Unit:66 theory of flight-Assessment:1

Cambrian International College of aviation

Unit:66 Theory of flight
Assignment No-1

Md Salman farsi
ND In AE
ID: 352

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Table of Contents
Task: 1a......................................................................................................................................................2
Task 1b.......................................................................................................................................................4
Task 1c.......................................................................................................................................................6
Task 1d:......................................................................................................................................................9
Task 1e.....................................................................................................................................................11
Task 1f......................................................................................................................................................13
Task 1g.....................................................................................................................................................15
Task 1h:....................................................................................................................................................16
Task 1i......................................................................................................................................................19
Task 1j......................................................................................................................................................22
Reference:................................................................................................................................................25

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Group A
Assessment criteria: P1
Task: 1a
1. Explain the nature and use of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
Answer:
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a static atmospheric model of how

the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change
over a wide range of altitudes or elevations.

It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature and

pressure and consists of tables of values at various altitudes, plus some formulas by
which those values were derived.

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2. Define the following parameters and their standard values with respect to
sea-level as per ISA:

Answer:
The ISA is based the following values of pressure, density, and temperature at
mean sea level each of which decreases with increase in height.

Pressure
Pressure, in the physical sciences, the perpendicular force per unit area, or
the stress at a point within a confined fluid. The pressure exerted on a floor by a
42-pound box the bottom of which has an area of 84 square inches is equal to the
force divided by the area over which it is exerted; i.e., it is one-half pound per
square inch. The weight of the atmosphere pushing down on each unit area
of Earth’s surface constitutes atmospheric pressure, which at sea level is about 15
pounds per square inch. In SI units, pressure is measured in pascals; one pascal
equals one newton per square metre. Atmospheric pressure is close to 100,000
pascals.

Temperature
Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold. It is the
manifestation of thermal energy, present in all matter, which is the source of the
occurrence of heat, a flow of energy, when a body is in contact with another that
is colder. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are
calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have used various
reference points and thermometric substances for definition. The most common
scales are the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade, denoted °C),
the Fahrenheit scale (denoted °F), and the Kelvin scale (denoted K), the last of
which is predominantly used for scientific purposes by conventions of
the International System of Units (SI).The lowest theoretical temperature
is absolute zero, at which no more thermal energy can be extracted from a body.
Experimentally, it can only be approached very closely, but not reached, which is
recognized in the third law of thermodynamics.Temperature of +15 °C -
Temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C per 1,000 feet until the tropopause is reached
at 36,000 feet above which the temperature is assumed to be constant at -57 °C.
(The precise numbers are 1.98 °C, -56.5 °C and 36,090 feet)

Density
The density of air is the mass per unit volume of atmospheric gases. It is denoted
by the Greek letter rho, ρ. The density of air, or how light it is, depends on the
temperature and pressure of the air. Typically, the value given for the density of
air is at STP (standard temperature and pressure).

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STP is one atmosphere of pressure at 0 degrees C. Since this would be a freezing

temperature at sea level, dry air is less dense than the cited value most of the time.
However, air typically contains a lot of water vapor, which would make it denser
than the cited value.

The density of dry air is 1.29 grams per liter (0.07967 pounds per cubic foot) at 32
degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) at average sea-level barometric pressure
(29.92 inches of mercury or 760 millimeters).
At sea level and at 15 degrees C, the density of air is 1.225 kg/m3. This is the value
of the ISA (International Standard Atmosphere). In other units, this is 1225.0
g/m3, 0.0023769 slug/(cu ft), or 0.0765 lb/(cu ft).1

Acceleration of gravity
Its value is 9.8 m/s2 on Earth. That is to say, the acceleration of gravity on the
surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2. When discussing the acceleration of
gravity, it was mentioned that the value of g is dependent upon location. There are
slight variations in the value of g about earth's surface. These variations result
from the varying density of the geologic structures below each specific surface
location. They also result from the fact that the earth is not truly spherical; the
earth's surface is further from its center at the equator than it is at the poles. This
would result in larger g values at the poles. As one proceeds further from earth's
surface - say into a location of orbit about the earth - the value of g changes still.

