FINAL TERM PROJECT

SUBJECT: AIR CARGO

SUBMITED BY:
1. AHMAHD MUGHAL 042
2. FAHEEM HASSAN 003
3. NOMAN 017
4. AKASH 044

SUBMITED TO:
SIR SUHAIL FAROOQ
1. Write down the Effects of Improper Loading on Aircraft, also mention some
aircraft incident of happened due to improper loading.
Effects of Weight:
Any item aboard an aircraft that increases the total weight is undesirable for performance.
Manufacturers attempt to make an aircraft as light as possible without sacrificing strength or
safety.
The pilot should always be aware of the consequences of overloading. An overloaded aircraft
may not be able to leave the ground, or if it does become airborne, it may exhibit unexpected and
unusually poor flight characteristics. If not properly loaded, the initial indication of poor
performance usually takes place during takeoff.
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance in almost every respect. For example, the most
important performance deficiencies of an overloaded aircraft are:
• Higher takeoff speed
• Longer takeoff run
• Reduced rate and angle of climb
• Lower maximum altitude
• Shorter range
• Reduced cruising speed
• Reduced maneuverability
• Higher stalling speed
• Higher approach and landing speed
• Longer landing roll
• Excessive weight on the nose wheel or tail wheel
Weight Changes
The operating weight of an aircraft can be changed by simply altering the fuel load. Gasoline has
considerable weight—6 pounds per gallon. Thirty gallons of fuel may weigh more than one
passenger. If a pilot lowers airplane weight by reducing fuel, the resulting decrease in the range
of the airplane must be taken into consideration during flight planning.
During flight, fuel burn is normally the only weight change that takes place. As fuel is used, an
aircraft becomes lighter and performance is improved.
Changes of fixed equipment have a major effect upon the weight of an aircraft. The installation
of extra radios or instruments, as well as repairs or modifications, may also affect the weight of
an aircraft.
Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity
Balance refers to the location of the CG of an
Aircraft, and is important to stability and safety in flight. The CG is a point at which the aircraft
would balance if it were suspended at that point.
The primary concern in balancing an aircraft is the fore and aft location of the CG along the
longitudinal axis. The CG is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on the distribution
of weight in the aircraft. As variable load items are shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift
in CG location. The distance between the forward and back limits for the position of the center
for gravity or CG range is certified for an aircraft by the manufacturer. The pilot should realize
that if the CG is displaced too far forward on the longitudinal axis, a nose-heavy condition will
result. Conversely, if the CG is displaced too far aft on the longitudinal axis, a tail heavy
condition results. It is possible that the pilot could not control the aircraft if the CG location
produced an unstable condition
Effects of Adverse Balance
Adverse balance conditions affect flight characteristics in much
The same manner as those mentioned for an excess weight condition. It is vital to comply with
weight and balance limits established for all aircraft. Operating above the maximum weight
limitation compromises the structural integrity of the aircraft and can adversely affect
performance. Stability and control are also affected by improper balance
Stability
Loading in a nose-heavy condition causes problems in controlling and raising the nose,
especially during takeoff and landing. Loading in a tail heavy condition has a serious effect upon
longitudinal stability, and reduces the capability to recover from stalls and spins. Tail heavy
loading also produces very light control forces, another undesirable characteristic. This makes it
easy for the pilot to inadvertently overstress an aircraft.
Stability and Center of Gravity Limits for the location of the CG are established by the

