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AISC Steel Design Guide 21 Welded Connections
AISC Steel Design Guide 21 Welded Connections
Welded Connections—
A Primer for
Engineers Smarter. Stronger. Steel.
American Institute of Steel Construction
Second Edition 312.670.2400 | www.aisc.org
Design Guide 21
Welded
Connections—
A Primer for Engineers
Second Edition
by
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced
in any form without the written permission of the publisher.
The AISC logo is a registered trademark of AISC.
The information presented in this publication has been prepared following recognized principles of design
and construction. While it is believed to be accurate, this information should not be used or relied upon
for any specific application without competent professional examination and verification of its accuracy,
suitability and applicability by a licensed engineer or architect. The publication of this information is not a
representation or warranty on the part of the American Institute of Steel Construction, its officers, agents,
employees or committee members, or of any other person named herein, that this information is suitable
for any general or particular use, or of freedom from infringement of any patent or patents. All represen-
tations or warranties, express or implied, other than as stated above, are specifically disclaimed. Anyone
making use of the information presented in this publication assumes all liability arising from such use.
Caution must be exercised when relying upon standards and guidelines developed by other bodies and
incorporated by reference herein since such material may be modified or amended from time to time sub-
sequent to the printing of this edition. The American Institute of Steel Construction bears no responsibility
for such material other than to refer to it and incorporate it by reference at the time of the initial publication
of this edition.
Acknowledgments
Many people participated in the production of this document. The contributions of the individuals on the review panel (listed
separately) are gratefully acknowledged; given the length of this Guide, their undertaking was no minor task, and the detailed
comments submitted by various individuals improved the quality of this publication.
Carlo Lini collected various Solution Center inquiries and drafted some initial replies, while Leigh Arbor assisted with the
drafting of portions for the Seismic chapter. Margaret Matthew patiently oversaw the project, permitting the schedule to drift
to accommodate the author’s schedule. The contributions of Thomas Schlafly are incorporated into nearly every section of
this Guide. Tom’s commitment to technical accuracy, clear communication and grammatical accuracy required untold hours of
review, often performed on the train during his daily commutes.
Subject matter experts reviewed specialized portions of the Guide, and the contributions of the following individuals as related
to these topics are acknowledged: Dr. Caroline Bennett, galvanizing and LMAC; Carlos de Oliveira, castings; Doug Rees-Evans,
steel issues; Mark Davis, phased array ultrasonic testing.
Dr. John M. Barsom thoroughly critiqued the entire Guide, with additional focus directed at the chapters on fatigue and fracture.
Dr. Barsom has served as a mentor and role model in my life for more than 20 years, and words cannot express my appreciation
for his contributions, to not only this Guide, but to my professional life.
This document would not have been possible without the assistance of my Lincoln Electric colleague, Michael Florczykowski,
who functioned as a master editor for the project. In addition to providing technical reviews of the content, he made certain
the document adhered to editorial guidelines, managed the production of artwork and tables, and helped keep the project on
schedule. Ron Skoczen prepared most of the figures, and Carla Rautenberg provided editorial reviews; their contributions are
acknowledged and appreciated.
While not part of this project, the role of Dr. Omer W. Blodgett as a mentor to the author is humbly acknowledged. While this
acknowledgment was in preparation, Dr. Blodgett passed away; he was 99 years old. For more than 30 years, Dr. Blodgett shared
his knowledge and passion for welding with me in a life-changing way. For his example, I will ever be grateful. This publication
is dedicated to his memory.
Finally, the ongoing support of The Lincoln Electric Company is acknowledged. The company has been unwavering in its
support of my professional activities involving technical committees of organizations such as AISC and AWS. The flexibility
afforded me to pursue assignments such as writing this Design Guide is appreciated.
Review Committee:
Craig Archacki Steve Herth Jason McCormick Robert Shaw
John Barsom Mark Holland Larry Muir Victor Shneur
Tom Ferrell Benjamin Kaan Jeff Packer Ray Tide
Lou Geschwindner Larry Kloiber Davis Parsons Ron Yeager
Jay Harris Larry Kruth Tom Schlafly
Steve Herlache Keith Landwehr* Bill Scott *deceased
iii
Preface
No Preface was supplied for the first edition of this Design Guide, and that was an unfortunate oversight. The First Edition came
about because of the vision of Dr. Charles Carter, who reasoned that since there was a Design Guide on bolting (Design Guide
17: High Strength Bolts—A Primer for Structural Engineers, by Dr. Geoffrey Kulak), there should be a similar document on
welding. An outline of the expected coverage of the Design Guide on welding was prepared and circulated to a review panel and
AISC staff. Suggestions were made for a few deletions and many additions.
The comments of one of the outline reviewers, the late William “Bill” Liddy, significantly changed the scope of the anticipated
document. At the time, Bill was working in the AISC Steel Solutions Center, and he expressed his hope that the anticipated
publication would provide answers to the welding-related questions that he frequently received in the Solution Center. He dug
into his file of questions and added those topics to the outline, creating significant initial frustration on my part as I anticipated
the additional work. But Bill’s idea was sound and ultimately added great value to the Guide. The content of Chapter 12, Special
Welding Applications, of the First Edition addressed the topics Bill identified. Mr. Liddy’s vision made the first edition of Design
Guide 21 more popular, and it continues to be a go-to resource for the Solution Center.
This edition expanded upon Bill’s vision. The former Chapter 12 became Chapter 14, and retains the same title, but has been
expanded to address additional topics, all subjects of Solution Center inquiries; the coverage of this chapter assumes that an
unusual application is involved and provides information necessary for dealing with the situation. A new Chapter 15, Problems
and Fixes, has been added that does what the title suggests—provides practical solutions to unanticipated problems. The scope of
Chapter 16, The Engineer’s Role in Welded Construction, has changed from the First Edition, with the current focus on providing
guidance for situations when AWS D1.1 requires the engineer’s approval. All of these chapters are the result of Bill’s ongoing
influence.
New to the Second Edition are the chapters on seismic (Chapter 11) and fracture (Chapter 13), with a primary focus on welding-
related issues. These chapters were requested by AISC staff and are totally new.
USER NOTE:
To aid in the usability of this Design Guide, the following have been provided:
a. The Table of Contents lists the subject matter of chapters, sections and subsections.
b. An index of key words is provided at the end of the document.
c. References to related materials are provided throughout.
d. References to AWS D1.1 and AISC documents dealing with the subject matter are listed.
e. A listing of acronyms and their meaning is summarized at the end of the document.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2.3.3 Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3.4 Electrode Classification . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.3.5 FCAW Advantages
1.2 SCOPE OF WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3 WELDING-RELATED CODES AND
2.3.6 FCAW-G Advantages
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.1 AISC Specification for Structural Steel
2.3.7 FCAW-G Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.3.8 FCAW-S Advantages
1.3.2 AWS D1.1/D1.1M Structural Welding
and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Code—Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3.9 FCAW-S Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.3 AWS D1.3/D1.3M Structural Welding
2.3.10 FCAW-S Intermix Concerns . . . . . . . 20
Code—Sheet Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 SAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.4 AWS D1.4/D1.4M Structural Welding
2.4.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Code—Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3.5 AWS D1.5/D1.5M Bridge Welding
2.4.3 Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4.4 Electrode and Flux Classification . . . . 24
1.3.6 AWS D1.6/D1.6M Structural Welding
2.4.5 Flux Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Code—Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4.6 Crushed Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.7 AWS D1.7/D1.7M Guide for
2.4.7 Process Advantages and Limitations . . 26
Strengthening and Repairing Existing
2.4.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.5 GMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3.8 Seismic Codes with Welding
2.5.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.9 AISC Code of Standard Practice . . . . . 4
2.5.3 Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.10 Other AWS D1 Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5.4 Electrode Classification . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.11 Other AWS Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5.5 Shielding Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.6 Modes of Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
CHAPTER 2 WELDING AND THERMAL
2.5.7 Process Advantages and Limitations . . 32
CUTTING PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.5.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.6 ESW/EGW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 Requirements for Welding . . . . . . . . . 7 2.6.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.2 Arc Welding as Compared to Other 2.6.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.6.3 Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.3 Process Issues and Concerns for 2.6.4 Electrode Classification . . . . . . . . . . 34
the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.6.5 Process Advantages and Limitations . . 34
2.2 SMAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.6.6 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.7 GTAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.8 ARC STUD WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.3 Consumables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.9 THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES . . . . . . . 36
2.2.4 Electrode Classification . . . . . . . . . . 11 2.9.1 Oxyfuel Gas Cutting and Gouging . . . 37
2.2.5 Low-Hydrogen and Non-Low-Hydrogen 2.9.2 Plasma Arc Cutting and Gouging . . . . 37
SMAW Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.9.3 Air Carbon Arc Gouging and Cutting . 38
2.2.6 Care and Storage of Low-Hydrogen 2.9.4 Welding on Thermally Cut Surfaces . . 38
Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.10 WATER JET CUTTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.7 SMAW Advantages and Limitations . . 15
2.2.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 CHAPTER 3 WELDED CONNECTION
2.3 FCAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1 JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 WELD TYPES—GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
v
3.3 COMPLETE-JOINT-PENETRATION 3.12.1 Butt Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
GROOVE WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.12.2 Corner Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.1 CJP Groove Weld Backing . . . . . . . . 43 3.12.3 Skewed T-Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.2 Single-Sided versus 3.12.4 Lap Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Double-Sided Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.13 WELDING SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.3 Groove Weld Preparations . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.4 Spacer Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 CHAPTER 4 DETAILS OF WELDED
3.3.5 CJP Groove Weld Tolerances . . . . . . 45 CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4 PARTIAL-JOINT-PENETRATION
4.1 PRINCIPLES OF CONNECTION DESIGN . . . 65
GROOVE WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.1 Effective Throats for PJP
4.1.2 Fourteen Principles of
Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Connection Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4.2 Minimum PJP Groove Weld Sizes . . . 47
4.2 WELDED CONNECTION DETAILS . . . . . . . 75
3.4.3 Restrictions on the Use of PJP
4.2.1 Weld Tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.2 Weld Access Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4.4 Required Filler Metal Strength for PJP
4.2.3 Weld Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.4 Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.5 Flare-V and Flare-Bevel
4.2.5 Shelf Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.6 Boxing (End Returns) . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.4.6 Single-Sided versus
4.2.7 Weld Termination (Fillet Welds) . . . . 82
Double-Sided Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.8 Fillet Weld Shelf Dimensions . . . . . . 84
3.4.7 PJP Groove Weld Details . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 SPECIFIC WELDED CONNECTIONS . . . . . 85
3.4.8 PJP Fusion Zone Check . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.1 Column-to-Base Plate . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.9 PJP Groove Welds and
4.3.2 Column Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Loading Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.3 Web Doublers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.10 PJP Groove Weld Tolerances . . . . . . . 49
4.3.4 Column Stiffeners/Continuity Plates . 87
3.5 FILLET WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3.5 Connections with Shear
3.5.1 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . 50
Lag Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.5.2 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . 50
4.4 SPECIAL WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.3 Minimum Fillet Weld Lengths . . . . . . 51
4.4.1 Arc Spot Welds (Puddle Welds or
3.5.4 Maximum Fillet Weld Lengths . . . . . 52
Deck Welds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.5 Intermittent Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4.2 Repair Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.6 Longitudinal versus Transverse
4.4.3 Seal Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4.4 Tack Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.7 Combined Longitudinal versus
4.4.5 Temporary Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Transverse Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4.6 Welds Made with Different Processes
3.5.8 Fillet Weld Size Tolerance . . . . . . . . 54
(Intermix) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 PLUG/SLOT WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4.7 Penetration of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . 93
3.7 PUDDLE WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4.8 Unequal-Legged Fillet Welds . . . . . . 94
3.8 INTERACTION OF JOINT TYPES AND
WELD TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
CHAPTER 5 METALLURGICAL ISSUES . . . . . . . 97
3.9 SELECTION OF WELD TYPES . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.10 REQUIRED FILLER METAL STRENGTH . . . 55 5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.1 Possible Strength Relationships . . . . . 55 5.2 STEEL—PROPERTIES OF INTEREST . . . . . 97
3.10.2 Matching Filler Metal . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.2.1 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.3 Undermatching Filler Metal . . . . . . . 57 5.2.2 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.4 Overmatching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 5.2.3 Physical Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.11 DETERMINING WELD STRENGTH . . . . . . . 58 5.2.4 Areas of Anisotropic Properties . . . . . 98
3.11.1 CJP Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.2.5 Steel Production Method . . . . . . . . . 99
3.11.2 PJP Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 5.3 DESCRIPTIONS OF STEEL GROUPS . . . . . . 99
3.11.3 Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 5.3.1 AWS D1.1 Prequalified Steels . . . . . . 99
3.11.4 Plug/Slot Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 5.3.2 AWS D1.1 Approved Steels . . . . . . . 99
3.12 SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS FOR 5.3.3 AWS D1.1 Unlisted Steels . . . . . . . . 99
VARIOUS JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
vi
5.3.4 AISC Specification Treatment of CHAPTER 8 WELDING PROCEDURE
Unidentified Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.4 WELDING REQUIREMENTS FOR
8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
SPECIFIC STEELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.2 WRITING WELDING PROCEDURE
5.4.1 Weathering Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.4.2 Quenched and Tempered Steels . . . . 101
8.3 USING WELDING PROCEDURE
5.4.3 Quenched and Self-Tempered Steels . 102
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4.4 Multigrade Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4 PREQUALIFIED WELDING PROCEDURE
5.4.5 Historical (Obsolete) Steels . . . . . . 102
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.4.6 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.5 QUALIFIED WELDING PROCEDURE
5.4.7 Wrought Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.8 Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.6 WPS AND AWS D1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.9 Steel Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.7 WPS AND AWS D1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.10 Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.8 EFFECTS OF WPS VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4.11 Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.8.1 Amperage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4.12 Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.8.2 Arc Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4.13 Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.8.3 Travel Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4.14 Anchor Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.8.4 Wire Feed Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.8.5 Electrode Extension . . . . . . . . . . . 146
CHAPTER 6 WELD CRACKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.8.6 Contact Tip-to-Work Distance . . . . . 146
6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.8.7 Electrode Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2 SHRINKAGE AND RESTRAINT . . . . . . . . 115 8.8.8 Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.1 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 8.8.9 Heat Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2.2 Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.8.10 Preheat and Interpass Temperature . . 147
6.3 TYPES OF WELD CRACKS . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.8.11 Post Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3.1 Centerline Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . 116 8.8.12 Stress Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3.2 HAZ Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 8.9 SAMPLE FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3.3 Transverse Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . 123 8.10 CODE-COMPLIANT VERSUS
6.4 LAMELLAR TEARING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 USEFUL WPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.5 REDUCING SHRINKAGE STRESSES . . . . . 126
6.6 REDUCING RESTRAINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 CHAPTER 9 QUALITY OF THE WELDED
6.7 POST-WELDING STRESS REDUCTION CONNECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.2 DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS . . . . . . 151
CHAPTER 7 DISTORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.3 AWS D1.1 AND QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 9.4 FITNESS-FOR-PURPOSE CRITERIA . . . . . 151
7.2 CAUSES OF DISTORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 9.5 TYPES OF WELDING-RELATED
7.3 DISTORTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 DISCONTINUITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 9.5.1 Planar Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.2 Angular Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.5.2 Volumetric Discontinuities . . . . . . . 154
7.3.3 Transverse Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . 131 9.6 METALLURGICAL DEFICIENCIES . . . . . . 157
7.3.4 Longitudinal Shortening . . . . . . . . . 132 9.7 TYPES OF BASE METAL
7.3.5 Twisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 DISCONTINUITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.6 Longitudinal Sweep or Camber . . . . 133 9.7.1 Base Metal Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.7 Buckling and Warping . . . . . . . . . . 133 9.7.2 Quality of Thermally Cut Edges . . . 158
7.3.8 Rotational Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.3.9 Distortion Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . 134 CHAPTER 10 WELD INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.4 SPECIALIZED DISTORTION CONTROL
10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.2 VISUAL INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.4.1 Adding Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.3 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING—
7.4.2 Weld Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4.3 Welding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.4 PENETRANT TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4.4 Stress Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
vii
10.5 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING . . . . . . . 163 11.6.5
Fabrication and Erection Welding
10.6 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.7 ULTRASONIC TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 11.6.6 Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . . 183
10.8 PHASED ARRAY ULTRASONIC TESTING . 167 11.6.7 Specific Connection Details . . . . . . 184
10.9 AISC SPECIFICATION CHAPTER N . . . . . . 167 11.7 AISC PREQUALIFIED CONNECTIONS
10.9.1 Quality Control and WELDING REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . 186
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 11.8 WELDED DETAILS FOR PREQUALIFIED
10.9.2 AISC Specification Chapter N and CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
AWS D1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 11.8.1 Reduced Beam Section Moment
10.9.3 AISC Specification Chapter N Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
and NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 11.8.2 Bolted Unstiffened and
10.9.4 ASCE Classification . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Stiffened Extended End-Plate
10.9.5 Observe and Perform . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Moment Connection . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.9.6 Alternatives to Chapter N 11.8.3 Bolted Flange Plate Moment
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11.8.4 Welded Unreinforced Flange–Welded
CHAPTER 11 SEISMIC WELDING ISSUES . . . . . 171 Web Moment Connection . . . . . . . . 190
11.8.5 Kaiser Bolted Bracket Moment
11.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11.1.1 Unique Loading—Inelastic . . . . . . . 171
11.8.6 The ConXtech® ConXL™ Moment
11.1.2 Framing Concepts and Connections . 171
Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.1.3 Requirements for Welds—Strength
11.8.7 The SidePlate® Moment
and No Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.1.4 Fracture of Welded Joints . . . . . . . . 171
11.8.8 Simpson Strong-Tie® Strong-Frame®
11.1.5 Welded Connection Objectives . . . . 172
Moment Connection . . . . . . . . . . . 196
11.2 THE NORTHRIDGE EARTHQUAKE . . . . . . 172
11.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
CHAPTER 12 FATIGUE CONSIDERATIONS . . . . 199
11.2.2 FEMA 353 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . 173
11.2.3 Role of W1 Indications . . . . . . . . . 174 12.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.3 SEISMIC WELDING SPECIFICATIONS . . . 175 12.2 STRESS RANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
11.3.1 FEMA Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 12.3 CONNECTION GEOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.3.2 AISC Seismic Provisions . . . . . . . . 175 12.4 COMPUTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.3.3 AISC Prequalified Connections . . . . 175 12.5 INSPECTION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.3.4 AWS D1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 12.6 SPECIAL FABRICATION AND ERECTION
11.4 SEISMIC TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.4.1 Demand Critical Welds . . . . . . . . . 176 12.7 LIMITATIONS TO THE APPENDIX 3
11.4.2 Protected Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.4.3 Lowest Anticipated Service
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 CHAPTER 13 FRACTURE-RESISTANT
11.5 AWS D1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 WELDED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
13.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.5.2 Filler Metal Requirements . . . . . . . 177
