The constitution also provides that some issues may be addressed by either the federal legislature

or a state legislature. The ruler of a state acts on the advice of the state government. All citizens
who are at least 21 years old are permitted to vote. The Royal Malaysian Navy concentrates
mainly on defending the long indented coastlines and narrow waters of the country. Government
and society
Constitutional framework
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state—a monarch—who
bears the title Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected from among nine
hereditary state rulers for a five-year term. In addition, there are religious courts in those Malay
states that are established under Islamic law (syariah, or Sharīʿah). Of the roughly 200 members
of the House of Representatives, about two-thirds are from Peninsular Malaysia, one is from the
federal territory of Labuan, and the remaining seats are divided fairly evenly between Sarawak
and Sabah. A separate Special Court handles cases involving charges against the paramount ruler
or the heads of states.
Each High Court consists of a chief judge and a number of other justices. The army is the most
experienced and the largest of the three units, constituting roughly three-fourths of all military
personnel. A bill passed by both houses and sanctioned by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong becomes
a federal law.

Local government
Malaysia comprises 13 states and 3 federal territories. Most ministerial appointments are held by
Malays, but a few posts are filled by indigenous and nonindigenous minorities.

Party affiliation generally is based on ethnicity, although this tendency has diminished somewhat
since the mid-20th century. The paramount ruler appoints a prime minister from among the
members of the House of Representatives. The High Court has criminal and civil jurisdiction and
may pass any sentence allowed by law. After the withdrawal of British military forces from
Malaysia and Singapore at the end of 1971, a five-country agreement between Malaysia,
Singapore, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom was concluded to ensure defense
against external aggression. In Sarawak and Sabah, however, these districts are grouped into
larger administrative units called divisions. The Royal Malaysian Air Force has combat aircraft
as well as many transport aircraft and helicopters. The police force is well trained and combats
not only crime but also armed insurr
. Each state has its own written constitution, legislative assembly, and executive council, which
is responsible to the legislative assembly and headed by a chief minister. Election to either house
is by a simple majority, but amendments to the constitution require a two-thirds majority. The
main opposition parties are the Democratic Action Party (DAP), which consists primarily of
ethnic Chinese; the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (Parti Islam SeMalaysia; Pas); and, since the
early 21st century, the People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat; PKR). The federal
territories, which include the capital city region of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of
Putrajaya, and the island of Labuan off the coast of East Malaysia, carry the same status as states,
but they do not have separate legislatures or heads of state.

Most of the peninsular states are led by hereditary rulers. The constitution provides for federal
parliamentary elections and for elections to state legislatures, to be held at least every five years.

All states in Malaysia are subdivided into districts. In May 2018 a coalition of opposition parties
under the banner of the Alliance of Hope (Pakatan Harapan) ended decades of BN rule.

Security of Malaysia
The Malaysian armed forces have increased in strength and capability since the formation of
Malaysia in 1963. Military service is voluntary, with a minimum age requirement of 18 years.

The states of Malaysia inherited from their common colonial past an internal security system
based on the British model. Although their numbers in political positions have been increasing
since the late 20th century, women have remained underrepresented in the political process. The
number of ministers is not fixed, but all must be members of the federal parliament. The village,
headed by a tua kampung (“village leader”), is the smallest unit of government.

Justice
The constitution of Malaysia, which is the supreme law of the country, provides that the judicial
power of the federation shall be vested in two High Courts—one in Peninsular Malaysia, called
the High Court in Malaya, and the other in East Malaysia, called the High Court in Sarawak and
Sabah—and also in subordinate courts. The Malaysian constitution, drafted in 1957 following
the declaration of independence (from the British) by the states of what is now Peninsular
Malaysia, provides for a bicameral federal legislature, consisting of the Senate (Dewan Negara)
as the upper house and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) as the lower. Appeals from
the High Courts are heard first by the Court of Appeal; they may then be appealed to the highest
court in Malaysia, the Federal Court (formerly called the Supreme Court), which is headed by a
chief justice. Below each High Court are three subordinate courts: the Sessions Court, the
Magistrates’ Court, and the Court for Children. There are also a number of smaller parties based
mainly in Sarawak and Sabah. Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, and
Terengganu have sultans, while Perlis has a raja (“king”), and Negeri Sembilan is ruled by the
Yang di-Pertuan Besar (“chief ruler”). The federal government also includes an independent
judiciary and a politically neutral civil service.
The powers of the federal parliament are relatively broad and include the authority to legislate in
matters concerning government finances, defense, foreign policy, internal security, the
administration of justice, and citizenship. The heads of state of Melaka, Penang Island (Pulau
Pinang; also Penang), Sarawak, and Sabah—known as Yang di-Pertuan Negeri (“state ruler”)—
are appointed to office. Malaysian political life and government were dominated from the early
1970s to the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN), a broad coalition of
ethnically oriented parties. Additional regional security is provided by ASEAN.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. Members are elected to office
from single-member constituencies to terms of five years. Among the oldest and strongest of
these parties are the United Malays National Organization (UMNO; long the driving force of the
National Front), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), the Malaysian Indian Congress
(MIC), and several parties from Sarawak and Sabah, including Sarawak United Peoples’ Party
(SUPP) and the Sabah United Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah; PBS). On the advice of the prime
minister, the monarch then appoints the other ministers who make up the cabinet. These lower
courts have criminal and civil jurisdiction—criminal cases come before one or the other court
depending on the seriousness of the offense and civil cases depending on the sum involved.
These Islamic courts are governed by state—not federal—legislation.

Political process
Malaysia has a multiparty political system; the country has held free elections and generally has
changed prime ministers peacefully. The Senate consists of about six dozen members; of these,
nearly two-thirds (including those from the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Labuan) are
appointed by the paramount ruler on the recommendation of the prime minister, and the others
are elected by the state legislative assemblies.