Determination of the band gap of a

semiconductor by Four Probe Set-Up

Experiment No:

Date:

1 Aim
To deteremine the bandgap of given semiconductor material using four probe method.

2 Motivation
The properties of bulk materials used in the fabrication of transistors and other
semiconductor devices are essential in determining the characteristics of the devices.
Resistivity and lifetime (of minority carriers) measurement are generally made on ger-
manium crystals to determine their suitability. The resistivity, in particular, must be
measured accurately since its value is critical in many devices. The value of some tran-
sistor parameters, like the equivalent base resistance, is linearly related to the resistiv-
ity. The electrical properties of semiconductors involve the motion of charged particles
within them. Therefore, we must have an understanding of the forces which control the
motion of these particles. It is of course, the physical structure of the solid which exerts
their control. This topic is very large, and you are expected to familiar atleast with the
basics of electronic conduction in soilds.

3 Basics
For a brief idea, when the atoms are arranged in a crystal results the tremendous
interaction between the atoms (∼ 1022 percm3 ). So, the energy level found in isolated
atoms will be split and form bands of allowed energies which contain almost continuum
of levels. Accordingly, electrons are located in energy bands in crystalline solid. The
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 2

band which contains the valence electrons is called the valence band. The unoccupied
energy levels also split up and form another band called the conduction band. The
interaction between the unused shells is very large and they spread widely. Therefore,
while there is a bandgap, Eg (or forbidden region) between the valence and conduction
bands, splitting of higher orbit is so wide that they usually overlap.
The bands below the energy gap E g are completely filled at absolute zero temper-
ature and the conduction band is empty. This is a very important point and has direct
consequences on the conduction properties, as we shall see soon. The fundamental the-
ory is that current conduction is not possible in empty and filled bands. The reasons
about the empty band is obvious since current is not possible without carriers. The
reason about the filled band is as follows: though the valence electrons move about the
crystal but they can not be accelerated because the acceleration means gain of energy
and there are no higher energy levels available to which they could rise.
We can now readily see that the crystal band structure does not allow current con-
duction at T=0. If we increase the temperature, however, thermal agitation increases
and some valence electron will gain energy greater than Eg and jump into the conduc-
tion band. The electron in the conduction band is called a free electron, and its former
place in the valence band is called a hole. Electrons in conduction band can gain energy
when a field is applied, because there are many higher energy states available. The
fact that electrons left the valence band leaves some empty energy levels, this allows
conduction in the valence band as well. Electrons can now gain energy in the valence
band also, and we observe a motion of holes in the direction of the field. Because of
this we begin to speak of a hole as a current carrying particles.
According to the proceeding theory, an insulator must have a large bandgap, so
that at room temperature the conduction band is practically empty and the valence
band is practically filled and a semiconductors must have a narrower band gaps so that
appreciable number of carriers are present in the valence and conduction bands at room
temperature.
In metals, however, the valence and conduction bands overlap and application of an
electric field can, therefore, accelerate a great sea of electrons. The non-existance of a
bandgap make conduction in metal almost independent of temperature, as compared
to semiconductors.
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 3

3.1 Concentration of Intrinsic Carriers

The concentration of intrinsic carriers, that is the number of electrons in conduction

band per unit volume is given by:

me kT 3/2
n = 2( ) exp(µ − Eg )/kT (1)
2πh2

where me is the effective mass of electron, K is the Boltzman constant, T is the temper-
ature in ◦ Kelvin, µ is the Fermi level and Eg is the bandgap energy. Now, the concentra-
tion of holes in valence band is given by the expression,

mh kT 3/2
p = 2( ) exp(µ/kT ) (2)
2πh2

where mh is the effective mass of a hole. Then a equlibrium relaton is given by multiply
the expressions 1 and 2,

kT 3/2
np = 4( ) (me .mh )3/2 exp(−Eg /kT ) (3)
2πh2

Hence, equation 3 does not involve the fermi level µ, and is known as the expression for
the law of mass action. In the case of intrinsic (highly purified) crystals, the number of
electrons is equal to the number of holes, as the thermal excitation of an electron leaves
behind a hole in the valence band. Thus, from equation 3 above letting i, for intrinsic,
we have:
kT 3/2
ni = pi = 2( ) (me .mh )3/4 exp(−Eg /2kT ) (4)
2πh2
Thus, we see that the concentration of intrinsic carriers depends exponentially on Eg /2kT .

3.2 Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors

The electrical conductivity, σ will be the sum of the contributions of both the elec-
trons and the holes. Thus, σ = eni (µn + µh ), where µe and µh are the average velocities
acquired by the electrons and holes in a unit electric field and known as mobilities. And
since, ni = pi Eqn. 4,
−Eg
σ = (K)T 3/2 (µn + µh ).exp (5)
2kT
where K is a constant. The factor T 3/2 and the mobilities µn and µh change relatively
slow with temperature compared to the exponential term, and hence the logarithm of
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 4

resistivity, ρ = (1/σ) varies linearly with 1/T . The width of the energy gap may be
determined from the slope of the curve. Thus, we have,
Eg
Loge ρ = − loge K (6)
2kT

4 Apparatus

F IGURE 1
Experimental setup of four probe method to measure resitivity of the samples at different tem-
perature

The basic model for all these measurements is indicated in Figure 1. Four sharp
probes are placed on a flat surface of the material to be measured, current is passed
through the two outer electrodes, and the floating potential is measured across the
inner pair. The experimental circuit used for measurement is illustrated schematically
in Figure 2. A nominal value of probe spacing which has been found satisfactory is
an equal distance of 2.0 mm between adjacent probes. This permit measurement with
reasonable current of n-type or p-type semiconductor from 0.001 to 50 ohm.cm. The
following text breifly describe the experimental set up.

