SOIL MECHANICS

Principle of Effective Stress, Capillarity and

Permeability on Soil
6.1 Concept of total stress, pore water
pressure and effective stress
6.2 Effective stress equation and its
physical interpretation
6.3 Surface tension and capillarity in soils
6.4 Computation of effective stresses in
hydrostatic, uniform seepage,
capillary and uniform surcharge
conditions
6.5 Types of head, seepage pressure and quick
sand condition
6.6 Permeability and its determination –
Laboratory and field method
6.7 Average permeability of stratified soil
6.8 Factors affecting permeability

Abhash Acharya 1
CONCEPT OF TOTAL STRESS, PORE WATER PRESSURE AND
EFFECTIVE STRESS
• Total Stress (sz or s)
• When a load is applied to the soil, it is carried by
the solid grains and the water in the pores.
• The total vertical stress acting at a point below the
ground surface is due to the weight of everything
that lies above, including soil, water, and surface
loading.
• Total stress thus increases with depth and with
unit weight.

Abhash Acharya 2
CONCEPT OF TOTAL STRESS, PORE WATER PRESSURE AND
EFFECTIVE STRESS
• Pore Water Pressure (u) / Neutral Stress
• The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is
called pore water pressure (u).
• The magnitude of pore water pressure depends
on:
• The depth below the water table.
• The conditions of seepage flow. Under hydrostatic conditions, no water flow takes
place, and the pore pressure at a given point is
• The natural level of ground water is called the
given by
water table or the pheratic surface which is
u = γw.h
horizontal under conditions of no seepage flow. where, h = depth below water table or overlying
• u – zero at water table, positive below WT. water surface.

Abhash Acharya 3
CONCEPT OF TOTAL STRESS, PORE WATER PRESSURE AND
EFFECTIVE STRESS
• Effective Stress (σ’)
• Principle of effective stress is valid only for
saturated soils.
• At any point in a soil mass, σ’ is related to σ
and u as: σ’ = σ – u (Both σ and u can be
measured at a point).
• All measurable effects of a change of stress
as compression and change of shearing The effective stress is not the exact contact

resistance are exclusively due to change in stress between particles but the distribution of

effective stress. load carried by the soil particles over the area
considered.
• Compression = f1(σ’)
Abhash Acharya
• Shear Strength = f2(σ’) 4
CONCEPT OF TOTAL STRESS, PORE WATER PRESSURE AND
EFFECTIVE STRESS
• Effective Stress (σ’)
Two soil particles in contact over area Ac
Total gross area in plan = A
Pore water pressure acts over area = A – Ac
• 𝑃 = 𝑃 ′ + 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑐 . 𝑢

𝑃 𝑃′ (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑐 )
= + .𝑢
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

′
𝐴𝑐
𝜎 =𝜎 + 1− .𝑢
𝐴 The effective stress is not the exact contact
stress between particles but the distribution of
• 𝜎 = 𝜎 ′ + 𝑢 (Ac tends to zero as in granular
load carried by the soil particles over the area
material, contact area approach point area)
considered.

Abhash Acharya 5
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY IN SOILS
• Surface Tension
• Surface tension is defined as the force per unit
length of a line drawn on the surface.
• It exists at the interface.
Pull from air above is less
• Capillary water exists in soil so long as there is an than pull from water
below
air-water interface. Molecule is in equilibrium

• As soon as the soil is submerged under water,

the interface is destroyed, and the capillary Free water: Moves in the pores of the soil under the
influence of gravity.
water becomes normal, free water. Held water: Retains in the pores of the soil and cannot
move under the influence of gravitational force.

Abhash Acharya 6
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY IN SOILS
• Capillary Rise in Soils
• Capillary rise in soils depend upon the size
• The water which falls on the ground as rain flows
and grading of the particles.
under gravity and passes through the soil and reaches
• The diameter (d) of the pore passage
a surface known as Ground Water Table (GWT).
depends upon the diameter of the particles.
• The soil is saturated below GWT.
• For coarse grained soil, d = 0.2D10
• The water is drawn above the WT due to
• As the capillary rise is inversely
capillarity action.
proportional to the diameter of the
• A soil mass consists of a number of interconnected
tube, the capillary rise is small in coarse
interstices which act as capillary tube of varying
grained soils.
diameters.
• But it may be very large in fine-grained
soils. In some cases, it may be more
than 30m.
Abhash Acharya 7
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY IN SOILS
• Capillary Rise in Soils Ground Surface

• Zone of capillary saturation – soil is fully saturated. Water Table

• Zone of aeration – the soil is not saturated. Zone of aeration
• The height at which capillary water rises in soil is known as capillary
fringe.
• It includes the zone of capillary saturation and a part of zone of Zone of saturation
aeration in which the capillary water exists in interconnected
channels.
• The soil above the capillary fringe may contain water in the form of
contact water. At a point of contact, contact pressure is induced. Contact Moisture
• The contact pressure decreases as the water content increases
because of an increase in radius of meniscus. Eventually, a stage is
reached when the contact pressure becomes zero as soon as the soil
becomes fully saturated.
Contact pressure depends upon: water
content, particle size, angle of contact and
Abhash Acharya density of packing. 8
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY IN SOILS
• Capillary Rise in Soils
Associated Numerical
• Terzaghi and Peck (1948) gave a relationship between
The capillary rise in soil A with D10 = 0.06mm is 60 cm.
maximum height of capillary fringe and the effective size.
Estimate the capillary rise in soil B with D10 as 0.1mm. Assume
𝐶
(hc)max = the same void ratio in both the soils.
𝑒.𝐷10