13.2 REVIEW OF FRACTURE MECHANICS . . . 211
11.5.3 Welder Qualification Requirements . 178
13.3 SIGNIFICANCE FOR WELDED
11.5.4 WPS Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.5.5 Intermix Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
13.4 CRACKS VERSUS PLANAR FLAWS . . . . . 212
11.5.6 Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . 179
13.5 CONTROLLING STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.5.7 Fabrication Requirements . . . . . . . . 180
13.6 CONTROLLING FLAW SIZE, a . . . . . . . . . 213
11.6 AISC SEISMIC PROVISIONS WELDING
13.6.1 Design and Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . 214
REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
13.6.2 Stress Raisers in Fabrication
11.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.6.2 The Transitional Period . . . . . . . . . 181
13.6.3 Cracking and Tearing . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.6.3 Filler Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
13.6.4 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.6.4 Structural Design Drawings and
13.6.5 In-Service Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
viii
13.7 PROVIDING SUITABLE RESISTANCE 14.7.5 Welded Connection Details . . . . . . . 233
TO FRACTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 14.7.6 Visual Inspection of Welded AESS
13.7.1 AASHTO Bridges—Redundant and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Fracture Critical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 14.8 SHOP VERSUS FIELD WELDING . . . . . . . 234
13.7.2 AISC Provisions for Jumbo Sections 218 14.9 WELDING ON EXISTING STRUCTURES . . 234
13.7.3 AISC Seismic Provisions and 14.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
AWS D1.8 Seismic Requirements . . 219 14.9.2 Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.8 INTERACTION OF FATIGUE 14.9.3 Existing Steel Composition
AND FRACTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 and Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
14.9.4 Welding and Cutting on Members
CHAPTER 14 SPECIAL WELDING under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 14.9.5 Modifications and Additions to
Undamaged Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
14.1 WELDING OF STEEL HEADED
14.9.6 Repair of Plastically Deformed Steel 236
STUD ANCHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14.10 WELDS AND MECHANICAL
14.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
FASTENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
14.1.2 Composite Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
14.11 WELDING ON MEMBERS TO BE
14.1.3 Composite Components . . . . . . . . . 222
HOT-DIP GALVANIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
14.1.4 Stud Application Qualification
14.11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.11.2 Liquid Metal Assisted Cracking . . . . 239
14.1.5 Production Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.11.3 Global Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . 239
14.1.6 Repair of Stud Welds . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.11.4 Drain and Venting Requirements . . . 240
14.1.7 Studs Welded with Traditional Arc
14.11.5 Distortion Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.11.6 Welding Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
14.1.8 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
14.11.7 Connection Details . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
14.1.9 Stud Melt-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.11.8 Additional Measures to
14.2 WELDING ON GALVANIZED STEELS . . . . 223
Mitigate Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
14.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.11.9 Inspection of Galvanized Steel . . . . 243
14.2.2 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
14.12 COLD TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS . . . 243
14.2.3 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
14.3 WELDING ON PRIMED AND
14.12.2 Welding in Cold Temperatures . . . . 243
PAINTED STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.12.3 Steel Structures in Cold
14.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
14.3.2 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.13 DECK WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
14.3.3 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14.13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
14.4 WELDING ON HEAVY SHAPES . . . . . . . . 224
14.13.2 Design Capacity of Puddle Welds . . 245
14.5 WELDING ON HIGHLY RESTRAINED
14.13.3 Puddle Welding Technique . . . . . . . 246
MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
14.13.4 Interaction of AWS D1.1
14.6 WELDING HSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
and AWS D1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
14.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
14.13.5 Welding Procedure Specifications . . 246
14.6.2 HSS Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
14.13.6 Acceptable Filler Metals . . . . . . . . 246
14.6.3 Connections and HSS
14.13.7 Preheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Member Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
14.13.8 Melting Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
14.6.4 Overall Configurations of HSS
14.13.9 Welding Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
14.13.10 Preliminary Weld Quality Check . . . 248
14.6.5 Cutting and Preparing Joints
14.13.11 Post-Weld Conditioning . . . . . . . . . 248
in HSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
14.14 WELDING ON IN-PLACE
14.6.6 Welding HSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
EMBED PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.6.7 6GR Welder Qualification . . . . . . . 230
14.14.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.7 WELDING AESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14.14.2 Generation of Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
14.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
14.14.3 Welding on Uncured Concrete . . . . . 250
14.7.2 AISC AESS Categories . . . . . . . . . 231
14.14.4 Stainless Steel Embeds . . . . . . . . . 250
14.7.3 Specifying AESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
14.14.5 Galvanized Embeds . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
14.7.4 Welding AESS Members . . . . . . . . 231
ix
14.14.6 Suggestions for Welding on Embeds . 250 CHAPTER 16 THE ENGINEER’S ROLE IN
14.15 HEAT SHRINKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 WELDED CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
14.16 BUTTERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
16.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
16.2 SELECTION OF APPLICABLE
CHAPTER 15 PROBLEMS AND FIXES . . . . . . . . . 255
STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.1 REPAIRS TO BASE METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 16.3 PRODUCTION OF CONTRACT
15.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
15.1.2 Repair of Mill-Induced 16.3.1 Weld Inspection Issues . . . . . . . . . . 276
Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 16.3.2 Alternate Weld Acceptance Criteria . 276
15.1.3 Repair of Damaged Steel . . . . . . . . 255 16.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Toughness Criteria . 276
15.2 REPAIRS TO CUT EDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 16.3.4 Static versus Cyclic Loading . . . . . . 277
15.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 16.3.5 Items Not Specified in the Code . . . 277
15.2.2 Mill-Induced Discontinuities on 16.3.6 OEM Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 16.4 CONSIDERATION OF JOINT DETAIL
15.2.3 Fabrication-Induced Discontinuities SUITABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
on Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 16.5 SPECIFICATION OF OPTIONS . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3 BUTT JOINT ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 16.5.1 Steel Backing Removal . . . . . . . . . 280
15.4 OUT-OF-TOLERANCE WELD JOINTS . . . . 257 16.5.2 Weld Tabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.4.1 Sources of Fit-Up Variation . . . . . . 257 16.5.3 Removal of Tack Welds and
15.4.2 Fit-Up Problems with Fillet Construction Aid Welds . . . . . . . . . 280
Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 16.6 REQUESTING DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . 281
15.4.3 Fit-Up Problems with CJP Groove 16.7 APPROVING STANDARD ITEMS . . . . . . . 281
Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 16.8 SPECIFICATION OF ENGINEER-INITIATED
15.4.4 Fit-Up Problems with PJP Groove ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 16.8.1 Assembly and Welding Sequence . . . 281
15.4.5 Fit-Up Problems with Plug and Slot 16.8.2 Importance of Cooperative
Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.5 FIXING MEMBERS THAT ARE 16.9 EVALUATION OF CONTRACTOR-INITIATED
CUT SHORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 ALTERNATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.6 REPAIR OF MISLOCATED HOLES . . . . . . 264 16.9.1 New Materials and Processes . . . . . 282
15.7 USE OF PLUG WELDS IN LIEU 16.9.2 Alternate Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
OF BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 16.10 HANDLING UNEXPECTED CONSTRUCTION
15.8 REPAIRS TO WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 DIFFICULTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
15.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 16.11 DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR
15.8.2 Undersized Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 WORK ON EXISTING STRUCTURES . . . . . 286
15.8.3 Excessive Undercut . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
15.8.4 Excessive Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 CHAPTER 17 ECONOMY IN WELDING . . . . . . . . 289
15.8.5 Excessive Convexity, Excessive
17.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Reinforcement and Overlap . . . . . . 268
17.2 SELECTION OF PROPER WELD TYPE . . . . 289
15.8.6 Internal Defects Discovered by NDT 268
17.2.1 CJP Groove Welds versus
15.8.7 Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
15.9 HEAT SHRINKING OF Q&T STEEL . . . . . . 269
17.2.2 Fillet Welds versus PJP
15.10 UNSPECIFIED WELDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.11 WELDS MADE WITHOUT INSPECTION . . 270
17.2.3 Combination PJP Groove Weld/
15.12 WELDING ON ANCHOR RODS . . . . . . . . . 270
Fillet Weld Option . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
15.12.1 Weldability of Anchor Rods . . . . . . 270
17.3 PROPER DETAILING OF WELDS . . . . . . . 292
15.12.2 Extending Anchor Rods . . . . . . . . . 270
17.3.1 Fillet Welds: Leg Size
15.13 WELDING ANCHOR ROD-TO-BASE
versus Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
17.3.2 Fillet Welds: Intermittent versus
15.14 REMOVING AND REINSTALLING
Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
COLUMN BASE PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
17.3.3 CJP Groove Welds: Single versus
15.15 REPAIRING LAMELLAR TEARS . . . . . . . . 272
Double Sided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
x
17.3.4 Single-Sided CJP Groove Weld Details: CHAPTER 18 WELDING SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Included Angle versus
Root Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
17.3.5 CJP Groove Welds: V and Bevel
versus U and J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
17.3.6 PJP Groove Welds: Single versus REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Double Sided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
17.3.7 Flare Groove Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
17.3.8 Shop versus Field Welding . . . . . . . 297
17.3.9 Welded versus Bolted Connections . . 297
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 IMPORTANCE OF WELDING temperature, analysis of weld cracking, and whether post-
weld heat treatments will be required. Selecting the best
Welding is an established and essential tool of the steel con-
welding process for a given application is a complex issue
struction industry. Before welding was possible, rivets were
that may result in different correct choices depending upon
used to create structural members and connect them. Today,
the particular circumstances of a specific aspect of a proj-
welding is used to construct members such as plate girders
ect. Inspection of welds ranges from visual to nondestructive
and box sections, as well as to connect structural members
processes, such as radiographic and ultrasonic testing. All of
together reliably and cost-effectively. Along with the contri-
these elements of welding may have a significant effect on
butions of high-strength bolts, welding has rendered riveting
a completed project and this Guide addresses each of these
obsolete.
aspects in a systematic manner.
Welding permits shapes, plates, and even steel castings
and forgings to be connected in nearly endless combinations.
1.3 WELDING-RELATED CODES AND
Steel components can be directly connected without the
SPECIFICATIONS
need for mechanical fasteners and the associated connection
materials. Welded connections are aesthetically pleasing, A variety of welding-related codes and specifications govern
directly satisfying the “form ever follows function” crite- the design, fabrication, erection and inspection of welded
ria. Steels of various strength levels or thicknesses can be steel structures. AISC standards generally address the design
joined, optimizing designs by strategically placing materials requirements for the structure, while AWS standards typi-
of higher capacity into regions of higher demand. The versa- cally focus on welding issues. Of necessity, there is some
tility of welding gives the designer greater freedom than any overlap between the coverage of AISC and AWS standards,
other method of joining. and a few differences between these standards have been
Connections are critical to the performance of structural produced by the separate ANSI consensus committees that
systems, and welded connections are no exception. Accord- are responsible for each standard. A general summary of
ingly, when welding is improperly used, whether through commonly used welding-related standards is in the follow-
incorrect design or detailing of the connection, or when ing sections.
a weld is made improperly during fabrication or erection,
the connection may fail. Nearly everyone involved with the 1.3.1 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
design, detailing, fabrication, erection and inspection of
For steel building construction in the United States, the pri-
welded structures needs to have some knowledge of weld-
mary governing standard is the AISC Specification for Struc-
ing, and this Guide contains basic coverage of the major
tural Steel Buildings (AISC, 2016d), hereafter referred to as
welding-related issues associated with steel building con-
the AISC Specification. References in this Guide are to the
struction. The principles set forth are essential to achiev-
2016 edition of that standard unless otherwise noted. The
ing dependable cost-effective welded connections in steel
AISC Specification contains a variety of welding-related
structures.
requirements, including but not limited to the following:
1.2 SCOPE OF WELDING • Acceptable steel designations (Section A3.1)
• Acceptable filler metals (Section A3.5)
Welding engineering is a complex science, involving design
and design details, metallurgy, the production aspects of the • Requirements for splices in heavy sections (Section
various welding processes, and inspection. Design involves J1.5)
the selection of joint types, weld types, sizing of welds, • Beam copes and weld access holes (Section J1.6)
and selection of the required weld metal strength, as well
• Welds in combination with bolts (Section J1.8)
as the base metal grades and types. Design details include
weld access holes, copes, backing, one-sided versus two- • Details of groove welds (Section J2.1)
sided welds, groove weld geometries—V versus bevel, for • Details of fillet welds (Section J2.2)
example—and weld tabs. Metallurgy addresses mate-
• Available strength of welded joints (Table J2.5)
rial composition, physical and mechanical properties,
compatibility of materials, preheat for welding, interpass • Shop fabrication/welding issues (Section M2)
1.3.8.3 AWS D1.8/D1.8M Structural Welding Code— 1.3.10 Other AWS D1 Codes
Seismic Supplement
The AWS D1 publications include other standards govern-
AWS D1.8/D1.8M Structural Welding Code—Seismic Sup- ing applications that are beyond the scope of this Guide,
plement (AWS, 2016), hereafter referred to as AWS D1.8, including:
contains the additional provisions intended to be applied • AWS D1.2/D1.2M Structural Welding Code—
to joints or members that are designed to resist yield level Aluminum (AWS, 2014c)
stresses or strains during design earthquakes. Just as the
• AWS D1.9/D1.9M Structural Welding Code—
AISC Seismic Provisions augment the AISC Specification,
Titanium (AWS, 2015d)
so AWS D1.8 supplements AWS D1.1. When AWS D1.8 is
specified, all the provisions of AWS D1.1 still apply unless
modified or superseded by AWS D1.8. In AWS D1.8, it is 1.3.11 Other AWS Standards
assumed that the structure has been designed in accordance
The AWS A5 Filler Metal Specifications govern the proper-
with the AISC Seismic Provisions.
ties of the filler metals used for welding, whether electrodes,
AWS D1.8 is subject to change, and all references con-
fluxes, rods or shielding gases. These standards are some-
tained within this Guide refer to the 2016 edition of this stan-
what analogous to ASTM specifications for steels; the A5
dard unless otherwise noted.
standards specify chemistries for either the filler metal or the
deposited weld metal, mechanical properties of deposited
1.3.9 AISC Code of Standard Practice
welds, as well as packaging requirements.
The AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and AWS A2.4 Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and
Bridges (AISC, 2016a), hereafter referred to as the AISC Nondestructive Examination (AWS, 2012d) is the standard
Code, addresses a few welding-related issues, including the that defines the proper use of welding symbols.
overall tolerances of fabricated members and erected assem- AWS A3.0/A3.0M Standard Welding Terms and Defini-
blies. Basic tolerances for architecturally exposed structural tions (AWS, 2010d) provides definitions of welding and cut-
ting terms.
2.1 INTRODUCTION any melting. This prompts the reasonable question, “What is
required in order to achieve a weld—that is, fusion?”
There are approximately 100 different welding and thermal
A single piece of metal is composed of millions of indi-
cutting processes. Currently, in the fabrication and erection
vidual atoms. Each atom is connected to surrounding atoms,
of steel buildings, a few welding and cutting processes dom-
resulting in what is considered a single solid piece of metal.
inate. These processes, plus a few others that are occasion-
In the simplest terms, fusing two separate pieces of pure
ally used for specialized applications, will be covered in this
metal together requires forming the same bonds between the
chapter.
two pieces as exist within the individual pieces. In metals,
The choice of welding process is usually left up to the
these metallic bonds form when individual metallic atoms
contractor because the contractor is typically best positioned
are brought close enough together that they share a com-
to select the optimal process for a given application. Addi-
mon “cloud” of electrons. The required closeness of the
tionally, contractors may have preferred processes and may
two atoms is close indeed, measured in units of angstroms
have significant resources that are dedicated to a specific
(10−10 m). When metallic atoms are brought into close con-
process: welder qualifications, welding procedure specifica-
tact, metallurgical bonds form. Thus, the first requirement
tions, equipment, and perhaps most importantly, experience.
for fusion is atomic closeness.
In unique situations, the engineer may specify the use of a
The previous paragraph emphasizes metallic atoms to dif-
specific process or restrict the use of a specific process, but
ferentiate them from oxidized metals. When pure (nonoxi-
this practice is uncommon. The selection of the welding pro-
dized) metallic surfaces are exposed to the atmosphere, such
cess is typically considered part of the means and methods
surfaces readily oxidize, and the forces that would normally
of construction, and the choice of process may significantly
encourage the metallic atoms to bond to each other are neu-
affect the cost of a project. When properly used, all of the
tralized. Instead of bonding to another metallic atom, bond-
welding processes listed in AWS D1.1 (AWS, 2015c) are
ing is made with an oxygen atom. To achieve fusion, the
capable of producing welds with the requisite quality for
atoms must be metallic (not combined with oxygen), leading
building construction. Conversely, any welding process can
to the second requirement for fusion: atomic cleanliness.
be abused and produce welds of poor quality if improper
In theory, if two pieces of steel with oxide-free surfaces
procedures are used or if the welder’s skills are inadequate.
are brought into close contact, the attractive forces between
Although the selection and control of the welding process
the two pieces should cause the two to bond to each other. In
is typically the responsibility of the contractor, it is impor-
practice, this does not happen because, on an atomic level,
tant that all parties involved understand these processes in
the atoms are separated by significant distances, restricting
order to ensure high quality and economical fabrication. Par-
the first requirement for fusion: atomic closeness. Further-
ticularly when problems arise on a project, the engineer may
more, surfaces will remain oxide-free for only short periods
be required to become involved with welding process issues,
of time, and once such oxides form, the second requirement
and a basic knowledge of how the process operates will aid
for fusion, atomic cleanliness, is violated. Thus, welding
in resolving construction problems.
processes rely on a variety of methods of oxide removal and
protection of the surfaces before welding. In arc welding,
2.1.1 Requirements for Welding
this is typically accomplished with fluxes and metallic ele-
The welding processes commonly used for structural steel ments in the filler metal that deoxidize the weld pool. Heat
fabrication and erection all involve melting and mixing of and/or pressure are used to bring the atoms into close prox-
filler metals and base metals, followed by solidification imity with one another.
and fusion of the various materials. Brazing and soldering With this background in mind, the following definition of
involve melting of the filler metal but not the base metal; a weld becomes more meaningful: “a localized coalescence
these methods achieve fusion though only one material is of metals or nonmetals produced by heating the materials to
melted. The oldest form of welding, technically named forge the welding temperature, with or without the application of
welding but commonly called blacksmith welding, involved pressure, or by the application of pressure alone and with or
heating (but not melting) two pieces of metal and, using a without the use of filler material” (AWS, 2010d). The often
hammer to forge the two together, achieving fusion without misused term, filler metal, refers to “the metal or alloy to
Fig. 2-1. MAW application. Fig. 2-3. Typical SMAW welding circuit.
may be used without any preconditioning; that is, they need of control. Unused electrodes must be returned to the heated
not be baked before use. Electrodes in unopened, hermeti- cabinet for overnight storage.
cally sealed containers should remain dry for extended peri- Once the electrode is exposed to the atmosphere, it begins
ods of time under good storage conditions. Once electrodes to pick up moisture. AWS D1.1 limits the total exposure time
are removed from the hermetically sealed container, they as a function of the electrode type. Higher-strength elec-
should be placed in a holding oven to minimize or preclude trodes are subject to more restrictive requirements because
the pick-up of moisture from the atmosphere as shown in the hydrogen-related cracking concerns are typically greater
Figure 2-8. These holding ovens generally are electrically when such electrodes are used.
heated devices that can accommodate several hundred Some SMAW electrodes with low-hydrogen coverings
pounds (kilograms) of electrodes. They hold the electrodes at are supplied in cardboard containers. This is not commonly
temperatures of approximately 250 to 300°F (120 to 150°C). done for structural fabrication, although the practice can be
Electrodes used in fabrication are taken from these ovens. acceptable if specific and appropriate guidelines are fol-
Fabricators and erectors should establish a practice of limit- lowed. The electrodes should be preconditioned before
ing the number of electrodes distributed at any given time. welding. Usually, this means baking them at temperatures in
Supplying welders with electrodes two times per shift (e.g., the 700 to 900°F (400 to 700°C) range to reduce moisture.
at the start of the shift and after lunch) minimizes the risk In all cases, the electrode manufacturer’s guidelines should
of moisture contamination. However, the optional designa- be followed to ensure a baking procedure that effectively
tor “R” indicates a low-hydrogen electrode that has been reduces moisture without damaging the covering. Electrodes
tested to determine the moisture content of the covering after removed from damaged, hermetically sealed cans should
exposure to a moist environment for 9 hours and has met the be similarly baked at high temperature. The manufacturer’s
maximum level permitted in AWS A5.1. The “R” designated guidelines must be followed to ensure that the electrodes are
electrodes can be issued once per shift, a convenient method properly conditioned.
