PARTIV SUBSTRUCTURES CHAPTER1 GENERAL 1.1 Scope “Tne Hpsioaios Tn Wis Fat Sal Be principally applied oe subertaes oF Rahway ridges. “This Arle larifs the sope of Par 1 Substtre, “The scope of highway bidges incorporated in the Specifications for Highway Brides and thase of Par I: Cemnmen attr not pif in this specication ae specified in See. Inthe design and eonsrion of subsructres the fllowng guisines may be refed (A) Road Earthworks - Guideline for onstruction, by JRA (pan Read Association) (2) Road Earthworks -Gudtine for Sot Ground Testment Woks, by JRA (@) Roed Earthworks - Guidlines for Retsning Walls by RA (4) Roce Earthworks - Guidlines for Culvert by IRA (6) Road Earthworks - Gules for Temporary Sut, by JRA (6) Rose Earthworks - Guidlines for Geotechnical Investigation, byJRA (7) Rood Earthwork - Guidlines for Drainage Werks by RA (6) Rood Earthworks - Guidlines fo Slope Sait and Sure Treatment, by JRA, ‘Chaser 2, Chapers3 to! and Chapters 1510 20of this Pa provide spciiations on survey dean, and costraton, espesively. With regars to dssign, Chapers 3 10 7, Chapter 8, Chapter 9, nd CChapers 10 10M specify general end common requirements: specific equrements for pier, uments and ftv: undamentleqsirerens of foundations and design methods fr indivi Foundation types, espestivey. Regering consrtin, Chapter 1S and Chapters 16 020 specify general mater nd constoton procedures for inivdul foundations respective1.2 Definitions of Terms (1) Subsirectural Body @) Foundation 0) Under orinary condition [@) Under sarinquake condition (9) Under Level carthguake condition (Under Level2 carthquake condition (©) Under storm condition (8) Footing © Uhimae Bearing Capacity (10) Allowable Bearing Capaciy (11) Design Ground Plane (12), Embedment Depth (13). Frfetive Embodiment “The ev wel in tis Pat re dln a oon Upper part ofa substrotore, such san abutment or pier tht ‘wants loads from te superstnictre othe foundation Lower port of a substncture that transfers loads from 8 subsrctral body tothe ground —Conulton that excludes the effect ofcarthquthes and wind ‘nthe combination of lads = Condition that considers the effet of earthquakes and wind inthe combination of fads. —Condiion wit consideration ofan earthguske having high probly of occurence during the bridge service life (Level | Seismie Motion), —Condiion with consideration of an earthquake having a lower prcabilty of occurence during the bridge service life bout song seismic motion (Level2 Setsmie Motion), Condition that considers wind loads inthe combinstion of loads —Surveture in the form of slab which, as a par of the {oundstion, suppors a bridge suppor column of all end transfers loads tothe ground a piles. Ths is sometimes called the top slab in eaistons, sel pipe sheet piles, and diaphragm all foundations. Maximum resisting swength that ground can develop in supporting tose, —Ubimate bearing capacity divided by a specified safety facior, oF beating captiy determined ‘rom the allowable Aisplcement, whicbever i smaller Ground plane decrinee in design as aginst the cure sround plane, as one from which horizontal resistance can be ‘expected with consideration for future changes in ground properties. —Depth from the current ground plane othe bottom tip of | the foundation = Depth from the design ground plane tothe bottom rtp of | the foundation1.3 Fandamentals of Design Caleulations {The accrany of th design ealsltons sal be appropriately Gteamined wih & Fall understanding ofthe accuracy ofthe design requirements. The final resus in the design eseulatons shoud be performed to thre significant figures. ©) In the design calenlasons, analytical theories and analytial models capable of doquitely evslating material properties of members, srutursl geometic characteristics, andthe properties of ground resistance, stl be employed (0) tne design of substuctrs, it should be noted tha the scree ft estimates ofthe seth of sel and concrete is high bu that of soll is low becuse of is sompited nature nother ‘wot, design ealeulsions ae performed with lrg variations in securcy depending onthe nae Therefor itis ot always appropri enhance he action accuracy. Theaeuscy shall be determined by earefly reviewing the assumed design contions ‘oni assumption thatthe ead conditions ad design standard vals eating materi nde fundamental dimensions in the design calculation conan no ener, clea rests to tre sigifcant gues even ithe allowable values ae svallable ore than thee significant Sau ‘Te lowabl valves of concer and some ther teria are ually svilabe ttn significant Figues. in such aes, two significant Res ae scceptable “uble-C.13.1 indicts the elev nimur values inthe fin resus sign caeulations “ible... Efetve Minimum Ves in Design Calculations a is [Ra Cnc aoa Sabre Resins et STN os - ‘sal Spin Cesta wv ‘Foes ie eve ‘Siege Reston innsty ro Dapcenens o [as Congreve Stet in Cone New? edi Compresive See in Corr New? ‘ning Sees in Cone Newt ‘Str Sree Cone Nise? ‘nd Stein Conese Nest Stes Referees Nan Sra Sel Meets Ne See PCS Memes Nant(2) inverityng he safety of members and he stability of foundations, anytcl methods nd models ‘hal be employed, which adeusely consider the characteristics ofthe nserals, geometry, end sound esse 10 obin enginerlg. indices for stesses, subginde reactions, and ioplacement 41.4 Conditions of Construction for Design | (> When designing a substueture, the construction conditions shall be considered appropriately, (@) Provisions specified in Chapters 4 through 14 are based oa the premise that requirements for constriction specified in Chapters 15 through 20 ate fully satisfied. When ‘onstruction conditions may fil o follow those specified in Chapters 15 through 20, it shall be tken into consideration in designing substructures. (2) Incase it is impossible to follow the conditions of onstruction specified in Chapters 15 through 20, safety, equivalent to or more than that based on the provisions specified in Chapters 4 through 14, shouldbe secured by performing necessary tests orother measures 1.8 ems to be Shown esessary information shall be given considering the Major items of substructures which should be shown in design drawings are listed below D. Superstructures © Class of bridge Width Span ‘Type of supersiructures Method of construction (if equired) eee8e2) Sabstructures © Materials and types of substructures © Design loads of substructures @ Allowable displacement © Types of materials used (in the case of concrete, specified compressive strength, vatercement ratio to be determined by Guability, and watetghtness, maximum sizes of coarse aggregates, et.) © Typesofbearng stratum © Allowable ses and allowable bearing capacity 3) Construction conditions taken as premises ofthe design ‘These are the preconditions inthe design that are related to construction. Describe ‘what need o be satisfied in constuction and te like. © Msintenance-related considerations in the design [Deserbe the maintepance-related matters considered in the design, assumed future ‘maintenance conditions and the like.CHAPTER2 SURVEY 2.1 General 214 Fundamentals and construction of substructures Acurvey shall be porformed to btain the information required to design and construct economic and safe eubsteuctures, The design stage survey shall fue on callecting information on the bearing ground layer, electing an appropriate foundation type ‘based on the geotechnical conditions, and determining the geotechnical design parameters, 21.2 Types of Surveys (D The following surveys chall be performed for tho dovigh and construction of ‘substructures 1) Geotechnical investigations 2) Surveys of river characteristios and ieigation 8) Surveye of construction conditions @) For surveys in specific cases under the following conditions, special attention shall be given to existing data, geography, geology, and D Soft ground 2) Ground likely to become unstable during an earthquake 3) Mountainous areas ® Areas prone to landslide 8) Construction close toe and contents of various surveys of (D Table-C.2.1.1 tabulates the principal object D te 9) above (1). The surveys necessary for each stage of the design andconstruction should be performed with roforence to Table-C.2.1.1 For design stage survey, it ie necessary to perform surveys of the construction conditions. At the construction stage, supplementary surveys ofthe construction should be implemented, as needed, only after fully understanding the results of the surveys obtained et the design stage... Furthermore, during construction, various surveys need tobe performed for the purposes of construction management, (Chapter 18 describes the surveys required during construction. (DD Surveys of Soft Ground {eis generally dificult to evaluate the geotechnical conditions of soft ground, and such aa evaluation would have «significant affect on survounding structures and ground, as well as the design of the