ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN TEACHER EDUCATON

DEFINITION OF ASSESSMENT

 Assessment involves the use of empirical data on student learning to refine

programs and improve student learning. (Assessing Academic Programs in Higher
Education by Allen 2004).
 Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple and
diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of what students know,
understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational
experiences; the process culminates when assessment results are used to improve
subsequent learning. (Learner centred assessment on college campuses: shifting the
focus from teaching to learning by Huba & Freed, 2000).
 Assessment is the systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and
development of students. It is the process of defining, selecting, designing,
collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and using information to increase students’
learning and development.(Assessing student learning and development: A guide
to the principles, goals and methods of determining college outcomes by Erwin
1991).
 Assessment is the systematic collection, review, and use of information about
educational programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning
and development.(Assessment essentials: Planning,implementing and improving
assessment in higher education by Polamba and Banta,1999).
 Assessment is the process of making judgement of someone or something.The
assessment is the process of collecting relevant information about performance or
progress, or to determine student interests to make judgements about their
learning process.

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS OF ASSESSMENT

Formulate statements of intended learning outcomes. This means we need to describe

what students should know, understand and be able to do their knowledge at the end of the
lesson or course. We need to carefully choose the outcomes clearly and specifically so that
we can select the best assessment method and criteria. Intended learning outcomes are
student centered statements that describe what students should be able to demonstrate,
represent, understand, know, do, etc., with the knowledge they have gained as a result of
the educational experiences they have had

Develop or select assessment measures. Collecting or gathering data is important measure

to check if our intended learning outcomes have been achieved. Include Formative and
Summative assessment.

Formative assessment is “ongoing assessment that provides information, about progress,

misunderstandings, need for clarification, and so forth” (Driscoll and Wood, 2007, p. 86)
regarding student learning.

Summative assessment is “conducted after a program has been in operation for a while, or
at its conclusion, to make judgments about its quality or worth compared to previously
defined standards for performance” (Palomba & Banta)

Direct and Indirect Direct measures of assessment allow students to demonstrate what they
know and are able to do with their knowledge. Indirect measures are based on perceived
student learning. The following table provides examples of both direct and indirect
measures. This is not intended to serve as an exhaustive list.

Direct Measures- Essay test question, Term paper ,Oral presentation/exams ,Performance
piece (e.g., musical recital), Case study analysis, Standardized test, Class project (individual
or group) ,Poster presentation ,Clinical evaluation,Portfolio

Indirect measures- Surveys (students, faculty members, internship supervisors, graduates,

employers, etc.) Focus groups, Interviews

create experiences leading to outcomes. Students need to apply the knowledge they learn.
This means that the knowledge they learn should be relevant to their learning experience to
meet the intended outcome.

Discuss and use assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Analyzing and

interpreting results gives you the action plan for program improvements. Routinely
examining the assessment process will improve teaching and learning.
ASSESSMENT CYCLE
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT
 to enable a teacher to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching program and then to make
any necessary modifications to method of delivery, learning activities or resources
 to identify any students who are having difficulties mastering the course content, and thus
need additional help
 to provide information if a student is to be transferred to another school or referred for special
education
 to be accountable to parents by providing them with evidence of their child’s learning
 to provide short term goals to students
 to clarify the intended learning outcome
 to determine the level of knowledge and understanding in students
 to diagnose the strengths and weakness of students
 to encourage students learning by measuring their achievement
 to provide information to students for overcoming learning difficulties
 to estimate the effectiveness of the instructional media used
 to help students acquire the attitudes and skills or self evaluation
 to assess the non-scholastic domains of the students personality
 to assess the students progress throughout the year
 to ascertain if the teaching strategies are effective or not
 to improve curriculum in light of recent advancements
 to satisfy the university requirements for a curriculum
 to report students progress to parents
 evaluation is carried out for general and educational research
STRATEGIES OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment strategy refers to different tools and techniques employed by the instructor to
evaluate their students. This reflects how the process of assessment is indeed an important
one. Assessment strategies refer to ways in which an instructor, such as a classroom teacher
or trainer at a business, can evaluate how well students are learning materials presented to
them. Many different types of assessment strategies have been developed and used by
various educators, and most teachers find methods of assessment that work best for them.

1. An open-ended question that gets them writing/talking

Avoid yes/no questions and phrases like “Does this make sense?” In response to these
questions, students usually answer ‘yes.’ So, of course, it’s surprising when several
students later admit that they’re lost.

To help students grasp ideas in class, ask open-ended questions that require students
that get students writing/talking. They will undoubtedly reveal more than you would’ve
thought to ask directly.

2. Ask students to reflect

During the last five minutes of class ask students to reflect on the lesson and write down
what they’ve learned. Then, ask them to consider how they would apply this concept or
skill in a practical setting. Exit tickets using tools like Loop make this easy to administer
and review student answers.

3. Use quizzes

Give a short quiz at the end of class to check for comprehension.

4. Ask students to summarize

Have students summarize or paraphrase important concepts and lessons. This can be
done orally, visually, or otherwise.

5. Hand signals

Hand signals can be used to rate or indicate students’ understanding of content.

Students can show anywhere from five fingers to signal maximum understanding to one
finger to signal minimal understanding. This strategy requires engagement by all
students and allows the teacher to check for understanding within a large group.
6. Response cards

Index cards, signs, whiteboards, magnetic boards, or other items are simultaneously held
up by all students in class to indicate their response to a question or problem presented
by the teacher. Using response devices, the teacher can easily note the responses of
individual students while teaching the whole group.

7. Four corners

A quick and easy snapshot of student understanding, Four Corners provides an

opportunity for student movement while permitting the teacher to monitor and assess
understanding.

The teacher poses a question or makes a statement. Students then move to the
appropriate corner of the classroom to indicate their response to the prompt. For
example, the corner choices might include “I strongly agree,” “I strongly disagree,” “I
agree somewhat,” and “I’m not sure.”

8. Think-pair-share

Students take a few minutes to think about the question or prompt. Next, they pair with
a designated partner to compare thoughts before sharing with the whole class.

9. Choral reading

Students mark text to identify a particular concept and chime in, reading the marked text
aloud in unison with the teacher. This strategy helps students develop fluency;
differentiate between the reading of statements and questions; and practice phrasing,
pacing, and reading dialogue.

10. One question quiz

Ask a single focused question with a specific goal that can be answered within a minute
or two. You can quickly scan the written responses to assess student understanding.

11. Socratic seminar

Students ask questions of one another about an essential question, topic, or selected
text. The questions initiate a conversation that continues with a series of responses and
additional questions. Students learn to formulate questions that address issues to
facilitate their own discussion and arrive at a new understanding.
12. 3-2-1

Students consider what they have learned by responding to the following prompt at the
end of the lesson: 3) things they learned from your lesson; 2) things they want to know
more about; and 1) questions they have. The prompt stimulates student reflection on
the lesson and helps to process the learning.

13. Ticket out the door

Students write in response to a specific prompt for a short period of time. Teachers
collect their responses as a “ticket out the door” to check for students’ understanding of
a concept taught. This exercise quickly generates multiple ideas that could be turned
into longer pieces of writing at a later time.

14. Journal reflections

Students write their reflections on a lesson, such as what they learned, what caused them
difficulty, strategies they found helpful, or other lesson-related topics. Students can
reflect on and process lessons. By reading student work–especially —types of learning
journals that help students think—teachers can identify class and individual
misconceptions and successes. (See also

15. Formative pencil–paper assessment

Students respond individually to short, pencil–paper formative assessments of skills and

knowledge taught in the lesson. Teachers may elect to have students self-correct. The
teacher collects assessment results to monitor individual student progress and to inform
future instruction.

Both student and teacher can quickly assess whether the student acquired the intended
knowledge and skills. This is a formative assessment, so a grade is not the intended
purpose.

16. Misconception check

Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a concept you’re

covering. Ask them whether they agree or disagree and to explain why.

7. Analogy prompt

Teaching with analogies can be powerful. Periodically, present students with an

analogy prompt: “the concept being covered is like ____ because ____.”
18. Practice frequency

Check for understanding at least three times a lesson, minimum.

19. Use variety

Teachers should use enough different individual and whole group techniques to check
understanding that they accurately know what all students know. More than likely, this
means during a single class the same technique should not be repeated.