2.3.3 Consumables
FCAW filler metals are always tubular, with a metallic tube
that surrounds the internal flux. The diameter of such elec-
trodes ranges from 0.030 to 8 in. (0.8 to 3.2 mm), with
0.045 to W in. (1.2 to 2.4 mm) being typical for structural
steel work. Electrodes that are 5 64 in. (2.0 mm) and smaller
are often used for out-of-position work (i.e., vertical and
overhead), while those that are z in. (1.6 mm) and larger
are generally used for flat and horizontal welds.
The various electrodes are wound on spools, coils or reels
or are inserted into drums. Ranging in available strength
Fig. 2-11. Self-shielded FCAW process. from 1 to 1,000 lb (0.5 to 500 kg) or more, the package size
is typically dictated by the balance between the need for por-
tability and a desire to limit the number of electrode changes
as shown in Figure 2-13.
For FCAW-G, an additional consumable is the shielding
gas. Most of the gas-shielded flux-cored electrodes utilize
carbon dioxide or argon-CO2 mixtures for the shielding
media. The shielding gas may affect mechanical properties,
including yield and tensile strength, elongation, and CVN
toughness. This is largely due to the difference in alloy
recovery—that is, the amount of alloy transferred from the
filler material to the weld deposit. The shielding gas selected
should be that required of the filler metal classification, or
supported by the filler metal manufacturer’s recommenda-
tions or suitable test data.
Fig. 2-13. FCAW electrode packaging. Fig. 2-14. FCAW electrode classification system.
followed by a number appears at the end. Common designa- tested with both high- and low-heat input procedures. These
tions include “Ni1” indicating a nominal nickel content in CVN requirements are often required of projects designed
the deposited metal of 1%. Other suffix designators may be according to the AISC Seismic Provisions.
used that indicate diffusible hydrogen limits.
Some of the electrodes listed in AWS A5.20 and AWS 2.3.5 FCAW Advantages and Limitations
A5.29 have specified minimum notch toughness values,
The flux-cored arc welding process offers two distinct advan-
although some do not. Some AWS A5.20 electrodes are
tages over shielded metal arc welding. First, the electrode is
restricted to single-pass applications, and others have restric-
continuous, eliminating the built-in starts and stops that are
tions on the thickness for their application. All AWS A5.29/
inevitable with shielded metal arc welding. Not only does
A5.29M electrodes are suitable for multiple-pass applica-
this have an economic advantage because the welder can
tions. AWS D1.1, Table 3.2, lists the prequalified filler met-
continue welding until the weld is complete, but arc starts
als that are suitable for structural applications.
and stops, which create potential sources of weld disconti-
Table 2-3 summarizes data from AWS A5.20/A5.20M.
nuities, are reduced.
Electrodes shown with a grey background in Table 2-3 are
The second advantage is that increased amperages can
specifically listed in AWS D1.1 as not prequalified because
be used with flux-cored arc welding, with a corresponding
they are designed for single-pass applications.
increase in deposition rate and productivity. While the gun
FCAW electrodes may contain a “-D” suffix in the clas-
cable assembly may be 10 or more feet long (3 m or more),
sification. Such electrodes are required to additionally dem-
the electrical power is delivered to the tubular electrode
onstrate the ability to deposit weld metal with a minimum
near the point where it exits the gun. As the electrode passes
CVN toughness of 40 ft-lb at +70°F (54 J at +20°C) when
2.4.2 Equipment
Like FCAW, SAW equipment consists of a power source, a
wire feeder, a device through which the electrode is fed and
electrical power is introduced, and a work lead and clamp.
The power supply can be either constant current or constant
voltage, and SAW can be performed with either direct or
alternating current. For direct current welding, either DC+
Fig. 2-16. SAW process. or DC− may be used. For alternating current, the AC may
Fig. 2-25. GMAW classification system. Fig. 2-26. Effect of shielding gas on penetration profiles.
carefully designed when GMAW-S is used. Welders must dioxide or oxygen. Typical mixtures include 90-10 argon-
pass specific qualification tests before using this mode of CO2 and 95-5 argon-oxygen. Other proprietary mixtures are
transfer, and it is not prequalified in AWS D1.1. Thus, all available from gas suppliers.
WPS for GMAW-S must be qualified by test. The current required to achieve spray transfer is called
It is difficult to determine when GMAW is and is not being the transition current. Each electrode diameter/shielding
performed with the short-circuiting mode of transfer. The gas combination has a different transition current. Increased
fundamental concern is not whether the mode is GMAW-S levels of argon in the gas mix will result in a lower transi-
or something else such as globular transfer (discussed in the tion current. Conversely, a higher CO2 level corresponds to a
next Section), but rather, whether fusion is being achieved. higher transition current.
Table 2-4 has been created from the AWS D1.1 Commentary
where typical GMAW-S amperage values are listed. Pulsed Spray Transfer
It is reasonable and conservative to assume that, if the
Pulsed spray transfer is “a variation of spray transfer in
welding current for a given diameter of electrode is below
which the welding power is cycled from a low level to a
the maximum value shown in Table 2-4, GMAW-S is being
high level, at which point spray transfer is attained, result-
used.
ing in a lower average voltage and current” (AWS, 2010d).
If GMAW is done in the vertical or overhead position,
The process utilizes a background current, which is continu-
the mode of transfer can be assumed to be GMAW-S unless
ously applied to the electrode, and a pulsing peak current
pulsed spray transfer is used.
that momentarily forces spray transfer. Metal transfer occurs
during the pulse. The pulsing rate is optimally applied as a
Globular Transfer
function of the wire feed speed, and ideally, a single drop-
Globular transfer is “the transfer of molten metal in large let of metal is transferred by the pulse. After the droplet is
drops from a consumable electrode across the arc” (AWS, released, the power supply then delivers a lower background
2010d). This GMAW mode of transfer occurs when high current, which maintains the arc. This occurs between 100
concentrations of carbon dioxide shielding gas are used. and 400 times per second. This mode of transfer is some-
Globular transfer is characterized by deep penetration and times abbreviated as GMAW-P and may be called pulsed arc.
relatively high levels of spatter. Weld appearance can be poor One advantage of pulsed spray transfer is that it can be
and it is restricted to the flat and horizontal position. Globu- used to make welds out-of-position. For flat and horizontal
lar transfer may be preferred over spray transfer because of
the low cost of CO2 shielding gas and the lower level of heat
felt by the operator.
Spray Transfer
Spray transfer is a mode of transfer “…in which molten metal
from a consumable electrode is propelled axially across the
arc in small droplets” (AWS, 2010d). The fine molten drop-
lets are smaller in diameter than the electrode diameter as
shown in Figure 2-27. Spray transfer is characterized by high
wire-feed speeds at relatively high voltages and a high level
of energy transferred to the work; therefore, spray transfer is
restricted to the flat and horizontal positions. High-quality
welds with particularly good appearance are the result. Spat-
ter is practically nonexistent with spray transfer.
The shielding used for spray transfer is composed of at
least 80% argon, with the balance made up of either carbon Fig. 2-27. GMAW spray transfer.
Fig. 2-30. ESW flux-electrode classification system. Fig. 2-31. EGW flux-electrode classification system.
2.9.3 Air Carbon Arc Gouging and Cutting 2.9.4 Welding on Thermally Cut Surfaces
Air carbon arc gouging (CAG) is “a thermal gouging process Properly made thermal cut surfaces are smooth and gener-
using heat from a carbon arc and the force of compressed ally suitable for welding upon without special grinding or
air or other nonflammable gas” (AWS, 2010d). The pro- other treatment, particularly when the cutting is done with
cess involves the heating of base metal by an arc conducted automatic machinery. On the back side of a joint, there may
between a copper-coated carbon electrode and the workpiece be some dross that needs to be chipped or ground away.
and a stream of compressed air that mechanically removes Improper cutting procedures and techniques, however, may
result in notches, gouges and cracks on the thermally cut
surface; such imperfections should be repaired before welds
Fig. 2-35. Plasma arc cutting. Fig. 2-36. Arc air gouging.
3.1 JOINTS CJP groove welds may be applied to butt, T- and corner
joints. They are often required in butt joints loaded in ten-
When pieces of steel are brought together to form a joint,
sion. When butt joints are loaded in compression, and when
they assume one of the five configurations presented in
T- and corner joints are loaded in shear, design requirements
Figure 3-1. Of the five, butt, T-, corner and lap joints are
rarely justify the use of CJP groove welds.
common in steel building construction. Butt joints include
The prequalified CJP groove weld details listed in AWS
column splices and flange splices on plate girders. T-joints
D1.1 typically require steel backing if made from one side
have varied applications, including single-plate shear con-
and backgouging if made from two sides (see Section 3.3.1
nectors to columns, gussets to beams, beams to columns, and
of this Guide). These measures are intended to ensure com-
columns to base plates. Corner joints are represented by the
plete fusion throughout the thickness of the material being
outside seams on built-up box column sections. Examples
joined. For CJP groove weld details welded from one side
of lap joints include coverplates on rolled beams, angles
without steel backing, welding procedure qualification test-
to gusset plates, and clip angles to beam webs. Edge joints
ing is required to prove that the full throat is developed and
are more common for sheet metal applications. Joint types
an acceptable back-bead is achieved. Included in this cat-
merely describe the relative positioning of materials; the
egory are groove welds made with no backing (i.e., open
joint type does not imply a specific type of weld.
root joints) and groove welds made with nonsteel backing,
such as copper, ceramic, flux and other nonfusible materials.
3.2 WELD TYPES—GENERAL
A special exception to this is applied to tubular connections,
Welds may be placed into four major categories: complete- for which CJP groove welds may be made from one side
joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds, partial-joint- without backing.
penetration (PJP) groove welds, fillet welds, plug welds and In AWS D1.1:2015, an alternative to the preceding regard-
slot welds, as shown in Figure 3-2. Groove and fillet welds ing prequalified welding procedure specifications (WPS)
are of primary interest for major structural connections. The and required steel backing was first offered. The alternative
most common use of plug and slot welds in structural appli- permits the use of copper backing with prequalified WPS
cations is for joining the center of large web doubler plates to when the following conditions are met:
deep wide-flange members (fillet welds are typically applied • The prequalified joint detail does not contain steel
around the perimeter). backing or spacers (i.e., the joint is normally a double-
Terminology associated with groove and fillet welds is sided joint).
illustrated in Figure 3-3. Of primary interest to the designer
• The joint is backgouged (as would be the case for a
is the dimension noted as the throat. For PJP and fillet welds,
prequalified double-sided joint).
the throat is theoretically the weakest plane and, therefore, is
one of the factors that controls the design of a welded con- • The backgouged joint is backwelded.
nection that uses these welds.
3.3 COMPLETE-JOINT-PENETRATION
GROOVE WELDS
A CJP groove weld is “a groove weld condition in which
weld metal extends through the joint thickness” (AWS,
2010d). The size of the weld is equal to the thickness of the
thinner plate that it joins as shown in Figure 3-4. In the past,
these welds were known as complete penetration (CP) welds
and, before that, full penetration (FP) welds. They are often
referred to as full-pen welds. For statically loaded struc-
tures, CJP groove welds develop the full tensile and shear
strength of the attached material, the base metal will control
the strength of the connection when matching strength filler
metal is used. Fig. 3-1. Joint types.
Fig. 3-7. Spacer bar detail. Fig. 3-8. AWS TC-U4a-GF joint details.
Fig. 3-10. Flare-bevel groove welds and flare-V groove welds. Fig. 3-11. HSS radius, R, and wall thickness, t.
Fig. 3-12. Determining effective throat dimensions. Fig. 3-13. Comparison of filled flush conditions.
Unpainted
2.12.2.3 Any 14t 7 (180)
weathering
Any except
2.12.2.1 unpainted Any — 24 (600)
Shape to shape General weathering
Unpainted
2.12.2.3 Any 14t 7 (180)
weathering
Detailing of such simple welds is more complex than compression or shear. Then, the direction of tension or com-
one might expect. The dimensional requirements have been pression loading as compared to the weld axis must be con-
established to facilitate uniform fusion to the root of the sidered. Finally, the magnitude of loading must be compared
joint. Specific requirements are outlined in the AISC Speci- to the potential strength of each weld.
fication and AWS D1.1 and are not repeated here. How- Table 3-3 can be used to evaluate candidates for various
ever, the diameter of the holes and the width of the slots are conditions. In some cases, multiple options exist. Typically,
required to be greater than the thickness of the member in cost differences separate the various options, and Chapter 17
which they are placed in order to facilitate quality welding. of this Guide provides helpful information in that regard.
Slot widths and spacing dimensions between such welds are As used in Table 3-3, the terms tension, compression and
also specified. shear characterize the loading relative to the joint itself, not
Plug and slot welds are required to fill the cavity in which the loading on the weld. Ultimately, the throats of all fillet
they are placed when the plate thickness is s in. (16 mm) welds are loaded in shear, but the loading on the joint may be
thick or less. For thicker material, the weld must fill at least in tension. In the case of the loading level, light versus heavy,
one half of the thickness of the material, but not less than the magnitude is not precisely or mathematically defined. It
s in. (16 mm). is shown simply to illustrate that, should it be impossible to
The use of plug welds in lieu of bolts is discussed in Sec- develop the required available strength in the joint with the
tion 15.7 of this Guide. light loading level, an option with more available strength
exists.
3.7 PUDDLE WELDS Table 3-3 is applicable to the statically loaded situations
typical of most building structures. For seismic and fatigue
Puddle welds, formally called arc spot welds, are made when
loading applications, other factors must be considered, and
an electric arc melts through the top sheet of steel in a lap
these tables may not be applicable.
joint, fusing it to the bottom steel component. Puddle welds
do not involve welding into a hole as is the case with a plug
3.10 REQUIRED FILLER METAL STRENGTH
weld. Such welds are used to join steel decking to supporting
steel and are discussed in Section 14.13 of this Guide.
3.10.1 Possible Strength Relationships
3.8 INTERACTION OF JOINT TYPES AND When the specified minimum tensile strength of the weld
WELD TYPES metal deposited from a specific filler metal is compared to
the specified minimum tensile strength of a base metal, three
Not all welds may be applied to all details, limiting the weld
possible relationships exist; compared to the base metal,
possibilities for some joint types. For the four joint types that
the weld metal may be lower in strength, about the same
are used in structural applications, Table 3-2 lists the weld
strength, or greater in strength. These three relationships are
possibilities.
known as undermatching, matching and overmatching. All
compare the tensile strength, not the yield strength, and also
3.9 SELECTION OF WELD TYPES
all compare the specified minimum properties, not the actual
The best weld detail for a specific connection is one that properties. Depending on the weld type, direction, and type
reliably and safely transmits the imposed loads and yet is of loading, matching strength may be required. In other
economical and easily made by the welder. The selection situations, matching or undermatching strength is accept-
process begins with consideration of the joint type and pos- able. The AISC Specification never requires overmatching
sible weld types, previously discussed. The next step is to filler metal, although it is permitted to use filler metal with
consider the nature of the loads involved, whether tension, a strength of up to 10 ksi (70 MPa) higher than matching.
Matching strength filler metal is acceptable for all weld the use of undermatching filler metal, larger welds may be
types in all types of loading conditions. required.
In situations where undermatching filler metal is accept- The strength relationship of the weld metal deposited by a
able, it can be used to limit fabrication-related cracking given filler metal compared to the base metal is based upon
tendencies. When lower-strength welds are deposited, the tensile strength, not yield strength. Normally, for similar
stresses created as the weld metal cools and shrinks will be given specified minimum tensile strengths, weld metal will
reduced and cracking tendencies are reduced (see Chapter 6 have a higher yield strength than the base metal, although
of this Guide). To offset the reduced capacity associated with there are exceptions to this pattern. Thus, for matching
Fw = 0.60FEXX(3-3)
where
FEXX = filler metal classification strength, ksi (MPa) w
Fw = nominal stress of the weld metal, ksi (MPa)
⎡ ψ ⎤ Ψ < 60˚
tw = w ⎢cos ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
Z-loss
(3-1)
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
Fig. 3-22. Minimum overlap dimension for lap joints. Fig. 3-23. One-sided fillet welds in lap joints.
Elements in this
area remain as
shown when tail and
arrow are reversed
Fig. 4-4. Stiffeners provide a path for the force Fig. 4-5. Forces entering an HSS section,
to enter into the parallel member (preferred). causing straining at the weld toe.
Fig. 4-6. Deformed HSS section. Fig. 4-7. Forces entering a HSS section, still not ideal.
Fig. 4-10. External yoke transfers forces into the parallel member.
M M
(a) (b)
Fatigue category E, E’ Fatigue category E, E’
Fig. 4-14. Eliminate bending about Fig. 4-15. Parallel versus perpendicular
the root by using a double-sided PJP. stress raiser due to left-in-place backing.
Fig. 4-16. Discontinuous steel backing (loading perpendicular to the stress raiser).
Fig. 4-17. Discontinuous steel backing ring (loading parallel to the stress raiser).
Nonpreferred
(a)
Nonpreferred
(a)
Preferred
(b)
Preferred Preferred
(c) (b)
Fig. 4-18. Details to avoid bending about the root of the weld. Fig. 4-19. Details to avoid rotation about the root of the weld.
(a)
Throat
Backgouge root
(a)
(b)
Throat
(c) (b)
Fig. 4-21. Acceptable (a) and (b), and Fig. 4-22. Acceptable (a) and
unacceptable (c) weld sizes in butt joints. unacceptable (b) weld sizes in T-joints.
Fig. 4-26. Examples of weld access holes. Fig. 4-27. Beam splice without access holes.
Preferred
(a)
Preferred
(b)
Nonpreferred
(c)
Fig. 4-33. Prequalified copper backing detail. Fig. 4-34. Filler plate details—acceptable and unacceptable.
Fig. 4-35. Shelf bar used to support liquid weld metal. Fig. 4-36. Fillet weld termination options.
Fig. 4-37. End returns at flexible connections. Fig. 4-38. Hold-back dimensions.
Fig. 4-39. Welds on opposite sides of a common plane. Fig. 4-40. Termination of welds near edges.
k area
(a)
(b)
l D
(c)
Fig. 4-45. Doubler detail to eliminate welding in the k-area. Fig. 4-46. Connections where shear lag should be evaluated.
Fig. 4-47. Plates connected to the longer side of an HSS. Fig. 4-48. Plates connected to the shorter side of an HSS.