structures concerned. ‘Therefore, carefel surveys of soft ground should be performed in consideration of the following 2 Survey of Bxsting Materials ‘An overview of the ground conditions should be first obtained from available information in geotechaical bore loge oF geological profiles. In cases of soft ‘ground, more detailed studies are necessary: Therefore, it is important to carefully collect and examine existing goologcal data when making a ground ‘survey plan, At the same time, a study of previous construction ineluding structural seals, evaluations of geotechnical parameters and types of auxiliary construction methods introduced will provide valuable information for planning the design and construction. i) Geotechnical Investigations ‘When desigaing and constructing structures on the soft ground, detailed sound ‘vestigations of consolidation settlement, negative skin fetion, lateral movement and the stability of retaining and coffordam walls are needed. Asa osu of these studies, it is important to evaluate the appropriate geotechnical parameters during construction, ground ereep, Sarcharge on fils, eccentric earth pressur and the lowering of groundwater levels may cause specific changes ofthe ground properties, In such cases ite necessary to increase the numberof test sites andInvestigations in order to comprehend conditions such as the variation, thicknoss, and structure of soil layers, and to ensure the adequacy of seotechnical parameters evaluated fom the tests it) Surveys of Surrounding Environment At sites on goR ground site «significant number of additionel work including increased foundation works for main structures, temporary works such as cofferdams, and soft ground improvement works may be required. Ie addition, environmental effects such as propagation of ground vibration, large ground displacement, contamination of underground water and other problems are likely to arise, Accordingly, surveys on adjacent on adjacent facilities and ‘buried structures need tobe pesformed. Survey of Ground Likely to Bocome Unstable during an Earthquake A liquefaction assessment is needed for saturated sandy ground where sol liquefaction is Kikely to occur during an earthquake. As a rough estimation, the classification of the grounds shown in Table'C2.1.2 or historical records of the ‘currence of soil liquefaction should be referred to, Occasionally, seismic subgrade reactions of soft cohesive soil layers or silty fol layers can not be ‘expected. When addressing such cases, th design should conform to Chapter Sof Part V Seismic Design Furthermore, at sitea where lateral earth pressures due to backfill would affect 1 ground spreading esused the safety of substructures close to waterfront, lat by sol liquefaction ie likely to occur during an earthquake. When construction of substructures ia planned at such sites, detailed surveys of the structure (Chickness end gradiont) of cil layers likely to cause liquefaction and lateral spreading, the structural characteristies of quay walls, present geography and future land use, underground water level, otc are needed.TablerC.2.11 Survey (1) esc i, Sema dy Wy "Determisnn of segue of nomic ground f_Geophyat exc soln meoeucmeasat end S fs “rs ofp ares lp “Caterrund water ae Dymus proper fae jonuninter [FS mtn wi] actin equipment and Sostne pocduree ea aa oer |i) Flow dacutm and viet anes oT ET Ly pe oem, va eniroo [sion of yous a ind Oxgen Shot Ea Bost aE Uadenatling ever ad lke] Rind dae oa 1 fier td dee of ha cones | (Prrscarstics jv Gceen ts fow rat, water fasatnest | guy cae gh itereee = [Pciten a hs | ‘Scone high nd low water eves, ener Paste oer ee yet Regalaton,” shows ‘one ia water ow tna tafe fll wero, (row nd deg sab ee | cea thes hind ie i | Gondtons st menagenent 9 es lates sna fate plane Sof iy Tn, a wate [Navan oa 1 Se ca Pansscnnieafcowtratn [9 Oncrencs of lowing sod ating}destand tm | ifcined | Suv eucure and wmpercy | inane [rater ot oing | te ‘en ‘arr eteation fr nretne fader ume ih al faery ro ee ents Gara rea wera br o)Dngn donna and omar] | Feicaatee NP Get andemstrctonatb | rer fom piel contro | la Recor afexperienes fom iTable-C.2.1.1 Survey (2) Carat Coon ‘Snes af [Staff [a Pas Bigs, miss — [WOE alton Sumrosading cosacaee works on | wbaaon vee toed seine srranen’ ly Stadyofcoatrion ‘tty tne ee AiterPation | tha working met 1) Generon of aie, vibration | Sad eal 10 Stay otmeanares oe sofa eae hans | fret ‘Sovontae =f cn ‘Bebe aches, peratioa mathe adoted © ates of eres? sRomomens oes fcr 0 Briton fare Stuwbrena, farts vesbeads ae ope Gini avous ——]07-Wang ares warn sp — | Tala T ‘eects and ‘wh tment, fe meme, | set rierentnaacton | Tnitrtonoe amor | Spo tan? 10 Stuy oftneracions wag ast Suey Betnecr aetna procedures fr pot Fy seroturee nd th ub teoated eo od wttuaers | Hopson” and ‘icone onesend iio | led ferultone i ‘id Stedy afconstrction tet, water sup Should befalls ‘metndn eno ‘swore ste ‘dart | resto fis jo Last oe, nd act of ‘Bochne and provedues 1 Seay fpnacton Sorc ie ad ty pera Ive esng and eng. Wate brant or ‘ois ‘onutaceen peril Table-C.2.12, Geographical Ground Conditions in Terms of| Probability of Oosurronce of Liquefaction Probab ‘Geographical Ground Conditions @ tik ‘tive rvebade, Dey Rivrinde, Areas Filed Terlnined at Cooutal Arsat,Lakgs, Marsbes and Ree Paice @) Moserae Allee! Towiands and Tablelands with Shallow Ground ‘tae Tate Ole Platenue, Hil and Mountanous Lande 10|) Survey of Mountainous Areas When the design and construction of substructures are undertaken in ‘mountainous areas, it is important to evaluate the ground conditions (mainly rocky grounds) and study the construction methods. As the geotechnical conditions and construction conditions in mountainous areas will difer from those for plain fed, epesife evaluation methods should be emplayod to take the round feature into account 1) Survey of Existing Materials When landslides, slope falutes, and debris ows aro likely to occur, existing information focusing on the results of geological surveys shouldbe collected ax eded. Purthermore, with reference to “substructure types, construction methods, and subsidiary construction methods wt diaesters that occurred neaeby, shall be examined, i) Survey of Geography and Geology ‘The designer must careflly examine the locations and number of ivestigation fos, as mountainous areas often have steep goographie features and the structure of the geotechnical layers ie gonorally complex. Accurate information con the geography and geotechnical structures should be obtained by increasing the number of surveys and boreholes. 1m goneral, a8 mountainous arons are rocky ground, the survey items and their valuation procodares wil diffe from those for ground. The characteristics of rocky ground should be evaluated from the rooults of compre the rock features, lations cracks, openings joints, rock properties suchas the locations and characteristics of faults and weathered transformation zones, physi ‘reophysieal explorations such as seismic prospecting. ive studies of 1 properties fiom sinconfined and triaxial compression tests, and Ai Survey of Construction Condit [Astudy ofthe onstruction conditions is of primary importance in the design of substructures in mountainous aroas, For example, the construction methods, the selection of appropriate machinery, temporary works designs, and the sign of access roode are important itoms, Surveys of the surrounding ‘environment as well as construction sites are alvo necessary.4) Survey of Areas Prone to Landslide ‘When a bridge construction sit is located in an ‘he possibilty of the occurrence of a landslide needs to be examined at the ‘onstruction site, the following surveys skal be performed: prone to landslides, of when Survoy of Exiting Materials Landslides tend to occur at sites with particular geographical and geological ‘conditions, Therefore, itis necessary to collet and analyze information on ‘eographical and geological features, and past disastr records in and around the site, and to examine the exietonce of landslide geography. preceding bodemonts, pst evidence (such as misro-geography) of landslides, geological structures and plantstion situations, and to obtain other useful information feom aerial Photographs. In order to analyze detailed phenomena, itis advantageous to use serial photographs captured during the winter and mid apring pericds when leaf cover is minimized, Field investigations should be performed to observe and estimate landslide ‘mechanisms in view of existing survey data and information derived from aerial photographs, 18) Geologial Surveys and Monitoring Goological surveys should be performed to understand landslide mechanism, sroundwater situations and landelide mevement. The survey could incorporste ‘rough borehole surveys at appropriete selected locations. Extensometers, round surface inclinometers, borehole