NAME- AVANTIKA SAHNI

ROLL NO- 20

SUBJECT- HISTORY

SEMESTER- 2ND

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 ASSIGNMENT 1 –LOCAL SELF
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ( PAGE
NO.3 TO PAGE NO.8)

ASSIGNMENT 2- GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT OF DEPRESSED
CLASSES IN INDIA (PAGE NO.9 TO
PAGE NO.13 )

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

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INTRODUCTION

The government in a democracy is organised into three sections: legislative, executive, and
judiciary. The Indian government is further divided into two parts: the national government and
the state government. Each state has its own government, but the federal government oversees all
of India's states and union territories.

Local self-government, on the other hand, is a governing system in India. The Panchayati Raj
System established the groundwork for India's current local self-government in the year 1992.

Panchayati Raj, on the other hand, has its roots in self-sufficient and self-governing local
communities. Evidence implies that self-governing village bodies known as'sabhas' existed
during the period of the Rig-Veda (1700 BC). With time, these bodies evolved into panchayats
(council of five persons).

In practically every hamlet, panchayats were functioning organs of grassroots governance. They
have seen empires grow and fall in the past, and now live in a highly regimented system. Local
self-government did not have the same independence as it enjoyed under Hindu rulers during the
Mughal era.Mughal rulers were tyrants in the sense that they ruled over everything and were
superior. During their time, all power was concentrated in a single location. Power is transferred
from the centre to local bodies under a self-government system. The Government of India Act,
1935, also permitted this concept during the British era.

Local self-government entails the devolution of power to the lowest levels of the political
hierarchy. It is a type of democratic decentralisation in which even the most basic members of
society are included in the administrative process.

Pre independence

Local governments, or Panchayati raj, were present in prehistoric times and played an important
role in resolving common people's problems. However, as the current governmental system
gained popularity, the importance of such raj began to fade. During the colonial period, its
importance waned in the early years. However, the Panchayati had just begun to fade when
several commissions began advocating such institutions at the local level to handle local issues.

In 1865, the East India Company passed a resolution to that effect, stating that local concerns
should be left to local governing bodies, as they are better equipped to handle them.

Following that, other commissions such as the Royal Commission, the Government of India Act,
1935, the Simon Commission, and others discussed the electricity distribution. However, it
should be recalled that under colonial administration, local self-governments were never truly
independent and were always subject to state oversight.

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Post-Independence Situation

India was designated a democratic and federal nation after independence. As she grew,
urbanisation expanded, and two distinct areas emerged: ‘urban' and ‘rural.' The third tier of
governance, the Panchayati Raj, or more technically, the local self-governing system, arose as a
result of increasing workload and communication gaps between governments and inhabitants of
the country.

In India, there are two types of self-government: rural self-government and urban self-
government. It is known as Panchayati raj in rural areas and Municipality or Municipal
Corporation in urban areas. It is the lowest level of government that maintains one-on-one
contact with residents in their region in order to assist them with their representation. The 73rd
and 74th amendments gave local governments constitutional recognition.

India's Constitution was drafted and put into effect in 1950. Following its declaration of
independence. Article 40 of the Indian Constitution mandates that the state foster the
establishment of independent organisations such as Gramin panchayats. The distribution of
powers was stated in the first five-year plan, representing the concept of rural and urban
development.There were various committees set up regarding the local self-governments.

Despite the fact that India had such tiny types of local government, the writers of the
constitutions, dissatisfied with the existing laws, inserted Article 40 among the Directive
Principles, which stated:

“The state shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers
and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.”

From 1957 through 1986, four significant committees were formed and worked on to
conceptualise India's local self-government system. It will be beneficial if we examine the
committee and the major recommendations that they have made.

• Balwant Rai Mehta Committee: Established in 1957, it demonstrated the importance of having
a well functioning elected organisation on the grassroots level and suggested a three-tier
governance system.

• The Ashok Mehta Committee was established in 1977 and proposed a two-tier system of
government at the local level.

• Sarkaria Commission: Established in 1983, it concluded that disseminating powers to the

ground level would be ineffective unless village management, i.e. rural regions, was improved.

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• GVK Rao Committee: In 1985, the GVK Rao Committee produced a report underlining the
issue of needing to hold local government elections on a regular basis.

• The M Singhvi Body was the most influential committee in the advancement of local self-
governments, emphasising the need for constitutional recognition of local self-governments in
1987.In order to protect their autonomy and systematically providing monetary assistance.

