ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR UNIT 2 ENG1514 STUDY GUIDE

UNDERSTANDING ENGLISH PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

Introduction
In unit 2 of the Study Guide, you have learned some grammatical concepts related
to word classes and the formation of English sentences. You have also been shown
how to identify and differentiate between content words and grammatical words.
The knowledge you have gained on grammatical concepts, content and
grammatical words and their definition, forms and functions forms the foundation
on which you build the understanding of phrases, clauses and sentences. Now let
us start by recollecting what we have learned under word classes or what we
commonly refer to as Parts of Speech.

Word Classes or Parts of Speech

All English words can be divided into two major types. These are:

1. Content or Lexical Words

2. Grammatical or Functional Words

Content words or lexical words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They
are the main lexical items of any language and they are more than grammatical or
functional words because more lexical words can be developed to express new
technologies and ideas. This explains why dictionaries are upgraded from time to
time to include new content words. Content words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs have dictionary meaning. This mean that you can look for their
meaning in the dictionary and can use them on their own. Content words are
described as ‘open class’ words because new nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs
can be created as mentioned earlier to express new developments and usage. We

Open Rubric
referred to this fact in Unit 1 and gave examples of new words that have been
created from the field of technology.

Grammatical or functional words are pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and

interjections. These words are different from content or lexical words because
they do not have dictionary meanings. They also cannot be used on their own.
Therefore, they are called function or grammatical words. We can define
grammatical or function words as words that are used to indicate the
grammaticality of sentences. Grammatical or function words in any language are
limited in number because new words cannot be added to them. This means that
they cannot be expanded like content or lexical words.

Examples of grammatical words are you, it, and, but, Oh, of, to and across.

If you look at these words, you will see that until we use them with content words
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs, they do not have meaning of their own.
This explains why they are called function words.

For examples: You look beautiful, it is a book, I love meat and egg, Oh! She
won! The content of the book, I went to the market and The pen is across the table.

In all these examples, you can see that the grammatical words in bold function in
relation to the content words in the sentences to convey complete sense. On the
other hand, all the content words can be meaningfully used on their own without
the grammatical words.

We have taken the time to explain content and grammatical words again here to
help you understand how we would build on this knowledge to explain what a
phrase is.
Definition -What is a phrase?

A phrase in any language is a group of words with no finite verb. You might want
to go back to page 48 of your study to look at what finite verbs are. Let us look at
the following examples: The Vice-Chancellor (noun phrase), in the garden
(prepositional phrase), very large (adjective phrase), too quickly (adverb phrase), is
singing (verb phrase).
In all these examples, you will notice that there is no complete thought that is
expressed because there is no finite verb whose base can be changed to show the
difference between present and past tense.

English Phrases
There are five phrases in English. These are:

1. Noun Phrase
2. Verb Phrase
3. Adjective Phrase
4. Adverb Phrase
5. Prepositional Phrase.

From 1-4, you can see that the content words we referred to earlier can be formed
into phrases and 5, shows that it is only preposition that can be formed into a
phrase from the list of grammatical words that we explained in the introduction.

1. The Noun Phrase (NP)

Definition

Taking a clue from our definition of what a phrase is, we can define a noun phrase
as a group of words made up of a noun and noun modifiers.

The Form of the Noun Phrase

The noun phrase is formally represented as NP in most grammar textbooks.

The Noun phrase is structurally made up of three forms. These are:

i. a head which is compulsory,

ii. a pre-modifier which is optional
iii. a post-modifier which is also optional.

Let us explain these concepts further. Head means the core part of the phrase.
The essential element that should be present before we can identify a group of
words as a noun phrase. The head of a noun phrase must always be a noun, it is
the only element that must be present in a noun phrase. In other words, a group
of words can only be described as a Noun phrase because the group of words has
as its head a noun. This explains why the “Head” is always compulsory. The head
is represented as H in the analysis of Noun Phrase (NP).

Pre-modifier means the group of words that come before the head of a noun
phrase. This group of words is optional. This means it may or may not be present
in a noun phrase.

Post-modifier refers to the group of words which may or may not occur after the
head noun. This element of the NP is optional like the pre-modifier.

Now that we have explained the three elements that constitute the structure of the
Noun Phrase in English, let us illustrate the structure with some examples:

The handsome actors with long hair …

This is an example of a noun phrase (NP) because it is a group of words with no finite
verb. The Head ( H) is the noun “actors” written in bold. The Pre-modifier is “the
handsome”. That is, the group of words before the head noun (actors). The Post-
modifier is “with long hair”. This group of words comes after the head noun (actors).
Now let us look at what part of speech makes up the pre-modifier and the post modifier
in this example.
The pre-modifier is made up of the definite article “the” and the adjective
“handsome”. Both words describe the head noun actors meaning that the actors
referred to are specific actors and that they are handsome. The post-modifier is made
up of the preposition with, the adjective long and the noun hair. This group of
words like the pre-modifier also describes the head noun “actors”.

In this example, we see a full noun phrase (NP) that consists of all the three
components – pre-modifier, head and post-modifier: NP→ (M H M). M is used here
to represent the modifiers either pre or post.

Remember that we said the pre and post modifiers of a noun phrase are optional.
This means that they may or may not be present in the composition of a noun
phrase. For examples we could have: The handsome actors … or … actors with
long hair.
In the first example, we have NP→ (MH) the noun phrase consists of a pre-modifier and
a head noun. In the second example we have NP→(HM) the noun phrase consists of
the head noun and a post-modifier.
The noun phrase could also be in its simplest form. This means it can consists of only
the head noun as in:
Actors NP→(H) This example illustrates why the head of a noun phrase is the only
compulsory element and the other two components are optional.

The head of a Noun Phrase

The head of a noun phrase as we can see from the examples we have used above, is
commonly a noun, but it could also be a personal pronoun like it, they, she or he.

The Pre-modifiers of an NP may be:

Determiners, for example: all these chairs; what a girl
Enumerators, for example: six boxes; the third boy
Adjectives, for example: white envelope; younger actresses
Determiner + Adjectives for example: the beautiful girl
Determiner + Nouns, for example: a kitchen tea; a silver shoe; a Soweto shebeen
Nouns, for example: silver plate, kitchen towel, Mamelodi shebeen
Genitive phrase, for example: Richard’s bicycle; someone else’s car
Adverbs in initial position, for example: quite a speech

The Post-modifiers of an NP may be:

Prepositional phrases, for example: the best angle of the house; a father with ten
siblings
Relative clause, for example: the student who won the prize; the car which I admire
Non-finite clauses, for example: dirt flying in all directions; a truck laden with apples; a
room to work in
Adverbs, for example: the lecturer downstairs; the day before
Adjectives, for example: something stupid
Noun phrases in apposition, as in: Professor Lephalala, the chairperson of the
department; Dr Graham-Smith, the curriculum coordinator

The different examples we have used above show that a Noun Phrase can take more
than one modifier, either before or after the head. In fact, an NP may become so
complex that it can take up to five or more pre-modifiers, while also taking an equal
number of post-modifiers (or even more). Here is a classic example provided by Leech
et al. (1982:62), of how complex the pre-modification of nouns can be:

Absolutely the last two unsold ripe juicy peaches.

