UNIT I MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

According to Bell, “Mathematics is Queen and handmaiden of all science subjects”.

Function: If the variable y depends upon x in such a way that corresponding to any value of x , there exists a
single definite value of y, then y is said to be a function x written as y = f(x). In other words, a function is a
relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs, with the property that each input is related to
exactly one output.
Types of Functions:
1) Logarithmic function: A function f(x) = log a x (a>0, a≠0) is called logarithmic function. In other
words, a function containing logarithm is called logarithm function. PH scale, Richter scale etc are
logarithmic scales. The main advantage of using logarithm is that it increases the range of possible
values for a physical quantity.
If a = x. Then, y = log a x
y

Natural Logarithm or Naperian Logarithm: Logarithm to the base ‘e’ is called natural logarithm. It is
denoted by ln . E.g., log e x = y or y = ln x .
The constant ‘e’ is called Euler’s constant or Napier constant. Its value is equal to e = 2.7182.
Common Logarithm: Logarithm to the base 10 is known as common logarithm. It is represented by log.
E.g., log 10 x = y or y = log x. log 10 0 = -∞
Conversion of base: ln x = 2.303 log x. log 10 1 = 0
Remember: Log (m n) = log m + log n log 10 10 =1
Log (m/n) = log m – log n
Log mn = n log m log 10 100 = 2
log a m = log b m x log a b

2) Exponential function: A function f(x) = ax (a>0, a≠1) is called as exponential function. It is inverse of
logarithmic function. Population, compound interest etc increases exponentially. In other words, a function
which contains ex is called an exponential function.
3) Power function: A function f(x) = xa (a is an arbitrary real number) is called power function.
4) Trigonometric function: Function of arcs or angles (usually expressed as ratio of two sides of a right triangle)
is called trigonometric function. In other words, a function which contains trigonometric ratio is called
trigonometric function. E.g., y = sin x.

Values of Trigonometric Ratios

θ 00 300 370 450 540 600 900 1200 1350 1500 1800

Sin 0 1/2 3/5 1/√ 2 4/5 √ 3/2 1 √ 3/2 1/√ 2 1/2 0

Cos 1 √ 3/2 4/5 1/√ 2 3/5 1/2 0 -1/2 -1/√ 2 -√ 3/2 -1

Tan 0 1/√ 3 ¾ 1 4/3 √3 ∞ -√ 3 -1 -1/√ 3 0

1
Sign of Trigonometric Ratios in Various Quadrants: S (SCHOOL) A (AFTER)
Only sin 𝜽 and cosec𝜃 All T. Ratios are +ve in
are +ve here first quadrant
Remember ASTC (After School To College) for sign of trigonometric (900+ 𝜽) & (1800 - 𝜃) (900- 𝜽) & (3600 + 𝜃)
Ratios in various quadrants. Moreover, if parent angle is odd
multiple of 900, then trigonometric ratios changes to their
Co-functions like Sin changes to Cos, tan changes to cot etc. similarly if
Parent angle is even multiple of 900, then there will be no change in the
T (TO)
Trigonometric ratios. C (COLLEGE)
Only tan 𝜽 and cot 𝜃
E.g., Sin (900 + θ) = Cos θ tan (900 –θ) = cot θ Only Cos 𝜽 and Sec 𝜃
are +ve here
are +ve here
Cos (2700 + θ) = sin θ sin (2700 − θ) = − Cos θ (1800+ 𝜽) & (2700 - 𝜃)
(2700+ 𝜽) & (3600 - 𝜃)
Sin (180 + θ) = − sin θ sin (3600 + θ) = sin θ
0

Also sin (−θ) = −sin θ Cos (−θ) = Cos θ tan (−θ) = − tan θ

Example:
Sin (2100) = sin (1800 + 300) = − sin 300 = − ½

Limit of a Function:

A function f ( x ) is said to tend to a limit L as x → c written as:

lim f ( x ) =L
x →c

This means for all values of x very close to c but not at x = c, f ( x ) approaches L.
We use limit to know the behavior of a function at indeterminate points.

