Course 11: Gender, School and Society

Module 3: Dimensions and Movements for Women Empowerment

11.3.1: Concept, Importance and Dimensions of women empowerment:
a. Individual empowerment, b. Social empowerment, c. Economic empowerment,
d. Physical empowerment, e. Psychological empowerment,
f. Political empowerment
Concept, Importance and dimensions of Women Empowerment:
Empowerment – Literary Meaning ‘Power’ is the key word of the term empowerment. According
to the International Encyclopaedia (1999), power means having the capacity and the means to direct
one’s life towards desired social, political and economic goals or status. Thus, empowerment is a stage
of acquiring power in order to understand one’s rights and also to perform his/her responsibilities in a
most effective way.
Women Empowerment – Empowerment is an active, multi-dimensional process which enables
women to realize their potential and powers in all spheres of life. Power is not a commodity to be
transacted rather it has to be acquired and once acquired it needs to be exercised (trained), sustained
(continuous) and preserved (well-maintained).
Empowerment is enlightenment and there is no development without enlightenment; it is the quality of
life measured not in terms of rising money incomes, rather by the autonomy (self-sufficient,
independent) and security enjoyed by women everywhere.
Empowerment as a concept was introduced at the International Women’s Conference in 1985 at
Nairobi (largest city and capital of Kenya). The conference defined empowerment as a redistribution
of power in favour of women. The different factors of empowerment are –
 Enhance self-esteem and self-confidence in women.
 Build a positive image of women by recognizing their contributions to the society and economy.
 Develop in them an ability to think favourably.
 Foster decision making and action through collective process
 Enable them to make informal choices in areas like education, employment and health.
 Ensure equal participation in the development process
 Provide information, knowledge and skill for economic independence.
 Empowerment helps to reduce in domestic violence due people promote and give the value to
women.
Thus, women empowerment is the stage which can be acquired through providing encouraging factors
like opportunities, resources, and skills.
All the initiatives taken for the empowerment of women should result in the overall development of
the women which convert them to be the ‘contributors/participators’ in the nation building process
rather than mere beneficiaries of certain welfare schemes/programmes.
Dimensions of Women Empowerment-
Empowerment is multi-dimensional as it covers different areas like, individual empowerment, physical
empowerment, psychological empowerment, economic empowerment, social empowerment and
political empowerment.

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a. Individual Empowerment:
The personality structure, as we know, is significantly influenced by environmental conditions. A
person is not formed only by heredity and conditions of growth and care, but also by opportunities and
experiences in the world around him. Among these, especially important to us is the ability to make
decisions and to act in order to attain goals. This ability (or its absence) shapes the person’s character
and influences the degree to which she will be the effective actor in her life. Empowerment is an
interactive process which occurs between the individual and his environment, in the course of which
the sense of the self as worthless changes into an acceptance of the self as a self-confident citizen with
socio-political ability. At an individual level, as immediate outcomes, people may feel an increase in
self-efficacy or self-confidence, motivation and intention to participate in community problem solving,
which evolved from collective action.
Individual empowerment is an expression on the individual level of a multi-levelled process which
may be applied to organizations, communities, and social. Empowerment is a process of internal and
external change. The internal process is the person’s sense or belief in her ability to make decisions
and to solve her own problems. The external change finds expression in the ability to act and to
implement the practical knowledge, the information, the skills, the capabilities and the other new
resources acquired in the course of the process.
b. Social Empowerment:
The social empowerment of women includes better status in the family, freedom for marriage, right to
property, social mobility, social freedom, family welfare, and gender equity.
Social empowerment of women refers to Education for women, health of women, mobility of women,
participation of women in various fields and also protection of women against Gender based violence.
Social empowerment means a more equitable social status for women in society because the primary
responsibility of any human society is to ensure human self-respect to all members. The approach to
gender equity is based on the recognition that all interventions in favour of women must ensure an
environment free from all forms of violence against women and also ensure the participation.
The universalization of elementary education, enrolment and retention of girls in the schools,
promotion of balwadis and crèches, increasing the number of girls’ hostel, women’s polytechnics and
multi-purpose institutions , non-formal adult education and, open and distance education programmes
were some of the other steps taken to boost women’s education leading to social empowerment
c. Economic Empowerment:
The economic empowerment of women includes ownership and control of right to property,
employability, and improvement in the standard of living, fulfilment of basic needs, entrepreneurship
development and improvement of bargaining power of women.
Economic Empowerment All the poverty alleviation programmes were focussed on women as they
were economically more disadvantaged than men and as their upbringing and mainstreaming are
critical for the economic development of a nation. Economic empowerment is nothing but making
women aware about their role / importance in economic development and provide them space for
attaining financial independence and account their significant contributions to the production process.
Economic empowerment is a process as well as a stage which is to be reached by designing strategies
focusing on building credit worthiness and financial independence among women by removing all the
gender-specific barriers which prevent women from gaining access to their rightful share in every
spheres of life. Rural women have less access to the resources to generate stable incomes. House hold

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 income is a poor measure of women welfare because the distribution of income within the household
may be quite unequal. Various studies of intra house hold resource allocation indicates that in many
regions of the world, there exist a strong bias against women in areas such as nutrition, medical care,
education and inheritance. Consequently, in the development discourse, most of the poverty alleviating
programmes carries an implied agenda of women empowerment, which starts with access to credit and
involvement in income generation which was accepted as sure strategies for economic empowerment.
Thus economic empowerment is a necessary condition for enabling women to seek justice and
equality.
d. Physical empowerment:
The physical empowerment of women includes food, nutrition, health, sanitation, life expectancy and
growth.
When we talk about female physical empowerment we are talking about physical power. This is power
in its rawest form. Men have dominated physical power for thousands of years. As a result, all over the
world, women are still afraid. Afraid of the man on the bus, the man near their car, and the man
casting a second glance. No matter which country they come from, most women experience that sense
of helplessness.
However, rather than being taught to defend themselves, from a young, sensitive age, girls are taught
to wait for a man to come and save them. So many fairy tales and movies tell of a beautiful damsel
who finds herself in distress, waiting for the impeccable timing of a certain Prince Charming to jump
in and save them.
Women are still waiting all over the world for men to 'rescue' them. However, women cannot wait for
laws and the police (who tend to be men), to defend them from rape. For one thing they are not around
when the act is occurring and for another, the judicial process is often completely humiliating and
undignified for women.
Men tend to have greater upper body strength than women so to equalize these imbalance women need
the tools to strengthen their ability to defend themselves. Karate, Aikido and other martial arts show
that a weaker opponent can overcome a stronger one. Women need to be taught self-defence at
schools, the workplace from childhood onwards! Even if only 10% of women are able to defend
themselves that works as a blanket protection for other women as men will not know which women
can take them down!
A woman who possesses the ability to defend herself, most likely has a handful of other traits such as
greater confidence, and sense of self-value.
The Way It Could Be
The Pink Saris: Also known as the Gulabi Gang, a group of women based in several districts of
Uttar Pradesh, India. Started in 2006 by a brave woman named Sampat Pal Devi, she observed a
woman getting abused. After approaching the man, she too began to be abused by him in broad
daylight. The next day, Sampat returned the next day with five other women armed with bamboo
sticks, and gave him a beating of his own. Today, over a decade later, she works throughout various
districts of India to fight various types of women's social injustice. They conduct their work draped in
bright pink Saris, accumulating the title.
Setting up a Female Self Defence School or Classes: There are more numerous methods
and strategies for a female to defend herself as opposed to running or submitting. In developed
countries there are community resources that offer free or donation-based self-defence classes Most