inclinometers, and land survey techniques (such as GPS) can be used as monitering equipment and procedures. Installation of such equipment ehould be decided in consideration ofthe location and landslide direction, 5) Survey of Construction lose to Existing Structures When « new construction is undertaken close to existing structures, the existing structures may sustain displacement oF movement due to the new construction ‘The principal reasons of such displacement: 24) Deformation of retaining walls, offerdam wala or backfill 1») Hesving, oF boiling «}_ Settlement of lose sendy ground caused by construction vibration 44) Desinage'indwced groundwater lowering and genoration of voids } Pile driving oF ea on construction \Whon the construction of substructures ie undertaken close to existing structures, sufficient surveys chould be performed to evoid digplacoment and movement of existing structures 9 Survey of Existing Materials It is important to examine examples of damage and remedial measures to existing structures, and past experiences of construction close the site and their u moasurements. These data will provide invaluable information in terms of damage estimation and remedial measures based on similar construction works, 1 Geotechnical Investigations [A survey of examples of damage to structures constructed close to existing structures has revealed that most damage results from inadequate geotechnical snvestigatons, In eases of adjacent construction projects, the ground conditions round the existing and now structures should be fully understood. When fexicting structures are likely to sustain damage, ground surveys and eotechnical testa should be implemented. Surveys of Buiting Structures {In conducting adjacent construction works, the dimensions and characteristis of the existing structure should be well understood. Ia particular, in view of the ffests of ground excavation works on surrounding ground, the safety of existing structures is occasionally examined. In such cases, allowable displacements of existing struceures, types, configuration, dimensions, and embedment depths to the foundations should be examined on tho basis ofthe final drawings of the ‘completed structures needing remedial measures. Design conditions, design ‘methods, andthe stats of working stresses should be investigated with reference 1 tho design documents 13I is ale appropriate to confirm whether oF not the construction ofthe existing ind to structures has boon performed in accordance with the design docume check the decrease inthe capacity due tothe deterioration of the structure. 2.2 Geotechnical Investigation 2.2.1 General GY A walfplanned and oxeouted geotachnical investigation i required 10 ‘obtain adequate information forthe design of substructures (2) Two geotechnical investigations, preliminary survey and a principal ‘survey, shall be performed in accordance with the design process, in order that the required data and information on the site are able to be systematically and officiently obtained. (D The results from geotechnical investigations are key factors for determining overall bridge types as well asthe types and dimencions of foundation structure "Therefire, appropriate geotechnical investigations, procedures and tort conditions fre nesded so that the information required for the design calculations are ‘obtained. The location, depth and amount of surveys will depend on the insitu situations. Thus, as the survey and design are closely related, adequate reviews of the field and soil conditions, the proposed bridge type and design calculation procedures shouldbe performed to plan an appropriate geotechnical investigation (®) As ground conditions diffor from one site to another, adequate geotechnical investigations should be selected in ascotdance with the type and scale of the ‘oundations, andthe design stages Tis possible to perform effective geotechnical investigations by reviewing eurvey items and accuracy, and by distinguishing between the preliminary and principal surveys. u2.2.2 Preliminary Surveys Th order to understand the approximate proporties of the soil layers at the bridge site, and to obtain information necessary for selecting foundation type and conducting a preliminary design and principal survey plan, the following “surveys shall be performed’ (1) Survey of existing geotechnical materials () Site reconnsissance (9) Geophysical exploration 4) Borehole and test pitting Im designing substructures, it a necessary to recognize the geotechnical structures at the site, determine approximate substructural dimensions and foundation arrangements, perform necessary ground surveys, and obtain design information, Preliminary surveys should he performed to identify gectechnical structures and the ‘contents ofthe principal surveys. (0) Surveys of Bristng Mater Surveys of existing information are conducted to comprehend the outline of the grographical and geutechnlcal features mt the site through exiting geotechnical investigation date, geographical maps, and sorial photographs. Accordingly, historical surveys should be performed at the first stage of the preliminary surveys in order to understand the approximate geotechnical structures and so that the results can be used in other surveys 1D Surveys of Exiting Ground Information Geographical and geological maps should be collected for the survey of the ‘seographical and geotechnical structures. Furthormora, it is often possible to define the outline of the geotechnical layers by collecting borehole data and information on wells near tothe investigation ste 2) Surveys of Existing Structures [By collating information on foundation types, scales, setilement and inclinations ‘and construction records of existing structures located close to the investigation cite itis posible to derive an outline of the geotechnical layers of the bridge si 58) Surveys of Other Information Jn addition tothe above, the following information is needed forthe desiga’ Geological maps (and condition maps, land use maps, land classifcstion mapa, ‘old maps, ete) ) Wide-area information including aerial photographs, remote sensing data, PS, ote ©) Information on disasters such as landklides, rock failures, river lode, 5, Laws, regulations and guidelines on environmental protection inchuding noise ond vibration ©) Information on active feults (2) Site reconnaissance Site reconnaissance ie used to evsluato eubeurface geology fom the properties of rocks and soils obsorved at the surface. In other words, goological plans ate prepared by combining sectional geological maps made from rock outerops and ong rivers and roads in the survey ares. Purthermore, the other propertios ‘existence oflandelides, and othor googeaphical and geological features adverse to the construction should be examined inthe geographical observation, (6) Geophysical Exploration® Although various methods for geophysical explorations for prelintinery surveys are able, seismic prospecting procedures are sometimes employed for estimating depths to the bedrock, the degree of weathering and crack openings, Sonic prospecting is also used for surveying seabed geography. (Surveys by Boring and Test pitting Boring, together withthe standard penetration tests and other inst teats should bbe conducted to identify ground layers and the existence of underground water, nd fo select an appropriate ground layer to eupport the structure. Moreover, the ‘existence of consolidated soll layers and the permeability of sol layers should be ‘examined by conducting laboratory tests. In ease ofa challow ool layer, the sil conditions and the properties ofthe bearing. round can be identifid by toat pitting 622.8 Principal Surveys [ The principal survey to ently ground conditions, construction conditions] land geotechnical parameters for the detailed design of foundations shall generally consist ofthe following! () Boring (© Underground water survey © Sampling (D) Loading tests © Sounding (8) Geophysical exploration and (® Geotechnical teats geophysical prospecting (©) Rock tests (9) Survey oftosic gas and Anexample of flowchar® for planning principal surveys according to 2.2.4 Byaluation of Geotechnical Parameters for Desiga, ig shown in Fig.C-2.21. An overview of the stages is as fellows A. Scheme of Survey Survey items, test conditions, locations, depths and length of survey should be wm daz ees 3 | a lp waar pm Same oma, snaayy ¢|oocam ros 3] wtere, anne aes! erases = Smaart nore pe “etomaepute ie nm Sm aes aoa aS Sm ve par ae Seeger att on dls ow sematanen | anaemia oe snipe = oe on ee pia p son Sadiaatandcpacacieen = Suma wae Sdnp aquosnn eet sn ea] mmgeminm @| 2 ‘oppromeeaag | “mre sa] "Eom 9] meee, rp i ae werd ia ae | ee airs eer [ES | ouang pon spoioyy Saurng wooMog LONE TEEO-AME,‘accordance with appropriate sampling methods and in-situ testing methods, ‘Therofore, rotary boring it normally employed