73rd Amendment and Panchayati Raj

Following this committee's recommendations, India's government passed the 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act, 1992, which proved to be a watershed moment in the notion of local self-
governance. It empowers the state government to construct local governments in conformity with
the constitution's requirements. Part IX was incorporated through this amendment in the
constitution which is from Article 243-243 O. The schedule was also introduced on the list (11th)
Rajasthan became the first state to implement Panchayati Raj on 2nd Oct 1959.

The Supreme Court believes that the Panchayat's qualities will stay unchanged, and that the
fundamental goal of this revision is to constitutionally recognise village Panchayats.

Amendment stated that there should be 3 tier system of Panchayati Raj Institutions:

 Gram Panchayat

 Panchayat Samiti

 Zila Panchayat

The village, block, and district levels of this three-tiered system are constituted at the local level.
Following this growth, there was a need for a governing body to oversee and manage the
elections of such entities. As a result, state election commissions were established to hold
elections every five years and to provide financial and planning assistance to such organisations.
The State Financial Commission was established. Due to the caste structure and discriminatory
behaviours, particularly at the village level, the government included a provision for reservation
of appointments for Schedule castes, Scheduled tribes, and women.

Panchayati Raj Institution

 Gram Panchayat

The number of qualified voters in a village is referred to as the Gram Sabha. It elects the Gram
Panchayat, which comprises of one Sarpanch and five to eleven Panches who are elected by the
village's inhabitants for a five-year term..A village must have 300 inhabitants or more for a Gram
Panchayat to be formed, or a group of villages might have a single Panchayat.

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The panchayat's major function is to draught a yearly budget for the development of the village
and its residents. The budget is funded by taxes and grants from the state government, or Zila
Parishad.

Panchayat Samiti

It is also known as the middle-level panchayat, and it operates at the block or tehsil level.
Members of such organisations might range in age from 15 to 25. Sarpanchs, MPs, and MLAs
from the affected block, a representative from the SC/ST community, and one member from
Farmers, Cooperative Societies, Marketing, and Selected Members make up the committee.
Members are chosen for a five-year term. The goal of such an organisation is to develop several
areas in different industry such as the poultry industry, marketing, welfare, and so on.

 Zila Parishad

It is the district-level institution that oversees all panchayats and municipalities in the district.
Heads of Panchayat Samities, MPs, MLAs of district representatives of SC/ST, and women on
reserved seats are all members for a five-year tenure.Total members of the institution may vary
from 50-75. The major goal of such an organisation is to promote development in the district, as
well as to formulate and implement development programmes in the area.

74th Amendment and Urban Local Self Governments

The 74th Constitutional Amendment act provides for three types of Municipalities:

1.  Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area between a rural and urban area.

2.  Municipal Council for a small urban area.

3.  Municipal Corporation for a large urban area.

 Municipalities represent urban local self-government.

 Most of the provisions of the two acts are identical, with the exception that they
apply to either a Panchayat or a Municipality.

 Each Gram Sabha is a gathering of a specific constituency known as a ward, with a

representative chosen by direct election from among the people.

 • The chairperson of the Panchayat or Municipality at the intermediate and district

levels is elected indirectly from among these representatives at the immediately
lower level.

The XIIth Schedule was created to contain the duties that must be completed by urban local
public agencies within their jurisdictions. It establishes ward committees in areas with

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populations over 300,000. It also grants municipalities and ward committees rights and
responsibilities.

Historical Background of Urban Local Self government

It began during colonial control, when India began to urbanise, and local governments became
required for the smooth functioning of the country. In 1688, Madras founded its first municipal
corporation.

In 1882, Lord Ripon, India's Father of Local Government, mandated the establishment of such an
organisation in a resolution. Local bodies are mandated to be under the authority of ministries at
the national level under the Government of India Act 1919, but following the Government of
India Act, 1935, such entities are claimed to be under the jurisdiction of their respective
provinces.

There are eight types of urban local governments currently existing in India:

1. Municipal Corporations.

2. Municipality.

3. Notified area committee.

4. Town area committee.

5. Cantonment board.

6. Township.

7. Port trust.

8. Special purpose agency.

How are the elections held in the local government bodies?

 Elections are conducted by the State election commission, and all seats of members of local
bodies are filled by people elected directly.
 Chairpersons at the intermediate and district levels are elected indirectly from among the
elected representatives at the immediately below level.At the lowest level, the chairperson
shall be elected in a mode defined by the state legislature.
 Seats are set aside for SC and ST people in proportion to their population, with at least one-
third of these seats set aside for women.
 A universal reservation of one-third of all seats in all constituencies should be made for
women (which can include the already reserved seats for SC and ST).
 The acts bar the interference of courts in any issue relating to the election to local bodies.