Root
w (leg) w (leg)
tth
Throat
Throat
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
The preheat level must be controlled to both minimum and reduced preheat levels. AWS D1.1 permits ASTM A913
maximum levels, and heat input must similarly be controlled Grades 50, 60 and 65 to be welded with a 32°F (0°C) pre-
in terms of minimum and maximum levels. The goal is to heat, providing the filler metal complies with a maximum
control the cooling rate experienced by the HAZ; the preheat diffusible hydrogen level of 8 ml/100g. Preheat might be
must be sufficient to avoid cracking in the weld and HAZ, required to compensate for restraint and other factors, but the
but excessive preheat may damage the properties of the steel. permitted low level of preheat speaks to the good weldability
Accordingly, tables have been developed that give the maxi- of the material. ASTM A913 Grade 70 steel is prequalified
mum allowable heat input for different levels of preheat and by AWS D1.1 with preheat levels that are typical for other
interpass temperatures. AWS D1.5 (AWS, 2015a) provides 70 ksi (480 MPa) materials.
a table with preheat ranges and acceptable heat input limits Because the higher tensile strengths are gained through
within those ranges that are in turn a function of the thick- quenching and self-tempering, some caution regarding over-
ness of the steel being joined. Welding within a more restric- heating the steel is needed because the steel can be softened.
tive envelope of acceptable parameters is different than what According to ASTM standards, for QST steels the post
is required for welding on most hot-rolled carbon steels and weld heat treating temperatures should not exceed 1,100°F
thus can present additional challenges. (600°C).
Heat shrinking (see Section 14.15 of this Guide) tempera-
ture limits are more tightly controlled for Q&T steels, and 5.4.4 Multigrade Steels
the use of high heat input welding processes like electroslag
Some steels are marketed as dual grade, triple grade, or other
welding (ESW) and electrogas welding (EGW) (see Sec-
multigrade variations. Some people view this as somewhat
tion 2.6 of this Guide) are similarly limited in AWS D1.1.
of a cheat on the part of the supplier, but such steels are more
AWS D1.1, clause 2.10.4, prohibits plug and slot welds in
restrictive and better defined than steels bearing only one
quenched and tempered steels with a specified minimum
grade designation because multigrade steels must meet all of
yield strength of 70 ksi (490 MPa).
the requirements of all the listed specifications. Multigrade
steels are possible because of the overlap between specifica-
5.4.3 Quenched and Self-Tempered Steels
tion requirements. It is common for a single heat of steel to
Another method of processing steel is quenching and meet all the requirements of ASTM A36, ASTM A572 Grade
self-tempering (QST), which is a variation of the thermo- 50, and ASTM A992. Techniques and procedures for weld-
mechanical control process (TMCP) rolling technique. Steel ing on multigrade steels should be such that all the require-
shapes made by this process are quenched in a traditional ments of the specified steel grade are met. For example, if
manner, but the quenching does not cool the entire cross sec- the specified steel is ASTM A992 and the aforementioned
tion of the shape. The residual thermal energy in the core of steel is delivered, then all the requirements for welding on
the shape then tempers the quenched outer surfaces without ASTM A992 should be met.
the application of additional thermal energy, hence the term
self-tempering. 5.4.5 Historical (Obsolete) Steels
ASTM A913 (ASTM, 2016) is a QST steel, available in
When welding on an existing structure, it is essential to
four grades: 50, 60, 65 and 70. The material specification
determine the weldability of the steel. If the steel was suc-
limits the carbon content to lower levels, and requires the
cessfully welded years ago, the weldability today should be
steel be under certain carbon equivalent levels. As a result,
unchanged. However, the steel in structures riveted or bolted
the steel has good weldability and can be welded with
manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and silicon content. Addi- optional S1 requirements) should be investigated before
tionally, two carbon equivalency limits are provided, one for any welding is done. Grade 55 ordered with supplemen-
alloy or low-alloy steel and another for carbon steel. When tary requirement S1 should be readily weldable. Given the
the supplier chooses to substitute Grade 55 for Grade 36, strength level of Grade 105, and the fact that no option is
the substituted material is required to meet the optional S1 provided for supplementary requirements for improved
requirements that ensure good weldability. weldability of this grade, it is not recommended for welding.
The weldability of ASTM F1554 Grade 55 (without the
6.1 INTRODUCTION Sometimes cracking occurs in the base metals, but such
cracking is usually the result of cracks that have initiated in
Some weld discontinuities, such as porosity, are acceptable
the weld or HAZ and propagated into the base metal. Cracks
within certain limits. In the case of cracking, none is per-
in both the weld and the HAZ will be considered in this
mitted according to AWS D1.1, Table 6.1 (AWS, 2015c).
chapter, as well as lamellar tearing, a cracking-like problem
Fortunately, cracking rarely occurs when fabrication is
that occurs in base metal and is related to welding.
properly done in accordance with modern specifications
A HAZ is “the portion of base metal whose mechanical
because these standards require careful control of the factors
properties or microstructure have been altered by the heat
that might otherwise lead to cracking. When cracking does
of welding…” (AWS, 2010d). The HAZ does not melt and
occur, it is typically the result of one or more variables being
therefore does not resolidify. However, the HAZ is heated
significantly outside the expected range of acceptability.
by welding and subsequently cools, resulting in localized
Because of the serious nature of cracking, AWS D1.1,
changes in mechanical and metallurgical properties but not
clause 5.25.3, requires that the engineer be notified before
to the chemical composition. For steel applications, the HAZ
repairs are made to major or delayed cracks, as well as prior
is generally equal to or higher than the base metal in terms
to repairs for some types of cracks in the base metal. While
of yield and tensile strength. Typically, the HAZ will have
the reason for such notification is not stated in the code, it
localized regions of both increased and decreased fracture
provides an opportunity to examine the circumstances sur-
toughness. These changes in fracture toughness depend on
rounding the cracking and also to consider the implications
a number of factors that include welding heat input, cooling
of the repair on the final structure. Ideally, the cause can
rate, and the chemical composition of the base metal.
be established so as to preclude the reoccurrence of such
cracking.
6.2 SHRINKAGE AND RESTRAINT
For the purposes of this chapter, weld cracking will be dis-
tinguished from weld failure. While the physical appearance The various forms of weld cracks are all driven by at least
of the two may be similar, the term weld cracking will be two common factors—the shrinkage of the weld and sur-
used to describe cracking that occurs during or near the time rounding base metal that was heated and expanded by weld-
that welding is performed. In service, welds may fail (crack) ing, and the restraint that is offered by the surrounding base
due to overload or fatigue, for example, but cracking as dis- metal as it resists the shrinkage. Conceptually at least, if
cussed in this chapter is due to weld solidification, cooling metal did not expand during heating, or shrink during cool-
and shrinkage, not service loads that are applied during the ing, welds would not crack. Furthermore, if no restraint or
life of the structure. resistance to such expansion and contraction existed, no
Weld cracks can be divided into two broad categories— cracking would occur. However, volumetric changes with
hot cracks and cold cracks. Hot cracks occur only when the temperature are real, as are constraints to such volumetric
weld is at elevated temperatures; such cracks are solidifica- changes. Additionally, other factors may further aggravate
tion related. Hot cracking may also be called solidification cracking tendencies. Given that all arc welding processes
or liquation cracking. If the weld metal cannot deform by involve thermal expansion and contraction, along with con-
yielding to accommodate the shrinkage stresses, cracking straint, these two topics will be discussed before addressing
can occur; this is the essence of hot cracking. Cold cracks, the specific details of the various cracking mechanisms.
in contrast, only occur when the weld is relatively cool and
are hydrogen related. If the cooler steel or weld metal cannot 6.2.1 Shrinkage
accommodate the residual stresses of welding when hydro-
To understand the magnitude of the shrinkage strains
gen is introduced, cracking can occur; this is the essence of
involved, consider a steel bar with dimensions of 1 in. ×
cold cracking. Totally different mechanisms cause hot and
1 in. × 10 in. (25 mm × 25 mm × 250 mm). If the bar is made
cold cracks, and correspondingly, different solutions must be
of steel with 50‑ksi (345 MPa) yield strength, it will elasti-
employed to overcome these problems.
cally elongate a total of 0.016 in. (0.410 mm) if mechanically
In a welded connection, three distinct zones exist: the
loaded to the yield stress. If the same bar in an unloaded
weld metal, the heat affected zone (HAZ), and the base
condition is heated from a room temperature of 70 to 300°F
metal. Cracking may occur in any of these three regions,
(21 to 149°C), it will expand the same amount. Additional
with cracking in the weld or HAZ being more predominant.
Fig. 6-5. Width-to-depth ratio. Fig. 6-6. Groove weld details and root conditions.
Fig. 6-9. Weld throats and surface profile. Fig. 6-10. Heat affected zone cracking.
7.1 INTRODUCTION restricted from distortion. When the tack welds are ground
off, however, the elastic portion of the distortion will cause
Distortion is the geometric deviation in the shape of a part
some spring-back that is all elastic. If the bar is depressed,
or an assembly that is observable after welding is complete.
it will return to a flat configuration, but when the force is
Distortion may be a cosmetic issue, such as can be observed
removed, the elastic distortion returns. In this situation, there
on fascia girders with stiffeners applied to the opposite side.
is no plastic distortion, only elastic.
In other situations, distortion may make it difficult or impos-
AWS D1.1, clause 5, defines acceptable limits for some
sible to assemble parts into a larger assembly. Under extreme
forms of distortion.
conditions, distortion can reduce the buckling strength of
compression members or create other structural or service-
7.2 CAUSES OF DISTORTION
ability problems.
As shown in Figure 7-1, distortion may assume various Distortion is caused by four factors as follows:
forms, including angular distortion, longitudinal shortening, • Hot, expanded weld metal has solidified and shrinks
transverse shrinkage, twisting, warping and buckling, and as it cools from elevated temperatures.
longitudinal sweep or camber. Distortion is caused by the
• A portion of the base metal is heated by welding, then
volumetric contraction of hot, expanded metal—the length,
expands, upsets and cools from elevated temperatures.
width and depth (thickness) of the heated metal all shrink.
The type of distortion experienced depends on the geometric • The shrinkage, or straining, creates stresses that act on
shrinkage involved and how that shrinkage interacts with the the surrounding steel.
surrounding steel. • Flexible surrounding steel moves to accommodate the
The shrinkage of the hot, expanded metal causes perma- stresses created by the shrinking metal.
nent distortion, as well as causing the part to flex elastically.
The permanent distortion can be called the plastic distortion
and the elastic movement called the elastic distortion. Fig-
ure 7-2 demonstrates the concept of elastic distortion. If a
piece of steel is tack welded to a rigid part, and the longitudi-
nal weld is made on the top of the piece, then the part will be
Fig. 7-1. Examples of distortion. Fig. 7-2. Elastic versus plastic distortion.
where
W = width of the flange, in. (mm)
t = thickness of the flange, in. (mm)
w = fillet weld size, in. (mm)
Δangular = deflection, measured at the tips of the flanges,
in. (mm)
0.10 Aw
Δ transverse = (7-2)
t
where
Aw = cross-sectional area of the weld metal, in.2 (mm2)
Fig. 7-3. Angular distortion. t = thickness of the members joined, in. (mm)
Uneven preparation
on double-sided welds
(c)
Presetting parts
(d)
Fig. 7-4. Techniques to limit angular distortion. Fig. 7-6. Longitudinal shortening.
Presetting of parts
Tack
welds
Direction of welding
(a) (b)
NA and CG
(a)
NA and CG
(b)
8.1 INTRODUCTION reason for welding to commence before all parties involved
know how a particular weld is to be made.
A welding procedure specification (WPS) is “a document
AWS D1.1 allows for two types of WPS: those that are
providing the required welding variables for a specific appli-
prequalified and those that are qualified (or, qualified by
cation to assure repeatability by properly trained welders
test). These are addressed at length in Sections 8.4 and 8.5
and welding operators” (AWS, 2010d). A WPS is used to
of this Guide. In brief, prequalified WPS are subject to many
prescribe the combination of variables that are to be used to
prescribed rules within the code, and when all of the regu-
make a certain weld. The terms welding procedure or simply
lated variables comply with these limits, the WPS is deemed
procedure may be used in lieu of the formal term, and the
prequalified and does not need to be tested before it is used.
acronym WPS is commonly used. Fundamentally, a WPS is
In contrast, all qualified WPS are subject to mechanical
a communication tool that identifies all of the parameters by
and nondestructive testing. Regardless of whether WPS
which a particular weld is to be made. Through the use of a
are prequalified or qualified by test, they are required to be
WPS, the engineer, contractor, welder and inspector are pro-
written. One prevalent misconception is that if the actual
vided the various details associated with making a specific
parameters under which welding will be performed meet
weld.
all of the conditions for prequalified status, written WPS are
WPS are important because of the many variables that
not required; this is, however, an incorrect understanding of
can affect the quality of a weld. It is insufficient to simply
AWS D1.1 requirements. AWS D1.1, clause 5.5, requires all
purchase good materials (filler metals and base metals), put
WPS to be written.
them into the hands of a skilled welder, and expect that good
results will always be achieved because the quality of the
8.2 WRITING WELDING PROCEDURE
weld depends on complex chemical and thermal reactions
SPECIFICATIONS
and other factors. The filler metal must be appropriate for the
particular steel being welded. The preheat level for the steel AWS D1.1, clauses 4.2.1.1 and 4.7, state that the contractor
must be correct, and the electrode must be operated on the is responsible for the development of WPS. This task is typi-
proper polarity with an appropriate combination of amper- cally assigned to a welding specialist within the contractor’s
age, voltage, travel speed and other welding variables. organization who generates or writes the WPS. Many issues
While a skilled and knowledgeable welder may have must be considered when selecting welding procedure values
learned some or all of this information from experience, the to be included on the WPS. While all welds must have fusion
inspector on the same job may have no knowledge as to how a to ensure connection strength, the required level of penetra-
specific weld is to be made. Conversely, the less experienced tion is a function of the joint design and the weld type. All
welder may need to be given detailed information to ensure welds are required to have a certain strength, although the
the welding is properly performed. Even for the experienced exact level required is a function of the weld type and direc-
welder who may know from past practices how the weld- tion of loading. Some welds are required to deliver specified
ing is typically to be performed, changes in specifications or minimum levels of fracture toughness, while others are not.
the grade of steel may necessitate new practices. Through a A variety of production-related issues such as the position
properly prepared WPS, everyone involved with the welding of welding must be considered when WPS are developed.
operation can work with a common understanding. Determining the most efficient means by which these condi-
Welding procedure specifications are required for all weld- tions can consistently be achieved in fabrication and erec-
ing done in accordance with AWS D1.1 (AWS, 2015c). Each tion is the task of knowledgeable welding technicians and
fabricator or erector is responsible for the development of engineers who then create the written WPS that reflect the
WPS according to AWS D1.1, clauses 4.2.1.1 and 4.7. AWS applicable code and specification requirements.
D1.1, clause 6.3, requires the inspector to review the WPS The written WPS then communicates those requirements
and to make certain that production welding parameters con- to the welders and others involved in the construction pro-
form to the requirements of the code. The availability of the cess. The welder is expected to be able to follow the WPS,
WPS is one of a few perform items that both the quality con- although the welder may not know how or why each par-
trol (QC) and quality assurance (QA) inspector are required ticular variable was selected. Inspectors are not required to
to do according to AISC Specification Table N5.4-1 before develop WPS, but inspectors are obligated to ensure that
welding begins, for a very pragmatic reason—there is no WPS are available and are followed.
8.3 USING WELDING PROCEDURE • The welding process must be prequalified. Only
SPECIFICATIONS shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), submerged
arc welding (SAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Because the WPS is a communication tool, it follows that it
[(except gas metal arc welding-short circuit arc
must be available to foremen, inspectors, welders and others
(GMAW-S)], and flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
involved with the welding operations. A WPS locked away
WPS may be prequalified (clause 3.2.1). Note: both
in a cabinet serves little purpose if it never gets to the shop
gas-shielded FCAW (FCAW-G) and self-shielded
floor or the erection site. AWS D1.1 is not prescriptive in
FCAW (FCAW-S) are prequalified and included
its requirements regarding the availability and distribution of
under the generic designation FCAW.
WPS. Some shop fabricators issue each welder employed in
their organization a set of welding procedures that are typi- • The base metal/filler metal combination must be
cally retained in the welder’s locker or tool box. Others list prequalified. Prequalified base metals, filler metals
WPS parameters on shop drawings. Some company bulletin and combinations are shown in AWS D1.1, Tables 3.1
boards feature listings of typical WPS used in the organiza- and 3.2.
tion. Regardless of the method used, WPS must be available • The minimum preheat and interpass temperatures pre-
to those authorized to use them. scribed in AWS D1.1, Table 3.3, must be employed.
It is in the contractor’s best interest to ensure that WPS are
• Specific requirements for the various weld types must
followed by the welders, not only from a quality perspec-
be maintained, as summarized in Table 8-1.
tive, but also because of the effect on productivity. Improper
welding parameters can directly affect weld quality. Welding AWS D1.1, Figures 3.2 and 3.3, contain the prequalified
parameters that result in reduced weld deposition rates will joint details for groove welds and Figure 3.5 contains the
negatively impact productivity. prequalified joint details for fillet welds; such details must
be used for prequalified WPS. Even when such details are
8.4 PREQUALIFIED WELDING PROCEDURE employed, the welding procedure must be qualified by test
SPECIFICATIONS if other prequalified conditions are not met. For example, if
a prequalified detail is used with a steel that is not listed in
AWS D1.1 provides for the use of prequalified WPS.
AWS D1.1, Table 3.1, the welding procedure must be quali-
Prequalified WPS are those that have a history of acceptable
fied by test because the steel is not prequalified.
performance and, therefore, are not subject to the qualifica-
The use of a prequalified welding joint detail does not
tion testing imposed on all other welding procedures. The
exempt the engineer from exercising engineering judgment
use of prequalified WPS does not preclude the require-
to determine the suitability of the particular procedure for
ment that they be available in a written format. The use of
the specific application according to AWS D1.1, clause
prequalified WPS still requires that the welders be appropri-
1.4.1. Alternatively stated, a prequalified joint detail can be
ately qualified. All of the workmanship provisions imposed
misapplied, as shown in Figure 8-1. This detail was used in
in AWS D1.1, clause 5, apply when prequalified WPS are
a project, and not surprisingly, the center plate tore in the
used. The only code requirements exempted by prequalifica-
through-thickness direction due to the significant shrinkage
tion are the nondestructive and mechanical testing required
stresses that were imposed on it. While prequalified, this
for qualification of welding procedures.
detail was inappropriate for the application.
Prequalified welding procedures must conform to all the
Prequalified status requires conformance to a variety of
prequalified requirements in the code. Failure to comply with
procedural parameters that include maximum electrode
a single condition of prequalification eliminates the opportu-
diameters, maximum welding current, maximum root-pass
nity for the welding procedure to be prequalified according
thickness, maximum fill-pass thickness, maximum single-
to AWS D1.1, clause 3.1. Some of those requirements are
pass fillet weld sizes, and maximum thickness of individual
included in the following:
possible. Given that both low and high heat input levels
can lead to compromised fracture toughness levels in weld
where metal, optimized fracture toughness levels are achieved with
E = arc voltage, volts medium heat input levels.
