In Sarawak and Sabah, however, these districts are grouped into larger administrative units

called divisions. Appeals from the High Courts are heard first by the Court of Appeal; they may
then be appealed to the highest court in Malaysia, the Federal Court (formerly called the
Supreme Court), which is headed by a chief justice. Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak,
Selangor, and Terengganu have sultans, while Perlis has a raja (“king”), and Negeri Sembilan is
ruled by the Yang di-Pertuan Besar (“chief ruler”). The paramount ruler appoints a prime
minister from among the members of the House of Representatives. The constitution also
provides that some issues may be addressed by either the federal legislature or a state legislature.
The Royal Malaysian Air Force has combat aircraft as well as many transport aircraft and
helicopters. Most ministerial appointments are held by Malays, but a few posts are filled by
indigenous and nonindigenous minorities.

Party affiliation generally is based on ethnicity, although this tendency has diminished somewhat
since the mid-20th century. There are also a number of smaller parties based mainly in Sarawak
and Sabah. Government and society
Constitutional framework
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state—a monarch—who
bears the title Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected from among nine
hereditary state rulers for a five-year term. Malaysian political life and government were
dominated from the early 1970s to the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN),
a broad coalition of ethnically oriented parties. The main opposition parties are the Democratic
Action Party (DAP), which consists primarily of ethnic Chinese; the Pan-Malaysian Islamic
Party (Parti Islam SeMalaysia; Pas); and, since the early 21st century, the People’s Justice Party
(Parti Keadilan Rakyat; PKR). Military service is voluntary, with a minimum age requirement of
18 years.

The states of Malaysia inherited from their common colonial past an internal security system
based on the British model. In addition, there are religious courts in those Malay states that are
established under Islamic law (syariah, or Sharīʿah). The ruler of a state acts on the advice of the
state government. These lower courts have criminal and civil jurisdiction—criminal cases come
before one or the other court depending on the seriousness of the offense and civil cases
depending on the sum involved. The army is the most experienced and the largest of the three
units, constituting roughly three-fourths of all military personnel. A separate Special Court
handles cases involving charges against the paramount ruler or the heads of states.
Each High Court consists of a chief judge and a number of other justices. Additional regional
security is provided by ASEAN.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. Below each High Court are three
subordinate courts: the Sessions Court, the Magistrates’ Court, and the Court for Children. The
constitution provides for federal parliamentary elections and for elections to state legislatures, to
be held at least every five years.

All states in Malaysia are subdivided into districts. All citizens who are at least 21 years old are
permitted to vote. Among the oldest and strongest of these parties are the United Malays
National Organization (UMNO; long the driving force of the National Front), the Malaysian
Chinese Association (MCA), the Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), and several parties from
Sarawak and Sabah, including Sarawak United Peoples’ Party (SUPP) and the Sabah United
Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah; PBS). Although their numbers in political positions have been
increasing since the late 20th century, women have remained underrepresented in the political
process. In May 2018 a coalition of opposition parties under the banner of the Alliance of Hope
(Pakatan Harapan) ended decades of BN rule.

Security of Malaysia
The Malaysian armed forces have increased in strength and capability since the formation of
Malaysia in 1963. A bill passed by both houses and sanctioned by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong
becomes a federal law.

Local government
Malaysia comprises 13 states and 3 federal territories. The federal government also includes an
independent judiciary and a politically neutral civil service.

The powers of the federal parliament are relatively broad and include the authority to legislate in
matters concerning government finances, defense, foreign policy, internal security, the
administration of justice, and citizenship. The Senate consists of about six dozen members; of
these, nearly two-thirds (including those from the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and
Labuan) are appointed by the paramount ruler on the recommendation of the prime minister, and
the others are elected by the state legislative assemblies. The police force is well trained and
combats not only crime but also armed insurr
. Of the roughly 200 members of the House of Representatives, about two-thirds are from
Peninsular Malaysia, one is from the federal territory of Labuan, and the remaining seats are
divided fairly evenly between Sarawak and Sabah. Each state has its own written constitution,
legislative assembly, and executive council, which is responsible to the legislative assembly and
headed by a chief minister. The Royal Malaysian Navy concentrates mainly on defending the
long indented coastlines and narrow waters of the country. These Islamic courts are governed by
state—not federal—legislation.
Political process
Malaysia has a multiparty political system; the country has held free elections and generally has
changed prime ministers peacefully. The federal territories, which include the capital city region
of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the island of Labuan off the coast
of East Malaysia, carry the same status as states, but they do not have separate legislatures or
heads of state.

Most of the peninsular states are led by hereditary rulers. Members are elected to office from
single-member constituencies to terms of five years. The Malaysian constitution, drafted in 1957
following the declaration of independence (from the British) by the states of what is now
Peninsular Malaysia, provides for a bicameral federal legislature, consisting of the Senate
(Dewan Negara) as the upper house and the House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) as the
lower. The village, headed by a tua kampung (“village leader”), is the smallest unit of
government.

Justice
The constitution of Malaysia, which is the supreme law of the country, provides that the judicial
power of the federation shall be vested in two High Courts—one in Peninsular Malaysia, called
the High Court in Malaya, and the other in East Malaysia, called the High Court in Sarawak and
Sabah—and also in subordinate courts. On the advice of the prime minister, the monarch then
appoints the other ministers who make up the cabinet. The number of ministers is not fixed, but
all must be members of the federal parliament. Election to either house is by a simple majority,
but amendments to the constitution require a two-thirds majority. The High Court has criminal
and civil jurisdiction and may pass any sentence allowed by law. After the withdrawal of British
military forces from Malaysia and Singapore at the end of 1971, a five-country agreement
between Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom was concluded
to ensure defense against external aggression. The heads of state of Melaka, Penang Island
(Pulau Pinang; also Penang), Sarawak, and Sabah—known as Yang di-Pertuan Negeri (“state
ruler”)—are appointed to office.