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What is the duration of the Local Government bodies?

• Local governing bodies are elected for a five-year period, and new elections should be
held before the five-year term expires.
• If a panchayat/municipality is dissolved before the end of its term, elections must be held
within six months, and the new panchayat/municipality will take office for the remainder
of the period if the term is more than six months.
 And for another five years if the remaining term is less than six months

CONCLUSION

More over 70% of India's population lives in rural areas, with the remainder in urban areas.
Municipalities govern urban regions, whereas Panchayats govern rural areas. The correct
functioning of self-government entities is required for our country's progress.

Municipalities and panchayats are essential self-government bodies in the daily lives of citizens.
They provide basic services that are necessary for all citizens. Giving up the concept of self-
government will lead to a decline in an individual's social and economic life.

The concept of self-governance is particularly unique since it operates at the grass-roots level,
which is not possible for state government. Nonetheless, due to a lack of money, development of
a certain area is stalled. However, if corruption has infiltrated, there can be no comparison of this
form of governance.However, the government has also taken initiatives such as increasing the
number of internet connections from 100 to 1.25 lakhs in 2014. The government established the
E-Gram Swaraj platform to suit the concerns of panchayats.Besides, many schemes have been
introduced by the government for the upliftment of rural areas. We can conclude by stating that
to have “Atmanirbhar Bharat” we must have “Atmanirbhar Panchayats”

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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF DEPRESSED CLASSES IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION

Dalits are people of various castes and sub-castes among the depressed classes who were
traditionally subjected to invidious discrimination on the basis of untouchability and were
categorised as untouchables, downtrodden, exterior classes, depressed classes, or Scheduled
Castes.

“The organizational or institutional efforts made by Dalit leaders for the liberation of the
downtrodden masses could be termed as Dalit movement. It is a movement of protest against
untouchability, casteism and superstitions. It aims at the uplift of the Dalits to the level of non -
Dalits.” It is a movement to reclaim one's self-esteem and equal human standing in society.

It is the outcome of Dalits' awareness of their own identity as human beings, equally endowed
with physical and mental capacities as other humans, and equally entitled to all human rights
"without any infringement, abridgement, or limits."

Dalit movements were a reflection of the Indian people's growing national and human
consciousness.. They were expression of democratic awakening of lower caste.

]The introduction of a new educational system, as well as new political and economic forces
based on the ideas of individual liberty, equity, and democratic spirit, percolated throughout
Indian masses.

The Dalit movement was basically a movement to seek mobility on the part of those who had
fallen behind. They arose in response to the other class's social, cultural, and economic
dominance and exclusivity over them.

They were also given a boost by the British policy of divide and rule, in which the census played
a significant role. Caste categorization is a British policy. There was an opportunity to claim
social precedence through caste mobilisation on the basis of social precedence. On the basis of
social precedence, there was an opportunity for caste mobilisation to make claims for social pre-
eminence.

Improved communication networks enabled wider links and combinations; a new educational
system provided opportunities for socioeconomic advancement; a new administrative system, the
rule of law, undermined certain privileges enjoyed by a few; and certain economic forces, such
as industrialization, opened up equal opportunities for all, dismantling social barriers.

The Dalit movement was basically a movement to seek mobility on the part of those who had
fallen behind. They were a reaction to the other class's social, cultural, and economic dominance
and exclusivity over them.

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These causes all contributed to the alteration in untouchables' position. Social reform movements
such as Jyotiba Phule's in Maharashtra and Sri Narayan Guru's in Kerala have also called into
question caste equality.

Gandhiji included the subject of untouchability into the national movement, and major
campaigns and fights such as Varkom and Guruvayur Satyagraha were organised. Gandhiji's
endeavour was to make upper castes aware of the injustice done through the practise of
untouchability.

By the late 1920s, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar had emerged as a significant leader of the oppressed
classes. He campaigned for SCs and founded the All Indian Scheduled Caste Federation in 1942.
He also works with the colonial government on the assumption that he can secure additional
benefits for SCs. The All India S.C. Federation also ran candidates in the election, but they were
defeated by Congress.

Other strands arose in other locations, including Punjab's Ad-Dharm, Uttar Pradesh's Adi Hindi,
and Bengal's Namashvedsas. In Bihar, Jagjivan Ram, the most powerful Congress politician,
established the Khetmajoor Sabha and the Depressed Class League.

