Military service is voluntary, with a minimum age requirement of 18 years.

The states of Malaysia inherited from their common colonial past an internal security system
based on the British model. A separate Special Court handles cases involving charges against the
paramount ruler or the heads of states.
Each High Court consists of a chief judge and a number of other justices. Among the oldest and
strongest of these parties are the United Malays National Organization (UMNO; long the driving
force of the National Front), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), the Malaysian Indian
Congress (MIC), and several parties from Sarawak and Sabah, including Sarawak United
Peoples’ Party (SUPP) and the Sabah United Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah; PBS). Government and
society
Constitutional framework
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state—a monarch—who
bears the title Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected from among nine
hereditary state rulers for a five-year term. These lower courts have criminal and civil
jurisdiction—criminal cases come before one or the other court depending on the seriousness of
the offense and civil cases depending on the sum involved. The Malaysian constitution, drafted
in 1957 following the declaration of independence (from the British) by the states of what is now
Peninsular Malaysia, provides for a bicameral federal legislature, consisting of the Senate
(Dewan Negara) as the upper house and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) as the
lower. Additional regional security is provided by ASEAN.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang,
Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu have sultans, while Perlis has a raja (“king”), and Negeri
Sembilan is ruled by the Yang di-Pertuan Besar (“chief ruler”). Although their numbers in
political positions have been increasing since the late 20th century, women have remained
underrepresented in the political process. Of the roughly 200 members of the House of
Representatives, about two-thirds are from Peninsular Malaysia, one is from the federal territory
of Labuan, and the remaining seats are divided fairly evenly between Sarawak and Sabah. Each
state has its own written constitution, legislative assembly, and executive council, which is
responsible to the legislative assembly and headed by a chief minister. These Islamic courts are
governed by state—not federal—legislation.

Political process
Malaysia has a multiparty political system; the country has held free elections and generally has
changed prime ministers peacefully. The number of ministers is not fixed, but all must be
members of the federal parliament. The constitution also provides that some issues may be
addressed by either the federal legislature or a state legislature. Below each High Court are three
subordinate courts: the Sessions Court, the Magistrates’ Court, and the Court for Children. The
village, headed by a tua kampung (“village leader”), is the smallest unit of government.

Justice
The constitution of Malaysia, which is the supreme law of the country, provides that the judicial
power of the federation shall be vested in two High Courts—one in Peninsular Malaysia, called
the High Court in Malaya, and the other in East Malaysia, called the High Court in Sarawak and
Sabah—and also in subordinate courts. After the withdrawal of British military forces from
Malaysia and Singapore at the end of 1971, a five-country agreement between Malaysia,
Singapore, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom was concluded to ensure defense
against external aggression. Most ministerial appointments are held by Malays, but a few posts
are filled by indigenous and nonindigenous minorities.

Party affiliation generally is based on ethnicity, although this tendency has diminished somewhat
since the mid-20th century. On the advice of the prime minister, the monarch then appoints the
other ministers who make up the cabinet. In Sarawak and Sabah, however, these districts are
grouped into larger administrative units called divisions. The Royal Malaysian Navy
concentrates mainly on defending the long indented coastlines and narrow waters of the country.
A bill passed by both houses and sanctioned by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong becomes a federal
law.

Local government
Malaysia comprises 13 states and 3 federal territories. The Senate consists of about six dozen
members; of these, nearly two-thirds (including those from the federal territories of Kuala
Lumpur and Labuan) are appointed by the paramount ruler on the recommendation of the prime
minister, and the others are elected by the state legislative assemblies. The High Court has
criminal and civil jurisdiction and may pass any sentence allowed by law. The ruler of a state
acts on the advice of the state government. In May 2018 a coalition of opposition parties under
the banner of the Alliance of Hope (Pakatan Harapan) ended decades of BN rule.

Security of Malaysia
The Malaysian armed forces have increased in strength and capability since the formation of
Malaysia in 1963. Malaysian political life and government were dominated from the early 1970s
to the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN), a broad coalition of ethnically
oriented parties. The paramount ruler appoints a prime minister from among the members of the
House of Representatives. The main opposition parties are the Democratic Action Party (DAP),
which consists primarily of ethnic Chinese; the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (Parti Islam
SeMalaysia; Pas); and, since the early 21st century, the People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan
Rakyat; PKR). The federal government also includes an independent judiciary and a politically
neutral civil service.

The powers of the federal parliament are relatively broad and include the authority to legislate in
matters concerning government finances, defense, foreign policy, internal security, the
administration of justice, and citizenship. The army is the most experienced and the largest of the
three units, constituting roughly three-fourths of all military personnel. In addition, there are
religious courts in those Malay states that are established under Islamic law (syariah, or
Sharīʿah). Election to either house is by a simple majority, but amendments to the constitution
require a two-thirds majority. The heads of state of Melaka, Penang Island (Pulau Pinang; also
Penang), Sarawak, and Sabah—known as Yang di-Pertuan Negeri (“state ruler”)—are appointed
to office. There are also a number of smaller parties based mainly in Sarawak and Sabah. The
Royal Malaysian Air Force has combat aircraft as well as many transport aircraft and helicopters.
All citizens who are at least 21 years old are permitted to vote. The federal territories, which
include the capital city region of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the
island of Labuan off the coast of East Malaysia, carry the same status as states, but they do not
have separate legislatures or heads of state.

Most of the peninsular states are led by hereditary rulers. Appeals from the High Courts are
heard first by the Court of Appeal; they may then be appealed to the highest court in Malaysia,
the Federal Court (formerly called the Supreme Court), which is headed by a chief justice. The
police force is well trained and combats not only crime but also armed insurr
. The constitution provides for federal parliamentary elections and for elections to state
legislatures, to be held at least every five years.

All states in Malaysia are subdivided into districts. Members are elected to office from single-
member constituencies to terms of five years.