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 have a target audience of women as young as 13 and up! Options such as basic fighting classes, Rape
Aggression Defence (R.A.D. Training), and even training to identify a situation before it has the
chance to increase. These resources for physical female empowerment allow women to fight back and
defend her at any age, any place, and any time.
e. Psychological empowerment:
Zimmerman defines that psychological empowerment ’refers to empowerment at the individual level
of analysis.
The various psychological benefits which are required by women are like self-awareness, high self-
esteem, self-confidence and courage, understanding about own rights, privileges, roles &
responsibilities, power of self-determination, positive attitude, risk taking ability, the power to face
challenges of daily life, gaining knowledge and new ideas and skills, great relief from mental stress
and anxiety, leading a happy and satisfied life and so on.
Psychological empowerment involves following component:
Intrapersonal component: Intrapersonal empowerment can be understood as the emotional
component of psychological empowerment and focuses on a person’s feelings about their inner world.
Intrapersonal empowerment describes people’s one beliefs and about their ability to control their
environment and achieve their goals. Psychological empowerment often included measures of self-
esteem, self-efficacy and sense of control over a given condition when constructing intrapersonal
empowerment.
For example- for women responding to domestic violence, individual empowerment may be
measured by their sense of control over the relationship, their sense of self-efficacy in responding
effectively to domestic violence, and their sense of self-esteem
f. Political Empowerment:
The political empowerment includes political reservation, political participation and political
leadership development of women.
Political empowerment is a process that enables women to increase their mobility and break their
isolation, to develop their self-confidence and self-image and to establish their public presence
whereby they participate in decision making in an expanding frame work of awareness and critical
analysis to control and influence the direction of development.
Participation of women in Panchayati Raj Institutions has been recognized as a step towards equality.
Today, one of the issues of concern is the level of women’s participation in political life. Political
participation includes the right to vote, right to contest, right to candidature, their role as women as
campaigners, members and their involvement in the decision making process and appointment of
women at all levels of government. Reserving seats for women in the political institutions will provide
them an opportunity to raise their complaints and other related personal and social problems in a
formal manner.
Importance of Women Empowerment:
To have the bright future in family, society and country empowerment of women is essential. Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru had said that to awaken the people, we should first awaken the women, because once
a women has been awakened then the whole nation and family gets awakened with her.
In India, women have been always made a subject of honour killings and they have never been given
their basic rights for proper education and freedom. They are victims who have to face day to day
violence, abuse and other several ill treatments in this male dominated society and this patriarch

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society. Thus, in order to empower women in our country we need to get rid of all demons in our
society who are suppressing women and killing them. In India, there is a high level of gender
inequality where women are maltreated by their family members as well as outsiders.
The real meaning of women empowerment is to make them well educated and leave them free so that
they are capable to take their own decisions in any field. In all, we are in need to empower women so
that they can be independent and not rely on men of our country to support them and take care of
them.
The women of our country should be strong broad minded and mature in taking their own decisions.
Decision making in national topics or any other topics of our society should also encourage
participation of women.
Conclusion
Empowerment involves gaining a sense of knowledge, skill, and competence. To achieve this women
and girls should be given opportunities to build and expand skills and resources by involving them in
social and economic decision making process at all levels and imparting education.

11.3.2: Some landmarks from social reform movements with focus on women's
education and social status: 1. Raja Rammohan Roy, 2. Tarabai Shinde,
3. Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve, 4. Savitribai and 5. Mahatma Phule

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was an Indian socio-educational reformer who was also known as ‘Maker of
Modern India’ and ‘Father of Modern India’ and ‘Father of the Bengal Renaissance.’ He was born on
May 22, 1772 into a Bengali Hindu family.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy is a great historical figure who put laudable efforts to transform India and dared
to defy the age old Hindu traditions. He undertook a lot of social reforms to change the society and
worked to uplift the status of women in India. Roy fought against Sati system. He was the first one to
raise his head against the barbaric practice of ‘Sati’. This ‘Sati’ was a practice in which, according to
tradition, the wife was to be put with her dead husband on the burning pyre, and the corpse of the
husband would burn with the wife alive put with him. He mobilized a strong revolt against this
process, and finally did succeed to a great extent in getting the system of ‘Sati’ abolished. He made
sure that the British Government passed a law against the system of ‘Sati’.
He was also a great scholar who translated many books, religious and philosophical work and
scriptures into Bengali and also translated Vedic scriptures into English.
He was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj at Kolkata in 1828. His efforts actually led to the resumption
of the ethics principles of the Vedanta school of philosophy. He co-founded the Calcutta Unitarian
Society.
He extensively studied Christianity and other religion. This made him realize that some Hindu
traditions and superstitions were required to be reformed. He came to this conclusion while working
for the East India Company. Apart from this he was born into a family with religious diversity which
probably controlled his thinking. Roy was against idol worship and propagated the oneness of God
through Brahmo Samaj

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The title ‘Raja’ was given to him by the Mughal Emperor. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the first
educated Indian to travel to England. He went to England as an ambassador of the Mughal emperor
Akbar II.
He wanted to combine the righteousness of Western and Indian culture. He was against traditional
Hindu practices and echoed his voice against Sati system, polygamy, caste rigidity and child marriage.
He was greatly moved by his sister-in-laws death who became Sati.
He put remarkable efforts in the education system of India. To modernize the education system, Raja
Ram Mohan Roy established many English schools. He set up the Hindu collage at Calcutta in 1822.
He assisted Alexander Duff to establish the General Assembly’s Institution. Roy promoted and urged
that science, technology, western medicine and English should be taught at Indian schools.
To politically educate people, Raja Ram Mohan Roy even published magazines in different languages
including English, Hindi, Persian and Bengali. Noticeable magazines published by him were the
Brahmonical Magazine, the Sambad KaumudiandMirat-ul-Akbar.