20. Make it useful

The true test is whether or not you can adjust your course or continue as planned based
on the information received in each check. Do you need to stop and start over? Pull a
few students aside for three minutes to re-teach? Or move on?

21. Peer instruction

Perhaps the most accurate way to check for understanding is to have one student try
to teach another student what she’s learned. If she can do that successfully, it’s clear she
understood your lesson.

22. “Separate what you do and don’t understand”

Whether making a t-chart, drawing a concept map, or using some other means, have the
students not simply list what they think they know, but what they don’t know as well.
This won’t be as simple as it sounds–we’re usually not aware of what we don’t know.

They’ll also often know more or less than they can identify themselves, which makes this
strategy a bit crude. But that’s okay–the goal isn’t for them to be precise and complete in
their self-evaluation the goal is for you to gain insight as to what they do and don’t
know.

And seeing what they can even begin to articulate on their own is an excellent starting
point here.
INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Internal assessment is the process in which the teachers and schools judge the students’
performance on the basis of his performance. Also, this process does not involve any
outside person for assessment. Internal assessment is continuous, periodic and internal, in
which assessment is done in relation to certain abilities and skills of the students
periodically and continuously. Internal assessment has to be planned at the time of
curriculum development and syllabus interpretation. Internal assessment will be assessed
by the teacher/instructor of the college or school and no external teacher or instructor
involved in this. Internal assessment demands the out come of students than the abilities
and skills of the students.The main purpose of introducing internal assessment is to
integrate teaching and evaluation and to test the skills and abilities which can not be
tested through written examination.

Need for internal assessment

 Helpful for the student to assess their qualitative and quantitative evaluation.
 Teacher may use different method of teaching – learning process.
 Internal assessment improves the teaching learning process,
 It gives a comprehensive The objectives of affective domain(attitude, interest, and
appreciation)and its technique can be assessed by internal assessment.
 Internal assessment motivate the students to study.
 Diagnostic and remedial teaching are possible and more scientific.

 Internal assessment motivate the student to give more weight age to the annual
examination of the students learning
 To evaluate the Mental Nourishment of students.
 To estimate the student’s educational progress, speed of achieving and ability of
learning.
 Internal assessment create the competing environment, which make pleasant
effects over the educational achievements.
 Students and teacher both know the status of each student, who is leading and who
is lagging and how much.
 Teacher evaluate his progress and his teaching methods and try to over came his
weakness.
 It evaluate the particular curriculum for a particular class.
  Parents of the students are informed about the progress of students so that they
can care for their children.
 Teacher can group the students according to Ability, Hardwork, Intelligence on the
basis of the result and make arrangements for weak students’ betterment.
 Result of these test work as motive for further study and encourage or admonish the
students accordingly.
 It fulfills the objective of learning and retaining it for along time.
 Teacher knows the hidden abilities, capabilities, desires and interests of the
students, and became able to guide them accordingly on the basis of there.
 Significance

 Internal assessment should be

1. Comprehensive (eg) academic achievement personality traits achievement

objects.(cognitive affective and psychomotor)

2. Follow the Education Commission Recommendation (1964-66)

3. Built in to the total educational program and should be used for improvement
rather than certifying the leve

4. Not to follow scoring procedure (some of the items needs description)

5.Keep separate record, not to be combined with other records.

6. Help the student in changing their attitudes towards the day-to day program and
supplement the final examination

7. Very objective, unbiased on all the items - unit test-oral test- practical test- home
work- class work- observational scale- participation in social and cultural- group
activities etcl of student.

COMPONENTS

Items to be observed. • Periodic test (unit test/term test) • Oral test • Laboratory
work • Terms paper(written) • Study habits • Participation • Co-curricular activities •
Personality tests • Visits Assessment of personality traits • Traits, co operation,
initiation, honest, leadership, fellowship, perseverance, confidence etc

MERITS

 This is logical and psychological

 Proper study habits are likely to be developed.
 Students will be more regular, alert, sincere in their study.
 Last hours preparation will be reduced.
 Students will pay equal attention to all the activities
 Helps the students to minimize their anxiety and nervous
 Gives comprehensive picture to the teacher.
 It is a good device for motivating.
  It helps to diagnose the weakness and strength of the student.
 It brings changes in their attitude, interest, and appreciation.
 Gives ample opportunity to assess the student.”The teacher who teaches should
assess.”
 Parents feel more comfortable in knowing about their children.breakdown .
 Covers more aspects of student development than does the external examination
 Provides satisfaction of decision making on students progress
 Brings about a change in the attitude,interests, and appreciation of students and
teachers towards educational programs
 Enables teachers to provide Periodical educational guidance to students

DEMERITS

1. It may be misused by teacher

2. It can cause a great harm in the hands of an Inexperienced, insincere, inefficient
and dishonest teacher.
3. It lose it validity if a teacher shows favouritism personal prejudices and subjectivity
in assessment.

4. Every teacher is not competent to construct and use these techniques of

evaluation.
5. Internal assessment tends to lead to indiscreet comparison of students.
6. It is not possible to apply internal evaluation in respect of thousands of private
candidates.
7. Teacher can yield to local pressures.
8. Grades will vary from school and will not have uniform significance.
9. Pupils and their parents have lessor faith in internal evaluation.
10. Teachers having freedom of evaluating their own students, may tend to be lax in
covering the prescribed syllabus.
11. Raise the problem of private appearance for examinations
12. Assessment of a large number of students by individual teacher
13. Develop a sense of perpetual enemity between the teacher and the taught
14. Lack of objectivity

EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT
A process and method of assessment developed and used by an examination body or agency other
than the learner’s school. This process commonly involves standardized testing, and often serves to
grade candidates for further educational opportunities and/or for certification purposes.

Process of External Assessment Conduct

(i)                 Selection of paper setters and reviewers.

(ii)               Setting and moderation of question papers.

(iii)             Printing and packing of question papers confidential nature of printing work.

(iv)             Selection of examination centres

(v)               Appointment of superintendents and invigilators and staff for the fair conduct
of examination at centres.

(vi)             Supply of stationary to centres.

(vii)           Distribution of question papers to examinees under the supervision of  the
centre superintendent.

(viii)         Posting of police personnel at the centres.

(ix)             Packing of answer scripts and sending them to Board’s office or examining
body’s office.

(x)               Deployment of special squads for checking unfair means.

(xi)             Assignment of fake of fictitious or secret roll numbers to answer books at the
Board’s office.

(xii)           On the spot evaluation at some specified centres where head examiner and
examiners mark the scripts.

Importance & Objectives of External Assessment:

Following

(i)                 Degree/Certificate

(ii)               A standard

(iii)             To make distinguish

(iv)             Comparison of abilities.

(v)               To evaluate the progress of Institution

(vi)             Selection for Higher education

(vii)           To get employment

(viii)         Popularity/Standard of educational institution.

(ix)             Selection of intelligent students.

(x)               Competition.

(xi)             Evaluation of teacher’s performance

(xii)           Evaluation of objectives and curriculum.

(xiii)         Creation of good habits in students

(xiv)         Satisfaction and happiness of parents

De-Merits of External Assessment

(i)                 Use of unfair means in the examination hall.

(ii)               Just pass the exam/toget degree

(iii)             Partial curriculum is covered

(iv)             In complete evaluation of personality.

(v)               Un reliable results.

(vi)             Use of helping books & guess papers.

(vii)           Chance/Luck

(viii)         Corruption

(ix)             Exams without specific objectives.

(x)               Negative effect/Impact on the students.

(xi)             No attention over research.

(xii)           It is time consuming.

(xiii)         Pet questions are respected

(xiv)          Standards vary from Board to Board and University in the same year.

(xv)           Marking is not up to the standard.

Suggestions for Improvement:

(i)                 Comprehensive Evaluation

(ii)               Employees of examining bodies to be controlled.

(iii)             Invigilating staff.

(iv)             Secrecy sections should be fool proof.

(v)               Appointment of Examiners

(vi)             Change in examination point of view, It should not be objective, It should be

mean to achieve objectives.

(vii)           Reform in question papers.

(viii)         Marking of Answer Scripts.

(ix)             Ban on helping books and guess papers.

(x)               Amalgamation of Internal and External exam.

(xi)             Oral test should be taken.

(xii)           Amalgamation of subjective and objective type test.

(xiii)         Record of students.