Manufacturer. These are the fore and aft limits beyond which the CG should not be located for
flight. These limits are published for each aircraft in the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS), or
aircraft specification and the AFM or pilot’s operating handbook (POH). If the CG is not within
the allowable limits after loading, it will be necessary to relocate some items before flight is
attempted.
Control
In extreme cases, a CG location that is beyond the forward limit may result in nose heaviness,
making it difficult or impossible to flare for landing. Manufacturers purposely place the forward
CG limit as far rearward as possible to aid pilots in avoiding damage when landing. In addition
to decreased static and dynamic longitudinal stability, other undesirable effects caused by a CG
location aft of the allowable range may include extreme control difficulty, violent stall
characteristics, and very light control forces which make it easy to overstress an aircraft
inadvertently. A restricted forward CG limit is also specified to assure that sufficient
elevator/control deflection is available at minimum airspeed. When structural limitations do not
limit the forward CG position, it is located at the position where full-up elevator/control
deflection is required to obtain a high AOA for landing. The aft CG limit is the most rearward
position at which the CG can be located for the most critical maneuver or operation. As the CG
moves aft, a less stable condition occurs, which decreases the ability of the aircraft to right itself
after maneuvering or turbulence
Accidents and Incidents
Aircraft Loading:
The following events listed on SKY bray are related to Cargo
● A333, Sydney Australia, 2017 (On 17 December 2017, it was discovered after
completion of an Airbus A330-300 passenger flight from Sydney to Beijing that freight loading
had not been correctly documented on the load and trim sheet presented to and accepted by the
Captain and as a result, the aircraft had exceeded its certified MTOW on departure. The
Investigation found that the overload finding had not been promptly reported or its safety
significance appreciated, that the error had its origin in related verbal communications during
loading and noted that the aircraft operator had since made a series of improvements to its freight
loading procedures.)
● AT43, Madang Papua New Guinea, 2013 (On 19 October 2013, an ATR42 freighter
departing Madang had to reject its takeoff when it was impossible to rotate and it ended up semi-
submerged in a shallow creek beyond the airfield perimeter. The Investigation found that loading
had been contrary to instructions and the aircraft had a center of gravity outside the permitted
range and was overweight. This was attributed to the aircraft operator’s lack of adequate
procedures for acceptance and loading of cargo. A lack of appreciation by all parties of the need
to effectively mitigate runway overrun risk in the absence of a RESA was also highlighted.)
● B748, Prestwick UK, 2017 (On 30 March 2017, a significant amount of fuel was found to
be escaping from a Boeing 747-8F as soon as it arrived on stand after landing at Prestwick and
the fire service attended to contain the spill and manage the associated risk of fire and
● Explosion. The Investigation found that the fuel had come from a Bell 412 helicopter that
was part of the main deck cargo and that this had been certified as drained of fuel when it was
not. The shipper’s procedures, in particular in respect of their agents in the matter, were found to
be deficient.)
2. What is packaging and list down the packaging requirements of each DGR CLASS?
Packages must be constructed and closed in a manner that prevents any loss of contents.
Packages must be closed according to the manufacturer's specifications.
No dangerous residue can be on the outside of the package. The package, including absorbents
and cushioning material, must be compatible with its contents.

Dangerous Goods Regulations

PACKING INSTRUCTION 650 (continued)
Specific Requirements
Refrigerated or frozen specimens: Ice, dry ice and liquid nitrogen:
● When dry ice or liquid nitrogen is used to keep specimens cold, all applicable
requirements of these Regulations must
Be met. When used, ice or dry ice must be placed outside the secondary packaging’s or in the
outer packaging or an
Over pack. Interior supports must be provided to secure the secondary packaging's in the original
position after the ice
Or dry ice has dissipated. If ice is used, the outside packaging or over pack must be leak-proof.
If dry ice is used, the
Packaging must be designed and constructed to permit the release of carbon dioxide gas to
prevent a build-up of
Pressure that could rupture the packaging
● The primary receptacle and the secondary packaging must maintain their integrity at the
temperature of the
Refrigerant used as well as the temperatures and the pressures, which could result if refrigeration
were to be lost.
Infectious substances assigned to UN 3373 which are packed and marked in accordance with this
packing instruction are
Not subject to any other requirement of these Regulations except for the following:
(a) The name and address of the shipper and of the consignee must be provided on each
Package; 5 (b) the name and telephone number of a person responsible must be provided on the
air waybill or on the package;
(c) The classification must be in accordance to 3.6.2;
650 (d) the incident reporting requirements in 9.6.1 and 9.6.2 must be met; and to (e) the
inspection for damage or leakage requirements in 9.4.1 and 9.4.2.
651 Note:
When the shipper or consignee is also the ‘person responsible’ as referred to in b) above, the
name and address need be
Marked only once in order to satisfy the name and address marking provisions in both a) and b),
above.
Passengers and crew members are prohibited from transporting infectious substances as or in
carry-on baggage, checked
Baggage or on their person.
If an Air Waybill is used, the “Nature and Quantity of Goods” box must show “UN 3373”, the
text “BIOLOGICAL
SUBSTANCE, CATEGORY B” and the number of packages (unless these are the only packages
within the consignment).
Clear instructions on filling and closing such packages must be provided by packaging
manufacturers and subsequent
Distributors to the shipper or to the person who prepares the package (e.g. patient) to enable the
package to be correctly
Prepared for transport.
Other dangerous goods must not be packed in the same packaging as Division 6.2 Infectious
Substances unless they are
Necessary for maintaining the viability, stabilizing or preventing degradation or neutralizing the
hazards of the infectious
Substances. A quantity of 30 mL or less of dangerous goods included in Classes 3, 8 or 9
permitted as accepted
Quantities under 2.6 may be packed in each primary receptacle containing infectious substances.
When these small
Quantities of dangerous goods are packed with infectious substances in accordance with this
packing instruction, no other
General Packing Requirements for DGR
To ship dangerous goods by air, you must follow the general packing requirements in Section
5.0.2 of the International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations
(DGR). You must also follow the requirements that apply to each hazard class included in your
shipment. For example, hazard classes 1 Explosives, 2 Gases, and 7 Radioactive have their own
general packing requirements. You can locate the specific packing instructions for any dangerous
good by finding the material’s proper shipping name in column B of the IATA DGR’s list of
dangerous goods, and then look for the packing instruction that is referenced in columns G, I,
and K.
The general packing requirements in IATA DGR section 5.0.2 include:
● You must use good quality packaging, able to withstand loading/unloading and
conditions normal to transport