2. Tarabai Shinde
Tarabai Shinde (1840-1910) was an inspirational women’s activist who was known for her fiery
personality, outstanding self-confidence, and strong sense of independence. Her invigorating book is
considered the first modern Indian feminist text where she passionately fights to help women gain
privilege and end oppression.
Shinde is widely known for her creative, fierce, and controversial book, “A Comparison of Men and
Women,” where she critizes the patriarchal society in which she grew up where the differences
between the two genders was atrocious. Shinde wrote A Comparison Between Men and Women in
response to the unfair treatment of women in nineteenth century Indian society. Vijayalakshmi, in
Surat, was an upper-caste widow who was sentenced to death for having an abortion. After
Vijayalakshmi’s death, an article was published insulting women for their “new loose morals,” and
portrayed Indian woman as detestable. Shinde wrote her book in response to this article to show Indian
society that there are double-standards for men and women, and that women deserve equal rights.
Shinde raised awareness on the double-standards of men and women in society. She also discussed the
unfair treatment of the different castes in India. This allowed citizens to begin to question the
standards they had set for women.
She was home-schooled by her father, Bapuji Hari Shinde, who taught her Marathi, Sanskrit, and
English. Shinde was recognized across the world for being the first feminist writer of nineteenth
century India to write against men and the caste system; however, she did not receive any awards
because of her controversial writing.
Tarabai Shinde was an associate of the activists Jotirao and Savitribai Phule. She received most of her
experience through her work with them who shared the same ideas of the oppression of gender and
caste in Indian society. She was a member of their Satyashodak Samaj (“Truth seekers society”)
organization. She helped the Phules start a school for Untouchable girls in 1848. She also helped to
start a shelter for upper-caste widows in 1854 when they were forbidden from remarrying.
About remarriages, she has written, “The system of keeping away remarriages has spread like leprosy
in many races. It is unimaginable to think of the sorrow millions of women have suffered and will
suffer after becoming widows and how terrible are and will be the consequences of it.”
Writing about the pain and agony suffered by widows, Tarabai says, “Women, who collect the bundle
of widowhood in the cloth of their saree, keep talking about good and bad qualities of their dead

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husbands and die bearing the ill treatment of the members of the family and society.” Because
remarriages are forbidden, a large number of young widows are going astray and abort their unborn
children, killing them. Lok-hitwadi, a well known scholar of the time, had sent a report to the
government that in those days approximately about a thousand fetuses were removed only in Pune
district. The fear Tarabai Shinde had expressed in her book was thus supported by Lok-hitwadi’s
letter.
It is not only illogical but also unrealistic to forbid remarriages; so she asks, “Arre, have your
ancestors brought in a certificate from God to state whether a wife should die before her husband or a
husband should die before his wife? Living and dying is only in the hands of the all powerful
Almighty.” In this connection, she asks, “Why should women forever live in a dark room after losing
their husband like a criminal worse than murderer all their life? Why should they be under the
pressure of guilt they have not committed?” She has presented many points in her book in support of
argument how a woman’s life has become meaningless in the male dominated system of patriarchy.
The time has now come to change all this. She demanded in the book that the British government
should pass a law allowing widows to remarry.
Being a woman, she wrote the book out of her genuine concern for all women. The books is a proof of
how Tarabai was a versatile woman having balanced thought and rational attitude towards life. She has
quoted many references from scriptures and ancient books to put forward truth. This proves how her
reading was vast and balanced. She had also read stories and novels of the times keeping her eyes
open. She vehemently attacked the portrayal of women suffering from the weakness of sexual desire
written from the point of view of male psychology in novels like Muktamala, Manjughosha,
Manorama, and Vidagdha Shreecharitra. She clearly stated that the descriptions in those novels were
imaginary, fanciful, unrealistic and downright defamatory for women.
Although her criticism in the book A Comparison of Men and Women (Stree-Purush Tulanaa) is
expressed in candid and attacking words, she has never propagated total freedom for women or
uncontrolled man-woman equality. She is not partial in blaming men for all problems either. The style
of the book is smooth and felicitous. The writing has become effective because of the imagery used
from the sphere of her life experience and the use of proverbs and sayings often used in the speech of
womenfolk of the times. It is unbelievable to accept why Tarabai Shinde, who is considered the first
feminist woman writer in Marathi owing to her book Stree – Purush Tulanaa, did not write anything
else in later life.
Savitribai was also the first woman in India to enter into the male bastion and light her husband’s pyre.
Her choice to light her husband’s funeral pyre, which would still be considered audacious, must have
sent shock waves across the land at that point in time. This act portrays her subjectivity and tells us
that she was not a conventional Indian Pativrata (devoted wife) following in her husband’s footsteps.
She became a breadwinner after her husband’s death and took the leading role in running
Satyashodhak Samaj. Her compassion was seen during the draught of 1896.
Savitribai and Tarabai were revolutionary leaders in their own right. Despite tremendous odds, They
rose to become productive, inspiring and capable teachers, leaders, thinkers and writers. Their life
shows that the strongest dent against the patriarchal system has to come by a woman herself. Savitribai
Phule and Tarabai Shinde were perhaps the greatest female leader of colonial India who thrashed upon
the age old patriarchal system by linking caste to patriarchy.