(xiv)         Question paper should be based on curriculum rather than text book.

In-spite of these flaws both are necessary for the betterment of education system.
Internal assessment prepares the students for external Assessment. Therefore we can’t
avoid any one. But we have to replace/remove the negative points from these to make
more effective to these systems.

PROCESS OF EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT CONDUCT

 Selection of paper setters and reviewers.

 Setting and moderation of question papers.
 Printing and packing of question papers confidential nature of printing work.
 Selection of examination centers
 Appointment of superintendents and invigilators and staff for the fair conduct of examination
at centers.
 Supply of stationary to centers.
 Distribution of question papers to examinees under the supervision of the centre
superintendent. Posting of police personnel at the centers.
 Packing of answer scripts and sending them to Board’s office or examining body’s office.
 Deployment of special squads for checking unfair means.
 Assignment of fake of fictitious or secret roll numbers to answer books at the Board’s office.
  On the spot evaluation at some specified centers where head examiner and examiners mark
the scripts.
IMPORTANCE & OBJECTIVES OF EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT
 To award the students with Degree/Certificate
 To maintain standard of education
 To place the students in merit.
 For Comparison of student’s abilities
 To evaluate the progress of Institution
 Selection for Higher education
 To get employment
 popularity/Standard of educational institution.
 Selection of intelligent students.
 Evaluation of teacher’s performance
 Evaluation of objectives and curriculum.
 Creation of good habits in students
 Satisfaction and happiness of parents

ADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT

1. External assessment helps in developing competent person from practicing.
2. It justifies the decision as to whether they should move up to the next class or be awarded a degree
or diploma.
3. External assessment is useful in determining the abilities of a student before developing a plan.
4. External assessment is designed to detect and locate faults and problems which often are overseen
by internal systems.
5. The vital advantage of an external assessment is that it makes easier to compare diverse situation
and conditions and articulate their judgments about the equality of measures.
6. It also assists in following positive values.
7. A team of experienced assessors leads you through the structured review of how well students are
doing, bringing fresh perspective and objectivity to the exercise.
8. Performance in educational institutes is increasingly judged on the basis of effective learning
outcomes.
9. External assessment provides Information which is critical to know whether the School system is
delivering good performance and to providing feedback for improvement in student outcomes.
10. External assessment is the best way to evaluate and revaluate the course of studies.
11. It can be used as a good device for motivating students.
12. It brings about a change in the attitude, interests and appreciation of students and teachers
towards school programmes.
DISADVANTAGES OF EXTERNAL ASSESSMENT
1. Much narrower range of assessment opportunities: less diverse assessment; one exam per year.
2. Removes assessment entirely from teaching and learning; stressful conditions may lead to students
not demonstrating real capacities.
3. Limits validity by limiting scope of assessment, e.g. difficult to assess interaction skills in exam
environment.
4. Even with double marking, examiner’s judgments can be affected by various factors (task difficulty,
topic, interest level, tiredness, etc); little opportunity for assessor reflection / review.
5. Fairness can only be achieved by treating everyone the same, i.e. setting the same task at the same
time for all students.
6. The only feedback is usually a grade at the end of the course; no opportunities for interaction with
assessor; no chance to ask how to improve.
7. Examination is purely summative, and does not serve any teaching-related purpose; effects on
teaching and learning may even be negative; may encourage teaching to the test and a focus on exam
technique, rather than outcomes.
8. Teachers play little to no role in assessment of their students and have no opportunity to share their
expertise or knowledge of their students; students treated as numbers.
9. Teachers have no opportunity to build their assessment skills; get little or no feedback on how to
improve as teachers.

PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT

THEORY AND PRACTICE GAP IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION

Overcoming the perceived gap between theory and practice in pre-service professional
education has been attempted by many (Westbury et al. 2005). Today, the dominating view is
that theory and practice should be integrated (Leinhardt et al. 1995). Reflection is often
viewed as the proper way to achieve this integration. Several models of professional
education stress the continuing cycle of interplay between theory, practice and reflection as
the way to engender changes in students’ attitudes and practices (Hill 2000). Among the
alternatives to the naïve ‘application-of-theory’ model of the first part of Twentieth Century
is the ‘constructivist approach’ (Kroll 2004) that encourages students to develop grounded
theories based on information gathered from the world of practice (Carlson 1999). Another
influential new model of professional education is the ‘realistic approach’, which directs the
‘theory’ towards the largest challenges of professional practice (Korthagen & Kessel 1999,
Korthagen 2001). Some of the new approaches have a scientifically documented effect on the
competencies of newly educated professionals (e.g. Korthagen 2001). Therefore, it is the
hypothesis behind this project that it is possible to bridge the gap between theory and practice
in professional education programmes and that this bridging will increase the desirability and
quality of the programmes. The existing theory-practice problems are known to have negative
effects on the retention rate of the programmes (Jensen 2006), and therefore another
hypothesis behind this project is that desirability and retention can be increased by bridging
the gap between theory and practice. High retention rates and positive evaluations by students
and lecturers can be viewed as indicators of a fruitful theorypractice relation. 3 The basic
hypothesis of the project is: • Problems concerning the relationship between theory and
practice are important causes of the relatively low number of applicants and the relatively low
retention rate in Danish professional education programs. The attractiveness and the retention
rate can be increased by developing a more fruitful relation between theory and practice.
Further, we base the project on the following assumptions based on Danish and international
research: Students' preconditions influence the extent to which they experience a fruitful
relation between theory and practice. Students, who are motivated by the discipline they need
to learn and the professions they are going to hold in their choice of education, have a higher
statistical likelihood to make a fruitful relation between the theory they learn at college and
the practices they face in the workplace. Students, who have worked as teachers, nurses or the
like, find it easier to bridge the gap between the theories they learn at college and the practice
of the workplace. Students with good literacy skills more easily create a link between theory
and practice. Organisation of teaching influences to what extent a constructive interaction
between theory and practice is generated. The following factors are important: Opportunities
for students to acquire embodied professional competences through participation in social
communities, both at the college and in the workplace; opportunities to involve students'
workplace experiences in the teaching at college; opportunities to develop an understanding
of what is currently needed to perform as e.g. a teacher, a nurse or a kindergarten teacher.
Organisation of professional education programme influences the interaction between theory
and practice. Cooperation between universities, university colleges and workplaces is
required for development of new courses and new ways of teaching. Such cooperation will
also resolve problems of 'translation' from the scientific world to the university colleges'
teaching and to the practice in the workplaces. Reflective dialogue between students,
supervisors and lecturers will give rise to a fruitful relation between theory and practice, and
will in this way support the students' acquisition of adequate knowledge. Relations between
body, space and artefacts are different at colleges and workplaces, respectively. Insight into
these relations' importance may give rise to a more productive interaction between theory and
practice. Constructive and lasting changes require that we create cultural and organisational
conditions that support these changes.

Theory-practice gap: a general overview

Across professions, theory-practice gap is not a new phenomenon all over the world (see also
Rolfe, 1992). For example, Normand and Pereiro, (2009) contend that most academics their
practices are not linked to theories. This is a problem with a long standing history, and its
improvement has been so gradual (Mallonee, Fowler & Istre, 2006). A number of studies
have been conducted to establish the nature of and how to address the problem. For example,
regarding nature of the problem Kislov (2014) mentions translation of innovation gap and
knowledge gap as a source of the theory-practice gap in healthcare. The scholar identifies two
knowledge, know that and know-how. That is one may possess “know that” knowledge and
lack the “know-how” knowledge, thus, leading to theory-practice gap. Similarly, scholars
(Benbarat & Zmud in Fitzgerald, 2003) assert that well over 80% of studies on management
are not relevant (see also DeAngelis, 2010). For that reason, this fuels that theory-practice
incompatibility in a field practice. Accordingly, academics have no point they make, but
rather unnecessarily use of impressive language, which means the practitioners may therefore
ignore their studies, and create a room for theory-practice gap. Moreover, scholars (Haines,
Kuruvilla & Borchert, 2004) spell out that the uptake of research findings lags behind
because of lack of ways to make researchers, policy makers and practitioners communicate
effectively. Mallonee, Fowler and Istre (2006) add that theory-practice gap results from
communication loop between researchers and practitioners and, lack of awareness of the
public and support i.e. financial or political. Clearly, there are instances whereby new
knowledge is mainstreamed in the context where practice cannot be successful (new
knowledge in traditional context) (see Cheraghi, Salsali & Safari, 2010). This implies there
are occasions whereby the setting is too traditional to apply new knowledge in a particular
profession.