Where, C = Constant depending upon the shape of the solution

grain and impurities. For soil A For soil B
e = void ratio 𝐶 𝐶
h= h=
𝑒.𝐷10 𝑒.𝐷10
D10 = effective diameter, the size corresponding to
𝐶 600∗0.06∗𝑒
600 = h= (From a)
10% finer. 𝑒∗0.06 𝑒∗0.06

If D10 is in mm, C varies from 10-50 mm2, hmax is given C = 600*0.06*e .... a) h = 360 mm

in mm.
If D10 and hmax is in cm, C varies from 0.1 to 0.5 cm2.

Abhash Acharya 9
 EFFECT OF WATER TABLE FLUCTUATION ON EFFECTIVE
STRESS
• Capillary Rise in Soils
Cases
If the water table rises to the ground surface, soil of
height H1 will also be submerged.
H1 Bulk unit wt γt
𝜎 = γsat * H1 + γsat * H2
H u = γw * H
σ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = γsat * H - γw * H = γsub * H
γsat
H2 σ′ reduced due to rise of water table.
W
A A’ If the water table is depressed below the section AA’,
Total downward force (W) at a section AA’ u = 0.
W = γt * H1 * A + γsat * H2 * A
𝜎 = 𝜎′
A = Area of cross-section of soil mass
𝜎 = γt * H
𝜎 = γt * H1 + γsat * H2 𝜎 ′ = γt * H
u = γw * H2
σ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = γt * H1 + γsat * H2 - γw * H2 = γt * H1 + γsub * H2 𝜎 ′ increased due to decrease in water table.

Abhash Acharya 10
EFFECTIVE STRESS IN A SOIL MASS UNDER HYDROSTATIC
CONDITIONS

Abhash Acharya 11
WATER SURFACE AT THE SOIL SURFACE A-A

Abhash Acharya 12
DUE TO SURCHARGED LOAD

Abhash Acharya 13
SOILS SATURATED BY CAPILLARY ACTION

Abhash Acharya 14
NUMERICAL
• A fine sand deposit is located between the ground A A
surface to a depth of 10m. The soil has an average e = 0.70
4m
G = 2.65
void ratio of 0.70 and a specific gravity of 2.65. The s = 0.55
B B
water table is found at a depth of 4m below the
4m
ground surface. Above the water table the degree of
saturation is 55%. Determine the total stress, pore C C

water pressure and effective stress at a depth of 8m 2m

below the ground surface. Calculate also the change D D

in the effective stress if the water table rises 1m
above the original level.

Abhash Acharya 15
NUMERICAL Calculation of bulk unit weight
(𝐺+𝑠.𝑒)𝛾𝑤 (2.65+ 0.55∗0.70 )
𝛾b = = ∗ 9.81 = 17.51 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3
1+𝑒 1+0.70
A A
Calculation of saturated unit weight
e = 0.70
4m
G = 2.65 𝐺+𝑒 𝛾𝑤 (2.65+0.70)
s = 0.55 𝛾sat = = ∗ 9.81 = 19.33 𝐾𝑁/𝑚3
B B 1+𝑒 1+0.70

4m

C C At a depth 8m below the ground surface (At C-C)

𝜎 = 17.51 ∗ 4 + 19.33 ∗ 4 = 147.32 KN/m2
2m
u = 9.81 * 4 = 39.24 KN/m2
D D
𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 147.32 – 39.24 = 108.08 KN/m2
Case A

Abhash Acharya 16
 At a depth 8m below the ground surface (At C-C)
NUMERICAL
𝜎 = 17.51 ∗ 3 + 19.33 ∗ 5 = 149.18 KN/m2
u = 9.81 * 5 = 49.05 KN/m2
A A
e = 0.70 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 149.18 – 49.05 = 100.13 KN/m2
3m
G = 2.65
s = 0.55
B B Now,

5m Change in effective stress = 108.08 – 100.13 = 7.95 KN/m2

C C

2m

D D

Case B

Abhash Acharya 17
NUMERICAL
• A sand deposit consists of two layers. The top layer is A A
3 m thick (𝜌 = 1800kg/m3) and the bottom layer is 3m 𝜌 = 1800kg/m3 4m
3.5m thick (𝜌sat = 2500kg/m3). The water table is at a
B B
Zone of capillary Saturation
depth of 4m from the surface and zone of capillary 1m
3.5m
saturation is 1m above the water table. Draw the C C
2.5m 𝜌sat = 2500kg/m3
diagram showing the variation of total stress, neutral
D D
stress (pore water pressure) and effective stress.