The head noun in this Noun Phrase is peach. It is preceded by seven pre-modifiers. First
there is an adverb (absolutely), followed by a determiner (the), then two enumerators
(last, two), and these are followed by three adjectives (unsold, ripe, juicy).
The complexity of post-modification can be shown in the following examples (see Leech
et al. 1982:62):

The girl by the table with the carved legs

The girl by the table with the sunburnt legs

The head of the two Noun Phrases is girl. In the first example, the head has been post-
modified by two Prepositional phrases (We will explain the form of the prepositional
phrase later) – by the table and with the carved legs. In this example, the first
Prepositional phrase post-modifies the head word girl, but the second prepositional
phrase is subordinate to the first and post-modifies table. In other words, it is the table
that has carved legs, not the head noun girl.

In the second example, however, both prepositional phrases post-modify the head noun
girl, because the second prepositional phrase “with the sunburnt” refers to the legs of the
girl who is by the table.

Speakers and learners of English as a second or additional language it is very important

to understand the structure of the noun phrase for us to construct a variety of sentences
to express different situations.
So far, we have defined what a noun phrase is and have explained the different forms
that the structure of a noun phrase can take. We now turn to the function or role that the
Noun Phrase perform in the construction of English sentences.

Functions of the Noun Phrase

Let us start by explaining what function mean within the context of language study. The
word function means is used to refer to the roles perform by a word or phrase in the
context of particular clauses or sentences. The function of a word or phrase is
determined by the position the word or the phrase occupies in a sentence and by what
they do. The noun phrase like nouns functions as subject, object, complement and
adverbial (adjunct) in a clause. Let us use the following examples to illustrate the
different functions that the noun phrase performs:

As subject: The hotel was empty.

As object: Tlatso has bought the house.
As complement: Pinky is a professor.
As adverbial or adjunct: Richard cycled 45 kilometres last month.

In addition, it is possible for the Noun Phrase to act as post-modifier in another

Noun Phrase, as in this example:

Thabo Mbeki, the chancellor

The Prepositional Phrase

Definition
We can define a prepositional phrase as a phrase that has a preposition as its head and
a noun or a noun phrase as its completive element.

The Form of Prepositional Phrase (PP)

The Propositional Phrase is formally represented as (PP) in grammar studies.
It is structurally made up of Two Components. These are:
i. A head which is always a preposition
ii. A Completive Element which is either a Noun or a Noun Phrase

The form of the prepositional phrase can be represented as:

PP → P + N
PP → P + NP
OR
PP →PN
PP → PNP

The Prepositional Phrase is always introduced by a preposition and completed with a

noun or a noun phrase as mentioned in the definition above.
Let us look at the following examples
On the table (P + NP)
P = On (Preposition indicating place)
NP = the table (Definite Article “the” and noun “table”).
In some grammar textbooks, the definite article “the” can be described as Determiner.
This NP component of the prepositional phrase specifies an exact place thus answering
the question “on what”?
The completive element of the Prepositional Phrase can be changed while the
preposition remains the same. For example, we can have:
On the table
On the floor
On the mat
On the road
Most preposition phrases are made up of the form PP = P + NP.

The Prepositional Phrase of the form P + N is not so common. Here are some
examples:

By road
In Italy
For R10
Across countries
To Australia
From January

In all these examples, you have the preposition followed by a single Noun. The single
nouns are written in bold while the prepositions are written in italics.
Notice that the Prepositional phrase is different from the Noun Phrase that we
discussed earlier. It is also different from the Adjective and Adverb Phrases. These
differences will become obvious when we discuss them.

What are the differences between the Noun Phrase and the Prepositional Phrase?
First, the Prepositional Phrase has two instead of three components.

Second, both components are compulsory. This means that you can not have a
preposition alone as prepositional phrase and a noun or noun phrase must always
complete the preposition.

Third, it is the simplest of all the English Phrases because the structure is not complex
like the Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase . It is also simpler than the Adjective and Adverb
Phrases.

Can you think of any other differences?

Functions of the Prepositional Phrase

1) The prepositional Phrase function as adverbial (A) in the clause.
If you do not know what a clause is, go to the section of this additional resource that
deals with clauses.
Example of a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial can be illustrated in the
following sentence:

By Sunday we had returned by air to Johannesburg.

There are three Prepositional Phrases in this sentence, but each has a different
meaning. Can you identify the three phrases as well as their meanings?
The first Prepositional Phrase, By Sunday is adverbial of time. It indicates when.
The second Prepositional Phrase, by air, is adverbial of manners, It indicates how or
the manner in which something happens. The third Prepositional Phrase, to
Johannesburg, is adverbial of place. The first PP answers the question: when?
The second: how? The third: where?

2) Prepositional Phrase functions as Post-modifiers in a Noun Phrase

We have seen this function of the prepositional phrase in the discussion and examples
of the structure of the Noun Phrase.
For example: The student in the class.
This example is a Noun Phrase. The prepositional phrase “in the class” performs the
role of the postmodifier. It describes where “the student” is. The other components of
this noun phrase example is the definite article “the” functioning as the pre-modifier
and the noun “student” functioning as head of the Noun Phrase.

3) Prepositional Phrase functions as Post-modifiers in a Subordinate

Prepositional Phrase

Now , let us explain what a subordinate Prepositional Phrase is. A subordinate

prepositional phrase is a prepositional phrase that occurs underneath another
prepositional phrase. Let us illustrate this function of prepositional phrase using the two
examples we earlier explained:

The girl by the table with the carved legs

The girl by the table with the sunburnt legs

In the first example, the prepositional phrase “by the table” post modifies the head
noun “girl”. On the other hand, the prepositional phrase “with the carved legs” is a
subordinate prepositional phrase because it is functioning as a post modifier in
the first prepositional phrase “by the table”. This explains why it does not
describes the head noun “girl” in the first prepositional phrase but, the head
noun “table” in the second prepositional phrase.
Let us explain this further:
The example is a noun phrase which is made up of:
Pre-modifier = The (Definite article)
Head = girl (Noun)
Post-modifier = by the table (Prepositional phrase) made up of preposition “by” as the
head and the noun phrase “the table” as the completive element. This noun phrase
is made up of the definite article “the” and the noun “table.
The second prepositional phrase “with the carved legs” is subordinate (meaning that
it occurs beneath the first prepositional phrase), to the prepositional phrase “by the
table” it post-modifies “the table”. So, it is “the table” that has carved legs and not “the
girl.”
This subordinate prepositional phrase is made up of the head “with” (Preposition), the
completive Noun Phrase “the carved legs”. This in turn is made up of two pre-
modifiers “the” (Definite article) and “carved” (adjective) and the head “legs” (noun).

