Lesson 4: Statistics and Data Management

Statistics – anything data

Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics – description & summarization of data; analysis of data to describe, show,
summarize data
2. Inferential Statistics – drawing of conclusions from data

Data – raw information from which stats are created

Data Management – process of acquiring data, processing them for users

Data Collection – process of gathering information

Sources of Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
• Raw data that has not gone any kind of • Data that has undergone statistical treatment
statistical treatment • Either published or unpublished
• Firsthand information • Fabricated or tailored data
Method of collection: Sources:
1. Survey – most used (thoughts, opinions, 1. Government Offices and Semi government
and feelings); used in social sciences, offices
management, etc. 2. Teaching and research organizations, (NSO,
a. Questionnaire – Qs may be open- PSA etc)
ended or close-ended; can be via 3. Books, Biographies, Research journals, articles,
mail, email, fax, etc. and newspapers
b. Interview – f2f conversation 4. Internet and websites
c. Personal Investigation 5. Libraries, data bases, etc.
2. Experiments – medicine, psych, nutrition
3. Observations – natural settings or
artificially created environment

Two broad categories of Data

Qualitative Data (Categorical)
• Mostly non-numerical, hence cannot be
calculated or computed
• Descriptive or nominal
• Often subjective
• Hair color, Gender, ethnic groups, nationality,
educational qualification, intelligence,
honesty, and other attributes of the
population
Quantitative Data (Numerical)
• Numerical, can be computed
• Answers “how many/much/often?”
• Amendable to statistical manipulation
• Can be represented by a wide variety of
statistical types
• Number of enrollees in high school, height
and weight of children, distance travelled
from home to office, score in an examination.
 Types of Data based on their Mathematical Properties
Ratio Data - quantitative
data, having the same
properties (interval &
definitive ratio between
data & absolute 0 being the
point of origin); no
negative value present;
most precise data;
statistical techniques are
applicable
Interval Data (Score/Mark
Data) – distance between
TYPES OF DATA numbers is known; no true
Ordered with their increasing: 0; interval scales are great
• Accuracy but cannot be calculated;
• Powerfulness of more powerful than ordinal
measurement scale due to intervals
• Preciseness Ordinal Data – dicrete and
• Wide application of ordered units; order in
statistical techniques values is important but
difference between them is
not known; ordinal scales
are non-numeric
Nominal Data – discrete
units label variables w/ no
quantitative value; for
classification; least
powerful in measurement
Examples
• Weight of Toddlers
• Heights of growing children
• Age of human
• Temperature in degree Celsius
• Standardized Examination Scores
• Weighing Scales showing equal
intervals
• Rank in competition (First,
Second, Third)
• Rating (Excellent, Good, Fair,
Poor)
• Economic Status (Low, Medium,
High)
• Gender (Male, Female)
• Marital Status (Single, Married,
Widowed, Separated)
• Nationality (Filipino, Chinese,
Korean)

Summarizing the Types of Data

• Nominal variables – to name or label values
• Ordinal – info about order of choices (customer satisfaction survey)
• Interval scales – order of values, ability to quantify the difference between each one
• Ratio scales – provide order, interval value, ability to calculate ration since true 0 is defined

Discrete Data • has values that are distinct and separate

• items that can be counted and only involves integers
• converted to continuous data when possible, to obtain a high
level of info and details
• No. of students in a sub, no. of days in a year
Continuous Data • values which cannot be counted but can be measured
• more precise, more informative, and can remove estimation and
rounding of measurements
• time consuming to obtain
• Heights and weights of students
Frequency – number of times a data point occurs in a set of data

Relative Frequency – frequency of data point expressed in percentage (can be in fractions,

percent, decimals)

Cumulative Frequency – accumulation of the previous relative frequencies; just add all previous
relative frequencies

Frequency Distribution – table that list each data point and its frequency; summarize large volumes of
data

Ex: Determine Frequency, Relative Frequency, Frequency Distribution of the following data: 1, 3, 6, 4,
5, 6, 3, 4, 6, 3, 6, 5, 5, 3

x f rf = frequency /total frequency crf

1 1 1/14 = 0.07 0.07
3 4 4/14 = 0.29 0.07 + 0.29 = 0.36
4 2 2/14 = 0.14 0.36 + 0.14 = 0.50
5 3 3/14 = 0.21 0.50 + 0.21 = 0.71
6 4 4/14 = 0.29 0.71 + 0.29 = 1.00
Total = 14

Classification of Data

1. Ungrouped Data – list of numbers that has not been organized into classes/categories/groups
2. Grouped Data – list of numbers that has been organized and arranged into
classes/categories/groups + data analysis has been done
Example: Frequency Distribution of Heights of Freshmen
Height (cm) Number of Students Height (cm) Number of Students
140-150 78
151-160 172
161-170 39
171-180 11
Total = 300

Methods of Data Presentation

Textual Method Tabular Method Graphical Method
• Data are arranged from • Frequency Distribution • Bar Graph
lowest to highest • Relative Frequency • Histogram
• Stem-and-Leaf Plot Distribution • Frequency polygon
• Cumulative Frequency • Pie Chart
Distribution • Less than or greater than
• Contingency table
Methods of Data Presentation
1. Textual Method - Data can be presented using paragraphs or sentences; list & identifies
characteristics, etc.

Textual form: In the MMW class of 40 students, 2 students got a perfect score, 34 students got a passing
score of 25 points and above while 6 students got the lowest score of 20. Generally, 85% (34/40) of the
total number of students passed Quiz 1.

