The ruler of a state acts on the advice of the state government.

After the withdrawal of British

military forces from Malaysia and Singapore at the end of 1971, a five-country agreement
between Malaysia, Singapore, New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom was concluded
to ensure defense against external aggression. The constitution also provides that some issues
may be addressed by either the federal legislature or a state legislature. The federal government
also includes an independent judiciary and a politically neutral civil service.

The powers of the federal parliament are relatively broad and include the authority to legislate in
matters concerning government finances, defense, foreign policy, internal security, the
administration of justice, and citizenship. Government and society
Constitutional framework
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial head of state—a monarch—who
bears the title Yang di-Pertuan Agong (“paramount ruler”) and who is elected from among nine
hereditary state rulers for a five-year term. All citizens who are at least 21 years old are permitted
to vote. The Malaysian constitution, drafted in 1957 following the declaration of independence
(from the British) by the states of what is now Peninsular Malaysia, provides for a bicameral
federal legislature, consisting of the Senate (Dewan Negara) as the upper house and the House of
Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) as the lower. The heads of state of Melaka, Penang Island
(Pulau Pinang; also Penang), Sarawak, and Sabah—known as Yang di-Pertuan Negeri (“state
ruler”)—are appointed to office.
. Most ministerial appointments are held by Malays, but a few posts are filled by indigenous and
nonindigenous minorities.

Party affiliation generally is based on ethnicity, although this tendency has diminished somewhat
since the mid-20th century. The Senate consists of about six dozen members; of these, nearly
two-thirds (including those from the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Labuan) are
appointed by the paramount ruler on the recommendation of the prime minister, and the others
are elected by the state legislative assemblies. The police force is well trained and combats not
only crime but also armed insurr
. In Sarawak and Sabah, however, these districts are grouped into larger administrative units
called divisions. The Royal Malaysian Navy concentrates mainly on defending the long indented
coastlines and narrow waters of the country. The federal territories, which include the capital city
region of Kuala Lumpur, the administrative capital of Putrajaya, and the island of Labuan off the
coast of East Malaysia, carry the same status as states, but they do not have separate legislatures
or heads of state.

Most of the peninsular states are led by hereditary rulers. Although their numbers in political
positions have been increasing since the late 20th century, women have remained
underrepresented in the political process. The number of ministers is not fixed, but all must be
members of the federal parliament. These lower courts have criminal and civil jurisdiction—
criminal cases come before one or the other court depending on the seriousness of the offense
and civil cases depending on the sum involved. A separate Special Court handles cases involving
charges against the paramount ruler or the heads of states.
Each High Court consists of a chief judge and a number of other justices. The paramount ruler
appoints a prime minister from among the members of the House of Representatives. Additional
regional security is provided by ASEAN.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. On the advice of the prime
minister, the monarch then appoints the other ministers who make up the cabinet. Below each
High Court are three subordinate courts: the Sessions Court, the Magistrates’ Court, and the
Court for Children. The army is the most experienced and the largest of the three units,
constituting roughly three-fourths of all military personnel. Appeals from the High Courts are
heard first by the Court of Appeal; they may then be appealed to the highest court in Malaysia,
the Federal Court (formerly called the Supreme Court), which is headed by a chief justice. The
Royal Malaysian Air Force has combat aircraft as well as many transport aircraft and helicopters.
The main opposition parties are the Democratic Action Party (DAP), which consists primarily of
ethnic Chinese; the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (Parti Islam SeMalaysia; Pas); and, since the
early 21st century, the People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat; PKR). The constitution
provides for federal parliamentary elections and for elections to state legislatures, to be held at
least every five years.

All states in Malaysia are subdivided into districts. Members are elected to office from single-
member constituencies to terms of five years. A bill passed by both houses and sanctioned by the
Yang di-Pertuan Agong becomes a federal law.

Local government
Malaysia comprises 13 states and 3 federal territories. There are also a number of smaller parties
based mainly in Sarawak and Sabah. These Islamic courts are governed by state—not federal—
legislation.

Political process
Malaysia has a multiparty political system; the country has held free elections and generally has
changed prime ministers peacefully. Election to either house is by a simple majority, but
amendments to the constitution require a two-thirds majority. Of the roughly 200 members of the
House of Representatives, about two-thirds are from Peninsular Malaysia, one is from the federal
territory of Labuan, and the remaining seats are divided fairly evenly between Sarawak and
Sabah. The village, headed by a tua kampung (“village leader”), is the smallest unit of
government.

Justice
The constitution of Malaysia, which is the supreme law of the country, provides that the judicial
power of the federation shall be vested in two High Courts—one in Peninsular Malaysia, called
the High Court in Malaya, and the other in East Malaysia, called the High Court in Sarawak and
Sabah—and also in subordinate courts. The High Court has criminal and civil jurisdiction and
may pass any sentence allowed by law. Malaysian political life and government were dominated
from the early 1970s to the late 2010s by the National Front (Barisan Nasional; BN), a broad
coalition of ethnically oriented parties. Military service is voluntary, with a minimum age
requirement of 18 years.

The states of Malaysia inherited from their common colonial past an internal security system
based on the British model. In addition, there are religious courts in those Malay states that are
established under Islamic law (syariah, or Sharīʿah). In May 2018 a coalition of opposition
parties under the banner of the Alliance of Hope (Pakatan Harapan) ended decades of BN rule.

Security of Malaysia
The Malaysian armed forces have increased in strength and capability since the formation of
Malaysia in 1963. Each state has its own written constitution, legislative assembly, and executive
council, which is responsible to the legislative assembly and headed by a chief minister. Johor,
Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, and Terengganu have sultans, while Perlis has a raja
(“king”), and Negeri Sembilan is ruled by the Yang di-Pertuan Besar (“chief ruler”). Among the
oldest and strongest of these parties are the United Malays National Organization (UMNO; long
the driving force of the National Front), the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), the
Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC), and several parties from Sarawak and Sabah, including
Sarawak United Peoples’ Party (SUPP) and the Sabah United Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah; PBS).