 0.165 g s−1 for all three cases. The
potential curves for the different currents are similar showing
a reversal of the electric field in front of the anode and
corresponding negative voltage drops ranging from 0.4 V
(50 A) to 1.3 V (300 A).
As previously mentioned, the steep gradients in the anode
boundary layer may make substantial contributions to, or even
dominate, the current flow as described by equation (2). The
various terms in this equation have been calculated for the
anode boundary layer of a free-burning argon arc at 200 A and
atmospheric pressure [32].
Figure 36 [32] shows the results for the axis of the arc
over a distance of 5 mm from the anode (the location of
the anode is at 5 mm in figure 36). The applied electric
field is primarily responsible for the current flow at distances
>1 mm from the anode. At a distance of approximately
0.7 mm from the anode, the electric field changes sign which
is necessary to ensure current continuity, i.e. this negative
field will repel some of the electrons driven by diffusion
towards the anode. The actual flow of electron current
to the anode is obtained by subtracting the reverse current
(curve 1) from the diffusion current (curve 2) and adding
the current due to thermal diffusion. According to figure 36,
this current density is ∼450 A cm−2 including the contribution
due to thermal diffusion (∼90 A cm−2 ). As these numbers
show, thermal diffusion needs to be taken into account. Since
there is also a positive ion current driven to the anode, the
net current density is obtained by including this ion current.
By extrapolating experimental results discussed in the current
probe measurements, the ion current density at the anode will
be ∼60 A cm−2 for these conditions, i.e. the net current density
at the anode in the axis of the arc will be ∼390 A cm−2 .
This value is somewhat higher than the value derived from
measurements of a wall stabilized arc, but lower than the values
obtained from probe measurements on free-burning arcs.
Ion current densities for the anode region have been
calculated for the same configuration and the same operating
conditions applied in figure 36. The results are shown in
figure 37 [32]. Similar to the case of a free-burning arc,
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 33. Stream lines in the anode region of a 200 A argon arc with a diffuse (a) and a constricted (b) attachment; the anode surface is the
lower boundary, on the upper right hand side. (Reprinted from [35] copyright 1998 IOP Publishing.)
Figure 34. Potential distribution in front of the anode of a 200 A
argon arc; the anode is on the right hand border. (Reprinted
from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
Figure 35. Potential distribution in front of the anode of an argon
arc for different arc currents; the anode surface is on the right hand
border. (Reprinted from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
the ion current densities increase with increasing current, but
their magnitudes are different which is probably due to the
different flow situation. In the case of the free-burning arc,
there is only the self-induced flow which is a strong function
22
Topical Review
Figure 36. Contributions to the electron current in the anode
boundary layer of a 200 A argon arc; the anode surface is at the right
hand boundary. (Reprinted from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
of the current [48], whereas in the wall stabilized arc there is
a constant superimposed flow. It is interesting to notice that
the ion current densities show a maximum in front of the anode
which is associated with the space charge distribution and the
behaviour of the electric field (figure 36) in front of the anode.
A special case has been modelled by Nemchinsky [95],
where an anode is considered with a diameter smaller than
the arc diameter (corresponding to the situation in gas metal
arc welding). The one-dimensional model assuming LTE
properties predicts increased voltage drops in the anode
boundary layer for decreasing anode diameters and increasing
current densities. A maximum is shown for the electron
temperature in front of the anode. These results are consistent
with those assuming a constricted attachment due to fluid
dynamic conditions and are similar to those obtained in HID
lamp arcs [96].
Benilov and his co-workers have recently applied a
model originally developed for the cathode region also to the
non-equilibrium part of the anode boundary layer [97, 98].
The model was applied to high pressure (100 MPa) Xe and
Hg arcs in configurations and with operating parameters
similar to those encountered in high pressure arc lamps.
The model describes the region from the anode surface to
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 37. Ion current distribution in front of the anode of different
arc currents; the anode surface is at the right hand border.
(Reprinted from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
150 µm in front of it, and a self-consistent model for the
diffusion fluxes is used [99]. The current density is given
as an independent parameter, simulating different degrees
of constriction; however, the values assumed are quite high
with 107 –108 A m−2 , significantly higher than those observed
in low current arcs at 0.1–1 MPa, and the higher value
exceeding those usually observed in constricted high current
attachments. Electron and heavy species temperature and
density distributions are obtained as well as the potential
distribution. The results indicate a potential drop immediately
in front of the anode and a small peak in electron temperature
values, but closer to the anode surface than those observed at
atmospheric pressures. Since these results have more relevance
to low current arcs, they are discussed more in the review on
HID lamp anodes [96].
5.2. Flow parallel to the anode
Flow parallel to the anode is encountered in many arc
plasma torches, where the axis of the anodic arc is initially
perpendicular to the anode and to the flow (see figure 15).
This configuration has been used for recent experimental
studies [61, 63, 64, 100] of arc/flow interactions and arc
instabilities and these studies also revealed a relatively large
non-equilibrium region of the deflected arc in front of the
anode with relatively high electron densities and electron
temperatures, substantially higher than the equilibrium values.
This type of plasma environment would be advantageous for
plasma processing of materials.
For modelling of the anode region of the arc exposed
to cross flow, it has been assumed that the plasma flow is
three-dimensional (3D), quasi-steady and laminar. A set of
3D governing equations, similar to those described in [43],
has been established, including the species mass conservation
equation, the mass-averaged momentum equations, the
electron and heavy particle energy conservation equations, the
potential equation and the magnetic vector potential equations.
This set of partial differential equations has been solved
23
Topical Review
simultaneously with appropriate boundary conditions. The
following results refer to the operating conditions:
arc current : I = 100 A,
gap between constrictor tube and anode: d = 5 mm,
axial flow superimposed to the arc: Qarc = 5 slpm,
cross flow (cold flow): Qcold =18.0 slpm.