x 2−1
Consider a function f ( x )= , at x=1
x−1
0
This function is not defined at x = 1 as f ( x ) = (indeterminate form)
0
However, if values are very close to 1, we find
1.0201−1 0.0201
f ( 1.01 ) = = = 2.01
1.01−1 0.01

0.9801−1 −0.0199
f ( 0.99 ) = = = 1.99
0.99−1 −0.01

x 2−1
Hence f ( x )= = x + 1, x ≠ 1.
x−1
So for all values of x close to 1 f ( x ) Approaches 2 but not at x = 1.
Thus we can write lim f ( x ) =2.
x →1

Algebra of limits:
If lim f ( x ) =L and lim g ( x ) =M
x →c x →c

2
 1) lim {f ( x ) g ( x ) }= lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) = L M
x →c x →c x →c

2) lim {f ( x ) ± g ( x ) } = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x ) = L ± M

x →c x →c x →c

lim f ( x) lim f ( x )
x→c L
3) x→ c = = , M≠0.
g (x) lim g(x) M
x→ c

4) lim K f ( x) = Klim f (x) , where K is a scalar.

x →c x →c

Some Standard Limits:

θ
1. lim sin =1
θ→0 θ
x
e −1
2. lim =1
x →0 x
(1+ x)
3. lim log =1
x →0 x
Binomial Theorem or Binomial series:
The Binomial theorem is a formula for raising a binomial expression to any power without lengthy
multiplication.
2 3
n ( n−1 ) x n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) x
( 1+ x )n=1+nx + + + … … … … … … …..+ ¿ xn
2! 3!
Total numbers of terms in expansion are (n+1). However, if |x| < 1, then number of terms will be infinite (∞)
2 3
n n ( n−1 ) x n ( n−1 )( n−2 ) x
Similarly, ( 1−x ) =1−nx + − + … … … … … … … ..+ ¿ xn
2! 3!
Some Important Identities:
1. Sin2θ + Cos2 θ = 1
2. 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
3. 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
4. Sin (A ± B) = Sin A Cos B ± Cos A Sin B
5. Cos (A ± B) = Cos A Cos B ∓ Sin A Sin B
6. Sin 2θ = 2 Sin θ Cos θ
θ θ
7. Sin θ = 2 Sin Cos
2 2
8. Cos 2 θ = Cos θ – Sin2 θ = 1 – 2 Sin2 θ = 2 Cos2 θ – 1
2

θ θ
9. Cos θ = Cos2 − Sin2
2 2
( A+ B) ( A−B)
10. Sin A – Sin B = 2 Cos Sin
2 2
( A+ B) ( A−B)
11. Cos A – Cos B = −2 Sin Sin
2 2
3
Calculus: It is a branch of mathematics involving calculations dealing with continuously varying functions.
Calculus has two branches:
 Differential calculus or Differentiation.
 Integral calculus or Integration.
Differential Coefficient or derivative:
If y depends on and varies with x, then derivative of y with respect to x is defined as the rate of change of y
dy
with respect to x and is denoted by .
dx
dx
E.g., rate of change of displacement is also known as velocity.
dt
dv dP
Rate of change of velocity is also known as acceleration. Rate of change of linear momentum is
dt dt
dP
called force. Rate of change of pressure with height is written as .
dh
In Newtonian language, derivative is known as Fluxion.

Various Notations for representing Derivative:

∆y dy
lim = . (Leibniz notation)
∆ x →0 ∆ x dx
f ( x+ ∆ x )−f (x)
f `(x) = lim (functional notation)
∆ x →0 ∆x

Geometrical Interpretation of derivative:

Derivative represents the slope of a tangent drawn to curve at any point.