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 3. Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve
Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve was a preeminent Indian social reformer, especially in the field of
welfare of women. Apart from the appellation, ‘Maharshi’, meaning ‘a great sage’, he was also
affectionately called Anna Karve (‘father’ or an ‘elder brother’ in Marathi). Queen’s Road in Mumbai
(Bombay) was renamed as Maharshi Karve Road.
Born in a lower middle-class Chitpavan Brahmin family at Khed Taluka of Ratnagiri district in
Maharashtra on 18 April 1858, he received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics from the Elphinstone
College in Bombay.
Hindu social mores in those days discouraged education of girls; daughters often before puberty, were
routinely married off to young boys or at times even to grown-up widowers. Since widow remarriages
were frowned upon, they faced a bleak future, as lacking education, they ended up serving their late
husband’s relatives for life.
With extraordinary fortitude and perseverance he fought the harsh social mores against women and
promoted the education of women and freedom for widows to remarry. His inspiration was the works
of Pandita Ramabai, Pandit Vishnushāstri Chiplunkar, Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and Herbert
Spencer, and he continued the pioneering work of Mahatma Phule and Savitribai Phule.
Karve’s parents had arranged his marriage when he was 14, to an 8-year-old girl named Radhabai. She
however, died in 1891 during childbirth at age 27. With extraordinary courage, he implemented his
own reformatory thoughts and two years later chose as his second wife, a widow – a 23 year old
named Godubai, widowed at eight years even before she knew what it was to be a wife, rather than an
unmarried girl.
In 1893, Karve founded ‘Vidhawa-Vivahottejak Mandali’, which, besides encouraging widow
marriages, also helped their needy children. Initially, he had to start it in a remote village because of
the ostracisation for his reformatory activities by the dominant orthodox Brahmin community in the
city. With his meagre resources, for many years Karve would walk several miles from Hingane to the
city of Pune to teach mathematics at Fergusson College (1891-1914) and also collect in his spare time
paltry donations from a few progressive donors, even as others openly hurled insulting epithets at him.
Karve’s visit to Japan in 1916 inspired him to establish in 1916 in Pune the first University for women
in India, with just five students. During 1917–1918, he established a Training College for Primary
School Teachers and another school for girls, named ‘Kanya Shala’.
In 1920, an industrialist and philanthropist from Mumbai, Sir Vithaldas Thackersey, donated 1.5
million Indian rupees and the University was then renamed as Shreemati Nathibai Damodar
Thackersey Indian Women’s University or SNDT Women’s University, which in 1936, moved its
headquarters to Mumbai.
In March 1929, Karve left for a tour in England and subsequently toured America and many countries
in Africa. The then-British colony of Kenya, on his 80th birthday, issued a postage stamp in his
honour. In 1958, the Government of India issued stamps commemorating his birth centenary, the first
time a “living person” was featured on stamps, after India’s Independence. The Government of India
even awarded him its highest civilian award, Bharat Ratna in 1958 (the year he completed 100 years of
life). All his four sons, Raghunath (from his first marriage), and Shankar, Dinkar, and Bhaskar, from
his second, rose to eminence in their own fields of work.
Karve wrote two autobiographical works: Ātmavrutta (1928) in Marathi, and Looking Back (1936) in
English. He chose poverty and walked the path strewn with criticism and opposition; he wiped others
tears and he brought education, equality, honour and joy into the lives of many people.

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 4. Savitribai Phule
A great social reformer of 19th century, Savitribai Phule is hailed for her contribution in the field of
education. She was a crusader for women empowerment as she broke all hurdles and spent her life
spreading the noble cause of women’s education. Savitribai was a pioneer who is remembered for
advocating big changes in society too.
Born on January 3, 1831, in Naigaon Maharashtra, Savitribai was married off to activist and social-
reformer Jyotirao Phule, at a very young age. But with her husband’s support and motivation, she
learned to read and write. He not only helped her in attaining good education but also supported her in
achieving her dream of an India where women can live with their heads held high.
She set up India’s first women’s school from various castes in Bhidewada, Pune and became the first
woman teacher in the country. In her lifetime she built more than 20 such schools in the region. She
even gave scholarships to children for attending school in order to control the dropout rate.
At a time when India was plagued with women’s outraged modesty, she acted as a messiah for all
those women who were living a life of servitude. She set up India’s first women’s school. As female
education was not given importance that time, people were not in favour of her running a school for
girls. Especially, the upper castes strongly opposed Dalits education. To discourage her, they threw
cow dung and mud at her while she walks towards the school. But even after bearing such atrocities,
she was never deterred by failure and carried two sarees.
Education was considered to be a privileged only meant for the higher castes, but Savitribai
emphasised on secular education. She believed that the need for proper education was as basic as that
of the requirement of food, water and shelter. She preached the importance of getting an education for
both boys and girls. She was the reason thousands of women liberated and started living to fulfil their
dreams.
She vigorously fought and raised her voice against society’s ignorant, archaic and barbaric views with
regards to women.
Along with her husband, she also worked towards preventing female infanticide and set up a home,
Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha, to prevent the killing of widows. She also campaigned against child
marriage and sati pratha, which undermined the existence of women. As part of the Satyashodhak
Samaj, the Phule couple organised marriages without a priest, dowry, and at a minimal cost. The
wedding vows in these marriages were the pledges taken by both the bride and the bridegroom.
Rape victims were often ostracised during those times, but the couple not only helped them in
delivering their children but also taught them to begin a new life.
In order to control the school drop out rate, she gave stipends to children for attending school. She
believed that parents played a significant role in making their child understand the importance of
education and therefore used to conduct parent-teacher meetings, making parents understand the need
for the same.
Later on, to honour her contribution, the University of Pune was renamed as Savitribai Phule Pune
University.

5. Mahatma Phule
Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, more popular as ‘Jyotirao Phule’, was a thinker, activist, social
reformer, writer, philosopher, theologist, scholar and editor. He was also called ‘Mahatma Jyotiba
Phule’. Phule and his wife, Savitribai Phule were pioneers of women’s education in India. His great
contribution was prominent in the field of education, agriculture, caste system, women and widow