where d represents the distance from the center of the object to the center of the
earth. In the first equation above, g is referred to as the acceleration of gravity.
Its value is 9.8 m/s2 on Earth. That is to say, the acceleration of gravity on the
surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2.Viscosity

Viscosity
This question is often best answered by example. Imagine a styrofoam cup with a
hole in the bottom. If I then pour honey into the cup I will find that the cup
drains very slowly. That is because honey's viscosity is large compared to other
liquids' viscosities. If I fill the same cup with water, for example, the cup will drain
much more quickly.Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It
describes the internal friction of a moving fluid. A fluidwith large viscosity resists
motion because its molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal friction. A fluid with
low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little
friction when it is in motion.Gases also have viscosity, although it is a little harder
to notice it in ordinary circumstances. Sea Level Conditions Viscosity 1.789 x 10-
5 Kg/m/s

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Speed of sound
The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit of time by a sound wave as it
propagates through an elastic medium. At 20 °C (68 °F), the speed of sound in air is
about 343 metres per second (1,235 km/h; 1,125 ft/s; 767 mph; 667 kn), or a
kilometre in 2.9 s or a mile in 4.7 s. It depends strongly on temperature as well as
the medium through which a sound wave is propagating.
The speed of sound in an ideal gas depends only on its temperature and
composition. The speed has a weak dependence on frequency and pressure in
ordinary air, deviating slightly from ideal behavior.
If we consider the atmosphere on a standard day at sea level static conditions, the
speed of sound is about 761 mph, or 1100 feet/second. We can use this knowledge
to approximately determine how far away a lightning strike has occurred.

The real atmosphere differs from ISA in many ways. Sea level pressure varies from
day to day, and there are wide extremes of temperature at all levels.
Variation in pressure, vertically and horizontally, affects the operation of
the pressure altimeter.

The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been agreed to by many

representative countries and entities in the aviation field. It is a representative
model of the atmosphere and not an average. Most of the participants in aviation
are in the northern hemisphere so this standard is based on the range of local
weather conditions that occur in their locations. The standard results will need to
be adjusted to suit weather conditions elsewhere.
Sea-level conditions

Property Metric unit Imperial Unit

Pressure, P 101.3 kPa 2116.7 lbf/ft2

Density,ρ 1.225 Kg/m3 0.002378 slug/ft3

Temperature,T 15oC , 288.2 K 59 oF , 518oR

Speed of Sound, a 340.3 m/s 1116.4 ft/s

Viscosity,μ 1.789 x 10-5 Kg/m/s 3.737 x 10-7 slug/ft/s

Gravitational Acceleration, g 9.80665 m/s2 32.174 ft/s2

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Assessment criteria: P2
Task 1b
1. Define and describe the laminar and turbulent flow.
Answer:
Laminar flow:
Laminar flows are parallel flow it is characterized by layers, or laminas,
of air moving at the same velocity. Laminar flow are smooth and do
not interact. No air molecules are exchanged between the laminas air
flow and the flow is not in a straight line.
Turbulent flow:
In turbulent flow, the flow lines are not organized, distributed in ever
changing eddies. Air molecules of differing speeds bump into one
another and their speeds are constantly changing.

Figure: laminar flow and turbulent flow.

2.Explain the nature of dynamic and kinematic viscosity of air.

Answer:
Viscosity:
The resistance of a fluid to move through it. A “thin” fluid have a low
viscosity and “thick” fluid have high viscosity. This is also known as
fluid resistance, fluid friction, and internal friction.
Dynamic viscosity:
Dynamic viscosity is also known as absolute viscosity or coefficient of
absolute viscosity. It is the resistance of liquid flow from one point to
another at a given speed. The value depends on the temperature of the
gas. The shear stress ratio of the velocity gradient is the technical form
of dynamic viscosity and it is defined as Newtonian Fluid.
Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity measures the resistance to
flow the liquid in the presence of gravity and the ratio of a fluid's
absolute viscosity is divided by the fluid’s density.