4) Prepositional Phrase also functions as Post-modifiers in Adjective Phrases

For example: Very little of the oil

This example is an adjective phrase. The preposition phrase “of the oil” is the post-
modifier of the adjective phrase. “Very” an adverb of degree is the pre-modifier while
“little” an adjective is the head.

Prepositional Phrase also functions as Post-modifiers in Adverb Phrases

This function of the prepositional phrase can be illustrated with the example below:

More quickly for optimisation

This example is an adverbial phrase. The pre-modifier is the adverb of degree “more”
the head is the adverb “quickly” and the post-modifier is the prepositional phrase “for
optimization”. The post-modifier is made up of the head “of” (preposition) and the
completive noun “optimisation”.

The Adjective Phrase (AJP)

Definition
An adjective phrase is a word or group of words with an adjective as head.

The Form of Adjective Phrase

Technically, an Adjective Phrase has the same structure as a Noun Phrase – a
compulsory head and optional pre- and post-modifiers. However, in reality, Adjective
Phrases often consist of only the head. In addition, they are likely to have one pre- and
one post-modifier. In other words, Adjective Phrases do not usually have multiple
modifiers like Noun Phrases do.

The head of an Adjective Phrase is always an adjective, which may be simple (small),
comparative (smaller) or superlative (smallest). In some cases, the head of an Adjective
Phrase may be an adjectival element or unit, that is, a word or group of words which
is not an adjective as such, but has been used to function in the position of an
adjective.

For example: A poisoned arrow; A well-to-do man.

Adjectives Phrases are mostly pre-modified by adverbs of degree, such as very,

extremely, rather, too. Often, the adverbs very and too are reduplicated for emphasis,
or to intensify the degree of what is being talked about. This gives rise to expressions
such as:

She is really, really slim.

He is very, very intelligent.
It is too, too hot.
The head words in the Adjective Phrases are: slim, intelligent and hot, while the pre-
modifiers are underlined.

The post-modifiers of Adjectives Phrases can be either adverbs such as indeed,

enough, or a Prepositional Phrase. For example:

Too hot indeed

Good enough
Rather too close for comfort
In these examples, “indeed” and “enough” function as post modifier of the adjective
hot and good respectively. The adverb of degree “too” is a premodifier in the first
example. This means that the example presents us with a complex adjective phrase
with the form: Pre-Modifier (adverb of degree “very”) + Head (Adjective “hot”) +
Post-Modifier (Adverb “indeed”).
The second example consist of a Head (Adjective “Good” + Post-Modifier (Adverb
“enough”)
In the third example, you have a complex adjective phrase in which the prepositional
phrase “for comfort” functions or performs the role of the post modifier. The Head
of the adjective phrase is the adjective “close” while the pre-modifier is “ Rather
too”. Here we see two adverbs “rather” and “too” functioning as pre modifier to
the head “close”.

Functions of the Adjective Phrase

In a clause, Adjective Phrases function as complements in a clause, as in:

Our office is new.

The professor thinks he is brilliant.

In the first example, ‘new’ is the adjective phrase consisting of only head, it
describes “the office” and functions as a complement because it tells us how the
office is.
In the second example, the adjective phrase is “brilliant”, and it is made up of only the
head without any modifier. The adjective “brilliant” describes what the professor
thinks of himself, so the adjective complements the professor because it describes
him.
NOTE: Go to the section of this note that defines a clause and the different
elements of the clause to make sense of this function if you are unsure.

In a phrase, Adjective Phrases function as pre-modifiers of Noun Phrases, for example:

A very small slice of cake.

In this example, we see that the adjective phrase “A very small” performs the role of a
premodifier in a complex Noun Phrase.
The adjective phrase as premodifier comes before the head noun “slice”. This adjective
phrase is made up of the indefinite article: “A” which in some textbooks may be referred
to as determiner, and an adjective phrase: “very small”. The adjective phrase is made
up of an adverb of degree “very” as the premodifier and the adjective “small” as the
head.

We described the Noun Phrase in which the adjective phrase is occurring as a premodifier
as complex because the Noun phrase also has a post modifier “of cake” which is made
up of a prepositional phrase with “of” as the head and “cake” as the completive noun.

The Adverb Phrase or Adverbial Phrase (AVP)

Definition
An adverb phrase is a word or group of words with an adverb as head.

The Form of Adverb Phrase or Adverbial Phrase

The structure of the Adverb Phrase is the same as that of the Adjective Phrase. An
Adverb Phrase therefore has an obligatory or compulsory head, and optional pre-
and post-modifiers. Like Adjective Phrases, Adverbs Phrases are mainly made up of
the head alone. They usually have one pre- and one post-modifier, but can take two pre-
modifiers. The head of an Adverb Phrase is an adverb. The pre-modifiers are usually
adverbs themselves, while the post-modifiers are Prepositional Phrases, adverbs
or clauses. Leech et al. (1982:66) provide these examples:

Often rather too quickly for comfort

In this example, the head word of the AvP is quickly. The pre-modifiers are often,
rather and too ( All three are adverbs pre-modifying the head adverb “quickly” .
The post-modifier is the prepositional phrase “for comfort.”

Other examples are:

more quickly than last year; M (pre-modifier “more”) + H (quickly) +M (post modifier
“than last year”)

too hastily indeed; M (Pre-modifier “too” + H (Hastily) + M (indeed).

more slowly than I expected: M (Pre- modifier “more”) + H (slowly) + M (Post-modifier

“than I expected).

Note that the post modifier in the third example is a clause because it has a finite
verb “expected” and the subject I. It expresses a complete thought.

Functions of Adverb or Adverbial Phrase

Adverbial Phrases, like adverbs, function as adverbials in a clause by adding different
kinds of circumstantial information, ranging from time to location as well as the speaker’s
attitude. For more information about adverbials, revisit our discussion on adverbs as
content words earlier on page 53 of your study guide.

A distinguishing feature of Adverb/ adverbial phrases is that they are flexible and can
easily be moved around in the structure of a clause. They can also be omitted
without rendering the clause incorrect, because all they do is add additional
information.

The Verb Phrase

Definition
It is a group of words made up of auxiliaries (Aux) and a main verb (MV).

The Form of Verb Phrase

The form of the VP can be represented comprehensively as: {Aux} {Aux} {Aux}
{Aux} Mv.