Abhash Acharya 18
 • At B-B (Immediately above)
𝜎 = 1800 * 9.81 * 10-3 * 3 = 52.97 KN/m2
NUMERICAL
u=0

A 𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 52.97 KN/m2
A
• At B-B (Immediately below)
3m 𝜌 = 1800kg/m3 4m 𝜎 = 1800 * 9.81 * 10-3 * 3 = 52.97 KN/m2
B B
Zone of capillary Saturation
u = - 9.81 * 1 = - 9.81 KN/m2
1m 𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 52.97 + 9.81 = 62.78 KN/m2
3.5m
C C
𝜌sat = 2500kg/m3 • At C-C
2.5m
D D 𝜎 = 1800 * 9.81 * 10-3 *3 + 2500 * 9.81 * 10-3 * 1 = 77.50 KN/m2

• At A-A u=0
𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 77.50 KN/m2
𝜎=0
• At D-D
u =0
𝜎 = 1800 * 9.81 * 10-3 *3 + 2500 * 9.81 * 10-3 * 3.5 = 138.81 KN/m2
𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 0
u = 9.81 * 2.5 = 24.525 KN/m2
Abhash Acharya 𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 114.285 KN/m2 19
NUMERICAL 𝜎 𝑢 𝜎’
0 0 0
A A

52.97 −9.81
B B

77.50 77.50
C C

D D
138.81 24.525 114.285
• At A-A
𝜎 = 0, u = 0, 𝜎’ = 𝜎 – u = 0
• At C-C
At B-B (Immediately above)
𝜎 = 77.50 KN/m2, u = 0, 𝜎’ = 77.50 KN/m2
𝜎 = 52.97 KN/m2, u = 0, 𝜎’ = 52.97 KN/m2
• At D-D
• At B-B (Immediately after)
𝜎 = 138.81 KN/m2 , u = 24.525 KN/m2, 𝜎’ = 114.285 KN/m2
𝜎 = 52.97 KN/m2, u = - 9.81 KN/m2, 𝜎’ = 62.78 KN/m2

Abhash Acharya 20
HYDRAULIC HEAD
• The total head of any point in a flowing fluid is equal to the sum of
elevation (datum) head, the pressure head and the velocity head.
• The elevation head (z) is equal to the vertical distance of the point
above the datum.
• The pressure head (P/𝛾) is equal to the head indicated by the
piezometer with its tip at that point.
• The velocity head v2/2g. • The head ‘h’ is known as hydraulic head. It is equal to the
• However, for the flow of water through soils, the velocity ‘v’ is difference in elevations of water levels at the entry and exit
points of a soil mass.
extremely small and thus the velocity head is neglected. Therefore,
• Hydraulic head is also known as effective head.
the total head of water in soil engineering problem is equal to the i = h/L
• Where, i is known as the hydraulic gradient defined as the loss of
sum of elevation head and pressure head. head per unit length of flow through soil.

Abhash Acharya 21
 If i = 1, V = k

DARCY’S LAW The coefficient of permeability is defined as the velocity of flow

which would occur under unit hydraulic gradient.

q Validity of Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s law is valid if flow through soil is laminar.

𝜌.𝑣.𝐷
• The flow of free water through soil is governed by Darcy’s law. ≤1
𝜂
• Darcy demonstrated experimentally that for a laminar flow in a
where, 𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow (V) is given by 𝐷 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜂 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
V=k.i
Where, k is the coefficient of permeability • It has been observed that Darcy’s law is valid for clay, silt

i is the hydraulic gradient and fine sands only.

• The velocity of flow is also known as discharge velocity or superficial • In coarse sands, gravels and boulders, the flow may be

velocity. turbulent.
• Hough gave the following equation for velocity when the
q = k.i.A
flow is turbulent.
Where, A is the cross-sectional area of soil, normal to the direction of flow and
includes both the ‘solids’ and ‘voids’. v = k.(i)n
n = exponent with a value of 0.65.
Abhash Acharya 22
SEEPAGE VELOCITY
• Discharge velocity , V = q/A
• The total area A is composed of area of voids, Av and area of We have, V = k.i
solids As. But flow can take place only through the area of Vs = kp . i (kp is referred as coefficient of percolation)
voids, Av. The actual velocity of flow, referred to as seepage 𝑉𝑠 𝑘𝑝 .𝑖 𝑘𝑝
= = ………….a)
velocity and denoted by Vs is thus greater than the theoretical 𝑉 𝑘.𝑖 𝑘

velocity obtained from Darcy’s law. 𝑉𝑠 1

= ……………b)
𝑉 𝑛
𝑞
Seepage velocity, Vs = Equating a) and b)
𝐴𝑣

q = A.V = Av.Vs 𝑘𝑝 1
=
Vs =
𝐴.𝑉
= 𝑉.
1 𝐴𝑣
=
𝑉𝑉
=𝑛 𝑘 𝑛
𝐴𝑣 𝑛 𝐴 𝑉

𝑉 𝑘
Vs = (n is the porosity of the soil mass) 𝑘𝑝 =
𝑛 𝑛

Abhash Acharya 23
SEEPAGE PRESSURE
• The seepage pressure always acts in the direction of flow.
• As the water flows through a soil, it exerts a force on the soil.
• The vertical effective pressure may be decreased or increased,
• The force acts in the direction of flow in the case of isotropic soils.
due to the seepage pressure depending upon the direction of
• The force is known as the drag force or seepage force and the pressure
flow.
in the soil is known as seepage pressure.
• Thus, the effective pressure in a soil mass subjected to seepage
• If ‘h’ is the hydraulic head, z be the thickness of soil mass, then the
pressure is given by
seepage pressure is given by