Figure 38 [101] shows the distribution of the heavy particle
temperature (a), of the electron temperature (b), of the number
density of electrons (c) and of the current density (d). All these
diagrams refer to the symmetry plane, i.e. the plane passing
through the axis of the constrictor tube, perpendicular to the
frontal plane of the cross flow injector. The mass flow rate
of the cross flow is kept relatively small in order to avoid arc
instabilities (restrike).
Figure 38(a) shows the isotherms of the heavy particles
and the shape of the deflected arc. There is a drop in the heavy
particle temperature in front of the anode over a boundary layer
of thickness in the order of 1 mm. As a consequence, one
would expect the arc root to be somewhat constricted rather
than diffuse. This seems to be corroborated by figures 38(b)
and (c) which show that high values of electron temperature and
electron densities in front of the anode are confined to rather
small areas, consistent with the current density distribution at
the anode (figure 38(d)). By defining the arc deflection as the
difference of the current density maximum without and with
cross flow, the distance amounts in this case to ∼6.7 mm [101]
in good agreement with experimental observations [61].
Recently, several three-dimensional models have been
developed describing the dynamics of an arc in a plasma torch
with moving anode attachment [102–107]. These models
describe the interaction of the arc with the axial flow quite
realistically; however, they do not describe the details of the
anode attachment. Rather artificial assumptions are made
to allow current transfer to the anode through the cold gas
boundary layer. These models are not discussed in this review.
5.3. Anode heat flux
The total heat flux to the anode is described by
dTe dTh
qa = je φa + qe − ke − kh + ji (Ei − φa ) + QR , (5)
dz dz
where je and ji are the electron and ion current densities, φa
the work function of the anode material, Te and Th and ke and
kh are the electron and heavy particle temperatures and thermal
conductivities, respectively, Ei is the ionization potential of the
gas atom and QR is the radiated energy transfer. qe describes
the transport of energy associated with the electron flux. The
first term on the right-hand side describes the ‘condensation’
energy, i.e. the energy transferred to the anode when electrons
carrying the current are incorporated into the lattice of the
anode material. The third and fourth terms are the heat fluxes
due to the temperature gradients in the electron and heavy
particle gases. The fifth term describes the energy deposited
when ions recombine at the surface; this term is usually small
because the ion current is usually a small fraction of the electron
current. In most cases, the first two terms and the heavy
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Figure 38. Distributions of (a) heavy particle temperatures, (b) electron temperatures, (c) electron densities and (d) current densities in
front of the anode of a partially constricted arc with cold gas flow parallel to the anode; argon, 1 bar, 100 A. (Reprinted from [101] copyright
2005 IEEE.)

particle conduction are considered the most important ones.
The electron energy flux term contains the thermal energy of
the electrons, and the energy gain or loss in the sheath region:


kTe
qe = je 2 + Us (6)
e surface. This term is usually very small. The heavy particle
with Us the voltage drop across the electrical boundary
layer (see figure 2). Two different assumptions have been
made to calculate this term: (a) the electrons continue to be
thermalized in the electrical boundary layer and an electron
temperature according to a MB distribution determines the
electron energy; in this case Us is zero; (b) the electron
energy is composed of a thermal component according to
the temperature at the sheath edge and a non-Maxwellian
component obtained through acceleration/deceleration by the
sheath voltage drop; in this case Us is either positive or
negative). Boundary layer calculations using a continuum
approach indicate that Us should be negative even for a
constricted attachment because of the high diffusion fluxes
[32], but the peak of the potential in front of the anode is
in the order of 0.1–0.5 mm, i.e. many mean free paths, and
thermalization of the energy gain should be assumed. On
the other hand, potential distributions derived from Thomson
scattering measurements neglecting the ion current indicate an
increase in the potential to a position 50 µm from the anode.
In this case, it is unknown what sheath potential should be
assumed.
In the case of strong electron temperature gradients, a
thermodiffusion term should be added:
φTe
je , (7)
σ ji (Ei − φa + Us ).
where φ is the thermal diffusion coefficient and σ the electrical
conductivity.
What concerns the two conduction terms, the electron
conduction accounts for energy transfer by electrons not
incorporated into the metal lattice, i.e. reflected from the
conduction assumes that the atoms and ions equilibrate with
the anode surface. It is not certain that this assumption can
be made because in the case of a constricted attachment the
temperature gradients are so steep that significant changes can
be encountered over one mean free path length, resulting in
temperature slip conditions. In this case, the conduction term
may be replaced by
α(Th − Ta ) (8)
with Th and Ta the heavy particle temperature in the sheath
and the anode temperature, respectively, and α the energy
accommodation coefficient for non-continuum slip conditions.
Because there will be a positive ion current ji , driven to
the anode by the steep ion density gradients and a negative
anode fall, the energy transport due to this flux needs to be
considered. Upon impact on the anode, the positive ions will
neutralize, releasing an energy
ji (Ei − φa ), (9)
where Ei is the ionization potential of the neutral atoms. In the
case of a negative anode fall and temperature slip of the heavy
species, the acceleration of the ions in the sheath region needs
to be considered, and equation (9) needs to be replaced by
(10)

24
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
The last term in equation (5) accounts for radiation from the
plasma transferred to the anode, assuming that the plasma is
optically thin.
In summary, one can use for the calculation of the heat
flux to the anode


kTe φTe
qa = je φa + je 2 + Us + je + α(Th − Ta )
e σ
+ ji (Ei − φa ) + QR (11)
in the case of a positive sheath potential drop (in which case
the ion flux term is very small), or


kTe φTe
qa = je φa + je 2 + je + α(Th − Ta )
e σ
+ ji (Ei − φa + Us ) + QR (12)
in the case of a negative sheath potential drop.