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upliftment and removal of untouchability. He is very popular for his efforts to educate women of the
lower caste as well as the masses.
Jyotirao Phule was born on 11th April, 1827 in Katgun, a village in Satara district of Maharashtra. His
father Govindrao worked as a vegetable vendor and his family belonged to the "Mali" caste,
considered inferior to the Brahmins. He attended primary school but left his studies to work in the
farms. However, his neighbours who recognized the child’s intelligence convinced his father to let him
continue his education. He got married to Savitribai at an early age of 13. Jyotirao Phule went to the
local Scottish Mission’s High School and passed out in 1847.
His life changed when he was insulted by one of his Brahmin friend and then he realized the caste
divide and discrimination present in the society. This event proved a turning point in his life. He began
to realize and observe various types of social evils being practiced in the society and decided to fight
against them. A book by the writer Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man, gave him further push to start a
movement against prevailing social evils such as caste system, untochability, women’s pathetic
condition, poor condition of peasants etc.
He was of the opinion that as children of God every person had equal status, irrespective of caste and
creed. He had a strong feeling that our society could not progress and prosper without the proper
spread of education, especially among women.
On 24th September 1873, Jyotirao Phule formed Satya Shodhak Samaj (Society of Seekers of Truth)
with the objective of liberating the Sudras to prevent their "exploitation" by Brahmins. He was the
first president and treasurer of Satya Shodhak Samaj.
Phule, through the organization refused to regard the Vedas as sacrosanct. He also opposed the idea
and even rejected the Caste system. This organization also propounded the spread of rational thinking
and refused the need for Brahmin priestly class as educational and religious leaders. He was also
against those particular Brahmins who were using religion and blind faith of masses for their own
monetary gains.
After educating his wife, Jyotirao Phule opened a school for girls in India in August 1948. He
supported widow remarriage and started a home for upper caste widows in 1854. In the same year, he
also started a home for new-born infants to prevent female infanticide.
Jyotirao Phule had devoted his 40 years of life to social service fighting for the rights of the
‘bahujans’. To mark this accomplishment, the bahujans, Satyashodhak leaders and workers decided to
felicitate Jyotirao Phule. Hence on 11th May 1888, he was honoured with the title of ‘Mahatma’ by
another social reformer from Mumbai, Rao Bahadur Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar.

Works and Social Reforms:

 His first and foremost work was in the field of women’s education; and his first disciple was his
wife herself who always shared his dreams and supported him all through life.
 To fulfill his ideals and aspirations of creating a just and equitable society, in 1848, Jyotiba opened
a school for girls; it was a first girls’ school ever in the country. His wife Savitribai taught there as
a teacher. But for trying to educate girls, a highly unthinkable act at that time, Jyotiba was forced
to leave his home. However such threats and pressures by the society would not deter him from
doing his work and he kept creating awareness among people about social evils.
 In 1851, he started a bigger and better school for girls which became very popular; there was no
discrimination on the lines of religion, caste or creed and everyone was welcomed to study there.

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  Jyotiba was also against child-marriages and was a great supporter of widow remarriage; he was
very sympathetic to the cause of distressed women and opened a home for such poor and exploited
women where they could be taken care off.
 Jyotiba was also actively involved in the emancipation of so-called lower castes and especially the
Untouchables; in fact he was perhaps the first person who gave untouchables the name Dalit as
signifying someone who is broken, depressed or exploited and is outside the so-called Varna
system.
 For uplifting the so-called lower caste people and untouchables, on 24 September 1873, he formed
the Satyashodhak Samaj (the Society of Truth Seekers); the main objective of the Samaj was to
create a just and equitable social order free of discrimination on the basis of caste, religion or
gender. Satyashodhak Samaj was also opposed to religious dogmas and superstitions such as
idolatry, need for priests and irrational rituals etc.
 Thus, Jyotiba Phule devoted his whole life for the weaker and depressed section of society; in his
thinking and works he was well ahead of his times.

11.3.3: Various reform movements before Independence

1. Act of Sati (abolish) 1829,
2. Hindu Widow Remarriage Act’ 1856,
3. The Child marriage Restriction Act, 1929,

1. Act of Sati (abolish) 1829:

Sati Pratha in India:
Sati literally means ‘a pure and virtuous woman’. Sati Pratha or tradition of widow burning at the
funeral pyre of her husband has been a shameful social evil and an age old practice in Indian society.
A widow was burned either with her silent consent or most of the times forcefully by her in-laws after
the death of her husband.
This practice shows a dark and evil side of Hindu society, especially of ancient and medieval India.
A widow who agreed to self-immolate herself at the funeral pyre of her husband was considered to be
very virtuous and attained to the status of Sati Mata or Sati Goddess.
We can still find Temples of Sati Mata in some States of India such as in Rajasthan and M P.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
The real change occurred during the time of Governor-General Lord William Bentinck when he took
charge in 1828. He tried to tackle several social problems facing the society such as abolition
of Sati and destruction of infanticide and devastating the gangs of Criminals.
Several well-balanced and educated Indians also began to question this inhuman practice of Sati.
Prominent among them was Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Roy is rightly considered to be the first leader of
the Indian social enlightenment in the early Nineteenth century.
It was Raja Rammohan Roy who urged and pressed Bentinck to take necessary steps and declare the
practice of Sati illegal.
Due to his great efforts and work through publication of pamphlets and newspaper reports etc. he was
able to awaken the conscience of the masses. In December 1829, was issued by the Governor-General
declaring the practice of Sati or burning or burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by the
criminal courts as culpable homicide.

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 In December 1829, Regulation No- XVII was issued by the Governor-General declaring the practice
of Sati or burning or burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by the criminal courts as culpable
homicide.
The Regulation of 1829 was initially applicable to Bengal Presidency alone but in 1830 it was
extended in different forms to Madras and Bombay Presidencies also.
Thus, after the Regulation of 1829, the inhuman practice of Sati was more or less abolished from the
customary practices of Hindu society; though opposition was made from some quarters of orthodox
Brahmins but overall the abolition proved successful.
In recent past one notable incidence came into light when in September 1987, in Rajasthan village of
Deorala, 17-year-old RoopKanwar, a bride of eight months immolated herself on her husband’s
funeral pyre. Thousands were present at the venue.
This shocking incident once again brought into light the fact that still in the sub-conscious memory of
traditional Hindu society people consider the practice of Sati as some kind of virtuous act.
But apart from this infamous exception no other such event came into light anywhere in the country.
Therefore, it can be said that the inhuman practice now has no place in the modern outlook of Twenty-
first-century society of India.
2. Hindu Widows Remarriage Act: 1856
In ancient India women enjoyed equal status with man in all fields of life, she received the same
education like man, many Hindu religious books like Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, and Mahabharata
have mentioned the names of several women who were great scholars, poets, philosophers of the time.
But in the medieval period, the status of women went down considerably. She was considered to be
inferior to man. Widows were not treated as human beings and were subjected to a lot of restrictions.
They were supposed to live a pious life after their husband died and were not allowed entry in any
celebration.
Their presence in any good work was considered to be a bad omen. Sometimes heads of widows were
also shaved down. They were not allowed to remarry. Any woman remarrying was looked down by
the society.
This cruelty on widows was one of the main reasons for the large number of women committing Sati.
In medieval India living as a Hindu widow was a sort of curse.
Calcutta, India, 1856: After successfully banning the practice of sati (widow-burning), the British
government in India has been mindful of the plight of higher-caste widows, forbidden to remarry,
deemed unlucky by their families, often poorly treated, and sometimes forced into beggary and
prostitution.
Many widows had been married at a very young age to elderly men; widowed as children, theirs was
the worst plight. The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act XV of 1856 was passed which enabled widows
to marry again.
This gave a severe shock to the then conservative Hindu society. Later, in 1872, the Special Marriage
Act III of 1872 was passed which enabled one to marry out of her own caste.
However, overall, the movement was a failure. Only about 80 widows were remarried in Bengal over a
span of 20 years.
The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act was legalized on July 16th 1856 and was enacted on July 25th the
same year.
This cause was championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, an important figure of the Bengal
Renaissance.