Ps = 𝛾w . h
𝜎’ = z*𝛾’ ± Ps = z*𝛾’ ± i*z*𝛾w
ℎ
Ps = 𝛾w * ∗ 𝑧 = i*z*𝛾w
𝑧
+ → downward direction
The seepage force J transmitted to the soil mass of total cross
sectional area A is - → upward direction

J = Ps . A = i*z*𝛾w*A
The seepage force per unit volume is given by

𝑖∗𝑧∗𝛾𝑤 ∗𝐴
j= = 𝑖 ∗ 𝛾𝑤
𝑧∗𝐴

Abhash Acharya 24
EFFECTIVE STRESS UNDER STEADY SEEPAGE CONDITIONS
• The seepage pressure always acts in the direction of flow.
• The vertical effective pressure may be decreased or increased,
due to the seepage pressure depending upon the direction of
flow.
• Thus, the effective pressure in a soil mass subjected to seepage
pressure is given by

𝜎’ = z*𝛾’ ± Ps = z*𝛾’ ± i*z*𝛾w

+ → downward direction
- → upward direction

Abhash Acharya 25
EFFECTIVE STRESS UNDER STEADY SEEPAGE CONDITIONS
• A) Downward flow

Abhash Acharya 26
EFFECTIVE STRESS UNDER STEADY SEEPAGE CONDITIONS
• A) Upward flow

Abhash Acharya 27
 𝜎 = 𝛾sat * L = [𝛾’ + 𝛾w] * L
QUICK SAND CONDITION u = 𝛾w * Hw1 = 𝛾w * [L + h]
• The effective stress is reduced due to upward flow of water. ℎ
𝜎’ = 𝛾’*L + 𝛾w*L - 𝛾w*L - 𝛾w*h = 𝛾’*L - 𝛾w* ∗ 𝐿 = 𝛾’*L - 𝛾w*i*L
𝐿
When the head causing upward flow is increased, a stage is
The effective stress becomes zero if
eventually reached when the effective stress is reduced to zero.
The condition so developed is known as quick sand condition. 𝛾’*L = 𝛾w*i*L
• A soil specimen of length L subjected to an upward pressure. Let 𝛾′
i=
𝛾𝑤
us consider the stress developed at section C-C.
The hydraulic gradient at which the effective stress becomes
zero is known as the critical gradient (ic).
𝛾′
ic =
𝛾𝑤

Substituting the value of the submerged unit weight in terms of

void ratio.
𝐺 −1
ic =
1+𝑒

Abhash Acharya 28
QUICK SAND CONDITION
The shear strength of a cohesionless soil depends upon the • The shear strength of cohesive soil is given by
effective stress. The shear strength is given by s = c + 𝜎’Tan𝜙
s = 𝜎’Tan𝜙 • The soil has the shear strength equal to the cohesion
Where, intercept (c) even when the effective stress is reduced to
𝜙 is the angle of shearing resistance. zero.
The shear strength becomes zero when 𝜎’ = 0. • The cohesive soils, therefore do not become quick as
• The soil is then said to be in quick condition. soon as the effective stress is reduced to zero.
• If the critical gradient is exceeded, the soil particle moves
upward and the surface appears to be boiling.
• The quick condition is also called boiling condition.
• The soil behaves as a liquid having no shear strength.
• As a matter of fact, quick sand behaves like a liquid with a
unit weight about twice that of water.

Abhash Acharya 29
QUICK SAND CONDITION
Summary

• Quick sand is not a special type of soil. It is a • The cohesive soil doesn’t become quick when the
hydraulic condition. effective stress is equal to zero, as it still possess
• A cohesionless soil becomes quick when the effective some strength equal to cohesion intercept.
stress is equal to zero. • A quick sand condition is most likely to occur in
• The critical gradient at which cohesionless soil silt and fine sand.
becomes quick is about unity.
• The discharge required to maintain a quick condition
in a soil increases as the permeability of the soil
increases.