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Assessment Criteria P3
Task 1c

1.Define all the terminology associated with subsonic airflow over an aerofoil section:

Answer:

a. Camber Line
A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the
upper and lower surfaces.

b. Mean camber
is a line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the
upper and lower surfaces

c. Chord Line
A straight line joining the centres of curvature of the leading and trailing edges of
an aerofoil.

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d. Leading and trailing edge

Leading edge is a part of an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles firs.Trailing
edge is a part from an aerofoil (edge) that hits the air particles last

e. Angle of incidence (AOI

The angle between the wing root chord line and the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft. (This angle is fixed for the wing, but may be variable for the tailplane).

f. Angle of attack (AOA)

(α or alpha) (can also be referred to as Aerodynamic Incidence). The angle

between the chord line and the Relative Airflow.

g. Pitch angle
The angle between the aircraft's longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane
is called inclination angle or pitch angle.

h. Thickness/Chord Ratio
The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil section expressed as a percentage
of the chord, with its location as a percentage of the chord aft of the leading edge.
The thickness and thickness distribution of the aerofoil section have a great
influence on its airflow characteristics.

2. Define the given parameters associated with airflow over a subsonic aircraft
wing:
Answer:

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a. Boundary layer

The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of

the wing and, for that matter, all other surfaces of the airplane. As the wing moves
forward through the air, the boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the
streamlined shape of the airfoil.

b. Transition point

The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of
the wing and, for that matter, all other surfaces of the airplane. The point at which
the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition
point.

c. Separation point
The separation point is the point where the air stops "sticking" to an object that is
moving through the air.The point on the body where the boundary layer lifts off
the surface is called the separation point. When the air flow separates off the
surface, the pressure drag usually increases.

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c. Center of Gravity

In an aeroplane, the centre of gravity (CG) is the point at which the aircraft would

balance were it possible to suspend it at that point. As the location of the  centre of
gravity affects the stability of the aircraft, it must fall within specified limits that
are established by the aircraft manufacturer

d. Free stream flow

Subsonic flight commonly refers to local aerodynamic flow conditions where

M<1.0. Practically, this means that the free stream Mach number is less than
approximately 0.8.A shock wave is a compression wave front which occurs in
the supersonic flow field around an air frame.

e. Aerodynamic Center

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The Aerodynamic center is the point at which the pitching moment coefficient for
the airfoil does not vary with lift coefficient angle of attack making analysis
simpler.

f. Center of pressure

Center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where the Lift acts.

Aerodynamic center is the point in the wing where the pitching moments are
constant. The neutral point is where the center of gravity of the aircraft is
neutrally stable.

g. Stagnation point

The point on the leading edge of a wing at which the airflow separates, with some
flowing over the top of the wing and the rest below the wing. Report an issue with
this definition.

h. Air flow

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A subsonic aircraft is an aircraft with a maximum speed less than the speed of

sound (Mach 1). The term technically describes an aircraft that flies below its
critical Mach number, typically around Mach 0.8.

i. Vortices

Wingtip vortices are circular patterns of rotating air left behind a wing as it

generates lift.Depending on ambient atmospheric humidity as well as the
geometry and wing loading of aircraft, water may condense or freeze in the core of
the vortices, making the vortices visible.

Assessment Criteria P11

Task 1d:

Subsonic Airflow
Normal
Angles of Attack (0° to 8°) Compared to free stream static pressure, there is a
pressure decrease over the upper surface and a lesser decrease over most of the
lower surface. For a cambered aerofoil there
will be a small amount of lift even at small
negative angles (-4° to 0°). Angles of attack
(0° to 16°) Increasing the angle of attack
increases the lift force because the
acceleration of the airflow over the top
surface is increased by the reduction in
effective cross-sectional area of the local
streamtube. The reduced pressure ‘peak’ moves forward as the angle of attack
increases. The greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the upper surface.
Pressure Gradient Is a change in air pressure over distance. The greater the
difference in pressure between two points, the steeper the gradient. A favourable
gradient is when air pressure is falling in the direction of airflow. An adverse
pressure gradient is when air pressure is rising in the direction of airflow, such as
between the point of minimum pressure on the top surface and the trailing edge.
The higher the angle of attack, the steeper the pressure gradient. At angles of