I = current, amps Heat input is used to predict the cooling rates associated
S = travel speed, in./min (mm/min) with each weld pass. Consider a single-pass weld made with
a heat input of 50 KJ/in. (2 KJ/mm). A multipass weld may
Higher levels of heat input add more thermal energy into require 10 weld passes, each made with 50 KJ/in. (2 KJ/mm).
a weld and cause the weld and HAZ to cool more slowly. While the total energy introduced into the multipass weld
However, because amperage is related to deposition rates will be 10 times that of the single-pass weld, the heat input
and travel speeds are related to weld sizes, higher heat input level for each weld is the same. Every thermal cycle created
levels will typically result in weld beads with larger cross- by each weld pass in the multiple-pass weld will result in
sectional areas. For single-pass welds, higher heat input will a similar cooling cycle as is experienced in the single-pass
mean a larger weld. For multiple-pass welds, higher heat weld, when all conditions are the same, including the pre-
input will decrease the number of passes needed to com- heat and interpass temperature.
plete the weld. Higher heat input usually results in slightly
decreased yield and tensile strength in the weld metal. 8.8.10 Preheat and Interpass Temperature
In many respects, lower levels of heat input have just the
opposite effect of high heat input levels; lower levels add Preheat and interpass temperature are used to control crack-
less thermal energy into a weld and cause the weld and ing tendencies, typically in the base materials. Preheat is
HAZ to cool more rapidly, and will deposit weld beads with the temperature of the steel before the arc is initiated. In
smaller cross-sectional areas. Single-pass welds made with multiple-pass welds, the interpass temperature is the tem-
lower heat input will generally be smaller, and multiple-pass perature of the steel before subsequent weld passes are initi-
welds will require a greater number of weld passes to com- ated. The proper values for these thermal controls depend on
plete the weld. Lower heat input usually results in slightly the type, composition and thickness of base metal, the WPS
increased yield and tensile strength in the weld metal. All heat input level, and the hydrogen content of the weld metal.
Surface-breaking,
Fig. 9-6. Slag intrusions.
cylindrical porosity
Surface-breaking,
spherical porosity
10.1 INTRODUCTION AWS D1.1, clause 6.9, requires that all welds are visu-
ally inspected. This includes welds that are subject to other
Welds are inspected to ensure that they comply with the
nondestructive testing as well, and VT should be performed
requirements of a given specification. Weld inspection fits
before NDT. Ironically, it is common to find welds that meet
into two broad categories: destructive and nondestructive.
NDT requirements, which focus on internal quality, and yet
Destructive testing typically involves machining test speci-
fail visual acceptance criteria that is solely focused on sur-
mens from a weldment, applying a force, and measuring the
face conditions. When properly performed, VT is the most
response of the test specimen to the force; after this, the weld-
powerful inspection methodology. VT is the only inspec-
ment is no longer useful for the intended service. Destruc-
tion method that can actually improve the quality of a given
tive testing is applied to welding procedure qualification
weld. For example, visual inspection of the weld joint prepa-
test plates, and may include tensile testing, Charpy V-notch
ration and the adequacy of the root opening dimension can
(CVN) testing, and bend tests. In contrast to destructive test-
ensure that conditions conducive to obtaining good fusion
ing, nondestructive testing (NDT) allows for examination of
are present before welding begins, minimizing the probabil-
the weld without affecting the ability of the weld to function
ity of incomplete fusion in the completed weld.
in the intended service.
To be effective, visual inspection must take place before,
Welder qualification testing and welding procedure
during and after welding. The before and during aspects
qualification testing as prescribed in AWS D1.1 have both
are often overlooked. Fortunately, with the incorporation
nondestructive and destructive testing requirements. For
of Chapter N into the AISC Specification, the concepts of
production welds, the AISC Specification (AISC, 2016d)
before, during and after inspection are duly emphasized.
prescribes both visual inspection requirements and nonde-
Chapter N contains three tables that outline specific tasks
structive tests. Connection configurations designed to resist
that are to be performed: Table N5.4-1 for tasks to be done
seismic loading may be subject to destructive testing in labo-
before welding; Table N5.4-2 for tasks to be done during
ratory tests before they are used on an actual project. Visual
welding; and Table N5.4-3 for tasks to be done after weld-
inspection is generally considered to be a form of nonde-
ing. Most of the tasks involve visual inspection and most
structive testing, but for this chapter, visual inspection will
are assigned to the quality control inspector (QCI), the indi-
be discussed separately from NDT.
vidual designated to perform quality control inspection tasks
Many NDT methods exist, but for structural steel inspec-
for the fabricator or erector.
tion only a few are commonly used; these methods will be
While specific VT responsibilities are assigned to both
discussed in this chapter.
the quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) inspec-
tors, everyone associated with welding on a project can, and
10.2 VISUAL INSPECTION
should, participate in VT, including welders and foremen.
Visual inspection (VT), also called visual testing or visual With VT, minor irregularities can be detected and corrected
examination “…is a nondestructive method whereby a during the fabrication process, precluding the need for more
weldment, the related base metal, and particular phases of expensive and complicated repairs after the weld is complete.
welding may be evaluated in accordance with applicable “Before” welding tasks include verifying that welders
requirements. All visual examination methods require the are qualified, that WPS are available, that the joint is prop-
use of eyesight to evaluate the conditions which are pres- erly fit, and that the welding equipment is suitable for the
ent; hence, the term visual examination” (AWS, 2015b). As application. “During” welding tasks include adhering to the
implied by the term, VT can only detect what can be visu- WPS, including preheat requirements, cleaning between
ally observed. For completed welds, this limits the method to weld passes, and confirming the quality of each pass. “After”
detection of discontinuities that are on the surface or are sur- welding tasks include checking the weld size and examining
face breaking. This has caused some to discount the value of the weld for cracks, porosity and undercut. These examples
VT. However, the power of VT lies in the ability to examine are illustrative and not exhaustive; the AISC Specification
particular phases of welding. Alternately stated, VT allows and AWS D1.1 provide a comprehensive list of required VT
for examination of the whole process of welding from start tasks.
to finish. AWS B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of VT relies on eyesight, and two implications follow: The
Welds (AWS, 2015b), provides a useful expansion on the inspector’s vision (with correction, if necessary) must be
topic of VT. good, and there must be sufficient light present. AWS D1.1,
Fig. 10-3. Flux lines induced by the yoke. Fig. 10-4. Magnetic particle testing using prods.
Fig. 10-5. Flux lines induced by the prods. Fig. 10-6. Radiographic testing.
11.1 INTRODUCTION for the expected inelastic deformations to occur, the welded
connections must be strong enough to resist the applied
11.1.1 Unique Loading—Inelastic stresses without fracture, and the base metal must be capable
of deforming to accommodate the straining.
Most buildings are designed to resist what are commonly
called statically applied loads or static loading. Implied in
11.1.3 Requirements for Welds—Strength and
this term are the concepts of slow rates of loading (i.e., low
No Fracture
strain rates) and infrequent application and reapplication of
loads. To resist such loads, a building must be designed so The welded connections in systems specifically designed
that the resultant stresses are kept below acceptable limits. for seismic resistance (also called high-seismic systems or
Some structures must be designed for cyclic loading. systems with R > 3) must be strong, ductile and fracture-
Bridges are classic examples of cyclically loaded structures. resistant. Strength and ductility are primarily addressed
The moving loads imposed on a bridge create live loads that through the selection of the welding filler metals and control
place extra demands on structures. The application and reap- of the procedures used to deposit the metal. Such criteria are
plication of live loads results in cyclic loading. To endure not significantly different than the requirements for nonseis-
such loading, cyclically loaded structures must be designed, mic applications. In systems specifically designed for seismic
fabricated and inspected more carefully than structures that resistant applications, because of the potential consequences
experience only static loading. The structural details that are of connection fracture, as well as the demands placed on the
suitable in a statically loaded structure may lead to fatigue connections, the welded connections are treated differently
cracking in a cyclically loaded structure. To preclude fatigue primarily in order to achieve superior fracture resistance.
cracking, the stress range must be held below prescribed
limits. Fatigue is addressed in Chapter 12 of this Guide. 11.1.4 Fracture of Welded Joints
Buildings in seismic zones are subject to loading condi-
Three factors determine the ability of a connection to resist
tions that are different from those affecting either statically
brittle fracture: the applied or residual stresses, the pres-
or cyclically loaded structures. In a major earthquake, select
ence (or lack) of cracks or crack-like discontinuities, and the
portions of the structural frame are expected to experience
fracture toughness of the material. Fracture is discussed in
inelastic (or plastic) deformations, as shown in Figure 11-1.
Chapter 13 of this Guide. The applied stresses in the welded
The structural frame is required to be ductile and the steel
joint are inherently linked to the configuration of the con-
must yield but not fracture; this is the most important feature
nection. In general terms, two approaches have been used
that distinguishes seismic construction from structures sub-
in seismic design to reduce the stresses applied to the joint:
ject to either static or cyclic loads.
the overall connection can be strengthened (such as by the
To obtain the desired ductile behavior, seismically resis-
use of heavy shear plates), or the demand on the joint can be
tant structural systems must be designed and detailed with
reduced (such as through the use of reduced beam sections).
this severe loading condition in mind. The welded connec-
Thus, the overall connection configuration has a direct effect
tions must be designed and detailed with such loading in
on the stress level in the welded joint, and stress is the first
mind as well. This chapter will deal with welding-related
of the three factors that determine the fracture sensitivity.
issues for systems subject to low-cycle, inelastic loading.
In addition to the overall stress in a welded joint, geo-
metric features may locally amplify the effects of the stress.
11.1.2 Framing Concepts and Connections
Stress concentrations occur in a variety of forms, including
The lateral loading imposed on structures during seismic notches and gouges from flame cutting, weld toes, left-in-
events generally places the highest demands on the ends of place weld tabs, and weld discontinuities such as undercut,
beams and braces—at the point of the connections. Thus, underfill, slag intrusions and porosity. These stress con-
connections are often in or near the most severely stressed centrations are generally not planar, but volumetric and, as
portions of a structure. For a properly designed system, such, are typically less severe than cracks. The significance
inelastic deformations are not typically expected to be con- of the stress concentration depends on the geometry of the
centrated in the welds themselves, but welds are often near discontinuity, the local stress levels, and the orientation of
the base metal in which such strains are located. In order the stress concentration to the stress field and other factors.
Fig. 11-1. The need for extensive plastic deformation makes seismic loading unique.
The final comment is worthy of emphasis: Connections 11.3.2 AISC Seismic Provisions
with W1 indications were initially classified as earthquake
damage; when they were properly reclassified as workman- The AISC Seismic Provisions govern “the design, fabrication
ship and inspection-related issues, the number of damaged and erection of structural steel members and connections in
buildings was reduced by approximately 50% (Miller, 2014). the seismic force-resisting systems (SFRS), and splices and
Interestingly, many of the connections with W1 indications bases of columns in gravity framing systems of buildings
(i.e., those with preexisting root discontinuities) did not frac- and other structures with moment frames, braced frames
ture in the earthquake. Still, the widespread reports of W1 and shear walls.” As stated in the scope, the AISC Seismic
indications brought renewed focus on the issues of work- Provisions deal with members and connections, including
manship, compliance with welding procedure specification welded connections. As such, the AISC Seismic Provisions
values, and the difficulty of ultrasonically testing complete- contain welding-related requirements, both in terms of con-
joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds in T-joints when steel nection details and how the welds are to be performed. The
backing is left in place. welding-related issues are expanded upon in Section 11.6 of
this Guide.
11.3 SEISMIC WELDING SPECIFICATIONS AISC Seismic Provisions Chapter K requires connections
in the seismic force-resisting moment frames to either be
11.3.1 FEMA Guidelines qualified by cyclic testing or to be prequalified by the Con-
nection Prequalification Review Panel (CPRP).
As a result of the FEMA-sponsored investigations, a vari-
ety of nonconsensus guideline documents were created, 11.3.3 AISC Prequalified Connections
providing recommendations for incorporation into contract
AISC Prequalified Connections specifies “…design, detail-
specifications. While many were produced, three of the most
ing, fabrication and quality criteria for connections that
popular were FEMA 267 Interim Guidelines: Evaluation,
are prequalified in accordance with the AISC Seismic Pro-
Repair, Modification, and Design of Welded Steel Moment
visions…for use with special moment frames (SMF) and
Frame Structures (FEMA, 1995); FEMA 350 Recommended
intermediate moment frames (IMF).” Members of the com-
Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel Moment-Frame Build-
mittee that produce the AISC Prequalified Connections
ings (FEMA, 2000a); and FEMA 353 Recommended Specifi-
standard constitute the Connection Prequalification Review
cations and Quality Assurance Guidelines for Steel Moment
Panel (CPRP) discussed in AISC Seismic Provisions Chap-
Frame Construction for Seismic Applications (FEMA,
ter K. The prequalified moment connection details listed in
2000d). The content of these documents was incorporated
the AISC Prequalified Connections may be used, within the
into contract specifications in the years that followed the
prescribed limits, without performing the cyclic qualifica-
Northridge earthquake, before the content could be adopted
tion tests that are otherwise required by the AISC Seismic
by consensus specifications, such as the AISC Seismic Pro-
Provisions.
visions (AISC, 2016c). For new construction, there is cur-
The AISC Prequalified Connections standard con-
rently no need to reference documents such as FEMA 267,
tains many welding-related details, similar to those in the
FEMA 350 and FEMA 353 because they are outdated, and
AISC Seismic Provisions, such as backing removal and tab
the AISC Seismic Provisions and AISC Prequalified Con-
removal, treatment of left-in-place backing, and weld access
nections (AISC, 2016b) address the same topics that were
hole configurations, but provided in the context of specific
part of the guideline documents.
prequalified connection details. The welding-related issues
Two other FEMA publications are noteworthy because
are expanded upon in Section 11.7 of this Guide.
the content of these documents has not been incorporated
The use of the adjective prequalified in conjunction with
into AISC documents, and yet may be useful in the future.
moment connections is logical and justified; unfortunately,
FEMA 351 Recommended Seismic Evaluation and Upgrade
the same term is used in conjunction with welding proce-
Criteria for Existing Welded Steel Moment-Frame Buildings
dure specifications (i.e., prequalified WPS) and has created
(FEMA, 2000b) deals primarily with the pre-Northridge
some confusion. Also, because the alternative to prequalified
moment connection and provides approaches for retrofit-
moment connections are connections that have been quali-
ting existing systems; information that is still applicable and
fication tested, similar confusion exists when discussing
Column flange
Beam web
Beam web
Beam
wmaximum = x in. (5 mm) web
E
tp tp
E
w
For tp = 2 in. (13 mm) E = v in. (11 mm) For tp = 2 in. (13 mm) E = c in. (8 mm)
when w1 = x in. (5 mm) when w1 = c in. (8 mm)
Fig. 11-15. WUF-W fillet and PJP option (nonpreferred). Fig. 11-16. WUF-W fillet and PJP option (preferred).
Column flange
Beam web
tp
Single-plate
shear connector
w = 1.5 tp
(a) (b)
15 ksi
0
(105 MPa) Stress Stress
range range
0 -15 ksi
Bottom flange groove weld (-105 MPa) Top flange groove weld
(c) (d)
20 ksi 0
(140 MPa) Stress -5 ksi
5 ksi range (-35 MPa) Stress
(35 MPa) range
-20 ksi
0 (-140 MPa)
Bottom flange groove weld Top flange groove weld
(e) (f)
Fig. 12-2. Examples of stress range: (a) bare steel beam; (b) noncomposite concrete slab on steel beam; (c) bare steel beam;
(d) bare steel beam; (e) noncomposite concrete slab on steel beam; (f) noncomposite concrete slab on steel beam.
⎛ 2a ⎞ ⎛ w⎞
0.65 – 0.59 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.72 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p⎠
t ⎝ tp ⎠
RPJP = 0.167
≤ 1.0
tp
(Spec. Eq. A-3-4)
⎛ 2a ⎞ ⎛ w⎞
1.12 – 1.01⎜ ⎟ + 1.24 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p⎠
t ⎝ tp ⎠
RPJP = 0.167
≤ 1.0
tp
(Spec. Eq. A-3-4M)
where
2a = length of the nonwelded root face in the direction of
the thickness of the tension-loaded plate, in. (mm)
tp = thickness of tension-loaded plate, in. (mm)
w = leg size of the reinforcing or contouring fillet, if any,
in the direction of the thickness of the tension-loaded
plate, in. (mm)
able stress range will vary. Thus, curves for Category C′ and
C′′ cannot be plotted on Figure 12-3. However, if values for
⎛ 2a ⎞ the plate thickness, tp, the unwelded root face, 2a, and the
1.12 – 1.01⎜ ⎟
⎝ tp ⎠ weld leg size, w, are assumed, values for the stress range for
RPJP only = 0.167 ≤ 1.0 (12-2M) C′ or C′′ could be added to Figure 12-3; the values would
tp
only be applicable for the assumed combination of tp, 2a
Notice that if PJP groove welds are used alone, the reduc- and w. Importantly, unlike all the other curves shown in Fig-
tion factor will always be less than 1.0. To gain better fatigue ure 12-3, the C′ and C′′ plots would be continuously declin-
performance, PJP groove welds can be changed to CJP ing lines with no threshold values.
groove welds, or reinforcing fillet welds of sufficient size Categories A through E′ all involve the nominal stresses
can be added to the PJP groove welds to obtain Category C in the base metal, not the stresses in the weld itself. The
behavior. However, welded connections that use PJP groove reason is simple—fatigue cracking typically occurs in the
welds alone always require the use of the reduction factor base metal. Category F is used to control shear stresses in
and will never benefit from a threshold limit. the weld metal.
When only transverse fillet welds are used in T-, corner or The previously supplied descriptions of the various cat-
cruciform joints, fatigue crack initiation may occur at either egories of details is illustrative, not exhaustive. AISC Speci-
the weld toe or from the weld root, depending on the relative fication Appendix 3 contains descriptions and illustrations
size of the weld and the base metal thickness. This condition of dozens of details. Part of this Appendix is shown in Fig-
is known as Category C′′. If cracking is expected from the ure 12-5. It is a fairly simple procedure to review the various
root, the stress range of Category C must be reduced by a examples and to identify a situation the same as, or simi-
reduction factor, RFIL, as follows: lar to, the structural detail of interest. From the tables, the
stress category can be obtained, as well as a constant, Cf ,
⎛ w⎞
0.06 + 0.72 ⎜ ⎟ and a threshold value, FTH, which are discussed in the next
⎝ tp ⎠ Section.
RFIL = 0.167 ≤ 1.0
tp
12.4 COMPUTATIONS
where 0.333
⎛ 4.4 ⎞
Cf = constant for the fatigue category FSR = 6900 RFIL ⎜
⎝ nSR ⎟⎠
FSR = allowable stress range, ksi (MPa)
The exponent reflects the difference in the slope of the curve 12.5 INSPECTION ISSUES
for Category F material as can be seen in Figure 12-3.