in view of the abovementioned survey tachnique Tt is important to carefully celct bore sites, numbers, and depths required for the round survey. Surface rocky ground may not be appropriate as» besring stratum duc to ‘weethering, cracking, or faulting. In such eases, ground surveys need tobe eared ‘out up tothe depth ofa stiff bedrock, to eonfirm goological formations and to obtain ‘adequate information for selecting an appropriate beaving stratum. ‘When boring equipment isnot recovered, groundwater in the holes may boil during the sinking of eaisons easing comprossed air to leak from the construction It is Important to avoid this situation, Because it may eause serious problems during construction, When such problems are expected, the borcholos should be located away from the exact location of any abutments and piers, © Sampling ‘Sampling is performed to prepare specimens for observation and various laboratory tests. Spesimens can be classified aa either “disturbed” or “undisturbed, and used fox the laboratory tate shown in Table-C.22. Sampling methods should be selected in accordance with the soil type and the level ‘of compaction, When detsled Iahorstary tests are performed to obtain tr-axial strength ratios for weal soils and liquefiable sends, the effects of eampling Gisturbance on test rosults are extensive. In such cases frozon sempls recommended, ‘The sampling losations shall conform to the descriptions in (0 below. (®) Sounding Standard penetration tests (SPT) are ofton employed in conjunction with boring, ‘SPY plays an important role in estimating the properties of geological structures Various geotechnical parameters can be empirically evaluated from measured N 2values with the use of correlation equations. In recent years fully automatic SPT ‘equipment have been developed and employed to minimise the effects of human Interaction, However, it is suggested that SPT may not be applicable to all situations. It is only possible to understand the actual geotechnical conditions by ‘combining the results of various survey techniques. The SPT should be considered a part of the minimum ouevey required In eases of gravel layers, the SPT tends to take high values due to the inevitable Jmpacts with individuel stones. In auch eases, the “values should be modified by carefully reviewing a relation botween blow count and penetration. ‘The in-situ vane shear test isa method to directly obtain the shear strength (mainly cohesion) of a soil insita ‘The portable cone penetration test, double-tbe electric cone penetration test, and Swish sounding are used to examine the hardness and density of soils. ‘These methods are often combined with other methods. The locations, depths, and number of teste should be determined in view ofthe purpose © Soil Tests Soil tests consist of test to obtain the physical properties of eile and test the mechsnieal properties of soils. The physical propestios of acl inslude the he water content, rain size, unit weight, oid ratio, ete toobtain ensity ofthe sil parti ‘The mechanical properties of soils include the cohesion, shear resistance angle, ‘modulus of deformation, compression index, consolidstion cveffcint, et. ‘Teste on the physical properties of sole are useful for identifying and classifying ‘complex soils, and for comparing the properties of specimens. Therefore, it is desirable to perform the tests on a number of spacimens from each ground stratum, where each is judged to have similar characteristic ‘The location of tests to obtain the mechanical properties of soils should be determined in consideration of the continuity and thickness ofthe geological steata, ‘nd the tet conditions should bo defined according to the sonfining pressures and ‘drainage conditions.[As the mechanical properties of soils within a stratum change by a greater amount in the vortcal direction compared with the horizontal direction, sampling leations should be eontinvows in the vertical drvotion, Alzo, i is essential to elect tout locations at exact points considered in the design. For example, when the lateral resistance of a foundation is to be determined, it is appropriate to select comparatively shallow points that have significant influence ox lateral resistance. ‘The fllowing are additional romars on typical sol tests 1) Unconfined Compression Test ‘The unconfined compression test can be employod asa simple test for clay so compression test However, the strengths obtained place ofan undrained trivax for ard elay soils or clay soil with a high sand content may be lower than the actual values du tothe effects of disturbance and brittle failure ofthe specime during sampling. In addition, the strength of clay soil with a high sand content may be underestimated duo to the fact thatthe londing conditions that may not be _arpropriate for the undrained conditions. Therefore in such exses the teat res should be modified in view of the plastic index ofthe soils or the results of other tests such as triaxial compression tote 2) Trivasil Compression Test ‘When performing tr-asial compression tests, the drainage conditions should be measured in view ofthe soil propertioe and time-dependent loading properties, Further, consolidation conditions during the teat should be mensured appropriately, Even when inevoases in ground strongth aftr the construction of a bridge ean be expected due to consolidation ofthe ground under the foundations, the original strength ofthe ground ix often used. Confining pressures during atest should be apptopriate because high confining pressures may result in excessive strength estimates 8) ‘Tri-exial Compression Test with Steain Measurement on the Sides of Specimens ‘According to recently observed tendencies of largo structures, it is sometimes necessary to investigate the precise eettlement of foundations. In such eases, the nonlinear modulus of deformation should he determined in terms of the loading. In these situations, the results from tr-exil teste with using strain measurements 25on the side ofthe specimen and those from in-situ tests can be combined, As the rosults of the abovementioned soil tecto may be subject to variation due to the nonuniformity of the soll, sampling, nd test'induced disturbances, itis crucial to fully examine and employ the results ofthe soi tests to dotormine the correlation with the physical properties of the sol 6) Rock Teste Rock toss consist of physiesl property test to obtsin density, water content, water absorption ratio, degre of wetted decay, supersonic surveys to determine seismic 1 testa to determine the wave velocities and Poisson's ratio, and mechs compressive strength, cohesion, angle of shear resistance, modulus of deformation, ete, ‘The romarks for rock teste are basicelly identical to those for sol test. Rock testa using bore cores, however, may be wsed vo partially determine rock properties, but ‘may not be used to determine the overall charactaristies af rocks euch as existence ‘of eracks end joints, dogroo of weathering. Accordingly, in roek teste it is niore appropriate to wee euch tests in conjunction with goophysicel exploration methods to determine the overall rock properties. ©) Groundwater Survey Groundwater surveys ean be clnecifiod into surveys on the groundwater itself and jurveys on aquifers ae shown in Tuble-C.2.2.2, which shows the major items of ‘rroundwater surveys, () Loading Tost Londing tests are sed to determine the bearing capactia, eubgeade reactions and spring constants of grounds and piles hy direct loading and consists of plate bearing tests, bore-hole loading tests, and vertical or horizontal loading tests of piles, A block shear testis used for rocky ground.