Abhash Acharya 30
 𝑛 0.40
NUMERICAL • e=
1−𝑛
=
1−0.40
= 0.667
𝛾 21
A 3m thick soil stratum has a coefficient of permeability • 𝛾d = = = 16.03 KN/m3
1+𝑤 1.31
of 3*10-7 m/sec. A separate test gave porosity 40% and • Also,
bulk unit weight 21 KN/m3 at a moisture content of 𝐺𝛾𝑤
• 𝛾d =
1+𝑒
31%. Determine the head at which upward seepage will
9.81∗𝐺
cause quick sand condition. What is the flow required to • 16.03 = → G = 2.724
1+0.667

maintain critical condition? • Now, ic =

𝐺−1
=
2.724 − 1
=
1.724
= 1.034
1+𝑒 1+0.667 1.667

ℎ
• But, ic =
• k = 3*10-7 m/secs. 𝐿

• n = 40% ℎ
• 1.034 =
3
• 𝛾 = 21 KN/m3
• h = 3.10 m
• w = 0.31
• q = k*i*A = 3*10-7 * 1.034 * A
• = 3*10-7 * 1.034m3/sec/m2 area of soil
Abhash Acharya stratum. 31
PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
• The property of soil which permits the flow of water • A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it
through it. easily. (Gravels)
• Permeability is the ease with which water can flow through • In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and
it. water cannot easily flow through it. (Clays)
• Darcy demonstrated experimentally that for a laminar flow in a • Rocks are impermeable.
homogeneous soil, the velocity of flow (V) is given by
V=k.i
Where, k is the coefficient of permeability
i is the hydraulic gradient
• If i = 1, V = k → The coefficient of permeability is defined as the
velocity of flow which would occur under unit hydraulic gradient.

Abhash Acharya 32
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Laboratory Method
• Constant Head Method
• Falling Head Method
• Field Method
• Pumping Out Tests
• Unconfined Aquifer
• Confined Aquifer
• Pumping In Tests
• Open-end Tests
• Packer Tests

Abhash Acharya 33
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Laboratory Method – Constant Head Method
• Suitable for coarse grained soil.
• Apparatus used: Constant head permeameter which
consists of metallic mould of 100mm internal
diameter, 127.3 mm effective height and 1000 ml
capacity.
• The mould is provided with a drainage base plate
with a recess for porous stone.
• The mould is fitted with a drainage cap having an inlet
valve and an air release valve.
• The soil sample is placed inside the mould between
two porous discs.
• The porous disc should be at least ten times more
permeable than the soil.
• Before the start of the test, the soil in the
permeameter should be fully saturated.
Abhash Acharya
• The constant head reservoir is connected to
the drainage cap. Water is allowed to flow out
form the drainage base for some time till a
steady-state is established.
• The water level in the constant head chamber
in which the mould is placed is kept constant.
• The water which enters the chamber after
flowing through the sample fills over the
chamber and is collected in a graduated jar for
a convenient period.
• The head causing flow (h) is equal to the
difference in water level between the constant
head reservoir and constant head chamber.
ℎ
• q=k*i*A=k* *A
𝐿
𝑞∗𝐿 𝑉∗𝐿
→k = = (As q = Volume/Time)
ℎ∗𝐴 ℎ∗𝐴∗𝑇
where, A is the area of the specimen.
L is the length of the specimen.
h is the head causing flow. 34
 𝑞∗𝐿 𝑉∗𝐿
k= =
𝑞∗𝐿 𝑉∗𝐿 ℎ∗𝐴 ℎ∗𝐴∗𝑇
• k= =
NUMERICAL ℎ∗𝐴 ℎ∗𝐴∗𝑇

430 ∗6 𝑉
=
40 ∗50 ∗10 ∗60
Seepage velocity, Vs =
𝑛
• Calculate the coefficient of permeability of a
= 0.00215 cm/secs = 0.0215 mm/secs
soil sample 6 cm in height and 50 cm2 in cross q=A*v
Calculation of discharge velocity, v
section, if a quantity of water equal to 430 cc 𝑉
q=A*v 𝑞=
passed down in 10 minutes under an effective 𝑇
𝑞 𝑉 430
v= = = = 0.0143 cm/secs = 0.143 mm/secs 𝑒
constant head of 40 cm. On oven drying, the 𝐴 𝐴∗𝑇 50 ∗10 ∗60 n=
1+𝑒
test specimen weighed 4.98 N. Take G = 2.65. Dry wt. of the specimen, Wd = 4.98 N
𝐺 ∗ 𝛾𝑤
Calculate the seepage velocity of water Volume of the specimen, V’ = 50 * 6 = 300 cm3 = 300000 mm3 e= −1
𝛾𝑑
during the test. 1.66 ∗ 10−5
𝑊𝑑
𝑊𝑑 4.98
𝛾d = = = 1.66 * 10-5 N/mm3 = 1000
1 = 16.60 KN/m3 𝛾d =
𝑉′ 3∗105 𝑉
109

