The Rubik’s Cube, ¿Magic or Science?

Diana Leticia Rincón Delgado

drincond1@ucentral.edu.co
April 30, 2020

Abstract
A formalism of all the mathematics behind the Rubik’s cube is made, characterizing by means of
theorems a part of the mathematical structure of the cube in articles and documents.

1 Introduction
A study of the results or theorems about permutations is made, theorems as the first fundamental
theorem of cube theory, which indicates the notation to be used to mention the cube such as face
and sticker notation .
On the other hand, a study is made on a general algorithm, that is, an algorithm that only de-
scribes mathematically by means of theorems the reorganization of vertices and edges.
Finally, the second fundamental theorem of cube theory is mentioned, which indicates the congru-
ences between vertices and on the other hand the congruences between edges.

2 Methodology
1. A theoretical structure is made, giving some definitions, and important theorems of Group
theory
2. A formalism on Cube theory is described, with theorems and Lemmas on the cube
3. A practice is carried out implementing the formalism in the cube.

3 Theory
1. Definición: Let mathcalG be a set, mathcalG is said to be a textbf group if it is endowed
by an * operation and meets the following conditions:
• a ∗ e = a and e ? a = a
• a ∗ b = e and b ? a = e
• a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a starb) ? c
• For any a, b inG, a ∗ b inG
2. Definition: If X is a non-empty set, a permutation of X is a bijection α : X → X. The
group of permutations of X by SX will be denoted Notice that |Sn | = n!
3. Properties of permutations:
• For any set A, two permutations in S(A) are called disjunct when each element of A is
a fixed point of one or the other of them.
• A cycle in S(A) is a permutation that fixes all the elements.

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 • A cycle in S(A) is a permutation that leaves all elements fixed except in a certain list
a1 , ..., ak , sends ai in ai+1 for 1 leqi < k and send ak in a1 .
• When k = 2, the cycle is called transposition.
4. Theorem: Each permutation alpha inSn is either a cycle or a product of disjoint cycles.
Demonstration: We will first prove the existence of decomposition and then its uniqueness.
Be
 
1 2 ... n
σ=
a1 a2 ... an
an arbitrary permutation of Sn . If σ = 1, that’s it.
Suppose σ 6= 1, and let b be a number such that σ(b) 6= b. Then σ 2 (b), σ 3 (b), ... is constructed
until b is obtained after, say, i + 1 steps. So the cycle

(b σ(b) σ 2 (b) ... hspace2mmσ i (b))

describes part of the permutation σ. If the rest of the permutation does not contain numbers
or consists of numbers that remain invariant, the result has been demonstrated, since σ is,
then, a cycle. Otherwise, the previous procedure is repeated with that remainder and so on.
After a finite number of steps there is decomposition.
As for uniqueness, let’s note that two disjoint cycles commute. Let’s suppose

σ = σp ...σ2 .σ1 = τq ...τ2 .τ1

they were two decompositions of σ as a product of disjoint cycles. Let a1 be a number that
does not remain invariant by σ. It is evident that a1 must be in a cycle and only one of the
{σp , ..., σ2 , σ1 }, and in one and only one of the {τq , ..., τ2 , τ1 }. By commutativity it can be
assumed that a1 is in σ1 and in τ1 . Since the numbers that appear in σ1 remain invariant
for the rest of the σi cycles, the element a1 must be transformed into the same element a2
by σ1 and by τ1 .
For the same reason, a2 must be transformed into the same element a3 by means of σ1 and
τ1 , and so on. This proves that σ1 = τ1 . Repeating this reasoning, it follows that p = q and
the cycles σi are equal to τi 
5. Theorem: Every permutation α ∈ Sn is a product of transpositions.
Demonstration:By the previous theorem, it is enough to prove that every cycle of Sn can
be decomposed as a product of transpositions. Let σ = (a1 a2 ...am ). It’s clear that

sigma = (a1 a2 ...am ) = (a1 am )...(a1 a3 )(a1 a2 )


6. FIRST FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CUBE THEORY
Theorem: Starting with a solved cube, rotate the following facets with a ” + ”:

• The U facet of the edge subcube uf .

• The U facet of the edge subcube ur.
• The F facet of the edge subcube f r.
• All the facets that can be obtained from these by means of a movement of the cutting
group.

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7. NOTATION:

Figure 1: Notación por pegatina

Figure 2: Notación por cara

Let G = hR, L, U, D, F, Bi be the group of the Rubik’s cube 3 × 3 and let H be the expanded
group of G, that is, H = hGi + all legal movements, that is, movements where disarming and
re-arming are allowed.

• Let V be the set of vertexes of the cube which are identified with the set of corner
sub-cubes of the Rubik’s cube. And either

ρ : H → Sr

Like the homomorphism that associates to each movement of the Rubik’s cube the
permutation of the corresponding vertices.
• Let E be the edge set which is identified with the subcube set of the Rubik’s cube. And
either

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 σ : H → SE

Like the homomorphism that associates to each movement of the Rubik’s cube the
corresponding permutation of the edges.