For Category C′, where root cracking is expected from the The stress ranges for the various categories of details were
roots of a pair of PJP groove welds, with or without reinforc- experimentally determined from welded assemblies that
ing fillet welds, the stress range must be reduced by the pre- included acceptable fabrication discontinuities but were free
viously discussed reduction factor, RPJP, and the following from defects (i.e., unacceptable discontinuities). In the situa-
relationship is used: tion of CJP groove welds transverse to the direction of stress,
the welds are required to be inspected by ultrasonic testing
0.333 (UT) or radiographic testing (RT) to ensure internal sound-
⎛ 4.4 ⎞
FSR = 1,000 RPJP ⎜ ness. AISC Specification Appendix 3, Section 3.6, stipulates
⎝ nSR ⎟⎠
that this applies whether the weld reinforcement is removed
(Spec. Eq. A-3-3) (Category B) or left in place (Category C).
• Reinforcing or contouring fillet welds are required • Suitable corrosion protection has been supplied, or the
on top for PJP or CJP groove welds in T- and corner steel is subject only to mildly corrosive atmospheres,
joints. The AISC Specification requires this to be no such as normal atmospheric conditions. When fatigue
less than 4 in. (6 mm), while AWS D1.1 defines the conditions are combined with corrosion conditions,
minimum size as T1/ 4, where T1 is the thickness of the predicting life expectancy is much more difficult.
member in which the groove weld is placed, but the Corrosion-fatigue-crack propagation behavior is a
weld need not exceed a in. (10 mm). very complex phenomenon and is dependent on many
variables that are not part of the Appendix 3 model,
• Weld tabs are required on transverse groove welds including frequency, waveform and stress ratio (Bar-
in regions of tensile stress. After the weld has been som and Rolfe, 1999). Fortunately, for most structural
completed and cooled, weld tabs are required to be applications, the assumption of only mildly corrosive
removed. applications is valid.
• End returns are required when loading is normal to • The temperature of the structure does not exceed
the outstanding legs of angles or on the outer edge 300°F (150°C). As the temperature of the steel
of end plates. End returns are to be no less than two increases, the modulus of elasticity decreases, result-
times the weld size. ing in an increased fatigue crack growth rate. The
• Reentrant corners at cuts, copes and weld access slight decrease in modulus at 300°F (150°C) does not
holes are required to have prescribed minimum radius necessitate any change in the model that was based
dimensions. A minimum radius of a in. (10 mm) is on testing at ambient temperatures. For higher tem-
always required, and better fatigue performance is perature applications, the allowable stress ranges of
obtained for some details when the minimum radius Appendix 3 can be reduced by the ratio of elevated
is 1 in. (25 mm). temperature modulus to the room temperature modu-
lus. Higher temperature applications may addition-
In addition to the fabrication/erection details mentioned
ally introduce corrosion problems, in which case
in AISC Specification Appendix 3, it is prudent to make cer-
additional factors must be considered. Very high tem-
tain that the effects of miscellaneous attachments, including
perature operations may additionally introduce con-
erection aids that are not removed, be considered as they can
cerns about creep, which is not addressed in the AISC
create unintended load paths or may introduce fatigue details
Specification.
with limited stress range capability. Discontinuous longitu-
dinal backing and intermittent tack welds attaching backing In addition to the limitations that are listed in Appen-
are common problems. dix 3, a frequently asked question involves the suitability
of this model for predicting fatigue life under conditions
12.7 LIMITATIONS TO THE APPENDIX 3 of low temperature. The model is equally suitable for low-
METHODOLOGY temperature applications; fatigue crack growth rates are the
The model presented in AISC Specification Appendix 3 same at low temperatures as at room temperature. However,
is based on tests conducted on fabricated assemblies that because of fracture concerns, the onset of brittle fracture
were subject to stress ranges below the yield strength of the occurs sooner at low temperatures. Because of the reduced
steel. Deviations from the conditions tested may render the fracture toughness of steel at low temperatures, the critical
model invalid for other applications. Limitations from AISC crack size, acr , that would prompt brittle fracture is smaller at
Specification Appendix 3, Section 3.1, include the following low temperatures. Accordingly, while fatigue crack growth
conditions: rates at low temperatures are not different, the acr threshold
will be reached sooner when cyclic loading occurs at low
• The peak cyclic loads are not permitted to exceed
temperatures (see Section 13.7 of this Guide).
0.66Fy. When peak cyclic stresses exceed Fy (i.e.,
when the steel is permitted to yield), the low stress
13.7.1 AASHTO Bridges—Redundant and Acceptable and unacceptable details were specified in the
Fracture Critical AASHTO design specifications. Fracture critical bridges are
subject to in-service inspections on a periodic frequency.
Bridges generally can be categorized as redundant or non-
Since 1992, the welding-related fabrication require-
redundant. Redundant bridges have multiple load paths,
ments have been incorporated into the AASHTO/AWS D1.5
and the complete failure of any one member would not be
Bridge Welding Code (AWS, 2015a). Weld metal properties,
expected to result in the collapse of the structure. A five-
including CVN requirements, are included in AASHTO/
girder bridge would be an example of a redundant structure.
AWS D1.5, as are weld inspection requirements.
Nonredundant bridges by definition lack such redundancy,
In terms of materials, the base metal requirements for
therefore the failure of one individual member is expected
AASHTO bridges are listed in AASHTO specifications,
to result in the collapse of the bridge. A tied arch bridge is
as well as in ASTM A709 (ASTM, 2016). Tables 13-1 and
an example of a nonredundant structure, where the tension
13-1M of this Guide summarize base metal CVN toughness
chord is a nonredundant member. These are also known as
requirements for tension members in redundant structures
fracture critical bridges, and such structures are designed
and Tables 13-2 and 13-2M do the same for fracture criti-
more conservatively than redundant bridges, particularly
cal members. Tables 13-3 and 13-3M summarize the CVN
with respect to fracture concerns.
toughness requirements for weld metal used for fabrication
The American Association of State Highway and Trans-
of redundant and fracture critical bridge members.
portation Officials (AASHTO) established a fracture control
A review of the data contained in these tables offers insight
plan (FCP) that was first issued in 1978 to govern the design,
into the reasoning behind these criteria. In Table 13-1/13‑1M,
fabrication, materials and inspection of nonredundant struc-
the CVN testing temperature for A709 Grade 36T (Grade
tures. The allowable fatigue stress range for fracture critical
250T) systematically declines from 70°F (21°C) for Zone I
members was limited to 80% of that for redundant members.
to 40°F (4°C) for Zone II to 10°F (−12°C) for Zone III,
reflecting the more demanding (lower temperature) service The equation is valid for steels from 36 ksi to 140 ksi
conditions expected to be seen in Zones II and III. However, (250 MPa to 970 MPa).
regardless of the temperature zone in which the structure is The full temperature shift reflects the difference in mate-
located, the CVN testing temperature is higher than what rial behavior from static loading to dynamic loading. Most
will be experienced in these zones. The dynamic strain rates structures are loaded between these extremes, and three-
associated with CVN testing are higher than the strain rates fourths of the total temperature shift is typically used for
experienced by the actual structure and, therefore, are more steel bridges (Barsom and Rolfe, 1999).
demanding. The temperature shift principle permits the Referring again to Table 13-1/13‑1M, the same require-
CVN testing of materials at warmer temperatures than those ments apply to 36T (250T) and thinner sections of Grade 50
to which the structure will be exposed. The temperature shift (345) materials. However, the combination of the strength
is dependent on the yield strength of the material and can be increase of 50 (345) versus 36 (250), and the higher restraint
found from this equation: of thicker versus thinner material have resulted in higher
CVN requirements for the thicker Grade 50 (345) materials,
Tshift = 215 − 1.5Fy(13-2) as reflected in a higher minimum absorbed energy level of
20 ft-lb versus 15 ft-lb (27 J versus 20 J).
When high-performance steel (HPS) grades are encoun-
Tshift = 120 − 0.12Fy(13-2M)
tered, the same requirements apply across all temperature
zones. One of the goals that was established when HPS was
where
developed was that the same steel could be used for bridges
Fy = yield strength of the material, ksi (MPa)
in all AASHTO temperature zones. Notice that the Zone III
Tshift = full temperature shift, °F (°C) requirements are identical for thicker Grade 50 (345) mate-
rial and the HPS equivalent. There is no increased demand
for fracture toughness in Zones I and II when HPS is used, 25 ft-lb to 30 ft-lb (34 J to 41 J), reflecting a higher fracture
but additional resistance is supplied by the HPS. toughness demand due to the higher stress levels that will
A comparison of the requirement for HPS 50WT likely be applied, and the higher residual stresses that will
(345WT) and HPS 70WT (485WT) shows that with the be experienced. The move from 70 ksi to 100 ksi (485 MPa
higher-strength steel, the CVN toughness requirements have to 690 MPa) steel results in both an increase in the absorbed
been increased, both by requiring more absorbed energy energy level as well as a decrease in the testing temperature.
(25 ft-lb versus 20 ft-lb) (34 J versus 27 J) as well as testing The combination is used to deal with not only the aforemen-
at lower temperatures (−10°F versus +10°F) (−23°C versus tioned stress increases, but also the decrease in the tempera-
−12°C). This increased CVN toughness reflects the increase ture shift.
in stress that will likely be applied to the higher-strength The AASHTO/AWS FCP does not contain any require-
steel, as well as the decrease in the temperature shift that ments for HAZ CVN toughness testing. The assumption is
occurs with higher-strength steels. The same pattern can be that the base metal requirements for the limited number of
seen in the differences in the CVN requirements between steels that are permitted and, with the heat input ranges used
HPS 70WT (485WT) and HPS 100WT (690WT). for typical bridge fabrication, will be such that the HAZ will
A comparison of Tables 13-1/13‑1M and 13-2/13‑2M is have acceptable properties. Further, fatigue cracking that
also instructive. There is nothing that makes an individual would create the initial flaw size, a, normally occurs at weld
member of a nonredundant structure any more fracture sen- toes; while the fatigue crack may initially be located within
sitive than an identical member in a redundant structure, the HAZ, it will typically exit the HAZ and enter the unaf-
if all conditions are identical. The higher requirements of fected base metal before it is of a critical size that would
Table 13-2/13‑2M, typically shown as an increase in the initiate brittle fracture. See Section 13.8 of this Guide. Thus,
required absorbed energy level, does not reflect increases the base metal, not the HAZ, is generally of more concern in
on the demand side of the equation, but rather reflects risk; terms of fracture resistance (Barsom, 2016).
the consequences of fracture in a nonredundant structure
are greater, and thus an increase in the material resistance 13.7.2 AISC Provisions for Jumbo Sections
to fracture has been specified for these structures. The dis-
The topic of welding on jumbo sections is discussed in Sec-
allowance of thicker sections of HPS 100WT (690WT)
tion 14.4 of this Guide. The fracture toughness requirements
for fracture critical applications is another example of the
for welding on what are now called rolled heavy shapes and
influence of risk—the fracture resistance of HPS 100WT
heavy built-up shapes in the AISC Specification are dis-
(690WT) in a redundant structure is identical to that in a
cussed here as another example of material fracture tough-
nonredundant structure, but the consequences of fracture are
ness specifications to avoid brittle fracture. When flanges of
more significant in the latter.
rolled shapes exceed 2 in. (50 mm), and when built-up mem-
Weld metal CVN toughness requirements are con-
bers are made from plate that exceeds 2 in. (50 mm), special
tained in AASHTO/AWS D1.5 and are summarized in
criteria apply (see AISC Specification Sections A3.1c and
Table 13-3/13-3M.
A3.1d). These criteria were developed to provide resistance
The CVN toughness requirements summarized in
to fabrication and erection-related loading, including resis-
Table 13-3/13-3M are not filler metal classification values
tance to the residual stresses that result from thermal cutting
but are for welding procedure qualification test plates made
and welding. No particular service loading conditions were
with parameters that reflect production welding variables.
assumed other than that the service loads would be tensile.
As the strength of the base metal moves from 50 ksi to 70 ksi
Redundancy was not explicitly considered other than as an
(345 MPa to 485 MPa), the required energy increases from
14.1 WELDING OF STEEL HEADED STUD steel and concrete elements work as a unit in the distribu-
ANCHORS tion of internal forces, with the exception of the special case
of composite beams where steel anchors are embedded in a
14.1.1 Introduction solid concrete slab or in a slab cast on formed steel deck.”
The former deals with concrete slabs that work in conjunc-
A steel anchor, according to the AISC Specification Glos-
tion with steel beams while the latter are for composite sys-
sary, is a “headed stud or hot-rolled channel welded to a steel
tems such as concrete filled steel tubes. The design of the
member and embodied in concrete of a composite member
steel anchor connections in the two situations is different.
to transmit shear, tension, or a combination of shear and ten-
AISC Specification Chapter I does not provide design lim-
sion at the interface of the two materials” (AISC, 2016d).
its for steel anchors in noncomposite applications, such as
The term steel anchor was introduced into the AISC Speci-
embed plates.
fication in 2010 (AISC, 2010b), replacing the formerly used
AWS D1.1, clause 7, provides for three types of studs:
term shear connector. Steel anchors consist of steel headed
Type A general-purpose studs, used for purposes other than
stud anchors or steel channel anchors. In casual conversa-
shear transfer in composite construction; Type B bent or oth-
tion, steel headed stud anchors are referred to as shear studs.
erwise configured studs, used for composite construction;
The now obsolete term shear connector restricted the load-
and Type C cold-worked studs that are of higher strength
ing to shear; the new term is more inclusive in terms of load-
than Type A and B. For composite construction, Type B studs
ing. The phrase steel headed stud anchor includes only studs
made of ASTM A108 (ASTM, 2016) material are used.
but includes other forms of loading beyond shear.
When studs are welded to beams with thin flanges and
In the structural steel industry, welded studs are gener-
not welded over the beam web, a common failure mode is
ally used to achieve composite behavior between concrete
for tearing to occur in the flange before the shear-resisting
and steel, and the term shear studs accurately describes both
capacity of the anchor is exceeded. To guard against this,
the device and loading for this application. However, studs
AISC Specification Section I8.1 requires the diameter of
may also be welded to embed plates as part of the anchorage
the stud to be no greater than 2.5 times the thickness of the
into concrete and may be loaded in tension. Some studs are
flange, unless the stud is directly located over the beam web.
threaded (not headed), permitting various types of materi-
AWS D1.1, clause 7.2.7, however, requires three times the
als to be attached to the threaded stud. When dealing with
thickness of the base metal, except when welding through
the topic of welded studs, it is important to distinguish the
metal decking; then the value becomes the same 2.5 times as
type of stud (headed or threaded), the type of loading (shear
is required by the AISC Specification (AWS, 2015c).
or tension), and whether composite action between the con-
crete and steel is expected. The process of arc stud welding
14.1.2 Composite Beams
is discussed in Section 2.8 of this Guide.
Most of the design-related requirements for steel anchors AISC Specification Section I8.2 stipulates the minimum
are contained in AISC Specification Chapter I, Design of ratio of height-to-diameter of the stud is four. This ratio is
Composite Members. Welding requirements are addressed necessary to ensure that concrete failure does not occur.
in AWS D1.1, clause 7, Stud Welding. Quality issues associ- Studs are required to be w in. (19 mm) or less in diameter,
ated with stud welding are addressed in AISC Specification except where anchors are utilized solely for shear transfer in
Chapter N as well as AWS D1.1, clause 7. solid slabs in which case d-in.- (22 mm) and 1-in.- (25 mm)
The requirements in AISC Specification Chapter I are for diameter anchors are permitted. After welding, AISC Speci-
composite construction. Two basic systems are addressed: fication Section I3.2c.1(b) requires the stud to extend not
steel anchors in composite beams in AISC Specification less than 12 in. (38 mm) above the steel deck, and there
Section I8.2 and steel anchors in composite components must be at least 2 in. (13 mm) of concrete on top of the stud.
in AISC Specification Section I8.3. A composite beam is AWS D1.1, clause 7.2.7, stipulates that studs may be welded
defined in the AISC Specification Glossary as a “structural through decking, but only through up to two plies.
steel beam in contact with and acting compositely with a When calculating the shear strength of a stud anchor, two
reinforced concrete slab,” whereas a composite component factors are used to account for geometric effects: Rg is a
is a “member, connecting element or assemblage in which coefficient to account for group effect and Rp is a position
14.2.1 General
14.2.2 Testing
Galvanized materials may consist of electroplated sheet
For critical applications involving hot-dip galvanized steels,
materials (as are often encountered with sheet steel deck-
the potential influence of the coating should be investigated.
ing) as well as hot-dipped structural elements. Electroplated
Sample weldments should be made and visually inspected
sheet steel components used for structural steel applications
for cracking or excessive porosity. Polished and etched cross
are typically welded without any particular difficulty. How-
sections can reveal internal porosity or cracks and can permit
ever, when welding on hot-dipped parts, the zinc may cause
confirmation of fusion to the base metal. A fillet weld break
excessive porosity, or may enter into the liquid weld metal
test (described in AWS D1.1, clause 4.11) should reveal
and lead to segregation cracking (see Section 6.3.1 of this
any problems associated with making fillet welds on coated
Guide). This is more problematic than porosity as the poten-
materials. For groove welds, galvanized coatings (if present)
tial consequences of cracking are more serious, and more-
on the groove weld surfaces should be removed, or if not
over, such cracking is often difficult to detect. Additionally,
removed, the welding procedure qualification tests should
significant quantities of fume are released when galvanized
be administered in accordance with AWS D1.1, clause 4, to
steel is welded and extra measures may be required to pro-
show that the coating will pose no problems.
tect the welder.
Test welds, including those made for WPS qualification
AWS D1.1 and the AISC Specification do not directly
testing, should duplicate as closely as possible the produc-
mention welding on steel surfaces that have been hot-dipped
tion conditions that will be encountered, including the thick-
galvanized; such welding is neither explicitly prohibited nor
est coatings that will be used. The limitation of variables
permitted. Hot-dipped galvanized members have been suc-
contained in AWS D1.1, Table 4.5, may not be applicable
cessfully welded in some cases, while problems have been
when evaluating the weldability of various coatings. For
encountered in others. Accordingly, while not required by
example, Table 4.5 permits different low-hydrogen covered
these standards, special attention is warranted when critical
electrodes to be interchanged without WPS requalification.
welds are deposited on hot-dipped galvanized surfaces. The
However, such changes may or may not be acceptable when
recommended testing as discussed in Section 14.2.2 of this
welding on galvanized steel. A more conservative approach
Guide is advisory information and not a summary of codi-
is to permit only the same conditions that were used on the
fied requirements.
qualification test to be used in production.
Fig. 14-3. HSS details. Fig. 14-4. Computer-controlled HSS cutting machine.
AESS 2: Feature elements viewed at a distance greater • Custom elements in AESS C are those with other
than 20 ft (6 m) requirements defined in the contract documents.
AESS 3: Feature elements viewed at a distance less than The general descriptions of the AESS categories are
20 ft (6 m) defined in specific terms in AISC Code Table 10.1, which is
reproduced here as shown in Figure 14-6.