The Verb Phrase, unlike the other phrases we have been discussing, is made up of four
auxiliary elements (Aux) and the main verb (Mv). The first auxiliary element is tense.
This can either be present or past. This element is a compulsory element of the verb
phrase. The second auxiliary elements are modals. These are auxiliary verbs like
shall, should, will, would, must, might, could, can, ought and ought to. These auxiliary
verbs are called modals. They help us to express different shades of meaning like ability,
necessity, possibility, obligation, emphasis etc. Modal auxiliary verbs are optional element
of the verb phrase. The third element of the auxiliary is the form of have + en. This is
referred to as the perfective element. It is also an optional element. This form of the
auxiliary helps us to express the perfective tense either in the present or in the past.
The fourth element of the auxiliary is the form of be + ing. This element is referred to
as the progressive or continuous element of the auxiliary. It helps us to express the
progressive or continuous tense either in the present or in the past. It is an optional
element of the verb phrase. The main verb is a compulsory element of the verb
phrase and it is made up of either a full lexical verb or one of the primary verbs be,
have or do.

The auxiliary elements and the Main verb have a complex and strict order in which they
pattern with one another to create the kinds of meaning expressed by the present, past,
progressive and perfective tenses. For a reminder, see our discussion of tense and
concord in Unit 1.

Our understanding of the Verb Phrase is dependent on our understanding of the

strict order in which auxiliary verbs pattern with main verbs, as well as the
distinctions between finite and infinite verbs, between transitive and intransitive
verbs, and between active and passive voice.

The following sentence can help you make sense of the interlocking patterns of
relationship between the elements of the auxiliaries and the main verb:

They could have been travelling.

This sentence represents all the elements of the VP, which can be represented as:

Aux-tense (past) + Aux-Modal (can) + Aux-perfective (have +en) + Aux-Progressive (be

+ ing) + Mv (travel).
This can be translated into:
Tense = past
Modal = can
Perfective = have + en
Progressive = be + ing
MV = travel
In this sentence, the past tense is shown by the modal could.

This is where the intricate pattern of relationship comes in. The sentence shows that all
the elements of the auxiliaries can be present in a Verb Phrase. When this is the case,
the modal comes before the other two elements (have + en and be + ing), strictly in
that order. This restriction on the order of occurrence will prevent ungrammatical
combinations such as *have could singing, *being could sing. Only one modal can occur
at a given time. The tense (past) converts the modal can to could. No other elements
of the auxiliary is thereafter in the past tense form. This explains why the form of the verb
following any modal in English is never marked for tense. For example, you cannot have
a sentence construction such as *She may came; *she could came; *they might went,
because the tense can only be shown in the first element of the auxiliary (which happens
to be a modal in this sentence). Now that we have explained how we arrived at the modal
could, let us proceed to explain the other relationships.

Could + have + en + be + ing + travel

The perfective form “have” remains in its base form as it follows the auxiliary could,
the “en” form of the perfective attaches to the “be” of the progressive form to give
us been. The “ing” form of the progressive attaches to the main verb travel to give
us travelling, resulting in our original VP: could have been travelling. Any other
sequential order of these elements of the auxiliaries and Main verb would have resulted
in ungrammatical sentences.

Function of the Verb Phrase

The VP always and only functions as predicator (P) in the clause.

Main and Subordinate Phrases

In English, a distinction is made between main and subordinate phrases. This relates to
whether a phrase functions as part of a clause or as part of another phrase. A main phrase
is a constituent of a clause, while a subordinate phrase is a phrase within a main phrase.
For example:

The handsome actor with long hair walked into the theatre.

In this sentence, the underlined phrase is a Noun Phrase. It can be described as a main
phrase because it functions as the subject of the sentence which is an independent
clause and therefore a simple sentence. It is also a main clause because it
functions as subject element in a clause. Now let us look more closely at the Noun
Phrase. The post-modifier is made up of a Prepositional Phrase “with long hair,” which is
a subordinate phrase because it functions as post-modifier within the structure of another
phrase (in this case, the Noun Phrase). The possibility of phrases within phrases and the
additional possibility of subordinate phrases also containing further subordinate phrases
demonstrates how extensive and complex phrases in English can be – especially the
Noun Phrase, as we saw earlier on in our discussion of the post-modification of Noun
Phrases.

Functions of phrases in a clause

The Noun Phrase can function as subject, object, complement and adverbial. By
contrast, the Verb Phrase only functions as predicator. The Prepositional Phrase
functions as adverbial, the Adjective Phrase as complement and the Adverb /
Adverbial Phrase as adverbial or adjunct.

If you cannot remember what these functions mean, revisit Unit 2 of your Study Guide
and read related information. In the next section, we will be discussing clauses in English.
But first, an activity to test what you have learned about phrases.

Activity
1. Explain the difference between a noun phrase (NP) and a prepositional phrase (PP).
2. What are the similarities between Adjective Phrase (Ajp) and Adverb Phrase (Avp)?
3. Construct sentences or phrases to fit into the following Verb Phrase structure:
a) I + past + modal +Mv
b) We + past + have + en +Mv
c) Present + have + en +be + ing +MV
d) I + present + be + ing + Mv
e) Past + modal + have + en + be + ing + MV

4. Identify the phrases in the following sentences and state their kind:
a) Only a man with plenty of money can buy a car of such beauty and power.
b) The principal was an old man of friendly disposition.
c) He ran with great speed.
d) The student who won the prize came to the college.

Feedback on Activity

1. An Noun Phrase is made up of an obligatory head and optional pre- and post-
modifiers, while the Prepositional Phrase is made up of a preposition and an Noun
Phrase as the completive element. The head of a Noun Phrase may be a noun, a
pronoun or an enumerator, while the head of a Prepositional Phrase is always a
preposition. Noun Phrases function as subject, object, complement and adjunct or
adverbial in a clause, but Preposition Phrases only function as adverbials.
Prepositional Phrases may be a post-modifier for a Noun Phrase, which means that
Prepositional Phrases can be subordinated in a Noun Phrase. The structure of the
completive Noun Phrase in Prepositional Phrases is the same as those of Noun
Phrases, but they may not be as elaborate as those of Noun Phrases because of
the different functions they perform.

2. Adjective Phrases and Adverb Phrases are similar in the sense that both have the
same structural forms as the Noun Phrase (optional pre- and post-modifiers and a
compulsory head). However, the head of the Adjective Phrase is an adjective, while
the head of the Adverb Phrase is an adverb. Both may be pre-modified by adverbs
and post-modified by a Prepositional Phrase, an adverb and clauses.
3. This question is meant to help you understand the sequential pattern of the
relationships between tense, auxiliaries and main verbs. The feedback consists of
model answers of the Verb Phrases that can be generated from the sequential
patterns in the question. You are free to make your own choice of main verbs.
a) I + past + can + go = I could go
b) We + past + have + en + speak = We had spoken
c) Present + have + en + be + ing + dance = has been dancing
d) I + present + be + ing +sing = I am singing
e) Past + can +have + en + be + ing + sleep = could have been sleeping.