Theory-practice gap in the teaching profession: an overview of causes

On the part of the teaching profession, the situation is no different. That is the profession is
not immune from the problem. For example, Delanoy in schulze (2009) report that student-
teachers when they go to the field they are told to forget everything they have been taught at
the university, and they usually complain that field is the most difficult part of the training
process. This is because they feel that they are not qualified to do their job. These student-
teacher complaints are associated with short teaching practice and mismatch between what is
taught at the university and what they ought to do during their practical training (EOCD in
Gieβler 2009). According Peercy (2012), the theory-practice gap in the teaching profession
linked to varied understanding of teacher education among teachers. Further, Perrenoud in
Normand & Pereiro (2009) proclaim that while doctors and engineers prefer integrating
theory and practice this is a rare phenomenon in the process of teacher preparation in
university curricula. Some researchers claim that in-school training may not be an effective
way of integrating theory and practice (Gieβler 2009). To add, scholars (Harsch & Schroder,
2009) report that teacher more often than not do not use research based language proficiency
tests because they are not trained in and thus their assessment is based on teacher’s norms. In
another case, Hutterlis & Prusse, (2009) point out that teacher’s inadequate information about
educational reforms makes him or her reject adopting some of instruments during uptake of
educational innovations. This is because the innovations are mainstreamed without enough
support from the responsible individuals and/or organs. Moreover, the theory-practice gap is
revealed when student teachers complain that they cannot translate theory into practice which
is attributable to failure of teacher educators to integrate theory and practice in a proper and
meaningful way in curricula (Wren & Wren, 2009). This means subject matter knowledge
must not be independent from practice (Dewey in Wren & Wren, 2009). Correspondingly,
Berger (2009) claims that the studies are not relevant in the classroom context, which means
they are not willing to us them. In the long run, this leads to theory-practice gap.

Theory-practice gap in the teaching profession: Focus on effects

 In the light of the theory-practice gap in teacher preparation, it is easy to see that curriculum
as a vehicle of needs of society as it carries them through schooling may not be able to
change the life of respective society when it is not effectively implemented (Beyers, 2009).
Given this fact, a nation may not be able to create a kind of society it wants through
education (Lee, 2012). Another effect, as has been noted, in the context of teacher
preparation, it results in incompetent teachers who cannot professionally execute their day to
day responsibilities effectively (wren & wren, 2009; Schulze, 2009). In other words, learning
is not likely to take place because it happens either when there is practice of knowledge in
really life situations or through simulated experience (Shulnk in Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
Moreover, less informed educational innovations among teachers results in instructor
frustration in teaching (Hutterlis & Prusse, 2009). Most importantly, theories explain how
people learn, and therefore, they guide the choice of teaching strategies and techniques
teachers use during teaching (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). Given this assertion, one can correctly
assert that without theories teachers may not be able to choose effective teaching strategies
and techniques. In brief, practice without research-based theories in the teaching profession
may culminate in the above highlighted negative effects.

Theory practice gap: Focus on solutions

Given the likely effects from theory-practice gap, a number of scholars have come up with a
several practical solutions to hold the situation in control. For example, Fook (n.d) establishes
that in order to bridge the theorypractice gap one has to scrutinise his or her practice in a
profession on the basis of assumptions behind it. Similarly, Rolfe (1992) avers that
practitioners should consider the relationship between practice and theory. Moreover, practice
should derive theory which ultimately informs practice (Rolfe, 1992). To add, Nutley, Walter
& Davis (2002) add that practitioners should provide evidence informing practice in
professions. Indeed, this implies that the actions by practitioners should be well informed by
theories in conscience, and that the practitioners are in a good position of developing relevant
and workable theories because from practice theories are to be derived. Again, Harsch &
Schroder (2009) suggest that bridging the gap between theory and practice teachers, schools,
education policy makers and other relevant government organs need to work in synergy.
Indeed, some scholars (like Fitzgerald, 2003) are very aware of the practical solutions which
could bridge the gap between theory and practice in professions. What is more, Berger (2009)
suggests the use of legal framework and recommended policies.

Theory-practice gap in teacher education in Tanzania:

For example, in Tanzania, the theory-practice gap in education is obvious. This is particularly
the case in implementing educational innovations. Particular cases can be cited to establish
existence of theory-practice gap in implementing educational innovations in teacher
education in the country. As such, studies have established that the majority of teachers,
about 73% to 82% do not teach using competence-based curriculum despite it being adopted
in secondary schools since 2005 and in 2009 in teacher colleges (Komba & Mwandanji,
2015; Paulo & Tilya, 2014; Muneja, 2015; Makunja, 2015). Additionally, Pascal (2014)
comparing teachers trained under the competence-based and Knowledge-based curriculum
differed in other aspects, but they both lacked ethical competence in that they had amorous
relationship with their female students. Moreover, one scholar (Kinyaduka, 2012; Kinyaduka,
2013) establishes that teacher educators who taught work skills in teacher colleges were not
trained to teach the subject, and teachers who were taught how to teach the subject during
their teacher training programme were not satisfied with the quality of teaching offered in
teacher colleges. This is because they lacked foundational competence and practical
competence. Without reservation, such teachers may not be able to link theory and practice.
So Tanzania like other countries in Europe and elsewhere in the globe is not immune from
the theory-practice gap, specifically in the teaching profession. To summarise, theory-
practice gap is not a new phenomenon, and a lot has been documented on causes, effects and
practical solutions. Despite the documentation, there has been little improvement on
professional practices. As such, the question that arises is: How best can we really do away
the persistent theory-practice gap in professions amid well documented causes, effects and
practical solutions of the same? Why the theory-practice gap is persistent despite the existent
of plethora of literature on its nature, effects and practical solutions? What could be a lasting
solution(s) for theorypractice gap menace in the teaching profession?

CONCLUSION AND FIGURE ATTACHMENT

RUBRICS FOR EVALUATION

A rubric is a learning and assessment tool that articulates the expectations for
assignments and performance tasks by listing criteria, and for each criteria,
describing levels of quality (Andrade, 2000; Arter & Chappuis, 2007; Stiggins, 2001).
Rubrics contain four essential features (Stevens & Levi, 2013):

(1) a task description or a descriptive title of the task students are expected to

produce or perform;
(2) a scale (and scoring) that describes the level of mastery (e.g., exceed
expectation, meets expectation, doesn't meet expectation); 
(3) components/dimensions students are to attend to in completing the
assignment/tasks (e.g., types of skills, knowledge, etc.); and 
(4) description of the performance quality (performance descriptor) of the
components/dimensions at each level of mastery. 
A description of performance quality give students a clear idea about what must be
done to demonstrate a certain level of mastery, understanding, or proficiency (i.e.,
"excellent" does xyz, "fair" does only xy or yz, "poor" does only x or y or z). Rubrics
can be used for any assignment in a course, or for any way in which you ask
students to demonstrate what they've learned. They can also be used to facilitate
self and peer-reviews of student work.

A rubric can be analytic or holistic. An analytic rubric articulates different

dimensions of performance and provides ratings for each dimension. A holistic
rubric describes the overall characteristics of a performnace and provides a single
score. Here are some pros and cons: 
2. Why You Should Consider Rubrics
Rubrics help instructors:

 Provide students with feedback that is clear, directed and focused on ways to
improve learning.
 Demystify assignment expectations so students can focus on the work
instead of guessing "what the teacher wants."
 Adapt your approach to teaching aspects of a course based on thematic gaps
in student learning that are easily identified by reviewing rubrics across a
class.
 Develop consistency in how you evaluate student learning across students
and throughout a class.
 Reduce time spent on grading; Increase time spent on teaching.

Rubrics help students:

 Focus their efforts on completing assignments in line with clearly set

expectations.
 Self and Peer-reflect on their learning, making informed changes to achieve
the desired learning level.
APPLYING RUBRICS

Educators today use rubric to refer to a category of behavior that can be used to evaluate
performance. The term is currently so popular that no one writing a funding proposal would
ignore laying out the rubric for evaluating the program’s success. Today’s rubrics involve
creating a standard and a descriptive statement that illustrates how the standard is to be
achieved. For example, a rubric for judging an essay would list everything a student needs to
include to receive a certain grade on that essay. Generally, the rubric also would specify what
is needed to achieve different levels of performance, such as what is needed for an A, a B,
etc.