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attack higher than approximately 16°, the extremely steep adverse pressure
gradient prevents air that is flowing over the top surface from following the
aerofoil contour and the previously smooth streamline flow will separate from the
surface, causing the low pressure area on the top of the section to suddenly
collapse. Any pressure differential remaining is due to the pressure increase on the
lower surface only.

Stall
In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by
a foil as angle of attack increases.This occurs when the critical angle of attack of
the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it
may vary significantly depending on the fluid, foil, and Reynolds number.

Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a sudden reduction in lift as the
pilot increases the wing's angle of attack and exceeds its critical angle of attack
which may be due to slowing down below stall speed in level flight. A stall does
not mean that the engine have stopped working, or that the aircraft has stopped
moving the effect is the same even in an unpowered glider aircraft. Vectored
thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to maintain altitude or controlled
flight with wings stalled by replacing lost wing lift with engine or propeller thrust,
thereby giving rise to post-stall technology.

Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this

article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, in particular fixed-wing
aircraft. The principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as
well.

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Assessment Criteria P12

Task 1e

Shockwave
A shock wave is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it
carries energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma)
or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a field such as
the electromagnetic field. Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt, nearly
discontinuous change in the characteristics of the medium. [1] Across a shock there
is always an extremely rapid rise in pressure, temperature and density of the flow.
In supersonic flows, expansion is achieved through an expansion fan. A shock
wave travels through most media at a higher speed than an ordinary wave.
Unlike solutions (another kind of nonlinear wave), the energy of a shock wave
dissipates relatively quickly with distance. Also, the accompanying expansion
wave approaches and eventually merges with the shock wave, partially cancelling
it out. Thus the sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is
the sound wave resulting from the degradation and merging of the shock wave
and the expansion wave produced by the aircraft.
When a shock wave passes through matter, the total energy is preserved but the
energy which can be extracted as work decreases and the entropy increases. This,
for example, creates additional drag force on aircraft with shocks.

Initial formation of Shockwave

All the points on the surface of a wing produce pressure waves. If the airflow is
subsonic, these pressure waves can all move away- ahead of the wing, but when
the critical Mach Number is reached and the speed becomes sonic speed at some
point on the wing, pressure waves move forward only as far as this point and then
"pickup"to forma Shock Wave.
If the speed is increased further the shock wave starts to move towards the trailing
edge as the supersonic area above the wing grows larger. Another shock wave will
form below the wing and will also move towards the trailing edge.

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Affects of airflow on either side of the Shockwave

Let us consider first what happens when supersonic flow meets what we have
called a concave corner, or putting it more practically, a sharp, small-angled
wedge. One way of describing this kind of corner is to say that if the flow were to
go straight on it would intersect the body. In figure (overleaf) shows what
happens. The flow will in fact go straight on until it hits something - but what it
hits will not be the wedge itself, but the shock wave which is formed by the
slowing up of the flow as a result of the point of the wedge being inserted in the
flow, and the consequent converging of the Mach Lines.
In this type of flow there will be an inclined or oblique shock wave. It explained
that a shock wave at right angles to the flow causes a sudden reduction in the
speed of flow, but a shock wave oblique to the flow causes both a reduction in the
magnitude of the velocity, and a change in its direction. The change of direction is
a result of the fact that it is only the component of the velocity at right angles to
the shock wave which is reduced; the other component along the shock wave
remains unchanged in passing through the shock wave.