4. a) Only a man with plenty of money can buy a car of such beauty and power.

Both underlined phrases are Noun Phrases. The first is made up of the pre-modifiers
“only” and “a.” The head noun is man and the post-modifier is a Prepositional
Phrase: “with plenty of money.” The first Noun Phrase functions as the subject of
the sentence, the second Noun Phrase functions as the object of the sentence and
is made up of the pre-modifier “a,” the head noun “car” and the Prepositional
Phrase “of such beauty and power” as post-modifier.

b) The principal was an old man of friendly disposition.

There are two Noun Phrases. The first has the pre-modifier “the” and the head noun
principal. This Noun Phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. The second
Noun Phrase is made up of two pre-modifiers “an” and “old,” the head noun “man” and
the Prepositional Phrase “of friendly disposition” as post-modifier. This second Noun
Phrase functions as the subject complement in the sentence.

c) He ran with great speed.

Only one Noun Phrase is present in this sentence. The noun phrase is underlined. It
functions as an adverbial of the phrase but is made up of the Prepositional Phrase
“with great speed.” It functions as an adjunct or adverbial because it tells us how
the subject ran. We can remove this phrase and still have the sentence He ran,
which is made up of a subject (He) and a predicate (ran).

d) The student who won the prize came to the college.

The first phrase in this sentence is a Noun Phrase, but it is a more complex Noun Phrase.
The pre-modifier is “the”, the head noun is “student”, but the post-modifier is a
relative clause “who won the prize.” This Noun Phrase functions as the subject of the
sentence. The second phrase, “to the college,” is a Prepositional Phrase which functions
as adjunct. It answers the question came where?

In the following section we will look at English clauses. We will start by defining a clause,
then describe the elements and patterns, as well as the two major types of clause in
English.

Clauses
Definition
In traditional grammar, a clause is a group of words with a subject and a finite verb. This
definition (like all traditional definitions) is inadequate because it does not account for all
types of clauses. In terms of hierarchy, the clause is a grammatical unit larger than a
phrase yet smaller than a sentence. In modern grammar, clauses are identified by their
elements, patterns and functions.
Clause Elements

The major clause elements in English are Subject (S), Predicator (P), Object (O),
Complement (C) and Adverbial (A). All five elements are concepts that we have defined
and used in our discussion on words and phrases, so they are not new to us. The
elements which constitute the structure of the clause are referred to as SPOCA - S FOR
SUBJECT, P FOR PREDICATE, O FOR OBJECT, C FOR COMPLEMENT and A FOR
ADVERBIAL. We will briefly look at each of them in relation to the clause.

• Subject (S)
This is an obligatory element of the clause, except in imperative sentences (commands),
as in: Pick up the book or Go to the mall now. The subject normally comes before the
predicator (verb) in declarative sentences such as: The hunter killed the cat. In
interrogative sentences, the predicator may come before the subject, as in: Was he
a member of the party? The subject may also come between the two parts of the
predicator, as in: Have they reunited? Do you know the teacher?

The subject is always a Noun Phrase and can be substituted by a pronoun. In addition,
the subject can have a nominalised verb as its head word, as in: Driving is hard work.
The subject may also be a clause, as in: That he obtained his diploma (noun clause)
surprised his teachers.

In terms of concord or agreement, the subject must always agree with its predicator
in person and number. Generally, the subject is used to refer to what we are talking
about in the sentence. It is the theme or topic of a sentence. The subject is
represented as S for analysis purpose and easy reference.

• Predicate (P)
This is the only obligatory element of the English sentence, which explains why it
is the most important element of the clause. The auxiliaries and the lexical or main
verbs we discussed in this unit are the two types of predicator in English. However, the
predicator also has many systems within the verb phrase, some of which are finite/non-
finite, active/passive voice, aspect marked by the primary verb be for the progressive,
and the primary verb have for the perfective, stative/dynamic and transitive/intransitive as
well as linking verbs. The predicator is represented as P for ease of reference and
analysis.
 • Object (O)
The object element has the same structural form as the subject, because it is also
realised by nouns, pronouns, nominalisations and clauses. However, it is different
in the sense that the object typically refers to the person or thing that is most
intimately affected by the action or state denoted by the predicator. The object
element can be either a direct object (Od) or an indirect object (Oi). The direct object
(Od) is the most common. As explained earlier elsewhere in this unit, an object is direct
when it is directly affected by the action of the subject, as in:

The student has bought a laptop (NP) what is bought is a laptop

Americans like burgers (noun) what Americans like is burgers
The pastor blessed them (pronoun) the pastor blessed a group of people
Thandeka wanted to know what I was reading (noun clause). What Thandeka wanted
to know is what I was reading.

An indirect object (Oi), on the other hand, is the benefactor or recipient of the action
undertaken by the subject. The indirect object always comes between the
predicator and the direct object. In other words, it always comes before the direct
object, as in:

The teacher bought him a computer. (the indirect object is ‘him’, while the direct
object is ‘a computer’)

The indirect object is normally optional. It can also be replaced by an adverbial

element, for example, a Prepositional Phrase introduced by the prepositions “to or
for” coming after the direct object. For example, our earlier sentence:

The teacher bought him a computer will become “The teacher bought a computer for him.”
 • Complement (C)
The complement, as you will recall, defines the subject or the object. The position is
usually filled by nouns, pronouns, nominalisations such as gerund phrases, verbal
phrases, noun clauses and adjectives. For example:

The models are beautiful. (adjective)

Her normal duty is fetching water. (gerund)
The boy feels that he should win the prize. (noun clause)

There are two types of complement: subject complement (Cs) and object complement
(Co). The Subject Complement usually follows a predicator that is a linking verb
(otherwise known as a corpula). The Object Complement, on the other hand,
normally follows a Direct Object. This is the case in the sentence below:

Her director made her a hardworking woman.

In this sentence, the Object Complement refers to the Direct Object of the sentence. Here,
the Object a hardworking woman refers to “her”, the direct object of the verb “made”.

Note that there can only be one complement in a clause.

• Adverbial (A)
Adverbials, like adverbs and Adverb Phrases (see our earlier discussion) add
circumstantial evidence about degree, duration, frequency, time, place, condition, reason
and goal as extra information. They are commonly realised by adverbs and
Adverb/Adverbial Phrases. For example: He crawled slowly (adverb); The labourers
worked as hard as they could (Adverb Phrase); Semester one will start next month
(Noun Phrase); She saw them in the hostel (Prepositional Phrase); Gustav passed well
because he was very hard working (finite clause).
Adverbial elements are the least closely integrated into clause structure. There are no
fixed numbers of adverbials in a clause. For example, as is the case with noun modifiers,
you could have four or even more adverbials in a single clause. Adverbials (as mentioned
before) are also very flexible and more mobile in a clause than other elements, yet
they can be optional elements of a clause.