Rearranging the scores from lowest to highest:

20 20 25 29 33 37 43 45
20 25 25 29 33 37 43 48
20 25 28 30 35 37 43 48
20 25 29 33 35 40 44 50
20 25 29 33 35 43 44 50

Steam-and-leaf – table which sorts data according to a certain pattern; separating a number into two
parts; For a two-digit number, the stem consists of the first digit and the leaf consists of the second digit.
For three-digit number, the stem consists of the first two digits, and the leaf consists of the last digit. For
a one-digit number, the stem is zero.

STEM LEAVES
2 0,0,0,0,0,0,5,5,5,5,5,5,8,9,9,9,9
3 0,3,3,3,3,5,5,7,7,7
4 0,3,3,3,3,4,4,5,8,8
5 0,0

2. Tabular Method – Tabulation can be in simple tables or frequency distribution table

Frequency Distribution (Ungrouped) Frequency Distribution (Grouped kasi may analysis)

3. Graphical Method
a. Bar graph - set of numbers (data) are illustrated using set of rectangular bars; can be
vertical or horizontal

b. Histogram - pictorial diagram of frequency distribution; x and y axis are present; looks
like bar charts but are different

c. Cumulative Frequency Graph (Ogive) – curve showing the cumulative frequency of a

given data set

d. Frequency polygon - obtained by joining the mid-points of histogram blocks using line
segments
e. Pictogram - uses pictures to represent data; illustrated like bar charts, but columns of
pics are used instead of bars

f. Scatter Plot - uses dots to represent values for two different variables; to observe
relationships between variables and shows patterns
Measures of Central Tendency - Ways of describing the central position of a frequency distribution for a
group of data
1. Mean – average; most used in MCT; point where distribution is balanced
Σ𝑥
a. Mean for ungrouped data or for Arithmetic Mean (simple mean or average) 𝑥̅ = 𝑛
x̅ = mean, Σx = summation, n = total number
Σ𝑥
b. Weighted Mean – mean that is calculated with extra weight 𝑥̅ = 𝑛
; wherein w = weighted mean
Ex.: 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5 have weights of 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.15, & 0.2 respectively
1(0.1)+2(0.25)+3(0.3)+4(0.15)+5(0.2)
=
0.1 + 0.25 + 0.3 + 0.15 + 0.2
= 3.1
c. Mean for grouped data:

Advantages of Arithmetic Mean Disadvantages of Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is based on observations It is highly affected by utmost values. It is not

and easy to calculate and determined for the proper way of expressing averages into
almost every kind of data. It is only slightly ratios and percentages and for highly skewed
affected by the unstable values of samples. distributions are not a proper way to
compute its average.
2. Median – middle value of the data when arranged; number of observations is odd, middle
number = median; number of observations is even, median is the average of the two middle
numbers.
a. Median for Ungrouped Data
n−1
– odd number: 𝑀𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ( 2
) 𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
n n
( )𝑡ℎ+( +1)𝑡ℎ
2 2
– even 𝑀𝑑 = 𝑛
b. Median for Grouped Data
n
i( )−𝑓<
2
– 𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿 +
𝑓
L = lower limit of median class
i = class size of the distribution
n = number of observations
f< = less than cumulative frequency
f = frequency of the median
3. Mode – number that appears most frequently; one mode = unimodal, two modes = bimodal,
three modes = trimodal, more than 3 = multimodal, no modes = zero mode or Mo
a. Mode of Ungrouped data
d1
– 𝑀𝑜 = 𝐿𝐵 + 𝑖 (𝑑1+𝑑2)
Mo = mode
LB = lower boundary of the modal class (exact lower limit of modal class)
i = class size
d1 = diff between frequency of the modal class and the class below it
d2 = diff between frequency of the modal class and the class above it
Advantages of Mode Disadvantages of Mode

Mode is easy to understand and calculate Mode is defined when there are no
and is useful for qualitative data. It is not values repeated in a data set. It is
affected by extreme values. It is easy to not based on all values. It unstable when
identify in a data set and in a frequency data consist of a small number of values.
distribution. It can be computed in an
open-ended frequency table and can be
located in a graph.
Measure of Dispersion – provides information on how scatter or spread are the given set of data; gives
a clear idea about the distribution of data

1. Range – simplest measure of dispersion; difference between two extremes; R = H-L

Range of grouped data:
a. Range = upper boundary of highest class (UH) – lower boundary of the lowest class (LL)
Range = midpoint of the highest class (Mh) – midpoint of the lowest class (ML
2. Mean Absolute Deviation of Grouped Data
∑f |x−x̄ |
– 𝑀𝐴𝐷 = 𝑛
MAD for grouped data
X = class mark
x̄ = mean of grouped data
n = total number of measurements
f = frequency
3. Variance – equal to the square of the standard Deviation
Variance and Standard Deviation for Ungrouped Data:
∑(x−x̄ )2 ∑(x−x̄ )2
– 𝑠2 = 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 s = √ 𝑛−1
s^2 = variance of ungrouped data
s = standard deviation
n = number of measurements
∑(x-x ̄ )^2 = summation of the squares of deviation
Variance and Standard Deviation for Grouped Data:
∑f(x−x̄ )2 ∑f(x−x̄ )2
- 𝑠2 = 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 s = √ 𝑛−1
F = frequency of class
x = class mark
x ̄ = mean of grouped data
x-x ̄ = deviation of the class mark from the mean of grouped data
∑f(x-x ̄ )^2 = summation of the product of the deviation