In addition to helping students know what they need to do to achieve a certain grade, rubrics
have other benefits:

1. A rubric can help teachers think carefully and critically about what they are teaching and
what students need to learn. The rubric is a predetermined set of categories. Whatever the
subject or project for which it’s used, a rubric will help teachers consider what’s important
for them to teach and how to determine the level at which students have learned what’s been
taught.

2. Rubrics can make the expectations and standards for performance clear to students,
parents, teachers, educators, and others. Using rubrics forces educators to spell out what
they’re teaching and the standards they’ll use to grade students’ performances. Sharing the
rubric with students and parents allows them to see just what is expected of them.

3. Rubrics provide opportunities for reflection, feedback, and continued learning. Using
rubrics in education may be a clear sign of real progress both in constructing students’
assignments and tests and in assessing their quality. Before using rubrics, tests consisted
primarily of short-answer, multiple-choice, and fill-in-the-blank questions. When essays were
assigned, the students and the teacher didn’t have a common set of criteria for determining
the quality of the work.

 Set clear guidelines and targets for the classroom. This in turn will help to reduce
time and energy spent on creating and tracking learning outcomes. Instead, you
will be able to focus more on achieving them.
 Provide meaningful feedback that is clear, directed, and focused on ways to
improve learning.

 Simplify outcomes and goals so teachers can focus on the work with better insights
instead of guessing “what the classroom needs.”
  Adapt the teacher’s approach to the core learning principles of a course. It also
helps to identify any missing links in student engagement and learning behaviors
that shall be easily identified by drawing insights from rubrics of a batch/class.
 Develop consistency in how you evaluate learning outcomes and improve quality
in teaching process.
Rubrics also helps students to have a better understanding of the course and assignments.
So they will be able to contribute in a more meaningful manner. Since there are a clear set of
criteria that the entire learning process is based on, it will help students to understand and
appreciate various teaching methods, and offer better insights and useful feedback that the
teacher can use in their advantage.

Unfortunately, using rubrics also has its pitfalls.

1. Rubrics can still be subjective. This is especially true when rubrics are used to convert lists
of qualitative terms, each critical and independent, into a set of scores that can be summed,
averaged, and transformed into a grade.

2. Rubrics can make more work. Creating and using rubrics can be particularly burdensome
for teachers who already feel overwhelmed.

3. Rubrics may restrict education. Both poorly designed rubrics and highly prescriptive ones
can stifle students’ creativity as teachers measure student work strictly by the rubric. Rubrics
can become the overbearing framework that shapes student work, forcing everyone to look at
problems and solutions in the same way, thus discouraging new ideas and approaches.
Creative students — those thinking “outside the box” and beyond the rubric — will be
penalized

MAKING THE MOST OF RUBRICS

Despite all of their problems, using rubrics is a major step forward in education. School
leaders need to provide the time and training to help all teachers understand the purpose of
rubrics and their relationship to quality teaching and learning, as well as how to design and
use rubrics. School leaders, curriculum directors, and instructional coaches need to provide
exemplars so they can be reviewed, analyzed, and discussed at various faculty gatherings to
help create a shared level of expectation. Educators must communicate with and educate
other stakeholders about the purpose and value of rubrics in guiding student work. Parents,
business and community, and other stakeholders should understand that, while rubrics may
never replace letter and numeric grades, they do reveal considerably more about what
students know and can do. In these days of national standards and accountability, teachers
need to ensure their students meet certain criteria. The rubric can be used as the basic
architecture for courses, assignments, and assessments to ensure that all students reach
proficiency.
Classification

 Holistic rubric
Since this is a one-dimensional assessment scale, all the evaluation
criteria are considered together. With a holistic rubric, the teacher
assigns a single score based on an overall judgment of the
student’s work. Holistic rubrics works well when there is no one
correct answer or response for a criterion and the focus is on
overall quality, proficiency, or understanding of a specific
assessment metrics.

During assessment, teacher matches the student’s work as a

whole to a single criterion in the scale. However, an argument can
be made that this type does not leave room for detailed feedback
on student work based on multiple checkpoints or particular
features of quality.
Here’s a generic model of a holistic rubric in action.

 Analytic rubric
This type of rubric is two dimensional. It’s like a grid where criteria
are listed as columns and levels of achievement are featured in
rows. This type of rubric is particularly helpful for assessing
problem solving or application of information in various fields. The
teacher assigns points for each criterion. If you want to gather
insights on areas of strengths and weaknesses, this method is
perfect. However, it takes more time to develop analytic model
rubrics than a holistic model of rubric.

The analytic model also contain descriptions of what each criteria

looks like for each level of performance. Each of the criteria is
scored individually when scoring with an analytic rubric. You can
assign different values to different criteria and conclude to the
overall achievement score by adding up achievements of various
criteria.

Here’s how analytic rubric looks like for multiple criteria

 Checklist rubric
Checklist is a distinct type of rubric that uses only two levels of
assessment. As the name suggests, checklist rubric is a plain
“Yes/No” or “Achieved/Not-Achieved” model. We use the checklist
rubrics model to measure sub-criteria and quantitative analysis.
For this very same reason, checklist model is longer than other
kinds.

Checklists are easy to use and quicker to analyse. Using checklists

also helps in reaching more consistent grading decisions over
multiple times. For instance, all teachers know what the top
performances look like and what the poor performances look like.
But the middle is always unclear

Here’s a basic checklist rubric for your reference.

The important thing to keep in mind is that each of these rubrics

can be even classified and divided to suit your unique needs and
requirements. No two classrooms are alike, and no two students
are similar. As a teacher, you need to adapt to the learning trends
and revise your strategies every now and then to keep improving.

Advantages of Rubric

•Helps the grading process become more efficient

•Helps faculty grade/score more accurately, fairly and reliably

•Requires faculty to set and define more precisely the criteria used in the grading
process

•Supports uniform and standardized grading processes among different faculty

members

•Clarifies quality expectations to students about their assignments

•Students are able to self-assess their own work prior to submitting it

•Students can understand better the rationale and the reason for grades

•Helps communicating grade between faculty and students

•Helps improve student performance, because they know what to focus on

Possible Disadvantages of Rubrics

•Development of rubrics can be complex and time-consuming

•Using the correct language to express performance expectation can be difficult

•Defining the correct set of criteria to define performance can be complex

•Rubrics might need to be continuously revised before it can actually be usable in an

easy fashion

PROBLEMS OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment Challenges for Teachers in School Education : Student

assessment is a critical aspect of the teaching and learning process. It
enables teachers to measure the effectiveness of teaching with student
performance to specific learning objectives. It is important to assess the
performance because it provides feedback to what extent students are
successfully meeting the course objectives. Here would discuss the
assessment challenges for teachers, the opportunities and evaluation for
these assessments.
The assessment process encourages teachers and curriculum planners
to think like an assessor before designing specific chapters. It not only
enables teachers to measure the effectiveness of their teaching process
but also enhances teaching pedagogy in the classroom.

Challenges in Assessment Process

The assessment system is facing many challenges that need to be
understood and addressed for better learning outcomes. The challenges
can be related to the assessment of students, teachers, educational
boards, technology, social and ethical issues. Each challenge in the
assessment system needs to be analyzed properly.

The assessment is done based on the students’ educational experiences.

There are internal and external assessment systems in school. The
internal assessment is done by the in-house faculty and external
assessment is carried out by faculty of educational boards.   The
assessment helps in sharing learning goals with others. It also helps to
recognize the capability of the student.

The assessment system should be fair and strong in the school system.
There are two types of assessment systems such as formative and
summative. Formative is providing continuous feedback on the students’
performance whereas summative is to assess the student performance at
the end. The assessment system somewhere loses the connection
between the students, teachers, schools, families and communities. Here
are a few challenges in the assessment process of the education system.

#1 Assessment Challenge – Grading

Teachers assess the performance of students based on their tests,
exams, assignments and projects. It serves four major roles like
evaluating the student work, communicating with students, helping in
motivating students to focus and also involving in the course. It organizes
to mark transitions and focus effort for both students and teachers. The
challenges faced by the grading system are as follows.