4 Practice:
1. CORNER ORIENTATION
Let v : H → C38 be a function that associates each movement g ∈ H with the corresponding
corner orientations.
That is, take g ∈ H where g moves corner i to corner j. So vi (g) ∈ C3 is the orientation to
which g sends the i − th vertex.
Note that a g ∈ H move has two main corner effects:
• A permutation ρ(g) ∈ Sv of the vertices. (f igure1)
• A reorientation of vertices moved by (a). (f igure2)

Figure 3: Vertex Rotation

Figure 4: Vertices Orientation

In particular for g, h ∈ H, the orientation ~v (gh) can only change from v(g) in the coordinates
corresponding to the vertices permuted by h .
If we now look at the "relative" orientation ~v (gh) − ~v (g) it is the same orientation of ~v (h), if
the effect of is counted g in the vertex we have:

~v (h) = ρ(g) (~v (gh) − ~v (g))

Hence, there is an important motto:

2. Lemma:
~v (gh) = ~v (g) + ρ(g)−1 (~v (h))

Demonstration: The movement gh orients the subcube of the corner of the corner ith by
means of vi (gh) and swaps the vertices by means of ρ(gh), that is given by definition.
On the other hand, gh acts first for g and then for h.

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 • The movement g redirects the subcube, from the i − th corner by vi (g) and sends the
vertex i.th to the ρ(g)(i − th) vertex.
Now to see the following effect of h subtract ~v (g) from ~v (gh). We will call this position
the modified cube
• Movement h redirects the subcube in the corner j of the modified cube by means of
vj (h) and permutes it to vertex ρ(h)(j).
The i − th subcube of the modified cube comes (via g) from the ρ(g)−1 (i − th) subcube
of the original cube.
Therefore, the subcube of the i of the modified cube is reoriented, by means of h, by
vρ(g)−1(i) (h).
Now we add vi (g) to get the total effect of gh on the i − th vertex of the original cube.

vi (gh) = vi (g) + vρ(g)−1 (i) (h)

For every 1 ≤ i ≤ 8

3. EDGE ORIENTATION
Let ω : H → C212 be the function that associates to each movement g ∈ H the orientations of
the corresponding corners.
That is, let g ∈ H where g moves corner i to corner j. So ωi (g) ∈ C2 is the orientation to
which g sends the i − th vertex.
Note that a g ∈ H move has two border effects:

• A permutation σ(g) ∈ SE of the edges. (f igure3)

• A reorientation of the edges that were moved by (a). (f igure4)

Figure 5: Rotación de Bordes

Figure 6: Orientación de Bordes

For g, h ∈ H, the orientation ω

~ (gh) can only change from ω
~ (g) at the coordinates correspond-
ing to the permuted edges for h.
Now we have similarly that the proof of the previous Lemma that:

ω ~ (g) + σ(g)−1 (~
~ (gh) = ω ω (h))

i.e.

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 ω
~ i (gh) = ωi (g) + ωσ(g)−1 (i) (h)

For each 1 leqi leq12

4. SECOND FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CUBE THEORY
For each g ∈ G with a tuple of 4

(~v (g), ρ(g), ω

~ (g), σ(g))

Where

• ρ(g) is the corresponding permutation of the set of vertices V of the cube.

• σ(g) is the corresponding permutation of the set of edges E of the cube.
• v(g), ω(g) they are orientations defined above.

THEOREM: A tuple of 4, (v, r, ω, s) as defined before (r ∈ S8 , s ∈ S8 , v ∈ C212 ) Rubik’s

cube position if and only if,

(a) sgn(r) = sgn(s) (Equality parity as permutations)

(b) v1 + · · · + v8 ≡ 0(mod3) (Conservation of total turns)
(c) ω1 + · · · + ω12 ≡ 0(mod2) (Conservation of total turns)

DEMONSTRATION: Suppose (v, r, ω, s) ∈ SV × SE × C38 × C212 represents a (legally

obtained) position of the Rubik’s cube.
Let g ∈ G be the element that moves the Rubik’s cube from the initial (solved) position to
the position associated with the 4-tuple. So r = ρ(g) and s = σ(g).
g can be written in the basic movements R, L, U, D, F, B, that is, g = X1 ...Xk , where each
Xi is equal to one of the R, L, U, D, F, B, note that if X is any basic move, then sgn(ρ(X)) =
sgn(σ(X)). How sgn, ρ and σ they are homomorphisms, it follows that:

(a)

sgn(r) =sgn(ρ(g))
k
Y
= sgn(ρ(Xi ))
i=1
k
Y
= sgn(σ(Xi ))
i=1
=sgn(σ(X))
=sgn(s)

(b) The condition of torsion conversions
in (b) is true for v1 , ..., v8 if and only if for any
permutation P (p)(v) = v(1)p , ..., v(8p)
If (v1 , ..., v8 ) y (v10 , ..., v80 ) each satisfies the turn talk condition at (b), then the sum is
satisfied.
(c) To demonstrate (c), it is done analogously to (b)

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5 Conclusions / Scopes
• A theoretical framework landed in the cube was defined for its implementation and practice.
• Some proofs of theorems and lemmas of cube theory were made.
• A better understanding of the mathematical analysis behind the cube was achieved.

6 References
References
[1] Chen, Janet. ”Group Theory and the Rubik’s Cube.”
[2] The Mathematics of the Rubik’s Cube,Introduction to Group Theory and Permutation Puzzles

[3] Alex Wein, Mathematics of the Rubik’s Cube

[4] Ramón E. Romero, The mathematics of Rubik’s cube
[5] R. Michael Porter, El álgebra del cubo de Rubik
[6] W.D.Joyner, Mathematics of the Rubik’s cube