As part of a countrywide wave of radical politics, a new tendency known as Dalit Panthers
emerged in Maharashtra in the early 1970s. The Dalit Panthers were philosophically influenced
by Ambedkar's ideas. By the 1950s, Dalit Panther had split up and declined because to
significant schisms.

In North India, the BSP was founded in the 1980s by Kanshi Ram and later by Mayawati, who
became the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh in 2007

Untouchability and its Eradication:

As previously stated, untouchability has long been regarded as a societal ill. Long-term attempts
had been made to eliminate it. Religious and social reformers such as Buddha, Ramanuja,
Ramanand, Chitanya, Kabir, Nank, Tukaram, and others worked tirelessly to abolish it.

The Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj, as well as other social groups, did much to achieve their
social, religious, and cultural equality via propaganda, education, and practical actions.

The formation and consolidation of the British Raj dramatically altered India's political,
administrative, economic, and social fabric. In theory, the new system condemned caste, race,
and creed prejudices and aimed to reshape Indian society on the ideals of competition and
individuality, liberty, and equality. It promoted the spread of Western logical, liberal, and
humanitarian ideas.

The new polity, administrative structure, judicial system, new types of land tenure and taxation,
commerce patterns, education system, and communications network all emphasised the spirit of

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equality. A new atmosphere formed in society, in which the process of westernisation and
sanskritization was brewing; the consciousness for positive rights was created, and public
awareness took a new turn, resulting in far-reaching political and sociological changes.

Among the depressed classes came intellectuals, the most notable of them was Dr. Ambedkar,
who fought for social recognition and human rights for them. The main organisations of these
classes, the All India Depressed Association and the All India Depressed Classes Federation,
started a push to ameliorate their situation.

They aimed to improve their impoverished economic situation and to spread education among
them. They worked hard to gain the right to draw water from public wells, to attend schools, to
use roads, and to enter public temples. Dr. Ambedkar's Mahad Satyagrah for the Right to Water
was one of the most notable movements of untouchables to gain equal social rights.

Gandhi launched the All India Harijans Sevak Sangh in 1923, which established a number of
schools for the Harijan, including residential vocational schools. Following the passage of the
Government of India Act, the Congress government took control in a number of states. 1935
accomplished important work in restoring the depressed classes to their rightful place. The
Bombay Congress Government passed the Bombay Harijan Temple Worship (Removal of
Disabilities) Act, allowing trustees to welcome Harijans to temples.

The C.R and Bihar and Congress governments established free education for Harijans from
primary school to university level in their respective provinces. The kings of states such as
Travancore, Indore, Aundh, and Devas took the initiative to open all state temples to
untouchables by proclamation.

To make it easier to execute the law's requirements, the Untouchability (Offenses) Act (1955)
was passed, which established penalties for breaking the law. status of Harijans. There are now
thousands of Harijans working in the central and State Governments. Furthermore, additional
educational facilities were offered to the Harijans in order to help them overcome their
backwardness. The Union and state governments are currently investing vast sums of money in
their advancement and projects to eliminate untouchability. As a result of these provisions, the
standing of Harijans has changed significantly.

Thousands of Harijans currently work in the central and state governments.They have positions
of power in the administration. Harijan candidates are given special consideration at all levels of
selection. They are currently actively pursuing careers in law, medicine, and engineering.

They have achieved a balancing position in politics as well. They benefit from seat reservations
in all elected entities, from the local panchayat to the Union Parliament. They are now in a
position to influence not only the local balance of power, but also the political developments at
the centre.

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Dynamics of Dalit Movement:

Dalit movement techniques, ideas, and approaches differed from leader to leader, location to
location, and time to time. The ‘Dalit consciousness' emerged in various shapes and tints. As a
result, some Dalit leaders used the process of ‘Sanskritization' to move up the caste order.

They followed Brahman customs like as vegetarianism, applying sandalwood paste to their
foreheads, wearing sacred thread, and so on. Thus, Dalit leaders such as Swami Thykkad
(Kerala), Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar (UP), Muldas Vaishya (Gujarat), Moon Vithoba Raoji Pande
(Maharashtra), and others attempted to imitate established cultural norms and practises of the
higher castes.