‘Table-C.2.22 Groundwater Survey. Gromdvater able measurement ingil ad bor Measurement ot [ Powewaie pressure mceoarement feovotecter [aterorment of te | MRS moet wesc iresion apd ley vio masevumenk ‘yaterqalay aaa” Hate, ete ron ali as hac! sates pH iabdon sen Bor dete prospect, si sory on [aitiinee Toga owadte ge Sony on Tiras ‘ue geet tat . ‘Gears, eauroment OTT Physi propestie Geis at Ground bearing capacities and other values should be determined from the resulte of not only loading tests, but also those of soundings, soil tests, and examination of the goological structure. ‘As the coefficient of subgrade reactions and epring constants determined from loading teste may vary according to the soil type, loading condition, sizo and shape of louding arse, pile length, losding pattera, and construction method, they should bb determined according to the purpose (8) Geophysical Exploration and Logging ‘The physical values obtained from geophysicel explorations and logging express the overall ground conditions rather than the mechanical and engineering properties of the soil, Therefore, itis important to accurately evaluate the results from these surveys by comparison with the results from other urveys “The types of geophyeieal explorations and logging are shown in Tuble-C.2.23, [Among these methods, the seismic wave survey and PS logging techniques are most populatly utilized. These surveys measure the shear-wave velocities of small ‘strains In seismic design, for example, the result from these surveys ean be used to determine bedrock planes for design and to estimate the dynamic responses ofthe uboole, Further, the hardness and dogree of weathering of rocks are often lasted from the Powave velocities. a(9) Survey of Toxie Gas and Anoxia Air Various hazardous substances, mostly gasoous, may sometimes accumulate in the ‘round. Toxic gas may be roleased during the construction of bridge substructures Farther, ome soil layers with « high mineral content may cause anoxia, because of ts considerable deoxidizing properties, The existence of toric gas and snxis air critical problem affecting the selection of substructure design snd construction ‘method ‘Table-C.2.2.8 Methods of Geophysical Explorations and Logging Survey Mevhods | Mesouving Method ving Tae ‘Saavey Heme ‘Decogial sircture Seismic wave Seismic wave tedrock depth suey veleity relative hardness 0 Seahed geosrapi: iesurvey Sonic impedance Seni = seslogical structure ‘Natural electic | Gtogial structure, Blecteic prospecting | potential specie | Ceolepeal sue Underground aaar | Shallow evel agree ore Beologieal vires eure lative rdne ofan relation betwesn oe Swe wey [goed (a= y elated Geophysical a a r Teese relative badness of arshole round cure ‘Veto toging | Pave valoity Geological severe, sui densi : ‘Water entot Otters ‘Thermal neutcon | fowautot lection may result in serious accidents during construction, Inappropriate ‘Accordingly, when the existence of such gases in a soil layer is estimated during boring, the characterctce of the layer showld be fully examined by taking ‘additonal specimens. In eases when these may affect the selection of substructure type and construction methods, detailed surveys should be performed at thelocation and depth of the ga, 2.2.4 Evaluation of Geotechnical Parameters for Design Geotechnical parameters for design shall be established by evaluating the results of geotechnical investigations ‘The geotechnical parameters used hore aro values representing various propertics of the ground, The bond forces and fiction anglos betweon the base of spretd foundations and the ground, and the maximum skin fiction stresses in ples (and other design parameters relating tothe interaction between the soil and structure), are mentioned in Chapters 10 through 14 for various types of foundations, “The geotechnical parameters forthe design of foundations can be genetally classified fallow Physical properties of soils: Grain size, voi ratio, unit weight, Mechenical propertvs ofscils: Strength parameters (cohesion, angle of shoat resistance), modulus of deformation, ‘compression index, consolidation ‘coefficient, consolidation yield tees, seismic wave velocity, ts Some of these parameters such as the unit weight and compression index ean be obtained directly from sol tests, butother paramoters, such as most of the mechanical parameters thet are usually estimated from the SPT N values, can be obtained {indirectly wsing correlation equations and/or curves derived from past surveys [Although ground materials have complex properties and vary widely, the geotechnical parameters for design are used to estimate, with most probable estimation under the riven ground conditions, the performance of foundations subjected to various fonds ‘Accordingly, the geotechnical parameters should principally tale the average valuesof tho ground concerned, in consideration of accuracy and characteristics of the estimation equations 29In determining the geotechnical parameters for design, ground survey results construction records, and the state of existing structures around the foundation site shouldbe referenced ‘As described in the Commontary of Sc. 1.6, the data and processes for determining ‘the geotechnical parameters for design shouldbe clavtid inthe design drawings. ‘The following are Key remarks for determining the geotechnical parameters for design’ D Dispersion of Ground Survey Data In goneral, measurement data obeained from undisturbed ground are nonuniform, and subject to significant dispersion. t is necossary to determine geotechnical parameters for design by evaluating the dispersion and amount of data, In lavified by ‘estimating ground parameters, measurement data should be examining the data, climineting abnormal values, and modifying the data a necessary. This is sometimes called tho first-order treatment of meisurement data ‘When data are subject to significant dispersion, the amount of data is extromely small, or the design results are sensitive to variations in the geotechnical parameters, the geotechnical parameters fordesign should be determined carefully, 2) vuluation of Ground Strength Parameters and Modulus of Deformation Ie is well known that ground strengths induced by deformation depend on the effects of stress levels, strain levels, and anisotropic properties. Further, ground strengths vary with confining presaures and drainage conditions, Therefore, in covalvating ground parameter, the following should be noted 1) Use of values ‘The Standard Penetration Test SPT is used to understand the properties of feological structures, It is widely used becauce of it simplicity, Therefore, & number of correlation equations Between geotechnical parameters for design Gneluding various parametars for bearing capacities of foundations) and SPT N values have been propesed. However, ground strength parameters and modulus of deformation vary withstvess and strain states and drainage conditions, Therefore, geotechnical perameters estimated frm N values should be considered as being applicable to the specific conditions assumed in obtaining the correlation oquations between N values and geotechnical parameters (for example, under specif stress conditions, strain levels, and drainage condition), or a8 ones for establishing a certain caleulation model 1D Cohesion of Clay € ‘The undruined shear strength, or cohesion c, of clay soils sometimes estimated {om the SPT N value, Ia cases of soft clay soils having an N value of or less, itis inadequate t estimate the shear strength fom tho rosults of SPT, which releases large amounts of energy upos impact. In such casce, the cohesion c, should be ‘obtained from laboratoey tests for wndiaturbed gpecimens or other inst tests With regard to laboratory tots, the t-axial compression test is recommended, Regarding tho undrained shear strength of sof clay sols, the unconfined compression strength q, ean be obtained from unconfined compression tests Cor ‘undisturbed specimens, and cohesion c, may take one half of g, , namely 6, =4,/2. Inevaluating the cohesions obtained from various inssitu tests such as jsound Survey Methods” Gapan Geotechnical static cone ponotration tests, Society) should be referenced. fi) Angle of Shear Resistance § of Sand [Expensive and advanced techniques are nooded to acquire undisturbed send specimens from undisturbed sandy ground and to conduct precise laboratory tests ‘Therefore, the angle of shear resistance ¢ is estimated from the relative density using the correlation between the relative density of sand and the N value. A ‘numbor of investigations on the corslation equations are available. As a highly precise estimation, « correlation equation is proposed that takes tho effective overburden pressure into acount, 1b) Cohesion © and Angle of Shonr Resistance § of Gravel ‘The SPT N values of gravel are typically overestimated due to impacts with, individual stones. Accordingly, n stimating the angle of shear resistance from the N value, it i necessary to modify the N value by fully reviewing the relation ‘betweea blow count ana penetration. Dense and hardened diluvial gravel layers maintain a dogree of cohesion © a avoll as an angle of shear resistanceg. It is desirable to extimate ¢ and ¢ by conducting plate bearing and other tects for special eases in view of the seale of the structure and the ground conditions. ‘As new alluvial gravel layers are generally not compacted, the etrength of such layers should be evaluated by considering the angle of shear resistance only ¥) Cohesion ¢ and Angle of Shear Resistance # of Rocks ‘There are few cases when the bearing capacities of rocks become relevant in sign, For foundations on rocks with eracks and fsures or those on inclined rocks, the bearing capacity ofthe rock should be carefully determined in view of the results of sufficient surveys and tests, The properties of rocks are generally more non-uniform than those of soil and their mechanical and deformation characteristics vary with factors euch as rock feature, states and frequencies of stratifcations, fractures, joints, and