1. There is no way developed that a student can know their

assessment process and grading technique.
2. There is a lack of transparency in the assessment system.  
3. Classroom assessment techniques are rare.  
4. There is no flexibility in programme grading

#2 Assessment Challenge – Change in Examination Pattern

There are students who cannot perform well in their exams when the
examination pattern changes. At the time of assessment, these students
find it difficult to adjust with a new pattern and are confused to attempt
the new form of questions. Sometimes students with low grades get
demotivated with the assessment as it marks their performance
compared to others.

3 Assessment Challenge – Teachers Assessment Issues

There are many assessment tools developed to assess the knowledge of
the student learned in the classroom. Teachers play a major role in
assessing students for their performance. Assessments are based on
their knowledge or performance in the classroom. Teachers are finishing
the syllabus in a short time as they are loaded with administration works
in schools. The assessment system is taking away the freedom and
autonomy of the teacher.

The procedure followed by teachers to assess students needs to change.

Earlier there was only one exam that used to be conducted for the
students at the end of the year. But now, with the multiple exams and
technological advancements, the concentration level of the student is
reducing. There are multiple assessments in schools in the form of
presentations, projects, group discussions, assignments and tests. The
teachers themselves have to put in a lot of effort into preparing and
planning for the assessments.

#4 Assessment Challenge – Technological Issues

Innovation in assessment is a delicate matter in the area of summative
assessment which is heavily controlled and has consequences on
students assessment. The authority is concerned about plagiarism and
invigilation issues. There is difficulty in scalability and transfer problems
when different departments have separate working practices and culture.
Verification of user identity and security issues are also major challenges
faced by the authority. The technical requirements should be met for
assessment systems such as software, connectivity, security,
accessibility etc.

#5 Assessment Challenge – Lack of Training 

There is a lack of  training for new strategies and the use of technology
for the assessment. The education institutions sometimes lack proper
training on assessment techniques, technology and methods that needs
to be given to their teachers and examiners.

#6 Assessment Challenge – Cost of Investment

The assessment system requires a significant amount of investment to
develop new technology. The investment will help in supporting and
training. There are few tools that require a large number of investments
and infrastructure. But authorities are sometimes reluctant to invest in
these assessment systems. The investments are not only in terms of
capital but time and workforce.

#7 Assessment Challenge – Lack of Policy

There are common policy challenges in governance and implementation
of assessment systems. Policy development needs to ensure the
involvement of different components of assessment framework such as
school assessment, teacher appraisals, etc. The policy should contribute
to securing effective links to classroom practices.  
#8 Assessment Challenge – Administration Issue
The administration should be careful about maintaining the records of
student information. Sometimes there is negligence in protecting the
information on the assessment of students. It can create problems for
students who have been assessed wrongly.  

#9 Assessment Challenge – Social/Ethical Issue

The manipulation of information raises major social and ethical issues.
Sometimes careless implementation of assessment can bring a negative
impact on students who keep high expectations on the assessment for
their performance in exams. 

Current Issues in Assessment

 A weaker relationship between learning outcomes and assessment
 No right of the student to know how he has been assessed and graded  Lack of
transparency in assessment system
 Regulator and prompt feedback on assessed work is missing  New philosophy with
old systems
 Little use of authentic assessment
 Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) are rare
 No involvement of students in the assessment process
 Most systems are still based on marks
 Grading is generally criterion based
 Lesser stress on formative assessment (i.e., assessment for learning)
 As a result, there is a less focus on improvement in learning on a continuous basis
 Students hardly receive feedback to improve their learning
 Very less use of informal and alternative assessment
 Issues in Grading
o For effective assessment, both criterion-referenced grading and norm-referenced grading
are necessary
o Pass/fail grading is required in some courses
o Various components of continuous evaluation measure different competencies. Therefore,
they need to be graded separately
o All assessed works need not be graded
o Grading should take care some dip in the performance of students; and, develop system to
support the student in such a situation.
o Flexibility in programme grading is needed
 Quality Issues in Assessment Institution Student
1. Quality of questions
2. Consistency in assessment
3. Zero copying
4. Zero plagiarism
5. Transparency
6. Quick and detailed feedback
7. Quality of invigilation
8. Timely conduct and declaration of results
9. Strong process orientation: PDCA
10. Consistency in learning and demonstration of evidence
11. Academic integrity
12. Zero absenteeism
 13. Continuous improvement
14. Consistent performance across different components and courses
15. Meta-learning about assessment
MULTIPLE DATA SOURCES FOR TEACHER EVALUATION

The Tennessee Career Ladder Evaluation system, which uses a multiple data source approach
to assessment, was developed to identify excellent teachers. It is used to determine whether or
not the teacher should receive increasing career benefits. Evaluation data are generated by
three evaluators, the teacher candidate, the school principal, three peer teachers, and twenty
or more students. Extensive review was used in generating six categories of teacher
competency: planning; instructional strategies; evaluation, classroom management;
leadership; and effective communication. Items were field tested in different types of data
collection: classroom observation; interviews with teachers and principals; questionnaires for
students and peer teachers; portfolio rating; a written test; and evaluator judgement. Results
from each instrument were analyzed separately and then reanalyzed as part of the set.
Intercorrelations were low, confirming that each source measured different viewpoints or
aspects of performance. The resulting scores were reduced to a smaller number of scores, and
then weighted. It was concluded that the multiple data source system was difficult and
expensive to build, relatively inflexible, and complicated to explain. However, it provided a
thorough and equitable evaluation, was relatively stable, and was logical. (GDC)
A fair and equitable performance evaluation system for the role of a
professional acknowledges the complexities of the job. Thus, multiple data sources are
necessary to provide for a comprehensive and authentic “performance portrait” of the
teacher’s work. The data sources briefly described in Figure 2 below provide accurate
feedback on teacher performance.
Figure 2: Data Sources for Teachers
Data Sources
 Goal Setting for Student Progress- Teachers have a definite impact on student
learning and performance through their various roles. Depending on grade level,
content area, and students’ ability level, appropriate measures of academic
performance are identified to provide information on learning gains. Performance
measures include standardized test results as well as other pertinent data sources.
Teachers set goals for improving Student Progress based on the results of
performance measures. The goals and their attainment constitute an important data
source for evaluation.
 Observations-Classroom observations provide key information on several of the
specific standards. Probationary teachers will be observed at least three times per
year. Two observations will occur prior to the end of the first semester and the third
by May 1. Teachers employed under a continuing contract will be observed at least
once per year. Additional observations for any staff member will be at the building
administrator’s discretion. All formal observations will include a classroom
observation of at least 20 minutes and a post-conference. A pre-conference may be
conducted at the request of the teacher or the administrator.
 Teacher Documentation Log- A collection of artifacts that provide evidence of
meeting selected performance standards.
 Teacher Self Reflections-Self-reflection is a process by which teachers judge the
effectiveness and adequacy of their performance, effects, knowledge, and beliefs for
the purpose of self-improvement. All teachers will reflect upon their practice
annually.
  Student Surveys-Teachers are not required to survey their students. If they choose to
do so, it is recommended that teachers enter a summary of the results in their
Documentation Log. These surveys will provide additional data to the teacher which
can influence teacher strategies in several of the standards.