Dalits imitated high caste behaviours to demonstrate their entitlement to equality. Treating Dalits
as outside the fourfold Varna system and referring to them as ‘outcastes' or ‘Panchama' gave rise
to the Adi-Hindu movement. As a result, a segment of Dalit leadership claimed that Dalits were
the original occupants of India and that they were not Hindus. That Aryans or Brahmins who
invaded this country forcibly imposed untouchability on the original inhabitants of this land.

They believed that if Hinduism was discarded, untouchability would automatically come to an
end. That Dalits began to call themselves Adi-Andhras in Andhra, Adi- Karnataka in Karnataka,
Adi-Dravidas in Tamil Nadu, Adi-Hindus in Uttar Pradesh and Adi-Dharmis in Punjab.That the
Aryans or Brahmins who conquered this nation inflicted untouchability on the ancient
inhabitants.

They felt that once Hinduism was abandoned, untouchability would be abolished immediately.
Dalits began to refer to themselves as Adi-Andhras in Andhra Pradesh, Adi-Karnatakas in
Karnataka, Adi-Dravidas in Tamil Nadu, Adi-Hindus in Uttar Pradesh, and Adi-Dharmis in
Punjab.

Dalits also followed the route of conversion with a purpose of getting rid of untouchability and
to develop their moral and financial conditions. A good number of Dalits were converted to
Christianity, especially in Kerala. Some of the Dalits, especially in Punjab were converted to
Sikhism.

Mazhabis, Namdharis, Kabir Panthis, and other names are given to them. Dalits were also
converted to Buddhism. In 1956, Dr. Ambedkar and his millions of followers converted to
Buddhism in Nagpur. As a form of protest against Hinduism, some Dalit leaders established their
own sects or faiths. Satnami Sect was created by Guru Ghasi Das (MP). Matua Sect was created
by Gurtichand Thakur (Bengal).Ayyan Kali (kerala) founded SJPY (Sadha Jana Paripalan
Yogam) and Mangu Ram (Panjab) founded Adi Dharam.

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Attempts were also made to mobilise Dalits politically in order to combat socioeconomic
concerns. In 1936, Dr. Ambedkar established the independent Labour Party. He attempted to
remove the exploitative Khoti system that prevailed in the Kokan region of Maharashtra, as well
as the Vetti or Maharaki system, which provided wage-free hereditary service to Hindu castes in
local administration He tried to persuade the government to enlist the Mahars in the military.
Finally, he was successful in 1941, when the first Mahar Regiment was founded.

With the growing process of democratisation. Dr. Ambedkar advocated for adequate
representation of Dalits in legislatures and the administration. The Government of India Act of
1919 provides for one seat in the central Legislative Assembly for the oppressed classes. The
British government, led by Ramsoy Macdonald, launched the ‘Communal Award' in 1932.

The award called for a separate electorate for the poor classes. Mahatma Gandhi embarked on a
historic fast in protest of the Communal Award, particularly in regard to the oppressed classes.

The legendary Poona Pact, signed in September 1932, settled the matter. It permitted for the
reserving of seats from the general electorate sets for members of the oppressed classes. Articles
330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution now provide for the reservation of seats in Rajya Sabha
and Lok Sabha for Scheduled Castes in proportion to their population.

Certain significant breakthroughs occurred in the Dalit movement immediately following

Ambedkar's death. The first was the establishment of the Republican Party of India, and the
second was the establishment of the Dalit Panther Movement. Many more Dalit
organizations/political parties/movements arose.

Dalit Sathya Movement, Dalit Ranghbhoomi, All India Backward SC, OBC, and Minority
Communities Employees Federation, and the Bahujan Samaj Party have lately emerged. The
Republican Party of India, the Dalit Panthers Party, and the Bahujan Samaj Party, on the other
hand, have fared better than the others.

CONCLUSION

Following independence, the condition of dalits improved significantly as a result of

constitutional provisions and the government's efforts to impart education and awareness.In
colonial rule it led to some opportunities for education including English education for the lower
caste it led to access to historical writings and to their own history but the efforts of the radical
Bahujan and Dalit reformers from Phule to Periyan and Ambedekar remained a subordinate one.
Hence the study reflect that the social and political condition of the Dalits was very critical
before colonial rule. The emergence of British power made many attempts and create many rules
and regulations for improvement and upliftment their social condition and political upliftment.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 IILSINDIA
 LEGALSERVICE INDIA
 BRITANNICA ENCLYCLOPEDIA
 BAREACTLIVE
 COUNTERVIEW.ORG
 DRISHTIIAS
 JOURNAL OF INDIA
 JAGRANJOSH
 CLEARIAS

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