Work through this activity to ascertain what you have learned.

Activity
Identify the clause elements in the following sentences using S, P O, C or A:
1. My sister always has a good laugh over a joke.
2.That story about sharks in the river has been confirmed.
3. All of us were working on our own projects.
4. The farmer caught the intruder red-handed.
5. We will replay Makeba’s song once again.
6. On land policy, the leader of the party is being extremely careless.
7. No doubt, they will present us with the same agenda next month.
Feedback on Activity
1. [S A P O A]
2. [S P]
3. [S P A]
4. [S P O C]
5. [S P O A]
6. [A S P C]
7. [A S P O O A]

Clause Patterns
In this section, we show how the clause elements we have described can be arranged to
express different thoughts in terms of sentences. The major clause patterns serve as a
framework for sentence construction in English. What you must learn in this section is
the order of permissible arrangements, and how this can be extended. The major patterns
of the English clause are represented in the following table
The Major Clause Patterns in English
[S P]: [He walks]
Verbs: walk, die, work, come,
run, sleep, dream, eat, look,
behave, etc.
[S, P, Oi]: [She served him]
Verbs: serve, tell, etc.
This is not a common pattern in
English
[S P C]: [He is kind/a nurse]
Verbs: be, become, seem, look,
appear and other linking verbs
enumerated in this unit.
It is a limited yet important clause
pattern
[S P A]: [He is there] +
[ She thinks about it]
Verbs: be, stand, lean, live,
reside, know, think, talk, grieve,
worry, etc.
+ With S P A different verbs
require different obligatory
adverbials
Source: Leech et al (1982:85)
[S P Od]: [He caught it]
Verbs: catch, hit, kiss, find, pull,
work, run, dream, eat, look,
behave, etc.
[S P Oi Od]: [She sold him the
book]
Verbs: sell, give, tell, send, buy,
make, etc.
It is an important but limited
clause pattern in English
[S P Od C]: [He proved her
wrong/a liar]
Verbs: prove, call, make, think,
etc. It is a fairly limited clause
pattern
[S P Od A]: [He put it there]
[She tells him about it]
Verbs: put, place, keep, tell,
inform, worry, etc.
+ With S P O A, as with S P A,
different verbs require different
obligatory adverbials
Activity
Identify the clause pattern in the sentences we used for clause elements by deleting the
optional adverbials. The optional adverbials have been underlined, except for sentence
‘2’ where there is no adverbial element.

1. My sister always has a good laugh over a joke.

2. That story about sharks in the river has been confirmed.
3. All of us were working on our own projects.
4. The farmer caught the intruder red-handed.
5. We will replay Makeba’s song once again.
6. On land policy, the leader of the party is being extremely careless.
7. No doubt, they will present us with the same agenda next month.
Feedback on Activity
[S P O]
[S P] It is a passive clause. The corresponding active clause pattern is [S P O]
[S P]
[S P O]
[S P O]
[S P C]
[S P Oi Od]

Types of Clause
In English, there are independent and dependent clauses. In the section that follows, we
will look at the differences between these two.
Independent Clauses
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
complete sentence. By contrast, a subordinate or dependent clause does not
express a complete thought and is therefore not a sentence. A clause that is
independent will, in its simplest form, have a subject and a predicate. In addition, it
may contain one or more of the clause elements we have been discussing. For example:
He saw her. SPO
The girls drove home. SPA
Democracy comes with responsibility. SPA

Grammatically complete statements like these are sentences which can stand alone.
When they are part of longer sentences, they are referred to as independent (or main)
clauses. There are three major forms of independent clause:

1) the declarative mood,

2) the interrogative mood and
3) the imperative mood.

The declarative is used to make statements, the interrogative is commonly used to ask
wh- and ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions, while the imperative (otherwise known as a command) is
used when the speaker wants something done or when a listener is commanded to do
something. Unlike the declarative and interrogative, the imperative has a non-finite
predicator and no subject. For example: Go home.

Dependent clauses

A dependent clause cannot be used independently on its own. Also known as

subordinate clauses, dependent clauses are always subordinated or embedded in
an independent clause or phrase. For example:

If you pass the exam, he will buy you a camera.

The girl who won the prize is Kenyan.

In the first sentence, the subordinate clause is “if you pass the exam”, it is a clause that
cannot stand on its own. The clause only has meaning when used with the
independent clause – “he will buy you a camera”. In this example, the subordinate
clause functions at clause level with another clause. In the second example, the
subordinate clause “who won the prize” functions at phrase level, as post-modifier
for the Noun Phrase that functions as the subject of the sentence.

Structurally, subordinate clauses can be divided into the clause elements: Subject,
Predicate, Object, Complement, Adjunct (SPOCA).

Apart from clause elements, subordinate clauses have three types of markers to
introduce their subordinate status. These are:

i. Subordinating conjunctions: if, when, that, because, although

ii. Wh- clause element: what, who, whoever, which girl, what time, how
iii. A non-finite predicator: infinitive form, -ing form and the en-form as the first
verb of their predicator.

For example:
Mante will look beautiful if she wears those shoes.
Mante will look beautiful whatever she wears.
Mante will look beautiful wearing those dresses.

Subordinate clauses are identifiable by their very first words which, in most cases,
will be any of the three markers highlighted above.

Dependent clauses include adverb, relative and noun clauses. For example:

Adverb clause: I am leaving because I cannot wait for the doctor.

Relative clause: She married a man who lived in Cape Town.
Noun clause: You bought the dress that you like.
Sentences

From our discussion on clause above, a sentence is an independent clause that

expresses a complete thought. We use sentences to make statements and to ask
questions and give commands among other things.

A sentence can consist of a single clause or several clauses. When a sentence has
only one clause it is called a simple sentence (and the clause is called an
independent clause). A sentence must contain at least one independent clause.
Below are the four types of sentence structure:

A simple sentence has only one independent clause. For example: I will visit you
tomorrow; My car is clean. Simple sentences are formed using the various clause
patterns in English.

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For example: Tom is
in town and Cate is visiting her relatives. In a compound sentence two or more
independent clauses can be joined by using coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
for, nor, or, so, yet) or semicolons. Independent clauses of equal standing form a
compound sentence. The coordinating conjunction denotes a relationship
between the contents of the two independent clauses that make up the
compound sentence. The coordinating conjunction but indicates contrast, while
the coordinating conjunction or indicates alternation while the coordinating
conjunction and indicates correlation. Compound sentences can make writing
more descriptive, interesting and fluid when used appropriately and well.