Length of specimen (L) = 6 cm 𝐺 ∗ 𝛾𝑤 2.65 ∗ 9.81

e= −1= − 1 = 0.566
Cross sectional area (A) = 50 cm2 𝛾𝑑 16.60

𝑒 0.566
Volume (V) = 430 cm3 n= = = 0.36
1+𝑒 1.566
Time (T) = 10 minutes 𝑣 0.143
Seepage velocity, vs = = = 0.397 mm/secs
𝑛 0.36
Abhash Acharya 35
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Laboratory Method – Falling Head Method • The time required for the water level to fall
• For relatively less permeable soils, the quantity of from a known initial head (h1) to a known final
water collected in the graduated jar of the constant head (h2) is determined.
head permeability test is very small and cannot be • The head is measured with reference to the
measured accurately. For such soils, the variable-head level of water in the constant head chamber.
permeability test is used. • Let us consider the instant when the head is h.
• The permeameter mould is the same as that used in • For small time dt, the head falls by dh.
the constant head permeability test. • Let the discharge through the sample be q.
• A vertical graduated stand pipe of known diameter is
• From continuity of flow:
fitted to the top of the permeameter.
• adh = -qdt
• The sample is placed between the porous disc.
• q=kiA
• The whole assembly is kept in a constant head
ℎ
chamber filled with water to the birm at the start of • a*v=A*k*
𝐿
the test.
𝑑ℎ ℎ
• The soil is made saturated. • -a* =A*k*
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
• The test is started by allowing the water in the stand 𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ
• A*k* =-
pipe to flow through the samples to the constant 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ

𝐴.𝑘 𝑡2 ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
head-chamber from which it overflows and fills out. • ‫𝑡𝑑 ׬‬ = - ‫׬‬ℎ1
𝑎.𝐿 𝑡1 ℎ
Abhash Acharya 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ1 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ1 36
• k= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 2.303 * 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐴.𝑡 ℎ2 𝐴.𝑡 ℎ2
NUMERICAL
• In falling head permeameter test, the initial 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ1 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ1
• k= loge k= loge
𝐴.𝑡 ℎ2
head (t=0) is 40 cm. The head drops by 5 cm 𝐴.𝑡 ℎ2
0.50 ∗ 6 40
in 10 minutes. Calculate the time required to = ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
50 ∗600 35

run the test for the final head to be at 20 cm. = 0.00001335301 cm/secs
If the sample is 6 cm in height and 50 cm2 in = 1.1537 cm/day
cross section, calculate the coefficient of
permeability, taking area of stand pipe as 0.5 𝑎.𝐿 ℎ1
• k= loge
𝐴.𝑡 ℎ2
cm2.
0.50 ∗6 40
1.1537 = ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
50 ∗𝑡 20

h1 = 40 cm 0.041588
1.1537 =
𝑡
h2 = 35 cm
t = 0.036048 day = 0.036048*86400 seconds = 3114.5472 seconds
t = 600 seconds
= 51.90 minutes

Abhash Acharya 37
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method
• The laboratory methods for the determination of the coefficient of permeability do not give correct results.
• The samples used are generally disturbed and do not represents the true in-situ structures.
• The field tests may be in the form of pumping out-test or pumping in test.

Abhash Acharya 38
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests
• Used for large engineering projects.
• Useful for a homogenous, coarse grained deposits for which it is difficult to
obtain undisturbed sample.
• In this test, the soil deposit over a large area is influenced, and therefore the
results represent an overall coefficient of permeability of a large mass of
soil.
• Pumping test can be done through confined and unconfined aquifers.
• Aquifers are reservoirs of ground water that can be easily drained or
pumped out.
• An aquiclude is a soil deposit which is impervious.
• If an aquifer has no aquiclude at its top and the water table is in the
aquifer itself, it is called unconfined aquifer.
• If an aquifer is confined between two aquicludes, one at its top and
the other at the bottom, it is known as confined aquifer.

Abhash Acharya 39
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests – Unconfined Aquifer
• A tube well is drilled as shown in the figure. The well reaches the
underlying impervious stratum.
• The tube used for the well is perforated so that water can enter the
well.
• The tube is surrounded by a screen called strainer to check the flow dz
dr
of soil particles into the well.
• Water is pumped out of the tube well till a steady state is reached.
At that stage, the discharge becomes constant and the water level
in the well does not change.
• The water table, which was originally horizontal before the
pumping was started is depressed near the well and forms an
inverted cone, known as the cone of depression. The maximum
depression of the water table is known as the drawdown (d).

Abhash Acharya 40
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests – Unconfined Aquifer
• The expression for the coefficient of permeability can be derived by
making the following assumption (Dupuit’s Assumptions)
• The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
• The soil mass is isotropic and homogeneous.
• The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer. dz
dr
• The flow is steady.
• The coefficient of permeability remains constant throughout.
• The flow towards the well is radial and horizontal.
• Natural ground water regime remains constant.
• The slope of the HGL is small and can be taken as the tangent
of the angle in place of sine of angle.
𝑑𝑧
• i=
𝑑𝑟

Abhash Acharya 41
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests – Unconfined Aquifer
• Let us consider the flow through the cylindrical surface of height z
at a radial distance of r from the centre of the well.