The difference between the constricted and the diffuse
attachment can be described by considering an integral energy
balance of the boundary layer:
ṁh − Qa − Qcon − Qrad + I (Ua + Ecol z) = 0 (13)
with ṁ the plasma gas mass flow rate into the boundary layer,
h the change in gas enthalpy from entering and leaving the
boundary layer, Qa the energy loss to the anode, Qcon the net
conduction loss (axial conduction from the column and radial
loss), Qrad the radiative loss (assuming optically thin radiation)
and the last term indicating the energy dissipation between the
column end and the anode surface, with z the boundary layer
thickness and Ecol the potential gradient in the column (see
figure 2).
In the case of a constricted attachment, an anode jet
directed away from the anode surface will carry energy towards
the column, and the first term in equation (13) is negative. The
other loss terms are increasing to some degree. This energy loss
is compensated by increased dissipation, i.e. a higher electric
field in the constriction region (see figure 2). This increased
electric field results in a voltage drop in the constriction region
which is usually larger than the relatively small voltage drop
immediately in front of the surface which results from the
increased charge transport by diffusion. The total anode fall,
considered to be the sum of the voltage drop in the constriction
region and in the sheath region, is then positive. The increased
energy dissipation in the boundary layer is transferred to the
anode, as verified by experiments [61].
Comparing the different energy transfer terms for the
different attachment modes, we find the following:
(1) energy transfer due to electron condensation is the same
in both cases;
(2) energy transfer due to electron enthalpy flux may be
slightly higher in the case of a constricted attachment
because of higher electron temperatures;
(3) an additional energy transfer exists in the case of
the constricted attachment due to the increased energy
dissipation in the anode region; this increased energy flux
may be associated with an increase in the conduction terms
because of steeper temperature gradients, with an increase
in the enthalpy flux and with an increase in the energy
transport associated with the electron current;
25
Topical Review
(4) in the case of the diffuse attachment there is a strong
convective transport from the arc column into the
anode region; however, this convective transport is
distributed over a wider area, and each individual term in
equation (12) is smaller than in the constricted attachment
case. However, the total heat flux in the case of the diffuse
attachment may be comparable or even larger than in the
case of the constricted attachment;
(5) experiments as well as simulations indicate that for a
diffuse attachment about 50% of the total heat transfer
to the anode is due to the electron flux, and this fraction
is higher in the case of a constricted attachment.
Figure 39 [32] shows the contributions of the various
terms in the anode heat flux equation (equation (12)) to the
anode heat flux. The electron enthalpy makes a significant
contribution to the total anode heat fluxes as shown in figure 39
for a 100 A argon arc operated in the cathode jet dominated
mode with a superimposed flow of ṁ = 0.165 g s−1 [32].
The largest contribution, however, is by electron condensation,
followed by heavy particle conduction. The reason for this
large contribution is, to a large degree, due to the superimposed
flow. The contributions of electron conduction and ion
recombination are almost negligible. The contribution of
radiation is not included in this diagram.
Figure 40 [80] shows the radial distributions of the total
heat flux to the anode for a 200 A argon arc considering both
a diffuse and a constricted arc root. Although the peak heat
flux is almost four times higher for the constricted arc root,
the integrated total heat flow is almost the same for both cases.
Integrity of the anode, however, is determined by the peak heat
fluxes rather than the integrated values. As recently shown by
Terasaki et al [108] melting of the anode in a free-burning arc
is determined by the peak heat flux rather than the total anode
heat transfer.
Figure 41 shows the radial distribution of the total anode
heat flux for a free-burning 200 A argon arc at p = 100 kPa
and an electrode gap of 1.0 cm [80, 87]. Also included in
this diagram is a comparison with experimental data [87]. As
previously mentioned, the arc tends to be non-symmetric for
arc gaps exceeding 0.5 cm.
For this reason, figure 41 shows both the left and
the right side of the measured radial heat flux distribution.
This, however, limits comparisons with analytical predictions.
However, for a diffuse attachment of a 100 A argon arc,
electron heat flux data derived from Thomson scattering
experiments show good agreement with the theoretical
predictions as shown in figure 42 [88]. In these results, the
mass flow towards the anode was assumed to be 0.165 g s−1 in
the model and was 0.446 g s−1 in the experiment. The total heat
transfer to the anode was modelled to be 1310 W and measured
as 1500 W, with the electron flux contribution 735 W [88].
6. Comparison of the anode regions of low and high
intensity arcs
A reduction in arc current usually results in a change in the
arc attachment mode to a constricted attachment, as described
by several investigators, e.g. [30, 69], the change occurring
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
Figure 39. Contributions to the heat flux to the anode surface of a
100 A argon arc with a diffuse anode attachment. (Reprinted
from [32] copyright 1997 IEEE.)
Figure 40. Anode heat flux distribution for a 200 A argon arc with a
diffuse and a constricted attachment. (Reprinted from [32]
copyright 1997 IEEE.)
between 20 and 40 A. This change is likely caused by the
need for increased ionization processes to compensate for the
loss of energy and of electrons to the anode, i.e. increased
energy dissipation. The studies by Mentel and Heberlein
[96] have concentrated on a special case of low current arcs
operated between rod shaped tungsten electrodes where the
anode is sufficiently hot to thermionically emit electrons. This
fact probably contributes to the observed peak in electron
densities in front of the anode surface in these experiments
[96, 109] even though the current densities are similar to those
observed in diffuse attachments of high intensity arcs. Table 4
presents a comparison of electron density and temperature
measurements at different distances from the anode for a low
current arc and a high intensity arc operated under different
conditions.