loatione and degreas of faulting erack zones and weathered metamorphic zones. Accordingly, evaluation of suck tests is not slways easy in comparison with sil, and the determination ofcohesion © and the angle of shear resistance @ is dificult. In other words, rock strength parameters ‘should be carefully evaluated with reference to the resulls of tests on similar rounds nearby. ‘As for soft rocks and mudstones with les cracks, it may be possible to perforin design calculations by taking a value of cohesion equal t9 one half of the ‘unconfined compression strength g, obtained froin mechanieal tests on sampled cores, and neglecting the angle of shear resistance #. As the unconfined ‘compression strength depends on the water content, core specimens with a water content approximately equal to the insitu value should be used in the testing. For weathered soft rocks, itis often diffult to sample core spesimens and ‘etimate the shear strength. In such cases, it is proposed to ertimate the ‘geotechnical parameters using the correlation between the modified N values and ‘the material properties of rocks besed on previous results, "The modified N valuos in easos of penetration lose than S00 mm per blow count of 50 ere equivalent to penetration of 300 mm obtained by proportional calculation [tie confirmed fiom past investigations that the material properties of rocks with ‘a modified N value of 300 (or equivalent toa penetration of 80 mm per blow countof 50) can be reasonably estimated in terme of the modified N values. The ‘cotvelation equations to estimate the shoar strength, yield strength, et. from the ‘modifid N values are proposed using a number of available data for individual 100k typos It is believed thet by combining specific survey results, more accurate strength paramotors canbe estimated. ‘The amount of weathering and cracking of bors cores for hard rks are generally diffrent from the average in-situ properties, Therefore itis desirable to evaluate the strength parameters of rocks in-situ from the results from bore cores in conjunction with the RQD Rock Quality Designation) and Prwave velocities of both cores and insitu samples, together with the results of local tests such as mechanical tost for boring and in-situ loading bore tests, Tis aap desirable to penform in-situ shear tests especially when necessitated in view ofthe scale ofthe structure and the ground conditions. vi) Modulus of Deformation of Soits ‘The displacoment of foundations largely depends on the behaviour ofthe weak sections of the bearing ground. In adltion, the herizontal displacement of foundations with respect to the loads acting on the top of the foundations wary with the properties of the surface layers. Accordingly, the structures and the 1 properties of the soil ayers within the area aflacing the deformation sochani ‘ofthe foundation shouldbe clarified, and the overall deformation propertias of the ‘eround must be evaluated, ‘The Commentary in See 9.5.2 illustrates methods to evaluate the vertical and horizontal coefficients of subgrade reactions in terms of the modulus of deformation obtained fom the results of the following tests, with the use of correlation equations established from past surveys ‘an situ plate bearing test using rigid disk of diameter 0.3 m ‘Ja situ horizontal borehole loading test c-Laboratory unconfined or trivexiel compression test 4 Standard penetration tost (N valued) ‘The adequacy of coefficients for estimating the subgrade reactions weing the modulus of deformation obtained from the above teste, are already verified in‘comparison with the results of static loading tests for foundations and the reeults of displacement calculations atthe tp ofthe foundations. However, the modulus ‘of deformation will vary with stress and strain, beseuse soil isa typical nonlinear ‘material, Therefore, when the displacement ofthe foundations is caeulated vsing ‘methods other than those shown ia Chapter 10 or thereafter, or when ascurste ‘estimations of settlement under the permenent loads are required, the modulus af formation should be determined by conducting surveys appropriate for the ‘methods and purposes ofthe design computations For example, the shear modulus used in dynamle snslysis should be modified co 1 to match the magnitudes of shear strains goneratod during an earthquake. In such cases, itis appropriate to modify the shear modulus in the range of small ‘strain levels obtained from the PS-wave velocities and other method in view of the rolationship between the modulus of deformation and the strain obtained fromm laboratory eylie tr-axial shear tests, vi) Modulus of Deformetion of Racks For soft rocks with modified N velues of 300 or les, correlation formas between ‘the modulus of deformation and modified N values are available for various rocks, as isthe case for cohosion ¢ and the angle of shear resistance. It is expected ‘that estimation accuracy would he enhanced by combining the results with other survey results 2.8 Survey of River Characteristics and Water Utilization Bridge and girder fall are often caused by damage to the bridge substructures during Aocding. Surveys of iver charactristics end water utilization are performed to avoid bri@ge damage due to river flows, and to minimize the effects of substructures on water uilization and shipping. ‘Therefore, when planning a bridge over a river, suiiciont coordination with the rivercontrol organizations should be established. Further, related Jaws, espocilly shouldbe conformed with, ‘Oninance on Structures on River Management Facilities Doecause i specifies regulations on the locations of abutments and piors, thoir ‘configurations, embedment depthe of foundations from the planned riverbed, span lengths, clearances, and other factors. Regulations on embedment depths of foundations, however, indicate minimum requirements from the viewpoint of river ‘management It should be tod that these regulations do not guaraatec the long erm, stability of foundations against scour ‘The stability of bridge foundations against the effects of scour is one of the most Important aspeets to be considered in the maintenance and management of bridges. ‘The amount of scour during flooding will be alloted by water depth, flow velocity, riverbed gradient, riverbed materila, configurations and intorval of bridge piers, angles between river flow and the bridge axis, ete, Appropriate surveys must be perfoemed to estivate the amount of scour Surveys of river characteristics consist of reviews of water level, flow, velocity, past ‘center lines, movement of the riverbed, flood history, high tides, and surges. Further, for a siver improvement plan, the planned high water level and dredge elevation shouldbe identified, and the locations and embedment depths of substructures should be determined. Moreover, the elevations of riverbeds at hends and rapid stroams will Arop temporarily during Nooding and recover to the original following the drop in water level. Therefore, the results of surveys performed during norm conditions will, sometimes underestimate the amount of lowering of the riverbe Additional surveys on backwater actions bobind piers, flowing timbers, drift ice, Asbris Now, dynamic water prossuros, currente, wave heights, sand accumulation, ‘changes in flow due t tidal dilferences, ete. shouldbe performed. ‘Farthermore, surveys on water vse situations such as irigation and hydraulic power generation, Sishing rights and ehipping should be conducted, and coordination with related organizations and groups nood to be fully seeured.2.4 Survey of Construction Conditions ‘The following surveys of construction conditions shall bo performed () Survey of existing materials (©) Survey of surrounding environment (2) Survey of construction environment ‘At the design stage, attention is not usually pil to surveys of construction conditions. However the safety and reliability ofthe construction should be carefully investigated at the design stage, Because such considerations ate important, [At the construction planning stage, selection of the construction methods, scales ‘equipment ellocations, construction periods and schedules are necessary. (D Surveys of Bristing materials [Examples of substructuree close tothe new bridge site are useful when examining ‘overall procedures for the design and construction. Accordingly, the collection of design documents, construction records and related information of actual examples is desirable. Reviewing the experiences of persons involved in previous similar rojecte is alco vecommended. (@) Surveys of the Surrounding Environment During the construction of substructures, nose, vibration, ground subsidence, soil exeavation, water pumping, oil and dust, end traffic obstruction will affect the ‘surrounding environment, Accordingly, itis necessary to perform advance surveys of the buildings, nese, ground