Differentiation by First Principle Method ( Ab-initio method):

Find Derivative of sin x by first principle method:

Sol: Let y = sin x……………. (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = Sin (x + ∆x) ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
∆y = Sin (x + ∆ x) – Sin x
( A+ B) ( A−B)
Using Sin A – Sin B = 2 Cos Sin , we get
2 2
( x +∆ x + x) ( x +∆ x−x )
∆y = 2 Cos Sin
2 2
(2 x+ ∆ x) (∆ x)
∆y = 2 Cos Sin
2 2
∆x ∆x
∆y = 2 Cos (x + ) Sin ( )
2 2
Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find
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Δy ∆x ( Δ x /2)
= 2 Cos (x + ) Sin
Δx 2 ∆x
Δy ∆x ( Δ x / 2)
= Cos (x + ) Sin
Δx 2 ( ∆ x / 2)
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find
∆y ∆x ( Δ x /2)
lim = ∆lim {Cos (x + ) Sin }
∆ x →0 ∆ x x→ 0 2 ( ∆ x /2)
dy lim ∆ x lim ( Δ x /2)
= ∆ x→ 0 Cos (x + ) ∆ x→ 0 Sin
dx 2 ( ∆ x /2)
Δx
When ∆x → 0, then →0
2
dy lim ∆ x lim ( Δ x / 2)
∴ = Δ x → 0 Cos (x + ) Δ x → 0 Sin
dx 2 2 2 ( ∆ x / 2)
dy θ
⇒ = Cos ( x +0) ×1 …………………………………….. [Because lim sin = 1]
dx θ→0 θ
d
Hence (sin x) = Cos x
dx

Find Derivative of Cos x by first principle method:

Sol: Let y = Cos x……………. (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = Cos (x + ∆x) ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
∆y = Cos (x + ∆ x) – Cos x
( A+ B) ( A−B)
Using Cos A – Cos B = −2 Sin Sin , we get
2 2
( x +∆ x + x) ( x +∆ x−x )
∆y = -2 Sin Sin
2 2
(2 x+ ∆ x) (∆ x)
∆y = -2 Sin Sin
2 2
∆x ∆x
∆y = -2 Sin (x + ) Sin ( )
2 2
Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find
Δy ∆x ( Δ x /2)
= -2 Sin (x + ) Sin
Δx 2 ∆x
Δy ∆x ( Δ x /2)
= - Sin (x + ) Sin
Δx 2 ( ∆ x /2)
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find
∆y ∆x ( Δ x / 2)
lim = ∆lim {-Sin (x + ) Sin }
∆ x →0 ∆ x x→ 0 2 ( ∆ x / 2)

5
dy lim ∆ x lim ( Δ x / 2)
= ∆ x→ 0 -Sin (x + ) ∆ x→ 0 Sin
dx 2 ( ∆ x / 2)
Δx
When ∆x → 0, then →0
2
dy lim ∆ x lim ( Δ x /2)
∴ = (-1) Δ x → 0 Sin (x + ) Δ x → 0 Sin
dx 2 2 2 ( ∆ x /2)
dy θ
⇒ = -Sin (x +0) ×1 …………………………………….. [Because lim sin = 1]
dx θ→0 θ
d
Hence (Cos x) = −Sin x
dx

Find Derivative of e ax by first principle method:

Let y = e ax ………………………….. (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = e a (x+∆ x) ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
∆y = e ax+a ∆ x − e ax
∆y = e ax e a ∆ x − e ax
∆y = e ax (e a ∆ x −1 ¿
Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find
Δy
= e ax ¿
Δx
Δy a
= e ax ¿ ×
Δx a
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find
∆y a e ax ¿
lim = ∆lim
∆ x →0 ∆ x x →0

dy
= a e ax ∆lim ¿
dx x→ 0

If ∆x → 0, then a∆x→ 0
dy
= ax lim ¿
dx a e a ∆ x →0
x
dy e −1
= a e ax × 1 ………………………… [Because lim = 1]
dx x →0 x
d ax
(e ) = a e ax
dx
Find Derivative of e x by first principle method:
Let y = e x ………………………… (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = e (x+∆ x) ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
6
∆y = e x +∆ x − e x
∆y = e x e ∆ x − e x
∆y = e x (e ∆ x −1 ¿
Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find
Δy
= ex ¿
Δx
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find
∆y ex ¿
lim = ∆lim
∆ x →0 ∆ x x →0

dy
= e x ∆lim ¿
dx x→ 0

dy e x −1
= e x × 1 ………………………… [Because lim = 1]
dx x →0 x
d x
(e ) = e x
dx

Find Derivative of log x by first principle method:

Let y = log x ……………….. (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = log ( x+ ∆ x) ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
∆y = log ( x+ ∆ x) − log x
∆y =log ¿ ¿) [because Log (m/n) = log m – log n]
∆y =log ¿ ¿)
Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find
Δy
=log ¿ ¿)
Δx
Δy
=log ¿ ¿)
Δx
Δy 1
=log ¿ ¿)
Δx x
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find
∆y {log ¿ ¿ ) 1 }
lim = ∆lim
∆ x →0 ∆ x x →0 x
dy lim log ¿ ¿ ∆lim 1
= ∆ x →0 ) x→0
dx x
dy lim 1
= ∆ x/lim log ¿ ¿ ) ∆ x / x→ 0
dx x →0
x
d 1 (1+ x)
(log x ) = 1 × ……………… [Because lim log =1
dx x x →0 x
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 n
Find Derivative of x by first principle method:
n
Let y = x ……………….. (1)
Let ∆x be increment in x and ∆y be corresponding increment in y. then
y + ∆y = ¿ ¿ ………… (2)
Subtract equation (1) from (2), we find
n
∆y = ¿ ¿ − x

{ x )} − x
(
∆y = x 1+
∆x n n

∆y = x ( 1+
x )
n ∆x n n
− x

[ ∆xx ) n−1]
∆y = x ( 1+
n

Dividing both sides by ∆x, we find

Δy
Δx
=
xn
∆x [( 1+
∆x n
x )
−1
] 2 3
n n ( n−1 ) x n ( n−1 ) ( n−2 ) x
Using ( 1+ x ) =1+nx + + + … … … … … … …..+ ¿ xn
2! 3!
Δy
[( ( )
∆ x n ( n−1 ) ∆ x 2
) ]
n
x ∆x
= 1+n + + … … … … ..terms containing higher powers of −1
Δx ∆x x 2! x x

Δy
Δx
=
xn
∆x [( n
x
+
2! (
∆ x n ( n−1 ) ∆ x
x ) 2
+… … … … ..terms containing higher powers of
x )]
∆x

Δy
Δx x 2! [(
1 n ( n−1 ) ∆ x
= xn n +
x
2
+… … … … .
)]
Taking limit on both the sides as ∆x → 0, we find

lim
∆ x →0
∆y
∆x
= ∆lim
x →0 x 2! [(
¿ x n n 1 + n ( n−1 ) ∆ x +… … … … .
x2 )]
dy
dx
= xn n +
x [(
1 n ( n−1 ) 0
2 ! x2
+0+ 0+… … … … .
)]
dy n
= x n = n xn−1
dx x
d n
(x ) = n xn−1
dx

Remember:
d n
(x ) = n xn−1
dx
8
d
(Cos x) = −Sin x
dx
d
(Sin x) = Cos x
dx
d ax
(e ) = a e ax
dx
d x
(e ) = e x
dx
d 1
( log x ) =
dx x
d
(tan x) = Sec2 x
dx
d
(cot x ) = − Cosec2 x
dx
d
(Sec x ) = Sec x tan x
dx
d
(Cosec x) = − Cosec x Cot x
dx
d
( c) = 0, where c is a constant like 2, e, π etc.
dx
d n
( c x ) = c n xn−1 , where c is constant
dx
d
¿=n¿
dx
d
¿ = cot x
dx
d
¿ = tan x
dx
d
¿ = n Cos nx
dx
d
¿ = − n sin nx
dx