The data in table 4 were obtained with a model arc
lamp using emission spectroscopy for the low current arcs
[96], and with a wall stabilized arc with a gap in front of
the anode using Thomson scattering for the high intensity
arcs [66]. The attachment mode in the high intensity arcs
was controlled by adjusting the axial gas flow rate towards
the anode. Measurements by other authors show similar
values [30, 65].
26
Topical Review
Figure 41. Comparison of calculated and experimental anode heat
flux distributions; calculated fluxes are from [32], measured data
from [87]. The experimental data show an asymmetric attachment,
and measurements for both sides are shown for comparison.
Figure 42. Radial distributions of the different components for the
anode heat flux, calculated (lines) [32] and derived from Thomson
scattering measurements (symbols) [88].
The following observations can be made:
(1) All low current arcs have an electron temperature
maximum between the column and the anode. This is
in part due to the fact that the anode diameter is smaller
than the arc diameter, resulting in a constricted attachment
which may show a moderate constriction and relatively
low current densities. The cooling of the plasma in front
of the anode at higher anode temperatures can be the
consequence of interactions of the plasma with electrons
which are thermionically emitted and reabsorbed by the
anode. However, this electron temperature maximum is
also apparent for low anode temperatures for low current
and for constricted high intensity arcs. This is in contrast
to high intensity arcs with a diffuse attachment where
there is a monotonic drop in the electron temperature and
density values towards the anode.
(2) The electron temperature values at the arc column increase
only by about 30% for an increase in the current from 5
to 120 A, whereas the electron density values increase by
more than an order of magnitude.
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001 Topical Review

Table 4. Comparison of plasma conditions in front of the anode for high intensity arcs, but estimates indicate that they can be
low current and high intensity arcs and different attachment extremely high, exceeding 109 W m−2 , and comparisons with
modes [66, 96]. The low current arc is operated with a rod shaped
low intensity arcs are no longer meaningful.
tungsten anode of 1.5 mm diameter and 20 mm length.
There are some differences in the approaches for the model
Current Position Te ne formulation for the anode attachment. The major ones are the
(A) from anode (kK) (m−3 ) Condition following:
1 1 mm, column 8 1.45 × 10 21
Constricted
(1) In the low current arcs, the electron flux can be described
1 150 µm, peak Te 12 Constricted
1 50 µm 11.5 4.5 × 10 21
Constricted by an electron saturation current at the sheath edge
5 >1 mm, column 8.5 3 × 1021 Constricted modified by the negative potential drop in the sheath,
5 800 µm, peak Te 11.4 Constricted which is assumed to be always present. In the high
5 400 µm, peak ne 4.3 × 1021 Constricted current arcs, the electron flux is determined by diffusion
5 50 µm 8.5 3.8 × 1021 Constricted (primarily) with an additional drift in the case of a positive
60 2.5 mm, column 11.2 2 × 1022 Diffuse potential drop.
60 50 µm 9 8.5 × 1021 Diffuse (2) The anode fall in the low current arcs is always positive due
120 2.5 mm, column 13.5 4.7 × 1022 Diffuse
120 50 µm 12.4 1.8 × 1022 Diffuse to an increase in the electric field in a constriction region.
100 1.8 mm, ne peak 14.4 6.2 × 1022 Constricted The sheath voltage drop seems to be always negative,
100 50 µm 14.4 3.9 × 1022 Constricted but the magnitude is smaller than the initial increase in
100 50 µm 10.8 1.5–3.3 × 1022 Diffuse the potential. In high intensity arcs, the reported anode
fall values are inconsistent in part because the reference
point at the column end is usually not known. This is
(3) For a constricted attachment there is only a small or even particularly true for negative falls where the potential
no temperature drop between the peak temperature and the gradient shows a monotonic decrease going from the
value at 50 µm for high intensity arcs. The temperature column towards the anode. Considering an electric field
values for high current arcs (100 versus 1 A) are only about in the arc column of 5–10 V cm−1 , this could add an
25% higher, whereas the electron density values at 50 µm uncertainty of 0.5–1 V to the reported data.
from the anode are almost an order of magnitude higher (3) There are some minor differences in the treatment of the
than those in front of low current arc anodes. energy fluxes. The heavy particle energy transfer to the
(4) For a constricted attachment there is a significant electron anode is described in separate terms for the ions and for
density peak between the column and the anode for the the neutrals in the treatment by Mentel and co-workers
high intensity arc. Such an electron density peak in the [96, 109], and the electron conduction term is neglected.
boundary layer is also seen for currents in the 1.5–5 A The power dissipation in the boundary layer is given for
range with hot anodes; however, for the 1 A arc the the low current arc as the product of arc current and
electron densities increase monotonically to the position the potential difference between the column end and the
of 50 µm. anode, and is always positive. For the diffuse attachment
There are also similarities in the current density and power in the high intensity arcs with a monotonically decreasing
flux data. Average current densities for low current arcs potential gradient, this dissipation term can be negative
are between 60 and 130 A cm−2 for currents between 1 and because there is strong convective energy transport into
5 A, compared with current density values between 100 and the boundary layer.
200 A cm−2 for diffuse attachments with currents between 100 The electron condensation term I a is found to be the strongest
and 200 A. It should be noted that these low current arcs contributor to the heat flux in high intensity and low current
are called constricted even though their current densities are arcs. The work function a and with it the heating of the anode
comparable to those of diffuse high intensity arcs because may be reduced by a monolayer of special emitter material,
the power dissipation in the anode boundary layer is largely e.g. of alkali metals. An example is the reduced heating of
transported to the arc column and away from the anode. This the tungsten anode in a high pressure sodium lamp [109]. But
energy transfer is mainly due to convection which results no difference has been found in the heating of anodes made of
from magnetic forces produced according to Maecker by pure and thoriated tungsten in carefully controlled experiments
the increase in current density towards the anode. But in the model lamp [96, 109]. One could hypothesize that
the constricted attachment for high current arcs has current only a small part of the anode surface is covered with a
densities exceeding 500 A cm−2 . Values of several kA cm−2 thorium monolayer so that the average work function remains
are possible for currents of 100–300 A. These values typically rather unchanged. Of interest should be to note that different
lead to anode material evaporation and therefore cannot be materials do have an effect on the plasma in front of the anode
used for a valid comparison. for high intensity arcs as shown by Gleizes et al [33].