AESS 4:
Showcase elements with special surface and
edge treatment beyond fabrication
14.7.3 Specifying AESS
AESS C: Custom elements with characteristics described
in the contract documents When fabrication and erection to AESS standards is
expected, AESS members or components are to be identi-
AISC Code Commentary Section 10.1.1 discusses the nature fied in the contract documents. The preceding sentence uses
of these categories as follows: the phrase “members or components” because in some situ-
• Basic elements in AESS 1 are those that have work- ations, AESS standards may not be required for the whole
manship requirements that exceed what would be structure. The specific AESS category should be identified.
done in non-AESS construction. Any additional requirements beyond those specified in AISC
• Feature elements in AESS 2 and 3 exceed the basic Code Table 10.1 must also be specified for AESS Catego-
requirements, but the intent is to allow the viewer ries 1 through 4. For AESS Category C, specific details must
to see the art of metalworking. AESS 2 is achieved be provided; Table 10.1 can be used as a reference, but
primarily through geometry without finish work, and Category C may include treatments beyond those listed in
treats things that can be seen at a larger viewing dis- the table.
tance, like enhanced treatment of bolts, welds, con-
14.7.4 Welding AESS Members
nection and fabrication details, and tolerances for
gaps, copes and similar details. AESS 3 is achieved AESS members are ideally welded with processes that pro-
through geometry and basic finish work and treats duce minimum levels of spatter because spatter must be
things that can be seen at a closer viewing distance removed for AESS Categories 1 through 4. Where the steel
or are subject to touch by the viewer, with welds that can be welded in the horizontal or flat position and when
are generally smooth but visible. AESS 3 involves the the weld is long, automatic submerged arc (SAW) is ideal.
For semiautomatic work and for out-of-position work, gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) is well suited: spray transfer can
be used for horizontal and flat position welds; pulsed spray
transfer works well for out-of-position work, as well as for
horizontal and flat welding.
AESS often requires the application of coating systems
that necessitate careful surface preparations. Two approaches
may be taken. The material may be blasted before welding,
generating a near ideal surface on which to weld. However,
spatter is more likely to stick to such surfaces, and there will
likely need to be some after welding cleanup of smoke on
the previously cleaned surfaces. Alternately, the assemblies
can be fabricated from as-received material (e.g., with mill
Fig. 14-5. Assembly concerns with round HSS.
Silicon < 0.04% or 0.15% to 0.22% Parts may distort during the hot-dip galvanizing process.
Two factors come into play; first, the expansion of some
The two ranges for silicon content can be understood by but not all of the components in an assembly may induce
studying the Sandelin Curve, which is outside the scope of distortion. Second, for welded assemblies, the elevated tem-
this discussion but is mentioned because the two suggested peratures of galvanizing may cause parts to move as residual
ranges may seem to be odd or in error. Steel with very low stresses are relaxed to some extent. The following guidelines
levels of silicon (<0.04%) will result in normal and appro- may be helpful in reducing distortion during galvanizing
priate zinc layer thicknesses. When silicon contents exceed (AGA, 2015):
0.04%, the zinc layer quickly increases and becomes irreg-
• Use symmetrical sections. I-shapes are preferred to
ular in appearance. However, when the silicon content is
angles and channels.
increased into the 0.15 to 0.22% range, the zinc layer thick-
nesses return to those associated with steel with silicon con- • Use parts with similar thicknesses, particularly at
tents that are less than 0.04%. This nonlinear behavior is connections.
well established and explains why there are two ranges of • Stiffen the part to resist distortion, either with tempo-
desirable silicon content. rary or permanent members.
There are theories that the composition of the steel
• Avoid designs that require progressive-dip
influences LMAC tendencies (see Section 14.11.8 of this
galvanizing.
Guide). To mitigate cracking tendencies during galvaniz-
ing, a minimum radius of three times the material thickness ASTM A384 Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against
(3t) is recommended by some (AGA, 2015; ASTM, 2014) Warpage and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing of
and a more conservative 5t or 1 in. (25 mm), whichever is Steel Assemblies (ASTM, 2016) contains helpful sugges-
greater, is required by others (AASHTO, 2016). For sharper tions on how to avoid distortion during galvanizing and,
radii dimensions, hot bending can be employed, or cold as applicable, the distortion control principles discussed in
bent members can be stress relieved at 1,100°F (590°C) for Chapter 7 of this Guide can be used as well.
1 hr/in. (25 mm) of thickness (AGA, 2015). In lieu of HSS
that have cold-formed corners, fabricated box sections can 14.11.6 Welding Issues
be made from plate with welded corners, eliminating the Two issues directly related to welding need to be considered
concern of cold-worked material. for parts that are to be hot-dip galvanized: cleanliness and
chemical composition. The importance of steel cleanliness Excessive silicon content in the weld metal can affect
for effective galvanizing has been discussed; welding may the thickness of the zinc layer on the weld surface, with a
increase the challenges associated with cleaning. The afore- corresponding effect on the appearance of the galvanized
mentioned issues of base metal chemical composition and weld. Many AWS classifications allow weld metal to contain
the role of silicon, in particular, also applies to deposited 1.0% silicon. The specific silicon content of a weld deposit
weld metal. depends to some extent on the specific filler metal manu-
The multi-step cleaning process (i.e., degreasing, pickling facturer, not simply the AWS filler metal classification. The
and fluxing) is adequate to clean most steel assemblies prior American Galvanizer’s Association (AGA) lists several filler
to galvanizing. However, it will not remove slag that may be metals that have been tested and found to be acceptable; the
present on welds and may not remove residual smoke on the AGA list includes some materials that are no longer com-
surface from welding. Materials on the surface of the steel mercially available. Table 14-2 is a subset of the AGA list,
before welding, whether added deliberately or accidentally, showing filler metals available in 2017.
may be baked in by the heat of welding; a notable example Other filler metals are likely to be acceptable but test
is the varnish coating often applied to round HSS. In some results have not been published. The data in the table suggest
situations, mechanical means (e.g., wire brushing or shot that silicon contents of less than about 0.35% will provide
blasting) may be necessary to remove coating materials that acceptable results.
have been baked on by welding. Alternately, such materials
can be removed prior to welding. 14.11.7 Connection Details
Welding processes that leave behind a relatively clean
The snipes that are routinely supplied at intersecting corners
welding surface, such as GMAW or SAW are often pre-
of gussets and stiffeners naturally provide vents and drains
ferred for assemblies that will be galvanized. On the surface
for galvanizing as shown in Figure 14-8. Intersecting mem-
of GMAW welds, so-called silicon islands may form; these
bers that contain weld access holes may similarly provide
should be chipped off after welding because they are unlikely
natural vents or drains.
to be removed by the typical chemical cleaning process.
AISC Specification Section M2.2 and AWS D1.1, clause 14.11.8 Additional Measures to Mitigate Cracking
5.16.2, recommend that thermally cut weld access holes and
The infrequent nature of the cracking that occasionally
copes that will be hot-dip galvanized should be ground to
occurs during galvanizing has made it difficult to study the
bright metal. Some have suggested buttering these surfaces
conditions associated with such cracking and a complete
(AGA, 2015), but economics suggest grinding to be a lower
understanding of how to avoid it is still unknown as of 2017.
cost solution.
Generally accepted practices have been discussed in the pre-
Overlapping and contacting surfaces require special atten-
ceding subsections. The following are ideas that have been
tion when the assembly will be hot-dipped galvanized. It is
suggested that have not been incorporated into U.S. stan-
generally preferred to avoid geometries that create narrow
dards or the AGA recommendations:
gaps such as back-to-back angles and channels or overlap-
ping plates. Larger gaps can be deliberately incorporated • Japanese standards include a CEZ equation that quan-
into the design, perhaps by the means of spacers. Lap joints titatively evaluates the effect of various base metal
in some cases can be replaced with butt splices. compositional elements. CEZ is determined with the
When gaps between surfaces are W in. (2.5 mm) or less, following equation.
molten zinc will not flow into the space, but cleaning solu-
Si Mn Cu Ni V
tions will. When dipped in zinc, the residual cleaning solu- CE Z = C + + + + + + (14-1)
tions may rapidly convert to steam or other gases, creating 17 7.5 13 17 1.5
a safety problem for workers and leaving uncoated spots Nb Ti Cr Mo
+ + + + 420 B ≤ 0.44%
on the steel. If cleaning acids remain in tight enclosures,
2 4.5 4.5 3
hydrogen-related cracking can occur in the part. Accord-
ingly, it may be appropriate to seal overlapping members Lower values are deemed desirable, and 0.44% is recom-
with welds. However, additional considerations beyond mended as a maximum level (JIS, 2005).
specifying seal welds should be taken into account. • Additional preheat and limited heat input procedures
It is difficult to completely seal joints by welding. Small appear to be helpful; these measures are likely to
fusion discontinuities, particularly at points where welds reduce the residual stresses of welding.
intersect, are common. Weld porosity may preclude com- • The galvanizer’s practices can affect the tendency
plete sealing of the joint. Any compromise of a perimeter of LMAC to occur, including time in the acid bath,
seal weld may allow cleaning solution to enter into the over- dipping speeds into the molten zinc, dipping angles
lapped region, and the problem of vaporization of remaining (because of the effect on differential expansion), alloy
liquids during dipping again becomes a potential problem. additions to the zinc, and time in the galvanizing
Thus, two solutions are suggested to address this situation: kettle.
vent holes can be provided, or a portion of the perimeter
seam can be left unwelded. Table 14-3 provides recom-
mended dimensions for these solutions.
da = d − t(14-2)
where
de
d = visible diameter of puddle weld, in. (mm)
da
t = thickness of one ply of material, in. (mm)
When welding through two plies, the average diameter Single thickness of sheet
(a)
can be determined as follows:
da = d − 2t(14-3) t1 d t
where
t = t1 + t 2, in. (mm)
t2
If t1 = t 2 (as will be the common situation), then for the de
two-ply situation, the average diameter is as follows: da
Distortion
Welding can cause embeds to distort, which may cause the
surrounding concrete to crack, or may cause the anchorage
to pull away from the concrete. Designs and techniques that
minimize distortion should be used (see Chapter 7 of this
Guide). Methods of reducing distortion may include using a
thicker embed plate, reducing heat input, and avoiding over-
welding. Thicker embed plates allow for more heat absorp-
tion and dissipation. Reducing heat input decreases the
thermal energy available to cause distortion. Finally, over-
welding will require more heat than necessary to complete
the welded joint.
The distortion measured on the edges of a 1x-in. (30 mm)
thick embed plate experienced minimal distortion when pre-
heated to 390°F (200°C) and connected to girder plates with
two w-in. (20 mm) groove welds (Klimpel et al., 2000).
Loss of Anchorage
Perhaps of greatest concern to the engineer is the potential
loss of anchorage between the embed plate and the surround-
ing concrete. This concern has two origins. First, the anchor-
age element (e.g., stud or reinforcing steel) on the other side
of the embed plate will heat and expand during welding and
Fig. 14-13. Embed detailing to limit concrete cracking.
Incorrect buttering
(a)
15.1 REPAIRS TO BASE METAL the steel producer. Secondly, the same criteria provide a
reasonable basis to justify repairs that are required because
15.1.1 General of steel damaged during fabrication (see Section 15.1.3 of
this Guide).
Structural steel may need to be repaired for a variety of rea-
sons. The steel product produced in the mill may contain
15.1.3 Repair of Damaged Steel
imperfections typically called mill-induced discontinuities
that may require repair. Base metal may be damaged dur- The engineer is required to approve most repairs made to
ing shipping, fabrication or erection. Welding or heat shrink- base metal according to AWS D1.1, clause 5.25.3. Excep-
ing can be practical ways to repair such damage. Base metal tions to this general pattern include certain repairs for mill-
may be damaged in service, necessitating repair by welding. induced discontinuities and repairs to cut edges. The general
Base metal may be damaged in service by fires, earth- base metal repair procedures are similar to those associated
quakes or other severe events; repairs for service-related with weld repairs as outlined in AWS D1.1, clause 5.25.
damage are discussed in Section 14.9 of this Guide. Repair More specialized procedures may be required for the spe-
of cut edges is a special type of base metal repair addressed cific type of damage involved.
in Section 15.2 of this Guide. Some damage need not be repaired at all. For example,
chain marks from handling the steel typically result in shal-
15.1.2 Repair of Mill-Induced Discontinuities low rounded cavities surrounded by a slight bulge in the sur-
rounding steel. As long as there are no localized nicks or
Steel products are required by ASTM A6, Section 9.1, to
cracks, and assuming no aesthetic criteria apply, such imper-
be “free of injurious defects and shall have a workmanlike
fections are normally acceptable for static service conditions.
finish” (ASTM, 2016). A note to this section explains that
Nicks, gouges and tears create stress concentrations that
“Non-injurious surface or internal imperfections, or both,
should not be ignored. Minor stress concentrations can be
may be present in the structural product as delivered and the
repaired by shallow, localized grinding. The purpose behind
structural product may require conditioning by the purchaser
the grinding is to eliminate localized notches and gouges that
to improve its appearance or in preparation for welding,
may prove problematic in the future, whether in fabrication,
coating, or other further operations.” The steel manufacturer
erection or service. The grinding should be gradually faired
is permitted to condition the steel by grinding within lim-
into the surrounding steel; AWS D1.8, clause 6.18.5.1, stipu-
its; when conditioning alone is not sufficient to meet quality
lates that for seismic projects, the slope should not exceed
standards, repairs by welding are permitted. Limits for con-
1:5 in the direction of stress, or 1:2.5 in the direction trans-
ditioning and repair by welding as performed by the steel
verse to the stress, which would be a conservative recom-
manufacturer are specified in ASTM A6, Section 9.
mendation for statically loaded applications. The removed
Separate conditioning provisions are provided for plate,
material will reduce the available cross section of the mate-
shapes and bar. Imperfections can be removed by grinding
rial; a 2% reduction in area is permitted for edge repairs in
within the limits shown in Table 15-1; within these limits,
AWS D1.1, clause 5.14.8.4, and should be generally appli-
repair welding is not required.
cable in other situations. The localized design stress on the
For defects that require deeper removal depths than those
member could be used to justify further reductions in the
shown in Table 15-1, repair by welding is permitted. The
section. Base metal repairs that can be accomplished by
total area of ground material must not exceed 2% of the total
minor amounts of metal removal are preferred over solutions
surface area of that piece. The reduction in thickness by
that necessitate welding.
grinding must not exceed 30% of the nominal thickness of
Damage that cannot be repaired by localized grinding
the material at the location of the imperfection, nor exceed
can be repaired by welding. The general process is straight-
14 in. (31 mm).
forward—remove the defective material, being careful to
The complete requirements are contained in ASTM A6,
remove the entire defect while avoiding the removal of more
Section 9.2. Table 15-1 is included for two reasons. It pro-
steel than necessary. Removal may be done by mechani-
vides reasonable limits for the repairs that should be permit-
cal means (e.g., machining, chipping or grinding) or ther-
ted to be made by the fabricator or erector who uncovers
mal means (e.g., arc gouging). The resultant cavity should
mill-induced defects that were somehow not corrected by
have a geometry conducive to quality welding; simulating a
U-groove cavity is a good practice. AWS D1.1, clause 5.25, errors made during cutting. Each is described separately in
stipulates that the welding procedure, including the preheat the following sections.
temperatures and filler metals, should be consistent with
what would be required for production welding, and quali- 15.2.2 Mill-Induced Discontinuities on Cut Edges
fied welders should be used. Inspection of the repair weld When steel is cut, internal discontinuities in the steel may be
should be consistent with the requirements for a similar pro- revealed on the cut surface. The typical feature observed will
duction weld. be a line because the cut will normally sever a planar dis-
There is no established or codified limit as to how much continuity in the steel. The topic of cut edges and how they
repair welding can be performed by a contractor on a given are to be handled is discussed in Section 9.7.2 of this Guide.
member; practical issues of economics and schedule gener- AWS D1.1, clause 5.14.5, stipulates that some of the repair
ally determine how much repair welding is too much. Prop- procedures do require the engineer’s approval.
erly made, weld metal repairs have mechanical properties Two factors should be considered when dealing with the
similar to structural steels and provide a similar level of acceptability of repairs to cut edges that exceed the limits
structural performance for statically loaded structures. The presented in AWS D1.1: the extent of the discontinuity and
repair options extended to the steel producer in ASTM A6 the direction of loading as compared to the discontinuity.
may also be considered appropriate limits for the extent of First, the extent of the discontinuity must be investigated.
repair of damaged steel that the contractor is permitted to What can be observed on the cut edge is a line, which is likely
make; however, this suggestion would require the engineer’s indicative of a planar discontinuity. Assume that the discon-
involvement and approval. tinuity is a circular, planar void in the steel with a diameter
For cyclically loaded structures, the fatigue behavior of of 1 in. (25 mm). The cut may intersect the void across the
the member repaired should be considered. A sound, ground diagonal, in which case a 1-in. (25 mm) line, is observed
flush repair weld would be expected to have a Category B along the edge. More likely, however, the cut will be away
fatigue behavior, lower than that of unwelded steel, which is from the diagonal, resulting in a smaller linear indication on
Category A. While the stress range capability is lower, most the cut. The size of the void needs to be determined. Also,
cyclically loaded structures are not limited by Category B while the cut intersected one inclusion, it is probable that
performance; this must be checked on a case-by-case basis. there are others that were not severed but are nevertheless
For structures subject to inelastic (plastic) deformations in present in the steel. Grinding of edges that revealed indica-
service, such as structures designed to resist seismic or blast tions can be used to determine the overall size/depth of the
loading, the differences in the inelastic behavior of the repair discontinuity. Ultrasonic testing can be used for this purpose
weld metal and the steel must be considered. The yield and and also to determine the presence of inclusions away from
tensile strengths of the weld metal and steel will not be cut edges. Determining the size and extent of such disconti-
identical, nor will the work hardening properties. Accord- nuities is important.
ingly, differential inelastic deformation would be expected The second consideration is the direction of loading as
and could be problematic, depending on where the repair compared to the discontinuity. Most often, the linear indi-
is located. Caution is in order when extensive base metal cation on an edge is representative of a planar discontinu-
repairs made by welding are incorporated into regions where ity that is parallel to the surface of the steel. Typically, but
plastic hinges are expected to form in seismic events. certainly not always, steel is loaded in the same direction in
which it is rolled. When this is the case, the inclusions are
15.2 REPAIRS TO CUT EDGES parallel to the direction of stress and are not likely to create
a stress raiser. The major exceptions to this trend involve
15.2.1 General welded attachments. It is routine for attachments to inter-
Repairs to cut edges may be required to fix mill-induced dis- sect steel members in an orientation that is perpendicular to
continuities that are discovered after cutting or to correct for the direction of rolling. Often times, the attachment will be
General
Butt, corner and T-joints can be joined with CJP or partial-
joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds. Two fit-up problems
may occur: butt joint alignment and groove weld joint geom-
etry issues. As to the latter, the joint geometry can be too
tight or too loose (too wide). For CJP groove welds in butt
joints, the fit of backing (if used) may be problematic when
the joint is misaligned.
For CJP groove welded joints with backing with root open-
ings greater than those allowed, but not greater than the
lesser of twice the thickness of the thinner part or w in.
(19 mm), a weld overlay (buttering) can be used to achieve
Buttering the joint: two layers applied
acceptable dimensions; this is allowed if done before the
(c)
joint is assembled according to AWS D1.1, clause 5.21.4.2.
This concept is illustrated in Figure 15-3. Buttering involves
depositing a series of weld beads on the surface (see Sec-
tion 14.16 of this Guide). Any welding process can be used,
although the welding current must typically be reduced to
avoid excessive heat buildup on the edge. The buttering is Buttering the joint: final layer applied
performed when the joint is disassembled; this permits the (d)
weld beads to shrink in an unrestrained manner and will not
add to the distortion or other shrinkage that occurs when the
joint is finally welded.
