On the advice of the prime minister, the monarch then appoints the other ministers who make up

the cabinet. Of the roughly 200 members of the House of Representatives, about two-thirds are
from Peninsular Malaysia, one is from the federal territory of Labuan, and the remaining seats
are divided fairly evenly between Sarawak and Sabah. Election to either house is by a simple
majority, but amendments to the constitution require a two-thirds majority. Additional regional
security is provided by ASEAN.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. All citizens who are at least 21
years old are permitted to vote. Most ministerial appointments are held by Malays, but a few
posts are filled by indigenous and nonindigenous minorities.

Party affiliation generally is based on ethnicity, although this tendency has diminished somewhat
since the mid-20th century. Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu
have sultans, while Perlis has a raja (“king”), and Negeri Sembilan is ruled by the Yang di-
Pertuan Besar (“chief ruler”). The Royal Malaysian Navy concentrates mainly on defending the
long indented coastlines and narrow waters of the country. The Royal Malaysian Air Force has
combat aircraft as well as many transport aircraft and helicopters. Each state has its own written
constitution, legislative assembly, and executive council, which is responsible to the legislative
assembly and headed by a chief minister. The number of ministers is not fixed, but all must be
members of the federal parliament. Malaysian political life and government were dominated
from the early 1970s to the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN), a broad
coalition of ethnically oriented parties. The constitution provides for federal parliamentary
elections and for elections to state legislatures, to be held at least every five years.

All states in Malaysia are subdivided into districts. In addition, there are religious courts in those
Malay states that are established under Islamic law (syariah, or Sharīʿah). Below each High
Court are three subordinate courts: the Sessions Court, the Magistrates’ Court, and the Court for
Children. Members are elected to office from single-member constituencies to terms of five
years. Although their numbers in political positions have been increasing since the late 20th
century, women have remained underrepresented in the political process. The main opposition
parties are the Democratic Action Party (DAP), which consists primarily of ethnic Chinese; the
Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (Parti Islam SeMalaysia; Pas); and, since the early 21st century, the
People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat; PKR). These Islamic courts are governed by state
—not federal—legislation.

Political process
Malaysia has a multiparty political system; the country has held free elections and generally has
changed prime ministers peacefully. Among the oldest and strongest of these parties are the
United Malays National Organization (UMNO; long the driving force of the National Front), the
Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), and several
parties from Sarawak and Sabah, including Sarawak United Peoples’ Party (SUPP) and the
Sabah United Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah; PBS). The police force is well trained and combats not
only crime but also armed insurr
. In Sarawak and Sabah, however, these districts are grouped into larger administrative units
called divisions. Appeals from the High Courts are heard first by the Court of Appeal; they may
then be appealed to the highest court in Malaysia, the Federal Court (formerly called the
Supreme Court), which is headed by a chief justice. The Senate consists of about six dozen
members; of these, nearly two-thirds (including those from the federal territories of Kuala
Lumpur and Labuan) are appointed by the paramount ruler on the recommendation of the prime
minister, and the others are elected by the state legislative assemblies. A separate Special Court
handles cases involving charges against the paramount ruler or the heads of states.
Each High Court consists of a chief judge and a number of other justices. Military service is
voluntary, with a minimum age requirement of 18 years.

The states of Malaysia inherited from their common colonial past an internal security system
based on the British model. These lower courts have criminal and civil jurisdiction—criminal
cases come before one or the other court depending on the seriousness of the offense and civil
cases depending on the sum involved. The federal territories, which include the capital city
region of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the island of Labuan off the
coast of East Malaysia, carry the same status as states, but they do not have separate legislatures
or heads of state.

Most of the peninsular states are led by hereditary rulers. Government and society
Constitutional framework
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state—a monarch—who
bears the title Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected from among nine
hereditary state rulers for a five-year term. A bill passed by both houses and sanctioned by the
Yang di-Pertuan Agong becomes a federal law.

Local government
Malaysia comprises 13 states and 3 federal territories. The heads of state of Melaka, Penang
Island (Pulau Pinang; also Penang), Sarawak, and Sabah—known as Yang di-Pertuan Negeri
(“state ruler”)—are appointed to office. The ruler of a state acts on the advice of the state
government. The High Court has criminal and civil jurisdiction and may pass any sentence
allowed by law. The federal government also includes an independent judiciary and a politically
neutral civil service.
The powers of the federal parliament are relatively broad and include the authority to legislate in
matters concerning government finances, defense, foreign policy, internal security, the
administration of justice, and citizenship. The constitution also provides that some issues may be
addressed by either the federal legislature or a state legislature. In May 2018 a coalition of
opposition parties under the banner of the Alliance of Hope (Pakatan Harapan) ended decades of
BN rule.

Security of Malaysia
The Malaysian armed forces have increased in strength and capability since the formation of
Malaysia in 1963. After the withdrawal of British military forces from Malaysia and Singapore
at the end of 1971, a five-country agreement between Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand,
Australia, and the United Kingdom was concluded to ensure defense against external aggression.
The paramount ruler appoints a prime minister from among the members of the House of
Representatives. There are also a number of smaller parties based mainly in Sarawak and Sabah.
The army is the most experienced and the largest of the three units, constituting roughly three-
fourths of all military personnel. The Malaysian constitution, drafted in 1957 following the
declaration of independence (from the British) by the states of what is now Peninsular Malaysia,
provides for a bicameral federal legislature, consisting of the Senate (Dewan Negara) as the
upper house and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) as the lower. The village, headed
by a tua kampung (“village leader”), is the smallest unit of government.

Justice
The constitution of Malaysia, which is the supreme law of the country, provides that the judicial
power of the federation shall be vested in two High Courts—one in Peninsular Malaysia, called
the High Court in Malaya, and the other in East Malaysia, called the High Court in Sarawak and
Sabah—and also in subordinate courts.