1. Probe arrangement: It has four individually spring loaded probes, coated with
Zn at the tips. The probes are colinear and equally spaced. The Zn coating and
individual spring ensure good electrical contacts with the sample. The probes are
mounted in a teflon bush which ensure a good electrical insulation between the
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 5

F IGURE 2
Schematic show the experimental circuit for the measurements

probe. A teflon spacer near the tips is also provided to keep the probes at equal
distance. The whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable stand and leads are
provided for current and voltage measurements.

2. Sample: Ge Crystal in the form of a chip/slice

3. Oven: It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from room
temperature to about 200 ◦ C.

4. Four Probes Set-up (measuring Unit) includes, Oven Controller, Multi-range Digi-
tal Voltmeter, and constant current generator.

4.1 Resitivity Measurements

Figure 2, shows the geometry of this case. Four probes are spaced S1 , S2 and S3
apart. Current I is passed through the outer probes (1 and 4) and the floating potential
V is measured across the inner pair of probes 2 and 3. The floating potential Vf at a
distance r from an electrode carrying a current I in a material of resistivity ρ0 is given
by
ρ0 .I
Vf = (7)
2πr
In the model shown in Figure 2 there are two current-carrying electrodes, numbered 1
and 4, and the floating potential Vf , at any Y point in the semiconductor is the difference
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 6

between the potential induced by each of the electrodes, since they carry currents of
equal magnitude but in opposite directions. Thus,
ρ0 I 1 1
Vf = ( − ) (8)
2π r1 r4
where r1 is the distance from probe number 1 and r4 is the distance from probe number
4. The floating potentials at probe 2, Vf 2 and at probe 3, Vf 3 can be calculated from
Eqn. 8 by substituting the proper distance as follows:
ρ0 I 1 1
Vf 2 = ( − ) (9)
2π S1 S2 + S3
ρ0 I 1 1
Vf 3 = ( − ) (10)
2π S1 + S2 S3
The potential difference V between probes 2 and 3 is then,
ρ0 I 1 1 1 1
V = Vf 2 − Vf 3 = ( + − − ) (11)
2π S1 S3 S2 + S3 S1 + S2
and the resitivity ρ0 is computable as
V 2
ρ0 = − 1 1 1 1 (12)
I ( S1 + S3
− S1 +S2
− S2 +S3
)

when the point spacing equal, that is, S1 =S2 =S3 =S the above equation simplifies as
V
ρ0 = × 2πS (13)
I

5 Procedure
1. Put the sample on the base plate of the four probe arrangement. Unscrew the pipe
holding the four probes, and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample.
Apply very gentle pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position.
Check the continuity between the probes for proper electrical contacts. Caution:
The Ge crystal is very brittle. Therefore, use only the minimum pressure required
for proper electrical contacts.

2. Connect the outer pair of the probes (red/black) leads to the constant current
power supply and the inner pair (yellow/green) to the probe’s voltage terminals.

3. Place the four-probe arrangement in the oven and connect the sensor lead to the
RTD connector on the panel.
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 7

4. Switch on the mains supply of the four-probe set-up and put the digital panel
meter in the current measuring inside. In this position, the LED facing mV will
glow and the meter would read the voltage between the probes.

5. Now, put the panel of the digital meter inside in voltage. In this position, the mV
would glow and the meter would read the voltage between the probes.

6. Switch on the temperature controller and adjust the set-temperature. The green
LED would light up indicating that the oven is ‘ON’ and the temperature would
start rising. Temperature of the oven in Kelvin is indicated by the DPM.

7. Now, take the voltage reading corresponding to the temperature and tabulate the
data starting from 320k to 400k.
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 8

6 Observations

Distance between the probes (s) = 2 mm, Thickness of the crystal (w) = 0.5 mm
Current (I) = 5 mA, Correction parameter G7 (W/S)=5.89

Temperature Voltage ρ T −1
S. No Log P
(K) (V) (ohm.cm) ×10−3
1. 310
2. 320
3. 330
4. 340
5. 350
6. 360
7. 370
8. 380
9. 390
10. 400
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 9

7 Calculations
From Eqn 13,
V
ρ0 = × 2πS (14)
I
Since the thickness of the crystal is small compared to the probe distance a correction
factor for it has to be applied. Further the bottom surface is non-conducting in the
present case, resitivity can be determined from,

ρ0
ρ= (15)
G7 (W/S)

Thus ρ may be calculated for various temperatures. Plot a graph for Log10 ρ vs. T −1 ×
10−3 and by using Eqn. 6,
Eg
Loge ρ = − loge K (16)
2kT
loge ρ Eg
the slope of the curve is given by, 1 = 2k
. Thus Eg can be obtained from the slope of
T

the graph. Note that loge =2.3026 log1 0 and the Eqn. 6 is applicable only in the intrinsic
region of the semiconductor. A typical graph is shown in Figure 3.

F IGURE 3
Resitivity of Ge crystal as a function of temperature
 Bandgap by Four Probe Method 10

8 Results
The bandgap of the semiconductor (Ge) by four probe method is calculated as,
Eg = eV.
Instructor comments:

Signature

9 Assignments
1. What is the advantage of Four Probe method over the other conventional methods.

2. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at zero degree kelvin.

3. Does the geometry of the sample plays a role in measurements?

4. Explain the behaviour of the log10 ρ vs. 1/T curve.

10 References
10.1 Basics

1. Introduction of Solid State Physics, by C. Kittel

2. Fundamental of Semiconductor Devices by J. Lindmayer and C.Y. Wriegley

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zn822NqEqzE

4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1BDeEDGhLU

10.2 Experiment

1. http://anilpangantiwar.tripod.com/expt14.htm

2. http://physlab.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Bandstructureandelectricalcondu
ctivityinsemiconductors.pdf