subsidence, water levels and quality of wells, and traffic conditions around the construction ste Tis also necessary to evaluate the ‘extent of tho siete of the construction on the surrounding environment, Tn particular, when selecting a procast pile dviving method, the effects of noise and vibration shouldbe carefully investigated, Further, laws regulating and minimising these environmental effects, and related regulations established by local governments should be understood, Cultural and historical monuments and fered, heritage sites, and riverheads should also be carefilly com When installing pneumatic caisson foundations, the effects on the water levels ofwelle situated over a wide area shouldbe investigated, (@) Survey of Work Environment In selecting the type, scale and method of construction of foundations, the type and allocation of construction facilities and the machines, materials, work procedures, ssopraphy of the construction site, and spacos and areas of work should all be investigated. Therefore, it is necessary to understand these factor by conducting field explorations snd various information surveys [As tho existence of adjacent structures and underground structures close to new construction sites will also have a significant affect oa the construction of certain 1 of foundations, the locations, types, embedment depths, ete. should be investigated. In particular, for adjacent structures their design documents and ‘onstruction recs should be collated, In some eases, interaction between the new substructure and adjacent structures should be examined by performing bore surveys and confirming the embedment depths ofthe foundations. Furthermore, field examinations should be carefully performed on the transportation of the , the amount of excavated soils and the machinery, equipment, and mate capacity ofthe electricity, water supply and sewer systems. In particulas, for the transpostation routes the widths, alignment, traffic volumes, traffic restrictions, «and load limits for bridges should be investigated Furthermore, in oer to select appropriate construction methods, equipment, and work procedures for the predicted weather condition during the proposed construction period, records of temperature, wind velosty, wind direction, rainfall and snowfill should be examined [All aw and regulations on the protection of the environment and the treatment of by-products should be studied in advance, and the information and knowledge fsined ehould be employed in the design and construction planning processes aCHAPTER3 FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN 8.1 General 4) The corvicoability and the safety of bridge structures chal be verified using the load combinations detailed in Seo, 8.2 and the provisions detailed in Sec. 3.3. Verification of the seismic effects shall be performed in ascordance with Part IV Substructuros and Part V Seiemie Design, (2) Beamination of the durability of the structure shall be performed using the provisions detailed in Chapter In signing bridge cubstructuros, serviceability and structaral safety shall bs verified {fall consideration ofthe proviciona detailed in Sc. 15 Basic Principles for Design of Part I Common. Aecordingly, substructures should be designed such that the louds from superstructures and the leads acting on the substructures shall be safely transmitted to the supporting ground, and the design requirements given by the superstructures are fulfilled. To ensure serviceability and structural safety, the stability of the overall substructures aad the safty of the structural members should be verified, Further, vorifiation of the seismie effects should be performed in accordance with the provisions in Part 1V Substructures and Part V Seismie Design. In Addition, the durability chould be examined in onder to ensure long torm serviceability tind atevctural safety In performing the verification of (1) and (2) above, construction quality contro, ease of maintenance, environmental harmony, and economic considerations as specified in Amtclo 1.5 of Pact I, should always be taken into account. Thus, the optimum design should be resized following a comparative study ofthe results of various trial designs (0) With regard to serviceability, the substructures mast provide appropriate support to the euperstructures, and ener the serviceability of the brige for people to use bridges with safety and comfort. Furthermore, regarding structural saets, the substructures must provide an adequate faetorfsafety against the loads acting on the superstructures and substructures. The servicebilty and structural safety should be vevfid through the use of the design load combinations shown in Sec ‘3.2,and the provisions detailed in See. 3.3 Ps‘The fundamental aspocts of soismic design such as eoismie effects and the procedures for the ealcultion/eritication of seismic responses are provided in Chapters 2 to 8 of Part V Seismic Design. As specified in Soe. 634 of Part V, the veriScation of the structural mombers of piers, abutments, and foundations for seismic porformance 1 should conform to See. 5.1, andthe stability of foundations for seismic performance 1 should conform to Sec. 92. Further, as described in Sec, 6.45 of Part V, the verification of sbismic performance 2 and 8 should follow See. 6.46, 6.47, and 6.4.8 of Part Vor pers, per foundations, and abutment foundations, respectively. Data collated on bridge damage in Japan eaused by natural disasters indicate that the amount of flood induced bridge damage is greater than the amount of earthquake: induced damage. Accordingly, substructures should be designed in consideration of the ofiets of floods in order to ensure the serviceability and structural safety of the structure, The following states the key points for reducing the effects of floods on substructures, ‘The substructures shoul be examined in accordance with “Ordinance on Structaves on River Managemont Facilites” which speci installation locations, configurations, ‘embedment depths, clearances under bridge girders, et. These regulations, however, indeate the miniroum requirements for eneuring tho safety of river facilities. Thoreforo, substractares conforming to those requiroments are not slays safe against tho risk of Aecding With regard tothe effets of flooding, i s necessary to take into account all forces and loads caused by the increased amount of water and the effects of scour. Flow velocity nd high water levels should be evaluated with respect t the loads acting on the structure, and the effects ofthe lowering of riverbeds due to scour should be estimate. However, i is dificult, based upon present knowledge, to specify the methods for the valuation ofthese effects. Accordingly, in designing bridge aubstructures, the details ofthe proposed sito and tho sauce under the bridge girders should all be determined, taking account ofthe rivor characteristics, past floed levels the locaton of rapids Although food levels may be determined in reference to the height of neazby dikes, they shoul also be evaluated ‘with fll consideration ofthe importance ofthe bridge in the road network ‘The construction of foundations a sites vulnerable tothe effects of scour such as bends ‘or rapids inthe civer should be avoided. When tho bridge must be constructed at auch a location, itis effetive in the ease of spread foundations to be foundations with a ‘sufficient embedment depth for longtime stability. Further, when consteveting 39°bridge at a bend in the river, the supporting round around the piers close to the center of the siver ie vulnerable to scour. Tn such ensss, pier lations should be detormined after fully examining foundation types and bridge span arvangeinents (or allostions of substructures _Abstments constructed in rapids are sometimes damaged when the backill behind the abutments is washed away. In terms of maintaining fonction of roads after food, abstmente at the sites above should he avoided as much as poesble. In such oases, it ic necessary ta protect the material above and around the abutments "There are many examples of the outflow of superstructures due to insulficiont span lengths oF a lack of clearance under bridge girders. Accordingly, damage due to Aoading can be reduced by avoiding the construction of piers within the river section, and adopting longer spans at upstream, curved, or narrow sites, Its also appropriate ‘to increase the clearance under bridge ginders t avoid damage tothe superstructures of small and lightweight bridges. (©) As tho repair and retrofit (strengthening) of substructures normally requires for lagessslo works, and can have a considerable effect on tealie flow and the ‘surrounding environment, the durability of substructures should be ensured when ecigning structures, es noted in Soc. 1.8 of Part 1 Common. Therefore, the ‘examination of durability should be incorporated