Race to the Top definition of effective & highly effective teacher Effective teacher:
students achieve acceptable rates (e.g., at least one grade level in an academic year) of
student growth (as defined in this notice). States, LEAs, or schools must include multiple
measures, provided that teacher effectiveness is evaluated, in significant part, by student
growth (as defined in this notice). Supplemental measures may include, for example,
multiple observation-based assessments of teacher performance. (pg 7) Highly effective
teacher students achieve high rates (e.g., one and one-half grade levels in an academic
year) of student growth (as defined in this notice).
Measures and models: Definitions • Measures are the instruments, assessments,
protocols, rubrics, and tools that are used in determining teacher effectiveness • Models
are the state or district systems of teacher evaluation including all of the inputs and
decision points (measures, instruments, processes, training, and scoring, etc.) that result
in determinations about individual teachers’ effectiveness
Multiple measures of teacher effectiveness • Evidence of growth in student learning
and competency • Standardized tests, pre/post tests in untested subjects • Student
performance (art, music, etc.) • Curriculum-based tests given in a standardized manner •
Classroom-based tests such as DIBELS • Evidence of instructional quality • Classroom
observations • Lesson plans, assignments, and student work • Student surveys such as
Harvard’s Tripod • Evidence binder (next generation of portfolio) • Evidence of
professional responsibility • Administrator/supervisor reports, parent surveys • Teacher
reflection and self-reports, records of contributions
Measures that help teachers grow • Measures that motivate teachers to examine their
own practice against specific standards • Measures that allow teachers to participate in
or co-construct the evaluation (such as “evidence binders”) • Measures that give teachers
opportunities to discuss the results with evaluators, administrators, colleagues, teacher
learning communities, mentors, coaches, etc. • Measures that are directly and explicitly
aligned with teaching standards • Measures that are aligned with professional
development offerings • Measures which include protocols and processes that teachers
can examine and comprehend
Considerations for choosing and implementing measures • Consider whether human
resources and capacity are sufficient to ensure fidelity of implementation • Conserve
resources by encouraging districts to join forces with other districts or regional groups •
Establish a plan to evaluate measures to determine if they can effectively differentiate
among teacher performance • Examine correlations among measures • Evaluate
processes and data each year and make needed adjustments
Teacher observations: strengths and weaknesses • Strengths • Great for teacher
formative evaluation (if observation is followed by opportunity to discuss) • Helps
evaluator (principals or others) understand teachers’ needs across school or across
district • Weaknesses • Only as good as the instruments and the observers • Considered
“less objective” • Expensive to conduct (personnel time, training, calibrating) • Validity of
observation results may vary with who is doing them, depending on how well trained and
calibrated they are
Validity of classroom observations is highly dependent on training • A teacher should
get the same score no matter who observes him • This requires that all observers be
trained on the instruments and processes • Occasional “calibrating” should be done;
more often if there are discrepancies or new observers • Who the evaluators are matters
less than adequate training • Teachers should be trained on the observation forms and
processes
Measures of professional practice Experts stress that the qualitative measures used to determine
instructional quality or professional practice must be founded on high-quality standards of what is
known about effective teaching practices. These standards must be clear and transparent about
what effective teaching practice looks like.36 While there are no national standards, some states
have adopted or use some variation of the Council of Chief State School Officers Interstate Teacher
Assessment and Support Consortium, Model Core Teaching Standards37 (for example, Arizona,
Mississippi, Utah, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin), and/or the National Board of Professional
Teaching Standards (for example, Mississippi and Virginia). Other states have created their own
standards based on research and stakeholder input (for example, Connecticut, the District of
Columbia, Missouri, Nevada, New York, Ohio, and Rhode Island)
Once standards are determined, professional practice may be assessed using a combination of the
following: • Observations, including feedback from peers, based on rubrics aligned with standards of
professional practice. Many states are using the Charlotte Danielson Framework for Teaching38 as
their evaluation rubric for assessing educator practice. These states are Alaska, Delaware,
Mississippi, Louisiana, Maryland, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. • Self-assessments
and reflection. • Artifacts—or documents that reflect some aspect of classroom teaching that is not
directly reflected in classroom practice—such as lesson plans, unit work samples, curriculum design,
pacing guides aligned with the standards, student assignments, portfolios, and evidence of field
experience. • Student-learning measures such as samples of student work, including portfolios and
research papers. • Student and parent surveys. How these measures are combined can be seen in
the six measures used in South Carolina’s Assisting, Developing and Evaluating Professional Teaching
system to determine teacher performance levels. These measures include: • Teachers’ long-term
plan(s) • Classroom observations, with a minimum of four unannounced visits per year and
additional walk-through observations permitted • Teacher reflections following each classroom
observation • Professional performance review completed by the principal (or designee and other
supervisors) • Professional assessment completed by the teacher, which is the first step to
developing the teacher’s professional growth and development plan • One or more unit work
samples (a demonstration of student learning which is discussed later in this paper)
TYPES AND LEVELS OF TEACHER EVALUATION
A teacher’s performance will be judged in terms of 16 criteria. The descriptors are included
as guidelines for what is meant by a particular criterion. Their function is to illustrate and
provide examples for a given criterion. They are not, nor were they intended to be, all-
inclusive. They are intended to help teachers and administrators develop a common
understanding about the expectations and provide a common language for discussing
performance as it pertains to the following criteria:
1. Plans Instruction • Follows prescribed curriculum • Uses available materials and resources
• Chooses activities relevant to the prescribed curriculum • Chooses activities appropriate to
student abilities • Chooses activities, materials, and resources appropriate for students with
special needs • Considers time available in planning • Demonstrates flexibility in planning •
Plans student grouping according to instructional needs • Develops long-range plans and
daily lessons
2. Implements The Lesson • Focuses student attention • Informs students of objective of the
lesson • Relates the lesson to previous and future lessons • Presents new material clearly and
logically • Models, demonstrates and provides examples • Monitors student learning
continuously 1 • Provides feedback and re-teaches when necessary • Provides opportunities
for students to practice under direct supervision of the teacher • Provides opportunities for
students to practice independently • Conducts smooth transition from one activity to the next
3. Motivates Students • Shows concern for students • Establishes feeling/tone • Establishes a
level of difficulty which encourages success • Uses student interest and background • Uses
extrinsic/intrinsic rewards
4. Communicates Lesson • Uses variability in presentation • Demonstrates enthusiasm, vigor,
involvement, and interest in lesson presentation • Speaks clearly • Puts ideas across logically
• Praises, elicits, and responds to student questions
5. Demonstrates Knowledge Of The Curriculum • Teaches accurate and up-to-date
information • Coordinates learning content with instructional objectives • Uses effective
examples and illustrations • Presents learning content in a logical sequential order
6. Sets High Expectations For Student Achievement In Accordance With Needs And
Abilities • Communicates expectations of performance to students • Uses objective student
data to set expectations • Uses evaluative feedback to determine level of skill acquisition •
Encourages participation from all students • Uses higher order questioning techniques to
promote critical thinking skills 2
7. Maximizes Time On Task • Schedules learning time according to policy for the subject
area • Begins class work promptly • Minimizes management time • Minimizes transition time
• Makes effective use of academic learning time • Gives clear and concise directions
8. Integrates Materials and Methodology • Demonstrates ability to conduct lessons using a
variety of methods • Organizes materials, supplies and equipment prior to the lesson •
Integrates materials and resources smoothly into a lesson • Identifies available supplemental
resources
9. Plans And Uses Evaluative Activities • Makes methods of evaluation clear and purposeful
to students • Monitors student progress through a variety of appropriate evaluation techniques
• Prepares assignments which reflect the material which has been taught
10. Provides Specific Evaluative Feedback • Provides feedback on assignments as quickly as
possible • Gives written and oral comments, as well as points or scores • Makes opportunities
for one-to-one conferences to discuss student progress • Interprets test results to students and
parents
11. Manages The Classroom • Manages discipline problems in accordance with
administrative regulations, school board policies, and legal requirements • Establishes and
clearly communicates parameters for student classroom behavior • Promotes self-discipline •
Manages disruptive behavior constructively • Demonstrates fairness and consistency •
Arranges the classroom for effective instruction 3
12. Interacts With Students • Gives criticism and praise which are constructive • Makes an
effort to know each student as an individual • Provides opportunities for each student to meet
success regularly • Promotes positive self-image in students • Communicates with students
accurately and with understanding • Creates a climate in which students display initiative and
assume a personal responsibility for learning
13. Interacts With Parents And Community • Encourages community involvement with the
school • Provides a climate which opens up communication between the teacher and parent •
Communicates with parents in the best interest of the students • Supports parents/teacher
activities • Provides information related to support resources
14. Interacts With Administration And Other Educational Personnel • Cooperates with other
teachers, the administration, and other educational personnel • Makes use of support services
as needed • Shares ideas and methods with other teachers • Informs administration and/or
appropriate personnel of school related items
15. Is involved In Professional Growth Activities • Is involved in professional associations •
Participates on district/state committees, etc. • Participates in professional workshops •
Attends professional meetings • Keeps current in subject area • Engages in continuing
education 4
16. Supports And Implements School Regulations, Policies, Procedures And Accepted
Practices • Adheres to authorized policies • Selects appropriate channels for resolving
concerns/problems • Participates in the development and review of school policies and
regulations • Strives to stay informed regarding policies and regulations applicable to his/her
position • Exercises responsibility for student management throughout the entire building •
Uses discretion in handling confidential information