Rules of Differentiation:
If u and v are two functions of x, then
d d d
1. ¿ u ± v) = ¿u) ± ¿v)
dx dx dx

Example: If y = Sin x + e x
dy d
Sol: = ¿Sin x + e x ) = Cos x + e x
dx dx

9
 d d d
2. ¿ u v) = u ¿v) + v ¿u)
dx dx dx

Example: If y = Sin x e x
dy d d d
Sol: = ¿Sin x e x ) = sin x ¿) + e x ¿) = sin x e x + e x cos x = e x ¿
dx dx dx dx

d d
3.
d u
dx v ()
v
= dx
(u )−u (v)

v
2
dx

sin x
Example: If y =
3x
d d
dy 3 x ( sin x ) −sin x (3 x) 3 x cos x−3 sin x x cos x−sin x
Sol: = dx dx = 3 x¿¿ = 2 = 3¿¿ 2
dx 2 9x 3x
(3 x)

dy dy dt
4. = × …………. (chain rule)
dx dt dx

dy
Example: If y = bt 2 and x = at, find
dx
dy bt∧dx
Sol: Here =2 =a
dt dt

dy dy dt 1 2bt
Therefore, = × =2bt × =
dx dt dx a a

More Examples:
d d 1 1
1) ( √ x ) = x1 /2 = x −1 /2 =
dx dx 2 2√x
d
2) ( 3 x 4 +4 x+7 )=12 x 3+ 4
dx
d
3) ( sin3 x )=3 sin2 x d ( sinx )=3 sin2 x cos x
dx dx
d
4) ( sin 2 x ) =cos 2 x d ( 2 x ) =2 cos 2 x
dx dx
d sinx
5) ( e ) =e sinx d ( sin x )=e sinx cos x
dx dx
d √x
6) ( e )=e√ x d ( √ x ) =e √ x 1
dx dx 2√x
10
 d
7) ( sin3 2 x ) =3 sin2 2 x d ( sin 2 x )=3 sin 2 2 x cos 2 x d ( 2 x )=6 sin 2 2 x cos 2 x
dx dx dx
d d
d cos x sin x ( cosx )−cos x ( sinx) 2
−sin x −cos x −1
2
8) ( )= dx dx = sinx ¿ ¿ = = 2
dx sin x 2 sin 2 x sin x
(sin x)
= −cosec 2 x

d2 y
Example: If y = 5x3 + 3x. Find
d x2
dy 2
Sol: =15 x +3
dx
2
d y
& 2 = 30 x
dx
d2 y
Example: If y = sin x. Find
d x2
dy
Sol: =cos x
dx
2
d y
& 2 = − sin x
dx

dx dv d2 x
Note: Velocity v = where x is displacement (change in position) & acceleration a = = 2 .
dt dt dt
Hence acceleration is second order derivative of displacement.

Partial Derivatives: When a quantity is function of two or more quantities (variables), under such conditions one
variable is kept constant and derivative of the other variable is found with respect to that variable. The derivative
obtained is called a partial derivative of the function.
For example time period of simple pendulum T = f (l, g), volume of cylinder V = f (r, h), pressure of an ideal
gas P = f (T, V) etc.
∂V
If V = 𝜋 r 2
h, then =means ∂derivative of V w . r . t . r wit h h remaining constant and
∂r
∂V
means the∂ derivative of V w . r .t h with r remaining constant .
∂h
∂V dr2 ∂V 2 dh
=( π r ) =π r
2
Thus =( πh ) =2 πrh and
∂r dr ∂h dh

∂z
∧∂ z
Example: If z = 5x + 2x y −3y. Find ∂ x
4 3 2

∂y
∂z d
Sol: = ( 5 x 4 ) +2 y 2 d ( x 3 )−3 y d (1) = 20x3 + 6x2y2
∂ x dx dx dx

∂z 4 d 3 d
= ( 5 x ) (1)+2 x ( y 2 )−3 d ( y ) = 0+2x3(2y) -3 = 4x3y −3
∂y dy dx dx

11
Integration:
In differentiation, a large quantity (system) is divided into a number of small quantities (sub-systems) while in
integration a large number of components (sub-systems) of a quantity are added to obtain a large quantity
(system).Integration is inverse process of differentiation. It is process of finding the function whose derivative is given.