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 Vidyasagar went ahead and provided legal safeguards ensuring that widows do not lose out on any
inheritance that they were entitled to by their deceased husbands.
However, according to the act, widows were to give up any such inheritance.
This act was particularly targeted at child widows whose husbands had died before the consummation
of the marriage.
3. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
It extends to the whole of India [except the State of Jammu and Kashmir] and it applies as also to all
citizens of India.
It came into force on the 1st day of April, 1930.
Parents of a child entering into a child marriage are often poor and use the marriage as a way to make
her future better, especially in areas with little economic opportunities.
Dowry is a practice in India where the bride's family transfers wealth to the groom; in many cases, it is
a demand and condition of marriage from the groom's family. Dowry is found among all religious
faiths in India, and the amount of dowry demanded and given by the bride's family has been correlated
to the age of girl. Nagi in 1993, suggested that the practice of dowry creates a fear and pressure to
avoid late marriages, and encourages early marriage.
Poverty in India has been cited as a cause of early marriages. Child marriages of girls are a way out of
desperate economic conditions, and way to reduce the expenses of a poor family.
Punishment for male adult below twenty-one years of age marrying a child-
Whoever, being a male above eighteen years of age and belowtwenty-one, contracts a child marriage
shall be punishable with simple imprisonment which may extend to fifteen days, or with fine which
may extend to one thousand rupees, or with both.
Punishment for male adult above twenty-one years of age marrying a child-
Whoever, being a male above twenty-one years of age, contracts a child marriage shall be punishable
with simple imprisonment which may extend to three months and shall also be liable to fine.
Punishment for solemnizing a child marriage- Whoever performs, conducts or directs any
child marriage shall be punishable with simple imprisonment which may extend to three months and
also be liable to fine, unless he proves that he had reason to believe that the marriage was not a child
marriage.
Punishment for parent or guardian concerned in a child marriage. Where a minor
contracts a child marriage, any person having charge of theminor, whether as parent or guardian or in
any other capacity, lawful or solemnized, or negligently fails to prevent it from being solemnized,
shall be punishable with simple imprisonment which may extend to three months and shall also be
liable to fine.
Other Measures to Prevent Child Marriages;
Apart from the implementation of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, the Department has taken the
following measures to prevent Child Marriages:
 All the Programme Officers (ICDS) in the districts have been given instructions to keep a watch
on child marriages and report such cases to District Administration and appropriate authorities for
taking action as per Child Marriage Restraint Act.
 Director Panchayats, State Women Commission all the Deputy
Commissioners and Superintendents of Police and Programme Officers have been circulated
instructions received from National Commission for women to launch Bal VivahVirodhAbhiyan.

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  NGOs are being involved by organizing vocational / cultural activities for children through
Education Department.
 Awareness against child marriages is being created through Public Relations Department, Haryana
and Haryana State Social Welfare Advisory Board.

11.3.4: Reform movements after independence:

1. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (regarding the age for marriage, monogamy and
guardianship of the mother )
2. Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956(adoption by unmarried women, widow or
divorcee of sound mind )
3. Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961
1. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
Introduction:
The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 provides guidance for Hindus to be in a systematic marriage bond. It
gives meaning to marriage, cohabiting rights for both the bride and groom, and a safety for their
family and children so that they do not suffer from their parental issues.
Section 5 of The Hindu Marriage Act specifies that conditions must be met for a marriage to be able to
take place. If a ceremony takes place, but the conditions are not met, the marriage is either void by
default, or voidable.
Void marriages:
A marriage may be declared void (invalid) if it disregards any of the following:
 Either party is under age.The bridegroom should be of 21 years of age and the bride of 18 years.
 Either party is not of a Hindu religion.Both the groom and the bride should be of the Hindu
religion at the time of marriage.
 Either party is already married. The Act expressively prohibits polygamy. A marriage can only be
solemnized if neither party has a living spouse at the time of marriage.
Voidable marriages (illegal marriage by law):
A marriage may later be voidable (cancelled) if it disobeys any of the following:
 Either party is impotent, unable to consummate the marriage, or otherwise unfit for the procreation
of children.
 One party did not willingly consent. In order to consent, both parties must be sound of mind and
capable of understanding the implications of marriage. If either party suffers from a mental
disorder or recurrent attacks of insanity or epilepsy, then that may indicate that consent was not (or
could not be) given. Likewise, if consent was forced or obtained fraudulently, then the marriage
may be voidable.
 The bride was pregnant by another man other than the bridegroom at the time of the marriage.

 Age to the parties (Sec 5 Clause (3)

At the time of marriage the bridegroom has completed the age of 21 years and the bride the age of 18
years .If a marriage is solemnized in contravention of this condition is neither void nor voidable.

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 Punishment:- By Section 18 of the Act ,anyone who procures a marriage in violation of the condition
is liable to be punished with simple imprisonment which may extent up to 15 days or with fine which
may extend uptoRs. 1000/- or with both.