Purpose of Teacher Evaluation

Teacher evaluation gained momentum during President Obama’s tenure as he
considered educational reform to be one of the most important areas of work. New
and advanced teacher evaluation methods are being developed to enhance a
teacher’s endeavor and efficacy. There are three main purposes of teacher
evaluation:

 Improve the performance of teachers by evaluating them at regular intervals

of time.
 Assignment of precise ranks to all the teachers according to their respective
abilities and contribution.
 Unproductive teachers can be asked to quit and efficient teachers must be
hired to maintain a quality of education.
 Collection of feedback to make well-informed decisions about appraisals
and promotions.
 Creating a job description for prospective teachers.
 A school’s management is responsible for the all-round growth of their
teachers and thus, the main purpose of conducting teacher evaluation is to
empower all the teachers who contribute towards imparting education to
their students in the best possible manner.
 The principal or management is in charge of empowering the teachers to
perform better in the same manner as the teachers are responsible to
empower the students.
 A teacher performs better in case the management communicates and
appreciates his/her work which contributes to continuous improvement in
their performance.
For Example: Attrition rate of the education staff is one of the highest in the world.
It is becoming a major concern since the deficit of trained educational staff keeps
increasing every years. In order to keep teachers satisfied with their jobs, make
them perform better and retain them, there is a need to improve a few areas in the
existing system. A survey can be helpful to understand the factors that influence
the productivity of teachers, and allow you important insight into the the areas with
risk and the areas where everything is good. Survey data collected using this
sample questionnaire will enable schools and colleges to take decisions that will
help reduce teacher attrition, improve retention and job satisfaction.

Teacher Evaluation Examples 

Teachers can be evaluated using online quantitative and qualitative mediums such

as surveys, polls, focus groups, etc. Some of the best examples of teacher
evaluation are:

 Various component of proper planning can be evaluated. For examples, use

of assessment information for proper planning – All the teachers will be
evaluated on the effectiveness of the use of the assessment of information.
 Ineffective
 Scope of improvement
 Effective
 Extremely Effective
 Observation of the teacher performance can be done using open-ended
questions such as inputs for observation and feedback.
 Compliance of the teachers can be audited. This survey can
contain multiple-choice questions such as “Are the strengths mentioned
and are they relevant?”
 The school culture and management performance can also be evaluated. For
examples, questions such as “I do feel welcome when I enter this school”
can be asked to understand the school’s culture. 
Evaluation of teaching can have many purposes, including collecting
feedback for teaching improvement, developing a portfolio for job
applications, or gathering data as part of personnel decisions, such as
reappointment or promotion and tenure. Most of the methods described
below can be used for all of these functions. In general, efforts to collect
information for improvement can be informal and focus on specific areas
an individual instructor wishes to develop. Information for job applications
involves presenting one’s best work and meeting the requirements outlined
in job ads. However, when the purpose of evaluation is personnel decision
making, it is important to use a comprehensive and systematic process.
Because there are many dimensions to pedagogical work, it is best to use
multiple measures involving multiple sources of data to evaluate the range
of instructional activities, which can include the following:

 Instructional Delivery (including quality, amount, and level of

classroom instruction)
  Course Planning (including development of course materials, course
revision, development of new courses)
 Grading and Assessing Student Learning (including appropriate level
of assignments, exams, grading standards)
 Course Management (including supervision of GSIs)
 Oversight of Independent Studies, Honors Theses, Prelims,
Dissertations
 Support for Student Internships, Experiential Learning, Service
Learning
 Department and Curricular Work (including participation in curriculum
revision, departmental efforts to focus on teaching)
 Advising and Mentoring
 Professional Development and Innovation Around Teaching

What follows are multiple methods for collecting information about

instructors’ activities, accomplishments, and effectiveness in teaching, in
the classroom and beyond. While this list includes best practices for using
student ratings, it also offers suggestions for ensuring that student ratings
are not the only source of evidence used to assess instructional
effectiveness, an approach consistent with research. In addition, detailed
resources are available on the topics of student ratings of instruction, peer
review of teaching, course portfolios, and teaching portfolios. 

Benefits of Teacher Evaluation 

You may wonder why communities prioritize teacher evaluation. The most
obvious reason is that assessing your teaching workforce regularly, allows
you to track performance levels in your educational sector. This means that
you're better equipped to identify and solve institutional challenges.

However, this is not all that there is to the benefits of teacher evaluation.
Let's look at a few other benefits of teacher evaluation:

1. Teacher evaluation improves knowledge impartation by boosting

teacher quality. It identifies and addresses key challenges with teaching
on a one-on-one basis which helps the teacher become better at the
craft.
2. It helps stakeholders to identify and reward exceptional teaching
talents for excellent service delivery.
 3. Conducting teacher evaluations at regular intervals allow you to spot
gaps in teaching and learning methods which may be responsible for
poor classroom performance among students. 
4. It plays a vital role in the identification of loopholes in the educational
curriculum. 
5. A well-grounded teacher evaluation exercise is an awesome
opportunity for self-assessment. Teachers can reflect on their strengths
and weaknesses and work on improving themselves. 
6. It provides useful and productive feedback that contributes to the
growth and development of the teacher. 
7. It provides useful insights for data-driven decisions making in the
educational sector.

 Teacher Evaluation by Student 

This is a common method of assessing a teacher's classroom performance. By

asking students to provide feedback on the teacher's classroom behavior and
teaching methods, you can gather useful information and meaningful insights
for decision making. 

As you already know, students have firsthand experiences of the teacher's

behaviors; especially in the classroom. Students are the end-users(consumers)
of the services teachers provide and this means that they can provide rich
data and feedback on how they perceive a teacher's classroom performance. 

There are different ways to organize a teacher evaluation exercise by

students. For example, you can create and administer a Formplus online
feedback survey that allows students to anonymously air honest opinions
about their teachers. Collecting data anonymously encourages students to
share their thoughts without fear of victimization. 

Pros

 It allows you to gather first-hand information from the primary end-

users (students). 
 Teacher evaluation by the student is one of the most effective ways to
determine the suitability of teaching methods. 

Cons
  This type of evaluation can be highly subjective. A student’s personal
preferences may cloud his or her sense of judgment. 
 Students may find it difficult to weigh a teacher’s performance against
the provided evaluation criteria. 

Teacher Evaluation by Teacher

This is a type of peer-peer evaluation that allows instructors to assess and

provide feedback on their colleagues. This method of teacher evaluation
helps you to gather information about the work ethics of the instructor, and
his or her behavior outside the classroom.

Asking teachers to review one another’s performance is a great way to build

team spirit and it is widely considered as one of the most objective methods
of teacher evaluation. Teachers can provide valid feedback on the workplace
attitudes, behaviors, skills, and competencies of their colleagues since they
work closely with them. 

You can map out a timeline for teacher evaluation by teacher for your school.
It is easy to get this type of teacher evaluation done using a Formplus peer
evaluation form that lists questions in line with the assessment criteria
provided by the educational board in your district. 

Pros

1. Teacher evaluation by teacher helps you improve the team spirit in

your school.
2. It is a means of collecting valid data that provides insights into
workplace performance. 

Con

1. Workplace toxicity can lead to biased feedback during teacher

evaluation. 

Teacher Evaluation by Management

This type of teacher evaluation is carried out by the educational advisory

board in a school that typically consists of the staff supervisor, headteacher,
and the human resources personnel. It is also an appraisal that influences the
career progression of the teacher. 
One of the most common ways to carry out this type of assessment is to
schedule a one-on-one meeting for the employee (teacher) with the appraisal
team. During this interview-like meeting, the assessment team can review the
teacher’s performance viz a viz the evaluation parameters. 

You can also create an interview evaluation form with Formplus and use the
teams and collaboration feature to coordinate responses from different
members of your teacher evaluation team. Formplus allows you to update
form data in Google sheets as you go so that every stakeholder can monitor
the transparency of the evaluation process. 

Pros

 It allows for an objective view of the employee’s performance.

 Teacher evaluation by management helps the team to develop realistic
career advancement projections for each member of the workforce. 

Cons

 In a toxic working environment, some members of the assessment team

may capitalize on the evaluation to settle scorecards with perceived
enemies. 
 It can result in biased feedback and assessment. 

ELIGIBILITY TESTS

 KTET
 SET
 NET
 SLET
 CTET