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and one or more

dependent clauses. These clauses are linked together by subordinating
conjunctions, such as: if, when, that, because, although; wh-clause elements
such as: what, who, whoever, how; and non-finite predicators such as the
infinitive and participial forms of the verb. For example:
Since the bill has been paid, the electricity can be restored.
If you arrive on time, we can go to the mall.
They failed their exam because they did not study hard.
I can now fly since I have enough money and because the weather is good.
Mante will look beautiful wearing these shoes.

A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with

at least one dependent clause. In other words, it is more than one independent clause
linked by conjunctions, and one or more clauses linked by subordinating conjunctions,
such as: if, when, before, until, etc. For example:

Until he came, they could not leave the house or start any work.

We went to the mall and bought clothes because my son had to go back to school.

The subordinating clauses have been underlined to distinguish them from the compound
sentences. The following example further demonstrates the characteristics of this type of
sentence:

I do not know how busy she will be, but I understand that she should be able to go with
us to Centurion.

This sentence can be analysed as:

I do not know – independent clause

I understand – independent clause
How busy she will be – dependent clause
That she should be able to go with us to Centurion – dependent clause.
We have come to the end of his section. We discussed and showed (using examples)
how sentences are constructed from words, phrases and clauses. Here is an activity
for you to gauge what you have learned.

Activity
a) Identify the sentences below as either simple, compound or complex sentences.
b) Underline the independent clause and subordinate or dependent clause(s) in the
sentences.
c) Indicate the coordinating or subordinating conjunction.

1. When he left the hospital, he was still in great pain.

2. The job is difficult, but there is money in it.
3. After the game, she went home because the weather was bad.
4. The few learners who passed at the school left at the end of last year.
5. I cannot be seen with him, because he is a traitor.

Feedback on Activity
1a) Complex sentence
b. When he left the hospital (dependent), he was still in great pain (independent)
c. when (subordinating conjunction).
2. a. Compound sentence
b. The job is difficult (independent), there is money in it (independent)
c. but (contrasting conjunction).
3. a. complex sentence
b. After the game (dependent) she went home (independent) because the
weather was bad (dependent)
c. after and because (subordinating conjunctions).
4. a. simple sentence with a complex noun phrase as subject
b. The post-modifier for the noun phrase who passed at the school is the
relative subordinate clause that modifies the head noun learners. The few learners left
the school (independent)
 c. who (subordinating conjunction).

5. a. complex sentence
b. I cannot be seen with him (independent), because he is a traitor
(dependent)
c. because (Subordinating conjunction)

You can find further examples and answers to these questions in the feedback guide to
the activities – it can be accessed through your e-tutors and face-to-face tutors.

In the section that follows, we will look at the importance of phonemic awareness as part
of our understanding of the sound structures found in English.

Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness means ‘sound’ awareness. It is crucial to understand that words

are made up of sounds, and we rely on our ability to hear, recognise and manipulate the
individual sounds that make up a word. Phonemic awareness is therefore a primary
auditory skill by which we can distinguish and recognise the sound structure of a
language. For example, phonemic awareness means realising that the word puppy is
made up of the sounds /p/ /u/ /p/ /ee/, or the word shape is made up the sounds / ʃ/ /ei//
p/.

As second- and third-language speakers of English, our ability to manipulate and

recognise sound structures in English is of the utmost importance, as it affects the way
we pronounce and spell words. If we are not aware of the sounds that make up individual
words, it becomes difficult to speak and much more challenging to listen with
comprehension, or to read and write effectively.

Read Chapter 12 of Wyse et al. (2013).

This chapter is useful in guiding our understanding of English phonics. It shows the
relationship between sounds and letters of the alphabet (and, by implication, spelling).
The English language makes use of 26 letters of the alphabet, which represent
approximately 44 phonemes (see tables 12.1–12.4 in Wyse et al. [2013] for examples).
A phoneme is the smallest distinctive unit of sound. All the words in the English language
are spoken by combining letters of the alphabet. This is also true for other languages. In
many African languages, for instance, the way a letter of the alphabet is pronounced
remains the same, as it represents the same sound whenever you combine letters to
produce different words. However, in English there is a challenge because of a lack of
consistency. Each sound in the English language is represented by more than one written
letter or by sequences of letters; and any letter represents more than one sound, or may
even not represent any sound at all. For example:

1. the letter c has no sound equivalent as c. It is pronounced as /k/ in the words cup,
cat, cotton, bacon, etc.; /s/ as in cellar, receive, accent, access. Similarly, the letter
s can be pronounced as /s/ as in sat, sing, socks, etc.; as /z/ as in bosom, busy,
cousin, easy, feasible, hesitate, etc. These examples demonstrate that a single
letter does not always represent a single sound.
2. In the words keen, speaker, peak and keg, the letter k is pronounced as the sound
/k/, but that sound is also used differently in the pronunciation of other words. For
example, by pronouncing the letter c as /k/ in the words cut, cap, act, cattle; the
double c in occasion, according, occur, occupy; the ch in chemist, stomach and the
ck in pack, back, black. In all these examples, a specific sound is not always
represented by the same letter of the alphabet.
3. The letter b is silent in the words: limb, thumb, comb, numb, womb, debt, subtle,
doubt, plumb, dumb. The letter c is equally silent in words like muscle, scene,
science. These examples indicate that some letters are not pronounced at all.
4. Sounds are sometimes pronounced where no letters exist for them. This is the case
with the following examples: /j/ is pronounced before u in the following words: use
/ju:z/, cute /kju:t/, beauty /bju:ti/. These examples illustrate the fact that we
pronounce sounds in some places where there is no such letter in the word.
These inconsistencies between spelling and pronunciation in English may not exist in
other languages. As a result, it is important to know the complete phonetic code for
consonants and vowels, as well as the sample words used to exemplify them (see Table
12.1–12.4 in Chapter 12 of Wyse et al. [2013]). This chapter contains examples of
phonemes, letters and sample words that will enhance your phonemic awareness.

Phonemic awareness includes the identification of phonemes in spoken words,

recognising the common spellings of each phoneme, blending phonemes into words for
reading and segmenting words into phonemes for spelling (Wyse et al., 2013:165).

In the last section of this unit we will briefly look at semantics and pragmatics, two other
levels of language structure. These concepts take us beyond letters and sounds, to
meaning.