The power flux densities are about 1 kW cm−2 for a 3 A Finally, it needs to be emphasized that the self-magnetic
arc, and about 1.5 kW cm−2 in the case of a diffuse attachment pressure increases with the product of current and current
of a 100 A arc, with the total power transferred to the anode density, and fluid dynamic effects induced by magnetic
being 18 W for the 3 A arc and 1500 W for the 100 A arc. There pressure gradients are much stronger with high intensity
are few if any power density measurements for constricted arcs. The consequence is that the transition to a constricted

27
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
attachment mode and the formation of an anode jet appears as
an instability, i.e. as an abrupt transition in the case of high
intensity arcs.
7. Conclusions
The arc anode attachment of high intensity arcs is strongly
affected by the fluid dynamics of the arcing arrangement.
Current and heat flux densities can change by more than a
factor of four for almost identical conditions if the attachment
changes from a diffuse to a constricted one. While results
of electron temperature and density measurements are in
general in agreement in different studies, results of anode fall
measurements differ quite widely. One of the major reasons
is the difficulty of defining a reference point from which to
measure the potential change. As a consequence, positive
and negative values for anode falls have been reported for
similar conditions. However, considering theoretical as well
as experimental results, one may conclude that for diffuse
attachments a potential maximum exists in front of the anode
with a field reversal to control the electron diffusion flux.
If the reference point is the potential extrapolated from the
column to the anode position with a constant potential gradient,
the anode fall is always negative for such an attachment. If the
reference point is the potential at the end of the arc column, the
anode fall can be negative, zero or slightly positive depending
on the boundary layer thickness. However, the location of
this reference point is difficult to determine. In a constricted
attachment, an increase in the potential gradient is present;
however, it is at present uncertain whether over the last mean
free paths a reversal of the gradient takes place, as has been
postulated by simulations using a continuum approach, or
whether the potential keeps increasing throughout the sheath.
Modelling of the anode region has relied on two-
dimensional CFD models coupled to a one-dimensional sheath
model. Recent experimental results have shown that (a)
there are strong radial electron density gradients and diffusion
fluxes resulting in rather complex current density distributions
and a one-dimensional approach may not be always justified.
Furthermore, the steep gradients encountered in a constricted
attachment raise the question if a continuum approach can
be pursued in a region where the plasma properties change
significantly over one mean free path length.
Comparisons with low current arc anode attachments
reveal surprising similarities with regard to plasma properties
and current and heat flux densities. However, it must be
emphasized that these comparisons were made with a low
current arc with a thermionically emitting anode, serving as
a source of electrons and thus avoiding strong constriction.
Little information is available for strongly constricted
anode attachments with significant material evaporation, and
no results are presented in this review. The area of highly
constricted anode attachments is at present poorly understood.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge support from the US National
Science Foundation, Award No CTS-0225962. One of
28
Topical Review
the authors also acknowledges the Alexander v Humboldt
Foundation for granting the Senior Scientist Award during
which this survey was initiated.
The authors acknowledge the permission to reproduce
some figures from the following copy right holders: Institute
of Physics, figures 10, 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 27, 28 and
33; American Institute of Physics, figures 3, 4, 5 and 9; IEEE,
figures 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41; ASM International,
figure 13: Université de Rennes, France, figure 31; Université
de Orleans, France, figure 16; Dr E Leveroni-Calvi,
figures 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26; Dr J Menard, figures 29
and 30.
References
[1] Finkelnburg W and Maecker H 1956 Encyclopedia of Physics
ed S Flügge vol XXII (Berlin: Springer) p 254
[2] Ecker G 1961 Naturwissenschaften 33 1
[3] Guile A E 1971 IEE Proc.118 1131
[4] Pfender E 1978 Electric arcs and arc gas heaters Gaseous
Electronics ed M N Hirsh and H J Oskam (New York:
Academic) pp 291–398
[5] Mitchner M and Kruger C H J 1973 Partially Ionized Gases
(New York: Wiley)
[6] Dresvin S V (ed) 1977 Physics and Technology of
Low-temperature Plasmas (Ames, IA: The Iowa State
University Press)
[7] Boulos, M I, Fauchais P and Pfender E 1994 Thermal Plasmas:
Fundamentals and Applications (New York: Plenum)
[8] Fridman A and Kennedy L A 2004 Plasma Physics and
Engineering (New York: Taylor and Francis)
[9] Dinulescu H A and Pfender E 1980 Analysis of the anode
boundary layer of high intensity arcs J. Appl. Phys.
51 3149–57
[10] Chen D M and Pfender E 1980 Modeling of the anode
contraction region of high intensity arcs IEEE Trans.
Plasma Sci. 8 252–9
[11] Chen D M and Pfender E 1981 Two-temperature modeling of
the anode contraction region of high-intensity arcs IEEE
Trans. Plasma Sci. 9 265–74
[12] Sanders N, Etemadi K, Hsu K C and Pfender E 1982 Studies
of the anode region of a high-intensity argon arc J. Appl.
Phys. 53 4136–45
[13] Sanders N A and Pfender E 1984 Measurement of anode falls
and anode heat transfer in atmospheric pressure high
intensity arcs J. Appl. Phys. 55 714–22
[14] Hsu K C, Etemadi K and Pfender E 1983 Study of the
free-burning high-intensity argon arc J. Appl. Phys.