into the design process in ‘ccordance with the provisions of Chapter 6 In particular, the durability of reinforeod concrete (RC) structures should be examined against the deteriorating factors such as neutralization, irruption of chloride ions, epeated freezing and thawing, and chomicsl erosion. In addition, ‘salvinduced damage to substructures has been frequently reported. When sewair damage is likely, detailed examination ia required according wo the provisions detailed in Seo. 6.2. Furthermore, the effets of fw ehould be taken inte acount for some locations.8.2 Load Combinations in Design Calculations ‘Tho design of substructures shall be performed under the most adverse conditions (of the load combinations listed in Table 8.21. ‘Teblo’32.1 Load Combinations Load Combinations Principal lads (P) + particule loads corresponding to principal loads (PP) | 2 Paci nd (P+ pats ads eeaponding to princes) +) | fet of temperature change (0) | 2 Prin loads (+ pares Ids corroding pineal tnd (P+ | | wind lords (W) | 4. Principal lads (P)+ particular lus coeresponding to principal loads (PP) + || effet of tomporature change (P+ wind lod) 15. inci! lads () + particular loads corresponding to principal lon (PE) + braking loads (BK) 6 Prinepal ads 0) + y | collision ads (CO) | Principal lads excep ive loss and impacts + eric tots (BQ) | Lose during erection period (2%) | ular Toads corresponding to principal loads (PP) + 1) General Load Combinations ‘Table-22.1 shows the possible simultaneous losd combinations thet may provide ‘adverse combinstions for cubstructures. Whon designing bridge substructures, the foty of structural members and the stability ofthe foundations should bo verifcd with consieration of the most adverse conditions of the load eombinetions listed in Tabler321. “The load combinations in Table-C.821 are gonaral combinations used in the verification of the safety of the structural membors and the stability of the foundations. Under specific conditions of bridge erection, geography, ground type, and structural type, additonal loads such as snow loads, collision loads, and the effects of ground movements shown in Soe. 2.1 of Part I Common should also be Incorporate.‘Table-C.92.1 General Load Combinations Design of Abutments ] Design of Piers ‘Load Situations 1 Dead leader ine ods |) Dead ide + vende ‘tearthprossuron |) Dead loads + ats of > Deabtaate + cath | tempertreebnee |. ins endb peer 1) Dead nde +f Bnd s efecto temperature change Bandas each] Tae se te rans + simi Under eathquake ondion efvcts = 3 Bea dd ds | Eros wind waa ‘Most abutment foundations may be designed for load combination a) in Table-C.0.2.1 for bearing stability verfiention ip the perestent situation, and for 8) in Tablo-C.22.1 for the verification of the resistance to sliding and overturning in the persistent situation ‘Most pier foundations may be designed for load combination a) in Table-C.3.2.1 in the ‘persatent situation, However, i is also necnsary to examine cases b) and © in Tablo C821 including the effete of temperature chenge when designing s mult'span continuous bridge in consideration of the bridge maintenance and management and seismic resistance. As the stability of the foundations may not be affected by temperature change, the safety ofthe foundations themselves can he solely vorfid in In the eaae of a bridge with tall piers andlor noise barrier wall, the safety of the substructures may be affected by wind loading. In auch eases, it io necessary to verify the eafety of tho structural members andthe stability of the foundations with caso e) ‘When horizontal wind loads ars considered in the safety verification ofthe structural members, i is also necessary to examine the loed combinations including live loads. 2 Effects of Soils on Footings In the verification of foundation stability, the vertical component ofthe weight of the ‘oil resting ona foting should be considered, but the horizontal inertial forces acting eduring an earthquake can be generally neglected. When the load varies with groundwater level or the effects of scour sre likaly to oeeu, such effects should be taken into account in the design. The horizontal inertial fores ofthe soil resting om ‘tho back'to of an abutment footing should be considered 9) Blects of Buoyancy or Up. When there is a significant difference between the high and low water levels, the ffects of bueyancy or uplift should be considered by assuming the severest case 4) Directions tobe Considered ‘The design voriication of abutments can be generally performed solely in the longitudinal direction. The verification of piers, howaver, should be performed in both the longitudinal and transverse dirsetions. 5) Calculation of Forces Acting on the baso of Pir and Abutment Foundations 2 Piers ‘An extaaple of the ealulation equations of the vertical forces V (kN), horizontal forces H (kN), end moments M (kN+m) acting on the base of a pier foundation is ‘ustested in FigC3.21 and Fig-C3.22, for the pecsistent and seismic situations respectively. ©) Under ordinary condition ‘i he a pent at lee # PeDymani Petre Fig-C3.21 Loads for Stability Verifleation of Pier Foundation under Ordinary Condition1 Under earthquske condition ‘ar HgirolynsmicPreseure daring en Bathgate Fig.6-9.2.2 Loads fr Stability Verifieation of Pier Foundation Under Earthquake Condition. 19 Abutments An example of the eslolation cqustions of the vertical forces V (kN), horizontal forces H (kN), snd moments M (kN-m) acting om the base ofan abutment foundation Js shown in Fig-C3.25 and Fig'C.3.2.4 under ordinary condition and during an Barthguake respectively. ‘Under ontinary conition where Ee Coico of ce ath peenure 226 0f Past) {Savas onetarge O90) 226efPact Unit weight afi Nin) 4 Angi of wl tin betwee bck wal plane Fig. €'3.23 Loads for Stability Verification of Abutment Foundation under ordinary conditionpd sl degre (Tab 02.25 in 2.2.60 PareD 4 Toatbesghtofabuteat (m) (2 Bese ofthe erlaa od (m Seismic Situation we DH Rasingy weaSeengsos, hers, Fi cetconstaumccaneceetpmmue — Fe. 624Leed for Stability Seearmae Veriiation of Abutment Bangle sini wal eon Gores) Foundation in Under Barthauabe Tanie C-225in2260fPartD ae ©) The live ads (loads applicable to the design ofthe main girders of superstructures should generally apply to the desiga of substructures, Tho reactions at the bearing supports of the superstructures may sometimes overestimate the design loads if the reactions are taken as they are, This is ‘because the lading wideh ofthe principal oad ica constant (5.5m) irrespective of ‘the bridge width, and the som of the maximum reactions ofall bearing supports sometimes provides an exseesive value for the design load for substructures. The live loads aprly ia the transverse direction, 9 the maximum elzeseue in each section ofthe structural member concerned can be obtained in accordance withthe ‘configuration ofthe substructures (ofa to Fig-C8.2.5) Farther, for the design loads in the longitudinal dieetion, one pair of uniform Toads p, ean be taken per bridge. In the case ofa short'span bridge (generally less than 15 m), it should be noted that the effets of Moads are increased. In such a case, the support reactions ealeulated using the Toads should be multiplied by ‘the cofficient in Table-222, a shown in Seo. 2.2.2 of Part I fr bridges designed by applying B-type lve londsInBacsce Lge of Support Resco of ain Gide A ef tr ci aa ee OeSipssiocie Sepia Sipesinctsee One Sipestucure Septal Supesucres (0) Mera! Lending Pate (t)Lanig Pate or Design of Canever Secon FFig-C.3.25 Loading Pattorns of ive Loads (in the Tranaverse Direction) 3.3 Verification of Safety for Loads (D ‘The strength, doformation, and stability of a substructure shal! be verified to censure structural safety. (©) In the verification of (1), the stresses generated in structural members shall be ‘mallor than the sllowable steaaee specified in Chaptor 4 (@) The verification of safety according to the provisions in Chapter 5 and ‘hereafter together with the verifieation of (2) may be deemed to satisfy (1) above (0), (To ensure the safety of structures, the strength, deformation, and stability of ‘ubstractares in consideration of tho most adverse conditions from the load ‘combinations specified in Sec. 3.2 shall be verified In the design of substructutes, the sefity of structural members and the stability of foundations should be verified to provide structural members with adequate strength, to avoid excessive deformation that would otherwise affct the servcesbiity of bridges due to damage to the superstructures, and to ensure the stability of structures, ‘Tho losd combinations tobe consiared inthe design of eubstructures may be generally regarded as the losds forthe persistent situstion, extreme wind situation, and seismic situation (evel 1 seismic situation and level 2 seismic situation), Accordingly, the Hit “6