Semantics and Pragmatics

Semantics simply refers to the study of how meaning in language is produced or created.
The linguistic study of meaning involves studying the meaning of words, sentences and
linguistic expressions, without recourse to the situational context. It is a systematic
interpretation and understanding of words, sentences and linguistic expressions based
purely on their linguistic structures and environment. For example, semantics deals with
the meaning relation between words and the sense relation between sentences. It
explores the general denotative and connotative meaning of words, as well as sense
relations (e.g., synonyms, antonyms, homonymy, polysemy and hyponymy). Sentence
semantics, on the other hand, deals with the truth condition of a sentence as the sum total
of the meaning of the words that constitute it. Semantics is therefore simply the study of
how meaning in language is produced or created. It is about how words, phrases and
sentences come together to make meaning. This includes the meaning attached to
symbols. As a level of language analysis, semantics is intricately connected with
communication and the functions of language.
In contrast to semantics, pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning. In pragmatics,
the interpretation of meaning is based on a situational context. Context refers to the
situation, the environment and the circumstances that give rise to an utterance or writing,
and within which the utterance/writing can be interpreted or understood. In other words,
context has to do with our knowledge of the physical and social world, and how such
knowledge helps us as hearers and readers to make sense of what a speaker or writer
means. The study of pragmatics thus involves investigating how we can infer meaning
from a situational context (Fasold, 1990). The contextual study of meaning essentially
involves interpreting what people mean in a particular situation and how the context
influences what is said. It is therefore about how speakers or writers organise what they
want to say in accordance with who they are addressing, where, when, and under what
circumstances – the situational context in which words and sentences are used. The
linguistic study of meaning is the core of semantic study, while the contextual study of
meaning is the core of pragmatics. This means that our knowledge of the external world
is used to ascertain the truth value of a sentence, and in that respect we can define
context as knowledge of the external world. The distinction between semantics and
pragmatics can be illustrated using this statement or utterance:

It is cold in here.

From the perspective of semantics, this sentence would literally be interpreted as

providing information about the weather and the temperature, nothing more. From a
pragmatic perspective, however, this statement – apart from stating the obvious about
the weather – could be intended by the speaker to request that a window be closed, a
heater be turned on, or a warm beverage be provided. It could also be a complaint about
the lack of heat in the room, or the need to change the venue. The number of possible
interpretations could be as varied as the situational context in which the utterance is
made. Pragmatics is therefore about what the speaker intended his/her utterance to
mean. In pragmatics, more is communicated than merely what is said. The central focus
in a study of pragmatics is on speech acts (what we do with words in different situations).
Conclusion
We have focused on phrases clauses and sentences. We looked at different types of
phrases and clauses, the importance of phonemic awareness, and semantics and
pragmatics.

References
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic writing; A handbook for international students. 4th ed. New
York: Routledge.
Dairo, A.L. (1997). Elements of Modern English Grammar: An Introduction. Ibadan:
Batapin Associates.
Fasold, R.W. (1990). The Sociolinguistics of Language. Oxford: Blackwell.
Kosch, I.M. (2006). Topics in Morphology in the African Language Context. Pretoria:
Unisa Press.
Leech, G., Deuchar, M. & Hoogenraad, R. (1982). English Grammar for Today: An
Introduction. London: Macmillan.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary – International Student’s Edition (2010). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Wyse, D., Jones, R., Bradford, H. & Wolpert, M.A. (2013). Teaching English, Language
and Literacy. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.
Glossary
A word is a unit of expression that has independent meaning.
A noun is a word that is used to name something.
A verb is that part of a sentence that reflects an action.
An adjective describes or modifies a noun, pronoun or other words.
An adverb describes a verb.
A pronoun can be used in place of a noun.
A conjunction is a word or phrase that joins parts of a sentence together, or links one
sentence to the next.
A phrase consists of a head word and any other words that modify it.
A clause is made up of units of information that are structured around a verb phrase.
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. It does not
express a complete thought, therefore it is not a sentence and cannot stand alone.
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
complete sentence.
Phonemic awareness is the understanding that words are made up of sounds, and the
ability to hear, recognise and manipulate the individual sounds that make up a word.

Self-assessment Questions
The following questions are meant to test your understanding of the outcomes of this unit.
The maximum mark for each question is indicated in brackets and will give you an
indication of how much you should write for each answer.

Answer the following questions to assess your mastery of the material we have
discussed in Unit 2 of your study guide and in this additional resources

1. What is a word? (2)

2. What is the difference between lexical and functional words? Give two (2) examples
of each. (4)
3. What is a simple sentence? (2)
4. Write sentences with the following: (4)
a) Two noun phrases
b) An adjective phrase
c) A prepositional phrase
d. An adverb phrase
5. Write a sentence with one independent clause and one subordinate clause. (1)
6. What is a complex sentence? Provide two (2) examples. (2)
7. Provide two (2) examples of each, to illustrate the following problems of sound and
spelling in English:
a) The same letter does not always represent the same sound.
b) The same sound is not always represented by the same letter.
c) Some letters are not pronounced at all.
d) We pronounce sounds in some places where there is no letter. (4)
8. What is the difference between semantics and pragmatics? (2)

Feedback on Self-assessment Questions

1. A word is a unit of expression that has independent meaning.

2. Lexical words have a dictionary meaning; they also have synonyms. Lexical words
can be classified into four categories: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Functional words do not really have meaning. They are used to indicate the
grammaticality of sentences. Functional or grammatical words include
conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions and interjections. Sleep and write are two
examples of lexical words. They and but are examples of functional words.

3. A simple sentence has only one independent clause.

4. Here are examples of model answers:

a. The teacher and the students have left for Ghana.
b. An awfully painful experience (painful is the adjective, it is modified by the adverb
awfully, it is pre-modifying the noun experience).
c. She left his books on the windowsill.
d. Go more slowly on the slope (slowly is the head word and it is pre-modified by more
and post-modified by the prepositional phrase on the slope).
 5. Here is a model answer:
I went to Nigeria because I needed a new passport.
I went to Nigeria (independent clause) because I needed a new passport (subordinate
clause).
(The examples of sentences provided will vary. However, what is important is to make
sure that you know the difference between a dependent and an independent clause.)

6. A complex sentence consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent

clauses. For example: She did not come home until after the graduation; If I go to the
movie, I will eat popcorn. The dependent clauses in the examples are underlined.
(The examples you give should indicate your understanding of dependent and
independent clauses.)

7.
• The same letter does not always represent the same sound: the letter c has no
equivalent sound and is realised as different sounds in words, for example as /k/ in
cup but as /s/ in receive.
• The same sound is not always represented by the same letter: the letter k is
pronounced as the sound /k/ in the word speak, but is written as ch in the word
stomach.
• Some letters are not pronounced at all. Examples are comb and science: in comb
the letter b is silent, in science the letter c is silent.
• We pronounce sounds in certain places where there is no letter: beauty and use –
neither word has the letter j in it, but both words are pronounced with the sound /j/
before /u/.
8. Semantics is a field of study that deals with the meaning of words, without context.
Pragmatics, on the other hand, focuses on those aspects of meaning and language use
that depend on the intentions of the speaker, the context of any given situation (including
the relationship between the speaker and the listener), and the understanding of the
listener.