54 1293–301
[15] Etemadi K and Pfender E 1985 Impact of anode evaporation
on the anode region of a high-intensity argon arc Plasma
Chem. Plasma Process. 5 175–82
[16] Golubovskii Y B, al Hawat S H and Tsendin L D 1987
Electron distribution in the anode region of a low-current
discharge in neon Sov. Phys.—Tech. Phys. 32 760–3
[17] Zhukov M F, An’shakov A S, Vashchenko S P,
Dandaron G N B and Zayatuyev K 1987 Formation of
contracted anode spot in generators of low-temperature
plasma Sov. J. Appl. Phys. 1 71–6
[18] Westhoff R and Szekely J 1991 A model of fluid, heat flow,
and electromagnetic phenomena in a nontransferred arc
plasma torch J. Appl. Phys. 70 3455–66
[19] Ushio M, Sadek A A and Matsuda F 1991 Comparison of
temperature and work function measurements obtained with
different GTA electrodes Plasma Chem. Plasma Process.
11 81–101
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
[20] Cappelli M A 1993 The nonequilibrium region of an electrode
in contact with a flowing thermal plasma IEEE Trans.
Plasma Sci. 21 1–6
[21] Meeks E and Cappelli M A 1993 Two-temperature fluid model
for high-pressure plasmas in contact with cooled electrodes
J. Appl. Phys. 73 3172–82
[22] Lefort A, Parizet M J, El-Fassi S E and Abbaoui M 1993
Erosion of graphite electrodes J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
26 1239–43
[23] Sadek A A, Ushio M and Matsuda F 1990 Effect of rare earth
metal oxide additions to tungsten electrodes Metall. Trans.
A 21 3221–6
[24] Ushio M, Fan D, and Tanaka M 1993 Contribution of arc
plasma radiation energy to electrodes Trans. JWRI 22
201–7
[25] Razafinimanana M, Hamidi L E, Gleizes A, and Vacquié 1995
Experimental study of the influence of anode ablation on
the characteristics of an argon transferred arc Plasma
Sources Sci. Technol. 4 501–10
[26] Tanaka M, Tanaka K, and Ushio M 1996 Calculating the
temperature of electrodes in gas-tungsten-arcs Trans. JWRI
25 9–15
[27] Ushio M, Ikeuchi K, Tanaka M and Tsuyoshi H 1996 Plasma
sintering of new carbide electrodes Trans. JWRI 25 17–23
[28] Ushio M, Tanaka M and Wu C S 1996 Analytical approach to
anode boundary layer of gas tungsten arcs Trans. JWRI 25
9–21
[29] Salihou H, Guillot J P, Abbaoui M and Lefort A 1996 Anode
parameters of short arcs at low current J. Phys. D: Appl.
Phys. 29 2915–21
[30] Dyuzhev G A, Mitrofanov N K and Shkol’nik S M 1997
Experimental investigation of the anode region of a
free-burning atmospheric-pressure inert-gas arc: I. General
characteristics of the discharge. Low-current regime Tech.
Phys. 42 30–4
[31] Baksht F G, Dyuzhev G A, Mitrofanov N K and
Shkol’nik S M 1997 Experimental investigation of the
anode region of a free-burning atmospheric pressure inert
gas arc: II. Intermediate current regime—multiple anode
constriction Tech. Phys. 42 30
[32] Jenista J, Heberlein J V R and Pfender E 1997 Numerical
model of the anode region of high-current electric arcs
IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 25 883–90
[33] Gleizes A, Bouaziz M, Gonzalez J J and Razafinimanana M
1997 Influence of the anode material on an argon arc IEEE
Trans. Plasma Sci. 25 891–6
[34] Bauchire J M, Gonzalez J J and Gleizes A 1997 Modeling of a
dc plasma torch in laminar and turbulent flow Plasma
Chem. Plasma Process. 17 409–32
[35] Amakawa T, Jenista J, Heberlein J and Pfender E 1998
Anode-boundary-layer behaviour in a transferred,
high-intensity arc J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
31 2826–34
[36] Tanaka M and Ushio M 1999 Observations of the anode
boundary layer in free-burning argon arcs J. Phys. D: Appl.
Phys. 32 906–12
[37] Tanaka M and Ushio M 1999 Plasma state in free-burning
argon arc and its effect on anode heat transfer J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. 32 1153–62
[38] Tanaka M, Ushio M and Wu C S 1999 One-dimensional
analysis of the anode boundary layer in free-burning argon
arcs J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 32 605–11
[39] Addona T, Proulx P and Munz R J 2000 Mathematical
modeling of silica anode decomposition Plasma Chem.
Plasma Process. 20 521–53
[40] Maruzewski P, Martin A, Reggio M and Trépanier J Y 2002
Simulation of arc–electrode interaction using sheath
modelling in SF6 circuit-breakers J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
35 891–905
29
Topical Review
[41] Gonzalez J J, Freton P and Gleizes A 2002 Comparisons
between two- and three-dimensional models: gas injection
and arc attachement J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 35 3181–91
[42] Li H P and Chen X 2001 Three-dimensional modelling of a dc
non-transferred arc plasma torch J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
34 L99–L102
[43] Li H P, Pfender E and Chen X 2003 Application of
Steenbeck’s minimum principle for three-dimensional
modelling of dc arc plasma torches J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
36 1084–96
[44] Nemchinsky V A and Peretts L N 1977 Anode sheath in a
high-pressure, high-current arc Sov. Phys.—Tech. Phys. 22
1083–7
[45] Bez W and Höcker K H 1954 Theorie des Anodenfalls I
Z. Naturf. a 9 72–81
[46] Höcker K H and Bez W 1955 Theorie des Anodenfalls II
Z. Naturf. a 10 706–14
[47] Bez W and Höcker K H 1955 Theorie des Anodenfalls III
Z. Naturf. a 10 714–17
[48] Maecker H 1955 Plasmaströmungen in Lichtbögen infolge
eigenmagnetischer Kompression Z. Phys. 141 198–216
[49] Hermoch V 1963 The anode space of short-time high-intensity
electric discharges Czech. J. Phys. B 13 327–34
[50] Hermoch V 1963 On the formation of the anode space of a
short-time high-intensity electric discharge Czech. J. Phys.