• q=kiA dz
dr
𝑑𝑧
• q=k* *A
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑧
• q=k* *2𝜋rz
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑟 𝑘
• = * 2 𝜋 z dz
𝑟 𝑞 𝑅
𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
If there is only one well, then, k = 2.303 * q *
𝑟2 2𝜋𝑘 𝑧22 −𝑧12 𝜋 (𝐷 −ℎ2 )
2
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = [ ] where, R is the radius of influence
𝑟1 𝑞 2
rw is the radius of well, D is the depth of aquifer measured below the water table
𝑟2 𝑟2 h is the depth of water in the well.
𝑞.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑞.𝑙𝑜𝑔10
• k= 𝑟1
= 2.303 * 𝑟1
𝜋.(𝑧2 −𝑧12 )
2 𝜋.(𝑧2 −𝑧12 )
2
Radius of influence, R = 3000 *d* 𝑘
Abhash Acharya 42
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests – Confined Aquifer
• Confined aquifer of thickness ‘b’ and lying between two aquiclude
is shown in the figure.
• The piezometric surface is above the top of the aquifer. In confined
aquifer, the water pressure is indicated by the piezometric surface
(PS).
• Initially, the piezometric surface is horizontal. When the pumping is
started from the well, it is depressed and a cone of depression is
formed.

Abhash Acharya 43
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-Out Tests – Confined Aquifer
• Let us consider the discharge through a cylindrical surface at a
radial distance ‘r’ from the centre and of height z.
• q=kiA
𝑑𝑧
• q=k* *2𝜋rb
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝑏
• = dz
𝑟 𝑞

𝑟2 2𝜋𝑘𝑏 𝑧
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟1
=
𝑞
[z]𝑧12

𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑞 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑞 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
• k= 𝑟1
= 2.303 * 𝑟1
2 𝜋 𝑏 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) 2 𝜋 𝑏 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑅
𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑟𝑤
If there is only one well, then, k = 2.303 * q *
2 𝜋 𝑏 (𝐷−ℎ)

Abhash Acharya 44
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Field Method – Pumping-In Tests (Self-Study)
• Open-end Tests
𝑞
• k=
5.5∗𝑟∗𝐻

Packer Tests
• where, q is the constant rate of flow
r is the inside radius of casing
H is the difference of level between the inlet to the casing and water table.
Open-end Tests

• Packer Tests
• Single Packer Tests
𝑞 𝐿
k= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 , if L ≥ 10r
2𝜋𝐿𝐻 𝑟

𝑞 𝐿
k= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 , if 10r ˃ L ≥ r
2𝜋𝐿𝐻 𝑟
where, r is the inside radius of the hole
L is the length of the hole tested
H is the difference of water levels at the entry and GWT for the hole teste below the water table

Abhash Acharya • Double Packer Tests

45
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
• Indirect Method – Allen Hazen’s Formula

k = C.D102
where, k is the coefficient of permeability (cm/secs)
D10 = effective size (cm)
C = constant with a value between 100 and 150

If k and D10 are taken in mm/secs and mm respectively, the value of the constant C lies between 10 and 15.

Note: Refer to your textbook for other indirect methods.

Abhash Acharya 46
NUMERICAL
• In order to determine the average coefficient of permeability of a bed of
sand 14 meters thick, overlying an impervious stratum, a well was sunk
through the sand and a pumping test was carried out. After a certain 2.14 m

interval, the discharge was 12.4 liters per second and drawdown in the 1.495
1.787
observation wells at 16 meters and 33 meters respectively from the test 14 m
well were found to be 1.787 m and 1.495 m respectively. If the GWT was
originally 2.14 m below the ground surface, find a) the permeability of
sand layers b) an approximate value for effective grain size.

𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑞.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑞.𝑙𝑜𝑔10 k = c.D102
𝑟1 𝑟1
k= = 2.303 *
𝜋.(𝑧22 −𝑧12 ) 𝜋.(𝑧22 −𝑧12 )
Taking c = 125
33
12.4∗10−3 .𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 D10 = 0.0195 cm
16
k= 2 2
𝜋.(𝑧2 −𝑧1 )
33 r2 = 33m z2 = (14-2.14-1.495)m
12.4∗10−3 .𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 r1 = 16m
k= 16 = 0.000479m/secs = 4.79*10-4 m/secs z2 = 10.365 m
𝜋.(10.365 −10.0732 )
2
z1 = (14-2.14-1.787)m

Abhash Acharya z1 = 10.073 m 47

NUMERICAL
• A layer of sand 6m thick lies beneath a clay stratum 5m thick and above a
thick shale. In order to determine the permeability of sand, a well was
3m
driven to the top of the shale and water was pumped out at the rate of 2.5m
5m
10*10-3m3/secs. The observation well were driven through the clay at Clay
15m and 30m from the pump well and drawdown in the wells were found
to be 3m and 2.5m respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability
Sand 6m
of the soil.