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It is clear that the new direction of flow will be parallel to the new surface. So the
flow has turned the corner; the change of direction was sudden and occurred
entirely at the shock wave. The flow after the corner is at a reduced velocity
though it may still be supersonic, the lines of flow are closer together, the pressure
is higher, the density is higher the air is compressed, possibly quite appreciably,
and the temperature is higher. The Mach Lines, at the lower speed, will be more
steeply inclined to the new surface.
Supersonic flow most commonly compresses through a shock wave and at the
leading edge of a wing, or the nose of a body, or at the mouth of a contracting
duct, as at this wedge, no gradual change of pressure as with subsonic flow, but a
sudden rise in pressure, density, and temperature, and a sudden fall in velocity.
This type of flow is called compressive flow. By very careful design it is possible to
obtain a gradual compression by avoiding the conditions where the Mach Lines
coalesce. The shock compression is, though, much more usual.

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Assessment Criteria P13

Task 1f
Why the centre of pressure moves forward when an aircraft flies from transonic to
supersonic speed

Answer:
CP stands for center of pressure. The center of pressure is defined as the location
on the airfoil where the pitch moment is zero and the center of pressure location
produce equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field
and pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid methods.

Figure: aircraft C.P and CG position

When the centre pressure moves forward an aircraft flies from transonic to
supersonic because, the center of pressure moves forward on an airfoil as an
aircraft speeds up and pilots have to re trim with the more nose down trim any
time when the speed is increased.

Assessment Criteria P14

Task 1g

The reasons of control ineffectiveness

In transonic and supersonic flights the ranges of the aircraft normally operates in a
speed of Mach 0.7 - 0.90 Mach. Critical mach number is the boundary between
transonic and subsonic flight which is totally dependent up to the design of wing
and airfoil.

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When shock waves form on an aircraft, airflow separates and aircraft control
difficulties occurs. Shock waves and airflow separation takes place above critical
Mach number. A jet aircraft typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its
critical Mach number. At speeds 5–10 percent above the critical Mach number,
compressibility effects starts. Drag begins to rise sharply and with trim and
stability changes, and a loss in control effectiveness.

Supercritical Airfoil

A supercritical aerofoil is an aerofoil that, principally, has been designed to delay

the onset of wave drag in
the transonic speed range. Typical
features of supercritical aerofoils,
when compared to traditional aerofoil
shapes, are a flattened upper surface,
a highly cambered or curved aft
section and greater leading edge
radius. Benefits of a supercritical
aerofoil include:

A significant reduction in shock

induced boundary layer separation

The production of a smaller, weaker shock wave at a position further aft on the
wing than tradition aerofoils

The potential for more efficient wing design as the supercritical aerofoil allows for
a reduction in wing sweep or an increase in wing thickness without the
corresponding increase in wave drag that would be associated with a typical
aerofoil.

Assessment Criteria M5
Task 1h:

a. Speed of sound
The speed of sound is a term used to describe the speed of sound waves passing
through an elastic medium. The speed varies with the medium employed (for
example, sound waves move faster through water than through air), as well as
with the properties of the medium, especially temperature.

The term is commonly used to refer specifically to the speed of sound in air.At sea
level, at a temperature of 21 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit) and under
normal atmospheric conditions, the speed of sound is 344 m/s (1238 km/h or 770

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mph).The speed varies depending on atmospheric conditions; the most important

factor is the temperature.

Humidity has little effect on the speed of sound, nor does air pressure by itself. Air
pressure has no effect at all in an ideal gas approximation. This is because pressure
and density both contribute to sound velocity equally, and in an ideal gas the two
effects cancel out, leaving only the effect of temperature. Sound usually travels
more slowly with greater altitude, due to reduced temperature.

b. Mach number
The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity and a certain limit of the sounds
speed. In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound
in the surrounding medium.

The formula of Mach Number is:

M = u/c

Where,

 The Mach number is M

 Based on the limits the local flow velocity is u
 The speed of sound in that medium is c

To explain it simply, the speed of sound can be equated to Mach 1 speed. Thus,
Mach 0.75 will be 75% of the speed of sound that is also called subsonic and Mach
1.65 will be 65% faster than the speed of light which is also called supersonic.