B 13 321–6
[51] Hartmann R M and Heberlein J V 2001 Quantitative
investigations on arc–anode attachments in transferred arcs
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 34 2972–8
[52] Wutzke S A, Pfender E and Eckert E R G 1967 Study of
electric-arc behavior with superimposed flow AIAA J. 5
707–14
[53] Wutzke S A, Pfender E and Eckert E R G 1968 Symptomatic
behavior of an electric arc with a superimposed flow AIAA
J. 6 1474–82
[54] Paik S, Huang P C, Heberlein J and Pfender E 1993
Determination of the arc-root position in a dc plasma torch
Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 13 379–97
[55] Coudert J F, Planche M P and Fauchais P 1994 Anode–arc
attachment instabilities in a spray plasma torch High Temp.
Chem. Processes 3 639–51
[56] Duan Z, Wittmann K, Coudert J F, Heberlein J and Fauchais P
1999 Effects of the cold gas boundary layer on arc
fluctuations Proc. 14th Int. Symp. on Plasma Chemistry
(Prague, Czech Republic) ed M Hrabovsk’y et al (Prague:
Institute of Plasma Physics, CAS) pp 233–8
[57] Duan Z and Heberlein J 2002 Arc instabilities in a plasma
spray torch J. Thermal Spray Technol. 11 44–51
[58] Inaba T, Oi H, Ito A and Endo M 1997 A trial calculation of
young’s modulus of Ar torch-plasma for air cross-wind
comparing with measured values Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on
Gas Discharges and their Applications (Greifswald,
Germany) ed G Babucke (Greifswald: Institute of Low
Temperature Plasma Physics) pp 115–18
[59] Tanaka S I, Ito A, Kameda T, Iwao T, Inaba T and Miyashita Y
2000 Voltage gradient of torch plasma forced with
high-speed cross wind Proc. 13th Int. Conf. on Gas
Discharges and their Applications (Glasgow, UK)
ed I D Chalmers (Glasgow: University of Strathclyde)
pp 605–8
[60] Hartmann R M and Heberlein J V 2001 Experimental
investigation of anodic arc attachment instabilities Proc.
15th Int. Symp. on Plasma Chemistry (Orleans, France)
ed A Bouchoule et al (Orleans: GREMI, CNRS, University
of Orleans) pp 497–502
[61] Iwao T, Cronin P, Bendix D and Heberlein J V R 2005 Anode
attachment stability and anode heat transfer for
high-intensity arcs with lateral gas flow IEEE Trans.
Plasma Sci. 33 1123–8
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
[62] Cronin P 2004 Investigation in the anode boundary layer of a
high intensity arc MS Thesis Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Minnesota
[63] Yang G, Cronin P, Heberlein J and Pfender E 2006
Experimental investigations of the anode boundary layer in
high intensity arcs with cross flow J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
39 2764–74
[64] Yang G and Heberlein J 2007 The anode region of high
intensity arcs with cold cross flow J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
40 5649–62
[65] Heberlein J V and Pfender E 1977 Investigation of the anode
boundary layer of an atmospheric pressure argon arc IEEE
Trans. Plasma Sci. PS-5 171–80
[66] Yang G and Heberlein J 2007 Anode attachment modes and
their formation in a high intensity argon arc Plasma Sources
Sci. Technol. 16 529–42
[67] Haidar J 1997 Departures from local thermodynamic
equilibrium in high-current free burning arcs in argon J.
Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 30 2737–43
[68] Leveroni-Calvi E 1990 Electric probe measurements in the
boundary layer of thermal arcs: theory and experiments
PhD Thesis University of Minnesota
[69] Busz-Peuckert G and Finkelnburg W 1955 Die Abhängigkeit
des Anodenfalles von Stromstärke und Bogenlänge bei
Hochtemperaturbögen Z. Phys. 140 540–6
[70] Busz-Peuckert G and Finkelnburg W 1956 Zum
Anodenmechanismus des thermischen Argonbogens Z.
Phys. 144 244–51
[71] Schoeck P and Eckert E R G 1961 An investigation of anode
heat transfer in high intensity arcs Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on
Ionization Phenomena in Gases (Munich, Germany)
(Amsterdam: North-Holland) pp 1812–29
[72] Schoeck P and Maisenhälder F 1966 Zur Druckabhängigkeit
der Anodenfallspannung Beiträge Plasmaphys. 5/66
345–64
[73] Hemmi R, Yokomizu Y and Matsumura T 2003 Anode-fall
and cathode-fall voltages of air arc in atmosphere between
silver electrodes J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
36 1097–106
[74] Dickson D J and von Engel A 1967 Resolving the electrode
fall spaces of electric arcs Proc. R. Soc. 300 319–25
[75] Oberth R C and Jahn R G 1972 Anode phenomena in
high-current accelerators AIAA J. 10 86
[76] Leveroni E and Pfender E 1991 Investigation of the anode
boundary layer of free-burning high intensity arcs Proc.
Welding and Joining Processes, ASME Winter Annual Mtg
(Atlanta, GA)
[77] Yang G and Heberlein J 2007 Instabilities in the anode region
of atmospheric pressure arc plasmas Plasma Sources Sci.