The aforementioned limits of two times the plate thick-
ness or w in. (19 mm) are rules-of-thumb incorporated into Buttering the joint: ground as needed
AWS D1.1. Except for thin members, the fixed dimension (e)
of w in. (19 mm) will normally control. A root opening of
4 in. (6 mm) with a tolerance of +4 in. (+6 mm) allows
for a 2-in. (13 mm) root opening. Once the root opening
exceeds this limit, the buttering option can be used until the
root opening exceeds w in. (19 mm). For joints fit wider
than this limit, AWS D1.1, clause 5.21.4.3, stipulates that Joint reassembled and ready for welding
the engineer’s approval is required. (f)
Extra-wide root openings will result in additional
Fig. 15-3. CJP groove weld fit-up correction by buttering.
15.8.7 Cracks
All cracks, regardless of size and orientation, are consid-
ered defects and are unacceptable according to AWS D1.1,
Table 6.1. Cracks may be contained within the weld metal,
the HAZ, or the base metal or may be in multiple regions.
The practice of rendering all cracks unacceptable is a conser-
vative position and generally reasonable, although it should
be recognized that some cracks, such as those that are paral-
lel to the direction of stress, may have no consequence on the
(d)
performance of the structure.
When repairs of major or delayed cracks are required,
Fig. 15-7. Effect of undercut.
7. Was the weld made properly, with proper procedures, 15.12.2 Extending Anchor Rods
electrodes, preheat, etc.?
When an anchor rod is set too deep, there may be an inad-
Additional caution should be given to unspecified welds equate length of thread available for proper engagement of
when the structure is subject to cyclic or seismic loading. In the nut. In extreme conditions, the end of the anchor rod may
most cases, problematic unspecified welds can be removed be below the top surface of the base plate. Possible solutions
and the localized area repaired by grinding. that involve welding are often offered, but such approaches
must be carefully evaluated.
15.11 WELDS MADE WITHOUT INSPECTION Before any work is done, the column must be stabi-
The question of how to handle welds made without inspec- lized if work is to be done with the column in place. If the
tion occurs often enough to justify the inclusion of this topic: anchor rods are too short, the column usually will need to be
If the welding on a project is complete and no inspector removed to provide access to the anchor rod extension.
was present to observe the welding process, are the welds Even when an anchor rod with good weldability is
acceptable? involved, several commonly proposed corrective concepts
Before addressing the acceptability of the welds made are problematic. For example, if the rod is very short, it may
without an inspector present, it is sufficient to conclude that be tempting to use a plug weld in the base plate to weld on to
major code and specification compliance problems have the end of the anchor rod. However, plug welds are intended
occurred when fabrication or erection has occurred without to be loaded in shear, not in tension. When there is insuf-
inspection. AWS D1.1 and the AISC Specification both con- ficient thread for full nut engagement, one may contemplate
tain quality control functions assigned to the contractor that welding the nut to the rod. Nuts are always hardened materi-
have not been fulfilled. Regardless of the reason for lack of als and typically have poor weldability (see Section 5.4.12
conformance to these standards, various questions should of this Guide). Additionally, the inside surface of the nut is
be asked: Were the welders qualified? Were WPS followed? threaded, which makes it a poor surface on which to con-
Was the proper electrode used? Was preheat applied? The sider welding.
lack of inspection may be only one of many problems. Before welding is considered, mechanical fastening
Regarding the acceptability of the welds, it must be options should be exhausted. For example, in some cases,
acknowledged that good welds can be made without inspec- it is possible to machine a recess into the top surface of the
tors present. While it is desirable for inspection of welding base plate, allowing the nut to be installed in the normal
operations to occur before, during and after welding (see manner. Where holes in the anchor plate can be enlarged, a
Section 10.2 of this Guide), the values of visual inspection coupling nut can be used to mechanically add an extra length
of completed welds should not be discounted. NDT can be of anchor rod. Another approach is to replace the existing
performed on completed welds, whether or not such welds anchor rods with new epoxy-type anchors.
were originally expected to be subject to NDT. When an anchor rod is extended by welding, and when
When welds meet all visual inspection criteria, the condi- the weldability of the anchor rod has been established, good
tions under which the welding was performed can be retro splice details must be developed. Welding small-diameter,
actively examined. Welder qualification records and WPS cylindrical parts end-to-end with the goal of achieving
can be requested. Welding equipment and consumables on full fusion is a significant challenge due to the geometry
site may provide circumstantial evidence of how the welds involved. Compounding this difficulty is the welder’s limited
were likely made. If the available evidence suggests that the access to the joint because the splice location is often only a
only infraction was the lack of an available inspector when short distance above the ground, requiring the welder to lie
the fabrication was performed, greater confidence can be prone when making the weld.
placed in the suitability of the weld. However, if each new A connection detail has been developed to address some
discovery reveals another infraction, further inspection, or of the problematic aspects associated with anchor rod exten-
weld repair or replacement may be necessary. sion (Fisher and Kloiber, 2006). The weld joint involved is
a double-sided horizontal bevel groove weld. The extension
15.12 WELDING ON ANCHOR RODS rod is prepared by applying two bevels that form a chisel-like
configuration (not a pencil point) as shown in Figure 15-8.
15.12.1 Weldability of Anchor Rods A ring or washer is made from steel with good weldability
Before any welding on anchor rods is considered, the weld- and of a sufficient thickness to prevent melt-through. The
ability of the rod must be considered (see Section 5.4.14 of top surface of the ring is positioned so that it is flush with
6. For nontubular applications, whether the structure is Acceptance criteria for welds, different from those pre-
statically or cyclically loaded scribed in AWS D1.1, are permitted to be used with the engi-
neer’s approval as stipulated in AWS D1.1, clauses 1.4.1(4),
7. All additional requirements that are not specifically
6.5.3 and 6.8. The alternate weld acceptance criteria may be
addressed in the code
either more or less rigorous as explained in Section 9.3 of
8. For original equipment manufacturers (OEM) appli- this Guide. The engineer may use past experience, experi-
cations, the responsibilities of the parties involved mental evidence or engineering analysis as the basis for the
Item 1 of the preceding list will be discussed in Section 16.5 alternate weld acceptance criteria.
of this Guide; the other items will be reviewed in this section. The proposer could be the engineer, and when this is
the case, the alternatives should be specified in the con-
16.3.1 Weld Inspection Issues tract documents. The proposer may also be the contractor,
in which case, the engineer would be called upon to evalu-
Inspection issues are primarily addressed in AWS D1.1 ate and approve the suitability of the alternate criteria. In
clause 6 and AISC Specification Chapter N. Since Chap- case of the latter, a common use of this option is to permit
ter N was first included in 2010, the role of the engineer in the acceptance of less-than-perfect welds that are neverthe-
specifying weld inspection issues has significantly changed. less expected to be acceptable for a given application. The
A brief summary of AWS D1.1 requirements and those of engineer’s challenge is to use past experience, experimental
Chapter N will be presented first, followed by a discussion evidence or engineering analysis to make certain the pro-
of how the two interact in 2016. posal is applicable to the situation at hand. Among the facts
AWS D1.1, clause 1.4.1(2), charges the engineer to specify that should be considered are the type of loading (e.g., static,
nearly all nondestructive testing (NDT) requirements. Alter- cyclic or blast), basic material type (e.g., steel versus stain-
nately stated, AWS D1.1 has nearly no NDT requirements less steel), material strength level, material thicknesses, and
and leaves it up to the engineer to specify all requirements. welding processes.
The conditional phrase of nearly as used in the previous sen-
tences is to account for a few deviations from the norm. In 16.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Toughness Criteria
terms of volumetric NDT, for cyclically loaded, transverse
tension splices, NDT is required for fatigue Category B and The engineer is to specify in the contract documents the
C details (see Section 12.5 of this Guide). In some special- Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness testing requirements
ized situations, penetrant testing (PT) or magnetic testing when required for the application as required by AWS D1.1,
(MT) inspection is required. However, the general prac- clause 1.4.1(5). Three materials are mentioned: weld metal,
tice of AWS D1.1, clause 1.4.1(3) requires the engineer to heat affected zone (HAZ), and base metal.
determine which welds receive NDT and to specify when The first decision to be made involves whether CVN tough-
verification inspection [or quality control (QC) inspection] ness requirements are necessary for the project. The topic
is required. of fracture is discussed in Chapter 13 of this Guide. While
AISC Specification Chapter N is discussed in Section 10.9 AWS D1.1 does not mandate fracture toughness require-
of this Guide. Chapter N has provided quality assurance ments for specific applications, the AISC Specification does
(QA)/QC requirements that are “…adequate and effective so for specialized situations. The AISC Seismic Provisions
for most steel structures…” Accordingly, for inspection of specify CVN toughness requirements for weld metal for
most routine buildings, the specification of the AISC Speci- certain weld types. When these standards are specified, and
fication automatically results in the specification of the NDT if no additional fracture toughness criteria are required, the
requirements of Chapter N. Similarly, for seismic appli- engineer need not specify any additional requirements.
cations, the specification of the AISC Seismic Provisions When fracture toughness levels beyond those specified in
automatically results in the specification of the NDT require- the AISC Specification or Seismic Provisions are required,
ments of Chapter J. the second decision faced by the engineer involves the nature
When either AISC Specification Chapter N or AISC Seis- of how minimum requirements will be specified in the con-
mic Provisions Chapter J is invoked, the important role of tract documents. Two approaches are permitted for weld
the engineer is to determine if the prescribed inspections are metal fracture toughness. One method is to specify that the
adequate or excessive. For the present discussion regarding filler metal be capable of delivering weld metal with speci-
the role of the engineer and the requirements of AWS D1.1, fied minimum CVN values, as required by the filler metal
T1 = T2
T2 (a)
T1
T1 < T2
T2 (b)
T1
T1 > T2
T2 (c)
Fig. 16-2. Cruciform joints using
Fig. 16-1. T-joints with TC-U4a prequalified joint details. TC-U4a prequalified joint details.
17.1 INTRODUCTION presenting these concepts in such terms runs the risk of
implying that the major cost of welding is filler metal when
When performed properly, welding is an economical tool
labor and overheat rates are invariably the largest single cost
for joining steel. Conversely, welding can be unnecessarily
factor in welding, particularly in North America. Second,
expensive when improperly applied. Economy in welding
there are specialized situations wherein a weld joint requir-
is achieved when good, efficient designs are fabricated and
ing a larger volume of weld metal can be completed more
erected using good, efficient welding procedures. Economi-
rapidly than one requiring less metal because it may be pos-
cal designs utilize grades of steel that are easy to fabricate
sible to deposit the metal at a faster rate in a joint requiring
and employ joint details and weld types that efficiently trans-
more metal.
fer the applied loads. The welded joints utilize optimized
The lowest cost weld will always be the one that is made
details, with consideration given to the location and position
only once. The cost of a weld repair is estimated to be six
in which welding will be performed. Welding procedures
to eight times greater than the initial welding cost. If a par-
that lead to economical fabrication use the best welding pro-
ticular weld design or welding procedure is marginal in its
cess for the application and deposit weld metal at a rapid
ability to consistently achieve the required quality criteria,
pace, consistent with quality requirements and adherence
necessitating ongoing weld repairs, economy can surely be
to safe work practices. Welding economy is dependent on
achieved by adopting practices to eliminate the rework.
doing the job right the first time; repairs cause costs to esca-
While the principles outlined in this chapter are generally
late exponentially.
true, there are no doubt exceptions to every example. The
Optimizing all of these factors and others that have not
conditions associated with a specific project may require
been specifically listed is a challenge. The basic principles
considering factors beyond those presented here in order to
that should be considered are summarized in the following
generate the most economical solution.
sections. This Guide is primarily directed to the engineer,
and the items covered are primarily design related. Detailers
17.2 SELECTION OF PROPER WELD TYPE
will find the information helpful as well. Many resources are
available to assist contractors in their quest for more eco-
17.2.1 CJP Groove Welds versus Alternatives
nomical welding procedures. Technological developments
in both welding consumables and machinery make yester- Complete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds are typically
day’s best practices obsolete, requiring the progressive con- the most expensive type of weld, and in general, should be
tractor to continually examine new opportunities. reserved for situations in which they are the only viable
The single largest component of cost in welding is that of option. In butt joints where the full tensile capacity of the
the skilled labor and associated overhead required to make surrounding steel must be developed, CJP groove welds are
a weld. In general terms, labor will account for 75% to 95% the only option. It is possible to replace the direct butt joint
of the cost of a weld made manually or semiautomatically. with lapped plates joined with fillet welds, but the alternative
Energy costs, filler metals and shielding materials make up configuration is generally much more expensive.
the remaining 5% to 25%. For a given weld size, economical One of the costs associated with CJP groove welds is the
welding is typically achieved when welding procedures are subsequent NDT that may be required. Not all CJP require
used that deposit the required metal in the least amount of nondestructive testing (NDT) as stipulated in AISC Specifi-
time; quality and safety must never be compromised for the cation Chapter N, although this is a common misconception.
sake of productivity. It is not unusual, however, for quality Chapter N does not, for example, mandate NDT for CJP
welds to be made in a safe manner with procedures that are groove welds loaded in shear or compression. When NDT is
twice as productive as another otherwise acceptable alterna- required, however, the inspection task itself increases costs,
tive. In general terms, a welding procedure that deposits the and any detected defects require repair welding.
required metal at a rate that is twice as fast will reduce the In corner joints, the capacity of a CJP groove weld is
welding cost by approximately 50%. seldom required because the welds in these joints are nor-
Most of the principles in this chapter are presented in mally subject to shear. If the capacity of a CJP is needed,
terms of reduced weld metal volumes, assuming that as the and if access to both sides of the joint is possible, partial-
required amount of welding goes down, so will the required joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds with fillet welds on the
time to make the weld. Two caveats must be offered: First, opposite side are typically more economical.
Fig. 17-2. Fillet and PJP groove weld throats. Fig. 17-3. Throats in skewed T-joints.
Fig. 17-4. T-joint fillet weld and PJP groove weld options. Fig. 17-5. Effect of horizontal position welding.
Fig. 17-7. Single-sided V-groove welds— Fig. 17-8. Double-sided V-groove welds—
idealized versus prequalified. idealized versus prequalified.
Fig. 17-9. Effect of thickness on single-sided V-groove welds. Fig. 17-10. Effect of thickness on double-sided V-groove welds.
and weld throat that is achieved for heavier members. As a quality requirements. Field conditions are more demanding,
result, the potential savings can be significant when thicker but both safety and quality can be achieved in the field when
members are involved (see Section 3.4.5 of this Guide). the site is properly supervised and managed. Finally, while
shop welding is generally less costly than field welding, it
17.3.8 Shop versus Field Welding does not logically follow that field welding is prohibitively
expensive. Compared to other field joining methods, weld-
Field welding is discussed in Section 14.8 of this Guide. It is
ing may prove to be the more economical alternative.
unlikely that there are any operations (drilling, bolting, sand-
blasting, painting, etc.) that are more economically done in
17.3.9 Welded versus Bolted Connections
the field versus in the shop, and welding is no different (see
Section 14.8 of this Guide). Therefore, to the greatest extent An often-repeated saying, but one without either economic
possible, welding should be performed in the shop rather or technical justification, goes like this: “Weld in the shop,
than in the field. Large or complicated connections should bolt in the field.” The relative economics should be care-
be welded in the shop, leaving the simpler connections for fully examined before mere “sayings” are used to dictate
field welding. In some situations, this may even justify the practices.
creation of an additional splice, as is done with tree-column As a general rule, the heavier the connection, the greater
connections; at the node, complicated connections are made the economic advantage associated with welding, as the fol-
in the shop, and at the ends of the tree branches, simpler lowing comparison illustrates. Consider a tensile splice of
splices are made in the field. a W14×730 rolled shape. While it is an extreme example,
Regardless of where welding is performed, it must be it illustrates the point that welding is often more desirable
done in a safe manner, and the resulting weld must meet the than bolting.
AISC DESIGN GUIDE 21 / WELDED CONNECTIONS / 297
The bolted connection requires using 128 high-strength Costs for labor and materials change, but at the time of the
bolts, connecting the 5-in. (125 mm) flanges with a 4-in. study, the welded connection cost about 80% less than the
(100 mm) plate on the outside and 3-in. (75 mm) plate on bolted alternative. The relative cost difference is not likely to
the inside, detailed to be 106 in. (2.7 m) long. The bolts were have changed if North American labor rates are used (Miller,
required to be 14 in. (360 mm) long. The welded alternative 1993). This study was accurate for the conditions studied
required the use of 70 lb (32 kg) of filler metal and, because but is not presented as representative of all welded versus
SAW was used, 140 lb (64 kg) of flux. bolted conditions. It does, however, demonstrate that simple
The total fabrication time for the bolted connection, sayings like “weld in the shop, bolt in the field” can lead to
including cutting the splice plates, drilling the holes, and significantly flawed economic decisions.
installing the bolts, was estimated at 84.3 hours. The welded This study was based on shop conditions. To estimate
alternative was estimated to require a total of 28.6 hours, field conditions, the welding labor was doubled, but the bolt-
which included the time to bevel the joints, weld the connec- ing labor maintained constant. The spread in the estimated
tion, and to remove weld tabs and backing. The bolted detail cost obviously decreased because the bolting cost didn’t
required 6,900 lb (3100 kg) of additional steel because of the increase at all, which is unlikely. Still, the field-welded con-
size of the splice plates. The cost comparison did not include nection detail showed a 25% savings over the field-bolted
the cost of NDT. alternative.
Welding is a safe operation when sufficient measures are • Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF)
taken to protect the welder from potential hazards. When • Lockout/Tagout
these measures are overlooked or ignored, welders can
encounter such dangers as electrical shock, overexposure to • California Proposition 65
arc radiation, fumes and gases, and fire and explosions, any • Fluxes for Arc Welding and Brazing: Safe Handling
of which may result in fatal injuries. and Use
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Pro- • Metal Fume Fever
cesses (AWS, 2012a), available as a free download from
AWS (www.aws.org), should be consulted for information • Arc Viewing Distance
on welding safety. A printed copy is also available for pur- • Oxyfuel Safety: Check Valves and Flashback Arrestors
chase from AWS. • Grounding of Portable and Vehicle Mounted Welding
From the AWS website, a variety of AWS Safety & Health Generators
Fact Sheets can also be downloaded. A partial list of Fact
Sheets includes the following: • Cylinders: Safe Storage, Handling and Use
• Fumes and Gases • Eye and Face Protection for Welding and Cutting
Operations
• Radiation
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for Welding and
• Noise
Cutting
• Electrical Hazards
• Ventilation for Welding and Cutting
• Fire and Explosion Prevention
• Respiratory Protection Basics for Welding Operations
• Burn Protection
• Welding Cables
• Mechanical Hazards
• Asbestos Hazards Encountered in the Welding and
• Tripping and Falling Cutting Environment
• Falling Objects • Combustible Dust Hazards in the Welding and Cut-
• Confined Spaces ting Environment
• Contact Lens Wear Safety information is also available from manufacturers
• Ergonomics in the Welding Environment of welding equipment and consumables. Warning labels on
machines and consumable packaging should be read and fol-
• Graphic Symbols for Precautionary Labels lowed. Safety data sheets (SDS), formerly known as material
• Pacemakers and Welding safety data sheets (MSDS), should also be read and followed.
D821-17