The Mach number due to the local speed of sound is dependent on the
surrounding mediums in specific temperature and pressure. A flow can be
determined as an in compressible flow with the help of the Mach number. The
medium can either be a liquid or a gas. The medium can be flowing whereas the

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boundary may be stable or the boundary may be travelling in a medium that is at

rest. The medium and boundary both may be travelling with a certain speed but
their velocities with respect to each other are what matters. The medium may be
channelled through several devices such as wind tunnels or may be immersed in
the medium. The Mach number is termed as a dimensionless number because it is
a ratio of two speeds.

An Austrian philosopher and physicist Ernst Mach is after whom the Mach
number is named. Due to it being a dimensionless quantity and not a measurable
unit the number is put after the term Mach for instance, Mach 4 and not 4 Mach.

c. Critical Mach number

In aerodynamics, the critical Mach Number (Mcr or Mcrit) of an aircraft is the
lowest Mach number at which the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches the
speed of sound. For all aircraft in flight, the speed of the airflow around the
aircraft is not exactly the same as the airspeed of the aircraft due to the airflow
speeding up and slowing down to travel around the aircraft structure.

At the Critical Mach number, local airflow near some areas of the airframe reaches
the speed of sound, even though the aircraft itself has airspeed lower than Mach
1.0. This creates a weak shock wave. In aircraft not designed for transonic or
supersonic flight, speeds greater than the Critical Mach number will cause
the drag coefficient to increase suddenly causing a dramatic increase in total drag
and changes to the airflow over the flight control surfaces will lead to
deterioration in control of the aircraft.

In aircraft not designed to fly at the Critical Mach number, shock waves in the
flow over the wing and tailplane can be sufficient to stall the wing, make control
surfaces ineffective, or lead to loss of control.

Explain why Mach number is used as the measure of airspeed on high speed
aircraft.

Answer:
Mach number is used for aircraft because in fluid dynamics fluids behave in a
similar way at the same Mach number, so, for example, the shocks from breaking
the sound barrier are similar regardless of altitude of flight and temperature and
other conditions.

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 The Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which
a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a
liquid. The boundary can be traveling in the medium, or it can be stationary while
the medium flows along it, or they can both be moving, with different velocities:
what matters is their relative velocity with respect to each other. The boundary
can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as
a nozzle, diffuser or wind tunnel channeling the medium. As the Mach number is
defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. If M < 0.2–0.3 and
the flow are quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and
simplified incompressible flow equations can be used.

Assessment Criteria D2
Task 1i

a. Problem arises on an aircraft flying at transonic range:

Transonic speed range is the most critical part for an aircraft to fly. A lot of
problems arise with it. They are-
1. Loss of control effectiveness and shock induced separation
2. Pitching
3. Sudden increase in drag and decrease in lift forces which may
lead to stall
4. Heating effect
Loss of control effectiveness and shock induced separation: When aircraft flies at
Mach critical then it is hardly controlled by the pilot. The control surfaces loses its
effectiveness due to two reason
An aircraft’s pressure disturbance caused by a point behind a shock wave cannot
travel forward to influence the air before the shock wave. As a result control
surface lacks the laminar flow and so it has no effect on the pressure disturbance
and reduces the effectiveness of control.
When shock wave forms the sudden increase of pressure and density decrease of
speed creates a sudden thickening and turbulence of the boundary layer behind
the shock wave. As a result shock induced separation takes place. And it effects as
reducing control effectiveness.
Pitching and buffeting: When shock wave forms on an aircraft wing behind the
shock wave pressure and density of the air increases suddenly. It results in
decreasing the co-efficient and lift force and it also moves the centre of pressure.
As a result the change in the pitching moment changes the angle of attack. It
changes the airflow of the wing and movement of the shock wave. This situation
sets up a kind of instability and it causes rapid movement of the backward and
forward of the shock wave. This rapid pressure distribution change causes a
pitching and buffeting of the whole aircraft.
Sudden increase in the drag and decrease in lift force: When an aircraft
approaches to Mach critical the co-efficient of lift starts to rise and steeply at the

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time of Mach critical reached. After that Mach the co-efficient drops very sharply
as a result of pressure distribution changes due to formation of shock wave. When
the aircraft reaches 1.0 M coefficient again rises and after 1.0 M it drops sharply.
And co-efficient of drag rises steeply between Mach critical and 1.0 M. this
combination of these two effects creates the shock stall. And after sonic speed of
the aircraft the co-efficient of drag falls again but not low as the subsonic speed.