Technol. 16 765–72
[78] Sanders N A 1979 The effect of anode evaporation on the
behavior of a high intensity arc MS Thesis University of
Minnesota
[79] Pfender E 1999 Thermal plasma technology: where do we
stand and where are we going? Plasma Chem. Plasma
Process. 19 1–31
[80] Jenista J, Heberlein J and Pfender E 1996 Model for anode
heat transfer from an electric arc Proc. 4th Int. Thermal
Plasma Processes Conf. (Athens, Greece) ed P Fauchais
(New York: Begell House, Inc.) pp 805–13
[81] Nestor O H 1962 Heat intensity and current density
distributions at the anode of high current, inert gas arcs J.
Appl. Phys. 33 1638–48
[82] Eberhart R C and Seban R A 1966 The energy balance for a
high current argon arc Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
9 939–40
[83] Lawton J and Mayo P J 1972 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 5 79
[84] Bulanyi P F and Polyakoo S P 1981 High Temp. 19 351
[85] Tsai N S and Eager T W 1985 Metall. Trans. B 16 841
30
Topical Review
[86] Nagashima K T, Watanabe T, Honda T and Kanzawa A 1988
Fluid dynamic control of heat transfer to transferred arc
anode Proc. Japanese Symp. on Plasma Chemistry (Tokyo,
Japan) ed T Goto (Nagoya: Nagoya University) p 221–6
[87] Menart J A 1996 Theoretical and experimental investigations
of radiative and total heat transfer in thermal plasmas PhD
Thesis Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Minnesota
[88] Yang G and Heberlein J 2008 Anode heat transfer by electron
current and electron conduction in an atmospheric pressure
argon arc Proc. Int. Conf. on Electrical Contacts (Saint
Malo, France) ed N B Jemaa (Rennes, France: Université
de Rennes) pp 313–16
[89] Morrow R and Lowke J J 1993 A one-dimensional theory for
the electrode sheaths of electric arcs J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
26 634–42
[90] Lowke J J, Morrow R and Haidar J 1997 A simplified unified
theory of arcs and their elctrodes J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
30 2033–42
[91] Lowke J J. and Quartel J C 1997 Use of transport coefficients
to calculate properties of electrode sheaths of electric arcs
Aust. J. Phys. 50 539–52
[92] Lago F, Gonzalez J J, Freton P and Gleizes A 2004 A
numerical modelling of an electric arc and its interaction
with the anode: I. The two-dimensional model J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. 37 883–97
[93] Chen D M, Hsu K C and Pfender E 1981 Two-temperature
modeling of an arc plasma reactor Plasma Chem. Plasma
Process. 1 295–314
[94] Hsu K C and Pfender E 1983 Analysis of the cathode region of
a free-burning high intensity argon arc J. Appl. Phys.
54 3818–24
[95] Nemchinsky V A 1994 Plasma parameters near a small anode
in a high-pressure arc (gas metal arc welding) J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. 27 2515–21
[96] Mentel J and Heberlein J 2010 The anode region of low
current arcs in high intensity discharge lamps J. Phys. D:
Appl. Phys. 43 023002 (this issue)
[97] Benilov M S 2008 Understanding and modeling
plasma–electrode interaction in high pressure arc
discharges: a review J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 41 144001
[98] Almeida N A, Benilov M S, Hechtfischer U and Naidis G V
2009 Investigating near-anode plasma layers of very
high-pressure arc discharges J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
42 045210
[99] Rat V, Murphy A B, Aubreton J, Elchinger M F and
Fauchais P 2008 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 41 183001
[100] Iwao T, Cronin P, Bendix D and Heberlein J 2003 Anode
attachment stability and anode heat fluxes for high intensity
arcs with argon and nitrogen gas flow parallel to the anode
Proc. 16th Int. Symp. on Plasma Chemistry (Taormina,
Italy) (Bari, Italy: University of Bari) ed R d’Agostino et al
unpaginated CD
[101] Li H-P, Heberlein J and Pfender E 2005 Three-dimensional,
non-equilibrium effects in a high-intensity blown arc IEEE
Trans. Plasma Sci. 33 402–3
[102] Baudry C, Vardelle A and Mariaux G 2005 Numerical
modeling of a dc non-transferred plasma torch: movement
of the arc anode attachment and resulting anode erosion
High Temp. Mater. Process. 9 1–18
[103] Colombo V and Ghedini E 2005 Time dependent 3-D
simulation of a non-transferred arc plasma torch: anode
attachment and downstream region effects Proc. 17th Int.
Symp. on Plasma Chemistry (Toronto, Canada)
ed J Mostaghimi et al (Toronto: University of Toronto)
unpaginated CD
[104] Trelles J P, Pfender E and Heberlein J 2006 Multiscale finite
element modeling of arc dynamics in a DC plasma torch
Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 26 557–75
J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 43 (2010) 023001
[105] Trelles J P, Heberlein J V R and Pfender E 2007
Non-equilibrium modeling of arc plasma torches J. Phys.
D: Appl. Phys. 40 5937–52
[106] Chazelas C, Moreau E, Mariaux G and Vardelle A 2006
Numerical modeling of arc behavior in a dc plasma torch
High Temp. Mater. Process. 10 393–406
[107] Moreau E, Chazelas C, Mariaux G and Vardelle A 2006
Modeling of the restrike mode operation of a dc
plasma spray torch J. Thermal Spray Technol. 15 524–30
31
Topical Review
[108] Terasaki A, Tanaka M and Ushio M 2003 Effects
of anode heat transfer on weld penetration in
gas tungsten arc welding Trans. JWRI 32
29–31
[109] Redwitz M, Dabringhausen L, Lichtenberg S,
Langenscheidt O, Heberlein J and Mentel J 2006
Arc attachment at HID anodes: measurements
and interpretation J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys.
39 2160–79