 Monogamy (Sec 5 Clause (1))

This provision Prohibits bigamy. The marriage should be monogamous. Under the Hindu Law a
person can validly marry if he or she is either unmarried or divorced or a widow or a widower. If at the
time of the performance of the marriage rites and ceremonies either party has a spouse living or the
earlier marriage had not already been set aside, the later marriage is void. A bigamous marriage is null
and void and is made punishable.
 (Child custody and Guardianship in Hindu law)
The Hindu law of guardianship has been codified and reformed by the Hindu Minority and
guardianship Act,1956.
 Guardianship of person of minors
Under the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, minor means a person who has not completed
the age of eighteen years. A minor is considered to be a person who is physically and intellectually
imperfect and immature and hence need someone’s protection.
Guardians may be of the following 3 types:
1. Natural guardians
2. Testamentary guardians
3. Guardians appointed or declared by the court.
Natural guardians are of two types:
a. Father- a father is the natural guardian of his minor legitimate children, sons and daughters. A father
cannot be deprived of the natural guardianship of his minor children unless he has been found unfit. In
case the father is incapable, or fails or refuses to perform the functions the mother can be the guardian.
b. Mother – the mother is the guardian of the minor illegitimate children even if the father is alive.
Mother’s right to guardianship stays even if she has converted her religion. The position also remains
the same even if the child is an adopted child and not a natural born child.
The father can appoint a testamentary guardian on his own will. If the father does not appoint, the
mother’s appointee will resume the responsibility of the guardian.
Guardians appointed by the court are the guardians appointed by the virtue of the courts
empowerment. The district court on its own decision appoints any person whenever it thinks it to be
better for the welfare of the child.

2. The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956

The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act was enacted in India in 1956 as part of the Hindu Code
Bills. The other legislations enacted during this time include the Hindu Marriage Act (1955), the
Hindu Succession Act (1956), and the Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956). All of these acts
were put forth under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, and were meant to codify and standardise the
current Hindu legal tradition. The Adoptions and Maintenance Act of 1956 dealt specifically with the
legal process of adopting children by a Hindu adult, and with the legal obligations of a Hindu to
provide "maintenance" to various family members including their wife or wives, parents, and in-laws.

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The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956 extends to only the Hindus, which are defined under
Section-2 of the Act and include any person, who is a Hindu by religion, including a Virashaiva, a
Lingayat or a follower of the Brahmo, Prarthana or Arya Samaj,or a Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh by
religion, to any other person who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi or Jew by religion. It also includes
any legitimate or illegitimate child who has been abandoned both by his father and mother or whose
parentage is not known and who in either case is brought up as a Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina or Sikh.
Adoption is recognized by the Hindus and is not recognized by Muslims, Christian and Parsis.
Adoption in the Hindus is covered by The Hindu Adoptions Act and after the coming of this Act all
adoptions can be made in accordance with this Act. It came into effect from 21st December, 1956.
Prior to this Act only a male could be adopted, but the Act makes a provision that a female may also
be adopted. This Act extends to the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It applies
to Hindus, Buddhists, Jainas and Sikhs and to any other person who is not a Muslim, Christian, Parsi
by religion.
It is a right to get necessities which are reasonable. Section 3(b) of the Hindu Adoptions and
Maintenance Act, 1956 defines maintenance. According to this section Maintenance include;
(i) in all cases, provision for food, clothing, residence, education and medical attendance and
treatment, (ii) in the case of an unmarried daughter, also the reasonable expenses of an incident to her
marriage, (c) “minor” means a person who has not completed his or her age of eighteen years.
Capacity of a male Hindu to take in adoption:
Any male Hindu who is of sound mind and is not a minor (has completed the age of 18 years) has the
capacity to take a son or a daughter in adoption. Provided that, if he has a wife living, he shall not
adopt except with the consent of his wife unless the wife has completely and finally renounced the
world or has ceased to be a Hindu or has been declared by a court of competent jurisdiction to be of
unsound mind. Where a declaration of judicial separation has been passed between husband and wife,
the consent of the wife would be necessary for the husband to adopt a child, because the declaration of
judicial separation did not bring the marriage to an end. In case of void marriage no consent of the
wife is needed as she is not a lawfully wedded wife and as such does not enjoy any legal status and
rights. When the wife has participated in the ceremony of adoption without any objection then her
consent shall be implied.
Capacity of a female Hindu to take in adoption:
Any female Hindu
a. who is of sound mind
b. who is not a minor, and
c. who is not married, or if married, whose marriage has been dissolved or whose husband is dead or
has completely and finally renounced the world or has ceased to be a Hindu, or has been declared by a
court of competent jurisdiction to be of unsound mind, has the capacity to take a son or daughter in
adoption. Where the woman is married it is the husband who has the right to take in adoption with the
consent of the wife.
The person giving a child in adoption has the capacity/right to do so;
a. No person except the father or mother or guardian of the child shall have the capacity to give the
child in adoption.

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 b. The father alone if he is alive shall have the right to give in adoption, but such right shall not be
exercised except with the consent of the mother unless the mother has completely and finally
renounced the world or has ceased to be a Hindu, or has been declared by a court of competent
jurisdiction to be of unsound mind.
c. The mother may give the child in adoption if the father is dead or has completely and finally
renounced the world or has ceased to be a Hindu, or has been declared by a court of competent
jurisdiction to be of unsound mind.
d. Where both the father and mother are dead or have completely and finally renounced the world or
have abandoned the child or have been declared by a court of competent jurisdiction to be of
unsound mind or where the parentage of the child is unknown - the guardian of the child may give
the child in adoption with the previous permission of the court. The court while granting
permission shall be satisfied that the adoption is for the welfare of the child and due consideration
will be given to the wishes of the child having regard for the age and understanding of the child.
Maintenance of wife:
Subject to the provisions of this section, a Hindu wife, whether married before or after the
commencement of this Act, shall be entitled to be maintained by her husband during her lifetime.
1. A Hindu wife shall be entitled to live separately from her husband without paying her claim to
maintenance-
(a) if he is guilty of desertion, that is to say, of leaving her without reasonable cause and without her
consent or against her wish, or of wilfully neglecting her;
(b) if he has treated her with such cruelty as to cause a reasonable fear in her mind that it will be
harmful or injurious to live with her husband;
(c) if he is suffering from a virulent form of leprosy;
(d) if he has any other wife living;
(e) if he keeps a concubine in the same house in which his wife is living or habitually resides with a
concubine elsewhere;
(f) if he has stopped to be a Hindu by conversion to another religion;
(g) if there is any other cause justifying her living separately.
Capacity of a female Hindu to take in adoption-
Any female Hindu (a) who is of sound mind, (b) who is not a minor, and (c) who is not married, or if
married, whose marriage has been dissolved or whose husband is dead or has completely and finally
renounced the world or has ceased to be a Hindu or has been declared by a court of competent
jurisdiction to be of unsound mind, has the capacity to take a son or daughter in adoption.
Persons who may be adopted-
No person shall be capable of being taken in adoption unless the following conditions are fulfilled,
namely
(i) he or she is a Hindu;
(ii) he or she has not already been adopted;
(iii) he or she has not been married, unless there is a custom or usage applicable to the parties which
permits persons who are married being taken in adoption;

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 (iv) he or she has not completed the age of fifteen years, unless there is a custom or usage applicable
to the parties which permits persons who have completed the age of fifteen years being taken in
adoption.

3. Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961

An Act to prohibit the giving or taking of dowry
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Twelfth Year of the Republic of India as follows:
1. Short title, extent and commencement.
(1) This Act may be called the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961. It extends to the whole of India except
the State of Jammu and Kashmir. It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government
may, by notification in the official Gazette, appoint.
2. Definition of `dowry’.
In this act, `dowry’ means any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given either directly
or indirectly:
a. by one party to a marriage to the other party to the marriage; or
b. by the parents of either party to a marriage or by any other person, to either party to the marriage
or to any other person;at or before or any time after the marriage in connection with the marriage
of said parties but does not include dower or mahr in the case of persons to whom the Muslim
Personal Law (Shariat) applies.
3. Penalty for giving or taking dowry.-
If any person, after the commencement of this Act, gives or takes or abets the giving or taking of
dowry, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than five years,
and with the fine which shall not be less than fifteen thousand rupees or the amount of the value of
such dowry, whichever is more:
Penalty for demanding dowry.-
If any person demands directly or indirectly, from the parents or other relatives or guardian of a bride
or bridegroom as the case may be, any dowry, he shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term
which shall not be less than six months but which may extend to two years and with fine which may
extend to ten thousand rupees:
Provided that the Court may, for adequate and special reasons to be mentioned in the judgment,
impose a sentence of imprisonment for a term of less than six months.
Agreement for giving or taking dowry to be void: Any agreement for the giving or taking of dowry
shall be void.

11.3.5: Provisions in the Constitution of India

Article 14:
The Constitution which ensures that every citizen shall be likewise protected by the laws of the
country. It means that the State will not distinguish any of the Indian citizens on the basis of their
gender, caste, faith, religion or even the place of birth. The doctrine that all persons, regardless of
wealth, social status, gender or the political power wielded by them, are to be treated the same before
the law.
Equality before Law-The state cannot refuse equality before the law and equal defense of the law to
any person within the territory of India. In other words, this means that no person or groups of people

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can demand for any special privileges. This right not only applies to the citizens of India but also to all
the people within the territory of India.
1. All persons shall be equal before the courts and judge.
2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall have the right to be accepted innocent until proved
guilty according to law.
3. In the determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following
minimum guarantees, in full equality:
(a) To be informed promptly and in detail in a language which he understands of the nature and
cause of the charge against him
(b) To have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence and to communicate
with counsel of his own choosing
(c) To have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language
used in court.
(d) Not to be compelled to testify against himself or to confess guilt.
4. In the case of juvenile persons, the procedure shall be such as will take account of their age and the
desirability of promoting their rehabilitation.
5. When a person has by a final decision been convicted of a criminal offence and when subsequently
his conviction has been reversed or he has been pardoned on the ground that a new or newly
discovered fact shows conclusively that there has been a miscarriage of justice, the person who
has suffered punishment as a result of such conviction shall be compensated according to law,
unless it is proved that the non-disclosure of the unknown fact in time is wholly or partly
attributable to him.

Article 15:
Prohibition of discrimination ongrounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
(1) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex,
place of birth or any of them.
(2) No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them, be
subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to—
(a) access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
(b) the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or
partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.

Article 15 (3) makes a special provision enabling the State to make positive
discriminations in favour of women:
Moreover, the government can pass special laws in favour of women.
Acts for the benefit of women
Several Acts have been passed for the improving the condition of women from time to time.
1. Dowry Prohibition Act 1961
2. Contract Labour Act 1970 as well as Factories Act 1948 provides that women cannot be employed
in the night between 9 PM to 6 AM. Women cannot be required to work more than 9 hours.
3. Equal Remuneration Act 1976
4. The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act 1987

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5. Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005
6. Maternity Benefits Act 1961
7. Child Marriage Prohibition Act 1929
After independence there has been quite a lot of work done towards the benefit of women. In initial 5
yr plans, the focus was on welfare of women. Later on the focus shifted to development and currently
the focus is on empowerment.
In 2001, National Policy for Women Empowerment was adopted. It main points are -
1. To create an environment so that women feel involved in the making of economic and social
policies.
2. To give equal share in social, economic, and political aspects.
3. To remove discrimination against women by enacting various laws.
4. To encourage equal treatment of women in the society.
Article 42 of the Constitution of India also directs the State to make provisions for
maternity relief for women.
Maternity benefits (time during or after pregnancy) – A mode of dignifying
motherhood
Over the decades, factors like education, economic development and others have contributed to the
progress of the society by positively changing its attitude. Owing to this, women today have become
more independent and liberal than their counterparts of earlier times. It has also led to an increase in
the female work force. This is true for both the organized and the unorganized sector. Under our
Constitutional group, multiple rights and benefits are guaranteed to women.
Salient Features of the Act:
1. Maternity leave available to the working women to be increased from 12 weeks to 26 weeks for
the first two children.
2. Maternity leave for children beyond the first two will continue to be 12 weeks.
3. Maternity leave of 12 weeks to be available to mothers adopting a child below the age of three
months as well as to the “commissioning mothers”. The commissioning mother has been defined
as biological mother who uses her egg to create an embryo plant in any other woman.
4. Every establishment with more than 50 employees to provide for crèche facilities for working
mothers and such mothers will be permitted to make four visits during working hours to look after
and feed the child in the crèche.
5. The employer may permit a woman to work from home if it is possible to do so.
6. Every establishment will be required to make these benefits available to the women from the time
of her appointment.

SVB’s SCER, Dombivli (E)/Course 11- Gender, School and Society /Module 3 Page 20