𝑟2
𝑞 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝑟1
k=
2 𝜋 𝑏 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

30
10∗10−3 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
15
k=
2.𝜋.6 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

30
10∗10−3 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
k= 15 r1 = 15m r2 = 30m
2.𝜋.6 (8.5 −8.0) = 0.000367m/secs = 3.67*10-4m/secs
z1 = (11-3)m z2 = (11-2.5)m

z1 = 8m z2 = 8.50m
Abhash Acharya 48
AVERAGE PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL
• A stratified soil deposit consists of a number of soil layers having different permeabilities.
• The average permeability of the deposit as a whole parallel to the planes of stratification and that normal of the planes of stratification can be determined.
• Flow parallel to Planes of Stratification
• Let us consider a deposit consisting of two horizontal layers of soil thickness H1 and H2 as shown in figure.
• For flow parallel to the planes of stratification, the loss of head (h) over a length (L) is the same for both the layers.
• Therefore, the hydraulic gradient (i) for each layer is equal to the hydraulic gradient of the entire deposit.
• The system is analogous to the two resistances in parallel in an electric circuit, wherein the potential drop is the same in both the resistances.
• From the continuity equation,
• The total discharge (q) per unit width is equal to the sum of the discharges in the individual layers, i.e. q = q1 + q2
• Let (kh)1 and (kh)2 be the permeability of the layers 1 and 2 respectively, parallel to the plane of stratification and (kh) be the overall permeability in that
direction.
• From equation a), Using Darcy’s law,
kh * i * (H1 + H2) = (kh)I * i * H1 + (kh)2 * i * H2
(𝑘ℎ )1 ∗𝐻1 + (𝑘ℎ )2 ∗𝐻2
kh =
𝐻1 + 𝐻2

If there are n layers instead of two.

(𝑘ℎ )1 ∗𝐻1 + (𝑘ℎ )2 ∗𝐻2 + ……….+(𝑘ℎ )𝑛 ∗𝐻𝑛
kh =
𝐻1 + 𝐻2 +⋯………+ 𝐻𝑛

Abhash Acharya 49
AVERAGE PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL
• Flow normal to the plane of stratification
• Let us consider a soil deposit consisting of two layers of thickness H1 and H2 in which the flow occurs normal to the plane of stratification.
• Let (kv)1 and (kv)2 be the coefficient of permeability of the layers 1 and 2 in the direction perpendicular to the plane of stratification.
• Let Kv be the average coefficient of permeability of the entire deposit in that direction.
• In this case, the discharge per unit width is the same for each layer and is equal to the discharge in the entire deposit.
• The case is analogous to the resistances in series in an electrical circuit, wherein the current is the same for all resistances.

• Therefore,
• Using Darcy’s law, considering unit area perpendicular to the flow,

where, iv = overall hydraulic gradient, (iv)1 and (iv)2 = hydraulic gradient in layer 1 and 2
respectively.

As the total loss of head (h) over the entire deposit is equal to the sum of the loss of heads
in the individual layers.

Abhash Acharya 50
NUMERICAL
• A horizontal stratified deposit consists of 3 layers with coefficient of permeability as 8*10-4 cm/sec, 50*10-4 cm/sec and 15*10-4 cm/sec and their
thickness are 6m, 3m and 18m respectively. Find the effective average permeability of the deposit in horizontal and vertical direction.

Given, k1 = 8 * 10-4 cm/sec h1 = 6m For, effective average permeability in vertical direction:

k2 = 50 * 10-4 cm/sec h2 = 3m
k3 = 15 * 10-4 cm/sec h3 = 18m
For, effective average permeability in horizontal direction:
2700
kv = 600 300 1800
+ +
8 ∗10−4 50 ∗10−4 15 ∗10−4

2700
kv =
750000+60000+1200000
8 ∗10−4 ∗ 600 +(50 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 300)+( 15 ∗10−4 ∗ 1800)
kh = 2700
(600+300+1800) kv =
2010000

kh = 17.33 * 10-4 cm/secs kv = 13.43 * 10-4 cm/secs

Abhash Acharya 51
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
• Particle Size
• The permeability varies approximately as the square of grain size.
k = c.D102
• It depends on the effective diameter of the grain size D10.
• Void Ratio
• Increase in the void ratio increases the area available for flow hence permeability increases for critical
conditions.
• Properties of Pore Fluid
• Pore fluids are fluids that occupy pore spaces in a soil or rock.
• Permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of pore fluid and inversely proportional to viscosity of
pore fluid.

Abhash Acharya 52
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
• Shape of particles
• Permeability is inversely proportional to specific surface.
• As angular soil have more specific surface area compared to the round soil, therefore, the
soil with angular particles is less permeable than soil of rounded particles.
• Structure of Soil Mass
• For same void ratio, the permeability is more for flocculated structure as compared to
dispersed structure.
• Degree of Saturation
• The permeability of partially saturated soil is less than that of fully saturated soil.
• Adsorbed Water
• Adsorbed water means a thin microscopic film of water surrounding individual soil grains.
• This water is not free to move and hence reduces the effective pore space and thus
decreases the coefficient of permeability.

Abhash Acharya 53
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY OF SOILS
• Entrapped air and organic impurities
• The organic impurities and entrapped air obstruct the flow and coefficient of permeability is reduced
to their presence.
• Temperature
• As the viscosity of the pore fluid decrease with the temperature, permeability increases with
temperature.
• Stratification of Soil
• Stratified soils are those soils which are formed by layer upon layer of the earth or dust deposited on
each other.
• If the flow is parallel to the layers of stratification, the permeability is maximum while the flow in
perpendicular direction occurs with minimum permeability.

Abhash Acharya 54