Definition: If derivative of f (x) w .r. t x is f ' (x), then integral of f ' (x) w. r. t x is f(x).
i.e, ∫ f ( ¿ x )dx=f ( x)¿
'

Note: ∑ is used for descrete data ( values ) while∫ isused for continuous data ( values∨functions ) .

Indefinite Integral (Anti-derivative):

Integration where constant of integration comes into account and conditions (limits) are not mentioned is known as
indefinite integral. It is called indefinite integral as its precise value cannot be determined without further information.
i.e., ∫ f (¿ x ) dx=f ( x)¿ + c, where c is arbitrary constant of integration.
'

d
e.g., ( 3 x 2+ 4 )=6 x ⇒ ∫ 6 x dx=3 x 2+ c
dx
Definite Integral:
If the integration is defined between two definite values (limits), then it is known as definite integral. In other words,
Definite integrals are those in which limits are applied.
b
b
i.e., ∫ f (x) dx = [ f (x) ] = f (b) – f (a) where ‘b’ is called upper limit and ‘a’ is known as lower limit.
'

a
a

Remember:
d
(Cos x) = −Sin x ⇒ ∫ sin x dx=−cos x +c
dx
d
(Sin x) = Cos x ⇒ ∫ cos x dx=sin x +c
dx
ax
d ax
(e ) = a e ax ⇒ ∫ eax dx= e + c
dx a
d x
(e ) = e x ⇒ ∫ e x dx=e x + c
dx
d 1 1
( log x ) = ⇒ ∫ dx=log x +c
dx x x
d
(tan x) = Sec2 x ⇒ ∫ sec 2 x dx=tan x +c
dx
d
(cot x ) = − Cosec2 x ⇒ ∫ cosec 2 x dx=−cot x +c
dx
d
(Sec x ) = Sec x tan x ⇒ ∫ sec x tan x dx=sec x +c
dx

12
d
(Cosec x) = − Cosec x Cot x ⇒ ∫ cosec x cot x dx=−cosec x+ c
dx
d sin n x
¿ = n Cos n x ⇒ ∫ cos n x dx= +c
dx n
d
¿ = cot x ⇒ ∫ cot x dx=logsin x
dx
x n+1
Similarly, ∫ x dx=
n
n+1
∫ dx=x
∫ 4 dx=4 x
5
1 5
Example: ∫ dx = [ log x ] = log 5 – log 3 = log (5/3)
3 x 3
π /2
Example: ∫ cos x dx = [ sin x ] π0/2 = [sin π/2 – sin 0] = 1 – 0 =1
0

π /2
Example: ∫ sin x dx = [−cos x ] π0/2 = - [Cos π/2 – Cos 0] = - (0 – 1) = 1
0

[ ]
1
x2 1 1 1
Example: ∫ x dx = =¿ = − =0
−1 2 −1 2 2

[ ] [ ] ( )
1
x2 1 1
2
(−1 )2 1 1 3 −1
Example: ∫ ( x +1) dx = +x = ( +1)−( −1) = +1 −( −1) = −( )=2
−1 2 −1 2 2 2 2 2 2

Rules for Integration:

1.∫ (u ± v)dx=∫ u dx ±∫ v dx
Example: ∫ (sin x+ e )dx=∫ sin x dx+∫ e dx = - Cos x + e x + c
x x

x 2+1 x 1+1 x3 x2
Example: ∫ (4 x +5 x+ 6)dx =∫ 4 x dx+∫ 5 x dx+∫ 6 dx = 4
2 2
+5 +6 x = 4 + 5 + 6 x
2+1 1+1 3 2
x 4 + 5 x +9 x4 5x 9 1 x5 5 x2 9 x5 5 x2 9 x
Example: ∫ ( ) dx=∫ dx+∫ dx +∫ dx= + + x= + +
7 7 7 7 7 5 7 2 7 35 14 7
du
2. ∫ ( u v ) dx =u∫ v dx−∫ [ dx ∫ v dx ¿ ] dx … … … … … … …(integrationby parts) ¿And first function (u) is
chosen according to rule ILATE.( Inverse, Logarithmic, Algebraic, Trigonometric and Exponential),

Example: ∫ ( x sin x ) dx
Sol: Here 1st term is x and second term is sin x according to ILATE rule

13
∴ I = ∫ ( x sin x ) dx

= x ∫ sin x dx−∫ ¿ ¿ ¿

= x (-Cos x) – ∫ ¿ ¿

Example: ∫ ( x log x ) dx
Sol: Here 1st term is log x and second term is x according to ILATE rule
∴ I = ∫ ( x log x ) dx

= log x ∫ x dx−∫ ¿ ¿ ¿

x2 x2
¿ log x− +c
2 4
Example: ∫ log x dx

Sol: I = ∫ log x dx ⇒ I = ∫ (1) log x dx

Here 1st term is log x and second term is 1 according to ILATE rule
∴ I = log x ∫ 1 dx−∫ ¿ ¿ ¿
= x log x− x+ c=x ¿ ¿

Substitution Method:
2x
Example: ∫
x 2+1
dz dz
Sol: Here numerator is derivative of denominator, so put x 2 + 1 = z so that =2 x dx=
dx ⇒ 2x
2 x dz 1
∴I=∫ × = ∫ dz = log z + c = log (x2 + 1) + c
z 2x z
Example: ∫ tan x dx
sin x
Sol: I = ∫ tan x dx = ∫ cos x dx
dz dz
Here numerator is derivative of denominator, so put Cos x = z so that =−sinx dx =
dx ⇒ (−sinx)
sin x dz 1
∴I=∫ ×−¿ ¿ = −∫ dz = − log z + c = − log (Cos x) + c
z sinx z
Example: ∫ cot x dx
cos x
Sol: I = ∫ cot x dx = ∫ sin x dx

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 dz dz
Here numerator is derivative of denominator, so put sin x = z so that =Cosx dx=
dx ⇒ (cos x)
cos x dz 1
∴I=∫ × = ∫ dz = log z + c = log (sin x) + c
z cos x z
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Example:∫ dx
5 x−3
dz dz
Sol: Put 5x – 3 = z, so that =5 dx =
dx ⇒ 5
4 dz 4 dz 4 4
∴I=∫ = ∫ = log z + c = log (5x -3) + c
z 5 5 z 5 5

Geometrical Interpretation of Definite Integral: y

Geometrically definite integral represents the area under curve between ‘a’ and ’b’.
From figure area of small rectangle is ∆A ≈ ∆x y. y = f(x)
Area A is equal to sum of all small rectangles (strips) from x = a & x = b.
x=b
i.e., A = lim
∆ x→ 0
∑ y∆x y
x=a

ΔA
But ≈y
Δx
ΔA dA
In the limit as ∆x → 0 becomes x=a ∆x x=b
Δx dx
x

Hence lim
∆ x →0
( ΔΔAx )= dAdx = y
dA
By integration ∫ dx=∫ y dx ⇒ A = ∫ y dx
dx
The value of x = a & x = b limit the area and hence such values are shown as limits.
b b
Hence Area A = ∫ y dx=∫ f ( x ) dx .
a a

For example:
Area under velocity time graph gives displacement of a body between two time intervals.
Force displacement graph gives work done, voltage current graph gives power etc.
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Note: Limit of sum is also known as integral.

Prepared by:
Parveez Ahmad Khan
Institute of Concept Classes (ICC)
Sopore

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