Figure: Graph of drag co-efficient vs. Mach number

Heating Effect: At supersonic sustain flight, the hit which is generated at the
aircraft surface by the air molecular friction becomes serious problem.

Figure: Heating effect at high speed.

At 100 degree C the aluminum alloys start to lose its strength and the loss become
serious at 200 degree C. And light alloys cannot be used above 150 degree C. So
heat has a tremendous effect on an aircraft.

b. Area ruling:
Area ruling is about the fuselage of an aircraft. It concerns about the gradual
change of area over the fuselage and avoiding the sharp changes of air craft
structure. It is important to minimize the drag. At low subsonic speed an aircraft
causes a little interference drag but for the high subsonic speed the interference
drag is too high to damage the aircraft structure. At supersonic speed the
interference drag become much greater. It has found that drag is very much
reduced if the area rule is applied to the whole aircraft. When area rule is applied
to the design the cross-sectional shape is smoothed out.

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Figure: Area ruling before and after

c. Sweepback

When a sweepback wing airplane side slipping the wing toward sideslip will
experience a higher velocity to leading edge. As the A/C sideslip following a
disturbance in roll, the lower sweptback wing generates more lift than the upper
wing. This is because in the sideslip the lower wing presents more of its span to
the airflow than the upper wing and therefore the lower wing generates more lift
and tends to restore the aero plane to a wings level position and the airplane is
restored to its original flight attitude. Sweepback also contributes to directional
stability.

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Assessment Criteria D3
Task 1j

Air intakes
Pitot intakes are the dominant type for subsonic applications. A subsonic pitot
inlet is little more than a tube with an aerodynamic fairing around it.
At zero airspeed (i.e., rest), air approaches the intake from a multitude of
directions: from directly ahead, radially, or even from behind the plane of the
intake lip.
The air intake can be designed to be part of the fuselage of the aircraft (Corsair A-
7, A-8, Dassault Mirage III, General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, Mikoyan-
Gurevich MiG-21) or integrated part of the nacelle (Grumman F-14 Tomcat,
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Sukhoi Su-27, SukhoiPakFa, Lockheed SR-71
Blackbird, Boeing 737,747, Airbus A380).
At low airspeeds, the stream tube approaching the lip is larger in cross-section
than the lip flow area, whereas at the intake design flight Mach number the two
flow areas are equal. At high flight speeds the stream tube is smaller, with excess
air spilling over the lip.

Beginning around Mach 0.85, shock waves can occur as the air accelerates through
the intake throat. Careful reducing of the lip region is required to optimize intake
pressure recovery (and distortion) throughout the flight envelope. Supersonic
inlets :Supersonic intakes exploit shock waves to decelerate the airflow to a
subsonic condition at compressor entry.

There are basically two forms of shock waves :

 Normal shock waves lie perpendicular to the direction of the flow. These form
sharp fronts and shock the flow to subsonic speeds. Microscopically the air
molecules smash into the subsonic crowd of molecules like alpha rays. Normal
shock waves tend to cause a large drop in stagnation pressure. Basically, the
higher the supersonic entry Mach number to a normal shock wave, the lower
the subsonic exit Mach number and the stronger the shock (i.e. the greater the
loss in stagnation pressure across the shock wave).
 Conical (3-dimensional) and oblique shock waves (2D) are angled rearwards,
like the bow wave on a ship or boat, and radiate from a flow disturbance such
as a cone or a ramp. For a given inlet Mach number, they are weaker than the
equivalent normal shock wave and, although the flow slows down, it remains
supersonic throughout. Conical and oblique shock waves turn the flow, which
continues in the new direction, until another flow disturbance is encountered
downstream. Note: Comments made regarding 3 dimensional conical shock
waves, generally also apply to 2D oblique shock waves.