● Packages must be constructed and closed in a manner that prevents any loss of contents
● Packages must be closed according to the manufacturer’s specifications
● No dangerous residue can be on the outside of the package
● The package, including absorbents and cushioning material, must be compatible with its
contents
● Packages must not be used if they are constructed of materials that can become softened,
brittle, or permeable due to temperatures experienced during air transport; chemical reaction with
the contents; or the use of a refrigerant
● Wood packaging materials must conform to the International Standards for Phytosanitary
Measures No. 15 (ISPM15) and EU Commission Directive 2004/102/EC
● Packaging and closure method must take into consideration temperature and vibration
extremes
● Liquids in inner packaging must have a positive means of closure (e.g., tape, friction
sleeves) or must be placed inside a leak-proof liner
● Enough head space must be provided so that liquids do not completely fill the package at
130°F
● Packaging for liquids must be able to withstand an internal pressure that produces the
specified pressure differential in IATA DGR section 5.0.2.9 without leakage
● Packaging for solids that may become liquid during transport must be capable of
containing the substance in its liquid state
● Different dangerous goods may be combined in a single package, as long as they are
compatible; inner packaging used and the quantity limits meet those specified by each applicable
packing instruction; the outer packaging used is permitted by all applicable packing instructions;
and the package meets the specification performance standards for the most restrictive packing
group of dangerous good contained in the packaging. A Q- value calculation may be required.
● For combination packages (inner and outer package)
● Cushioning must be provided between the inner and outer packages
● Liquids must be upright and orientation arrow labels or marks must be placed on two
opposite sides of the outer package
● Outer combination packages that have been tested with different types of inner packages
may contain a variety of inner packages. If an equivalent level of performance is maintained,
variations of inner packaging are permitted without further package testing, as described below:
● Fewer inner packages can be used as long as sufficient cushioning is used to fill any
voids
● Inner packaging’s of equivalent or smaller size can be used as long as they are similar in
shape and have the same or smaller openings and similar closures to the tested inner
packaging’s; the material of construction offers equal resistance to impact/force; sufficient
cushioning material is used to fill any voids; and the inner packaging’s are oriented in the same
manner as in the tested package
● Outer packages must not allow dangerous evolution of heat due to friction
● Unless authorized in the DGR, venting of packages is not permitted (for example, venting
is required for shipments of dry ice)
● each package must be large enough to accommodate all the required marks and labels
● Packages that contain residues of dangerous goods remain fully regulated

● Package integrity must be maintained if wet ice is used as a coolant

● Packaging intended for liquids must undergo leak-profess testing
● Plastic drums and Jerri cans and rigid plastic intermediate bulk containers (IBC) and
composite IBCs with plastic inner receptacles may not be used if more than five years old. The
date of manufacture is marked on these packages.
● Self-reactive materials and organic peroxides must be packaged in PGII specification
packaging.
Aircraft types:
The distinction between Narrow- and Wide-Body aircraft is the width of the fuselage tube
shaped aircraft body, or the part where passengers, cargo and crew sit.
A typical narrow-body plane has a diameter of 3-4 m whereas a typical wide-body plane has a
diameter of 5-6 m.
Due to the bigger fuselage, wide-body aircraft can house more passengers, and the same is
achieved by having more seats per row. While narrow-body aircraft will have 3-6 seats per row
with one aisle, wide-body aircraft can have up to 10 seats with two aisles.
Aircraft loading report
One of the most important documents used on an aircraft turnaround is the load instruction report
(LIR). This form instructs loaders where to load and position baggage and cargo on the aircraft
in order for it to be safely within the weight and balance limits imposed for that particular
aircraft type.
Overall summary of the article
Effects of Improper Loading on Aircraft and some aircraft incident of happened due to improper
loading. Packaging requirements of each DGR CLASS. Also mention the aircraft loading
instruction report of Aircraft those accident due to improper landing.
And packaging and list down packaging of aircraft load. How effect can fact on landing and due
to improper landing how much swear accident and incident occur.
And in Dir. dry ice or liquid nitrogen is used to keep specimens cold, all applicable requirements
of these Regulations must be met. When used, ice or dry ice must be placed outside the
secondary packaging’s or in the outer packaging or an over pack. Interior supports must be
provided to secure the secondary packagings in the original position after the ice or dry ice has
dissipated. If ice is used, the outside packaging or over pack must be leak proof.
If dry ice is used, the packaging must be designed and constructed to permit the release of carbon
dioxide gas to prevent a build-up of Also mention aircraft type’s wide body aircraft and narrow
body aircraft.