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 A sharp-lipped version of the pitot intake, described above for subsonic

applications, performs quite well at moderate supersonic flight speeds. A
detached normal shock wave forms just ahead of the intake lip and 'shocks' the
flow down to a subsonic velocity. However, as flight speed increases, the shock
wave becomes stronger, causing a larger percentage decrease in stagnation
pressure (i.e. poorer pressure recovery). An early US supersonic fighter, the F-
100 Super Sabre, used such an intake.

An unswept lip generate a shock wave, which is reflected multiple times in the
inlet. The more reflections before the flow gets subsonic, the better pressure
recovery

More advanced supersonic intakes, excluding pitots:

 Exploit a combination of conical shock wave/s and a normal shock wave to
improve pressure recovery at high supersonic flight speeds. Conical shock
wave/s are used to reduce the supersonic Mach number at entry to the normal
shock wave, thereby reducing the resultant overall shock losses.
 It has a design shock-on-lip flight Mach number, where the conical/oblique
shock wave/s intercept the cowl lip, thus enabling the stream tube capture area
to equal the intake lip area. However, below the shock-on-lip flight Mach
number, the shock wave angle/s are less oblique, causing the streamline
approaching the lip to be deflected by the presence of the cone/ramp.
Consequently, the intake capture area is less than the intake lip area, which
reduces the intake airflow. Depending on the airflow characteristics of the
engine, it may be desirable to lower the ramp angle or move the cone
rearwards to refocus the shockwaves onto the cowl lip to maximize intake
airflow.
 Are designed to have a normal shock in the ducting downstream of intake lip,
so that the flow at compressor/fan entry is always subsonic. However, if the
engine is throttled back, there is a reduction in the corrected airflow of the LP
compressor/fan, but (at supersonic conditions) the corrected airflow at the
intake lip remains constant, because it is determined by the flight Mach
number and intake incidence/yaw. This discontinuity is overcome by the
normal shock moving to a lower cross-sectional area in the ducting, to

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decrease the Mach number at entry to the shockwave. This weakens the
shockwave, improving the overall intake pressure recovery. So, the absolute
airflow stays constant, whilst the corrected airflow at compressor entry falls
(because of a higher entry pressure). Excess intake airflow may also be dumped
overboard or into the exhaust system, to prevent the conical/oblique shock
waves being disturbed by the normal shock being forced too far forward by
engine throttling.
 From another point of view, like in a supersonic nozzle the corrected (or non-
dimensional) flow has to be the same at the intake lip, at the intake throat and
at the turbine. One of this three can be fixed. For inlets the throat is made
variable and some air is bypassed around the turbine and directly fed into the
afterburner. Unlike in a nozzle the inlet is either unstable or inefficient,
because a normal shock wave in the throat will suddenly move to the lip,
thereby increasing the pressure at the lip, leading to drag and reducing the
pressure recovery, leading to turbine surge and the loss of one SR-71. This
phenomenon is referred to as inlet unstart.

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Reference:
http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/axes33.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_wave
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/evolving_earth/
evolving_earth.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swept_wing
http://www.scribd.com/doc/45327210/Mechanics-of-Flight-AC-Kermode
http://s80.flight1.net/forums/movement-of-cp-and-mach-trim_topic3630.html
http://www.scribd.com/doc/45327210/Mechanics-of-Flight-AC-Kermode
http://s80.flight1.net/forums/movement-of-cp-and-mach-trim_topic3630.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transonic
http://www.thenakedscientists.com/forum/index.php?topic=10629.15;wap2
http://home.anadolu.edu.tr/~mcavcar/common/ISAweb.pdf

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/Wright/airplane/airprop.html

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/bern.html

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/smotion.html

Understabding flight by david.F anderson and scott eberhardt

Aircraft basic science by kroes rardon

Fundamental of flight by richard s. shevell

Google image

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