Module 3.

World of Regions

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Define the term “Global South”;

2. Differentiate the Global South from the Third World;
3. Analyze how a new conception of global relations emerged from the experiences
of Latin American countries;
4. Differentiate between regionalization and regionalism; and
5. Identify the factors leading to a greater integration of the Asian region.

In this module, you will be learning about how countries and other entities organize
themselves in order to respond to the challenges brought by globalization.

Regions and Globalization

As a student, it may not be your first time to hear the word “regions.” In the
Philippines, this refers to the administrative divisions of provinces and cities. In
globalization studies, regions are defined as “a group of countries located in the same
geographically specified area” or are “an amalgamation of two regions or a combination
of more than two regions organized to regulate and oversee flows and policy choices
(Mansfield and Milner, 1993).
 You may know that Southeast Asia is the Asian region that the Philippines belong
to, along with countries such as Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Brunei and Timor-Leste, who are geographically close
and have similarities in culture and economics. Governments, associations and groups
form regional organizations and network as a way of coping with challenges of
globalization.

There are two important terms that we will include in our discussion: regionalization
and regionalism. Regionalization refers to the “regional concentration of economic flows”,
while regionalism refers to the “political process characterized by economic policy
cooperation and coordination among countries.”

State to State Regionalism

There are different economic and political responses of countries to globalization.

First, large, wealthy countries could dictate how they would participate in the process of
global integration. For example, China now offers cheap labor to its former enemies, and
also sees them as markets for the goods that it produces. Second, small countries make
up for their small size by taking advantage of their strategic location. For example,
Singapore compensates for its lack of resources by turning itself into a financial hub, as
well as use its developed harbor as a transit point for ships. Last, other countries form a
regional alliance to strengthen themselves.

Regional associations are formed for several reasons:

1. For military defense. During the Cold War, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) was formed by some European countries and the United
States.
2. To pool resources, get better returns for their exports, and expand leverage
against trading partners. An example of this is the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC), established in 1960 by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait and Venezuela to regulate the sale and production of oil. This
 organization became very powerful as it was able to control the sale of oil,
which is deemed as an in-demand commodity,
3. To protect their independence from pressures of superpower politics. The
leaders of Ghana, Egypt, India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia formed the Non-
Aligned Movement (NAM), advocating world peace and international
cooperation, human rights, racial and national equality, non-intervention and
peaceful conflict resolution. It refused to side with democratic nor communist
countries.
4. To overcome economic crisis. In 1996, the Thai economy collapsed after
troubled banks demanded that the Thai government pay its loans. This was
followed by a rapid withdrawal of foreign investments that led the country to go
bankrupt. This not only affected Thailand but also other Asian countries, with
their currencies devalued and foreign investments leaving. The International
Monetary Fund (IMF) tried to reverse this, but the solution was brought by the
establishment of an emergency fund by the ASEAN countries with Japan,
China and South Korea.

Non-State Regionalism

It is not only states that form alliances. The concept of “new regionalism” is in place,
as communities also engage in regional organizing and form new organizations. These
organizations rely on the power of individuals, non-governmental organizations/civil
society and associations in for a common goal.

These organizations have varied strategies. Some organizations partner with

government to initiate social change. Those who work with governments (legitimizers)
participate in institutional mechanisms to influence the policy-making processes of
countries. For example, in 2009, the ASEAN issued the Human Rights Declaration, but
made the implementation up to the decision of the member-countries. But since rights are
limited in some ASEAN countries, the new regionalism organizations pressured the
governments to pass laws in order to uphold human rights in their countries.
 Other regional organizations have specialized causes. For example, the activists
that formed the Rainforest Foundation, aimed to protect indigenous peoples and the
rainforests in countries like Brazil, Guyana, Panama and Peru.

These organizations, however also face challenges. They have limited impact in
global politics, when they are faced with their counterparts that have large state funds.
Another challenge is caused by disagreements between them. These may surface over
issues like gender and religion, with pro-choice NGOs separating from religious civil
society groups that side with the church.

The Emergence of the Global South

As rankings are part of our lives, in school, on products, even in online games,
hearing the words First, Second, and Third would give us the impression that the first is
superior and the third is the least. But among countries, what does this classification
mean?

To understand the concept of the First, Second and Third World, it would be helpful
to look at their origins.

During the Cold War, Western policy-makers began talking about the world as
three distinct political and economic blocks (Tomlinson, 2013).

These are:

1. First World – allies of the United States after World War 2;

2. Second World – refers to former socialist and communist states, which have
been allies with the Soviet Union
3. Third World – countries that were neither aligned with the United States nor the
Soviet Union during the Cold War

Initially, the classification was only based on alliances during the Cold War. The
countries that allied with the United States became known as the First World; those that
became allies with the Soviet Union came to be known as the Second World; and the rest
as the Third World. However, at the end of the Cold War, the category Second World
became less popular as the First and the Third World. The First World became associated
the countries that are capitalistic and industrial, while the Third World referred to non-
industrialized economically-poor countries.

But social scientists later found these classifications to be inaccurate, as countries

are in different levels of development. Now, they categorize countries based on specific
levels of economic productivity, utilizing the countries’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and Gross National Income (GNI).

Actually, the use of terms to describe global differences and unequal development
has been historical. Sociologists August Comte and Emile Durkheim discussed social
progress by distinguishing the “advanced” and primitive” societies. Later, the terms
“developed” and “underdeveloped” were used, as well as developed and developing.
These classifications became a common way to divide the world. But the use of these
terminologies were problematic and at times, inaccurate.

Then the terms core-periphery came to be used, as the dependency theory

challenged the conventional development economics. But even then, the use of the First
World-Third World was still popular.

Currently, what is being used is the North-South classification. In order to illustrate

the global south, Lisandro Claudio begins his article “Locating the Global South”, with the
illustration of the Starbucks and the Shanty:

“One does not need to look far to see markers of global

interconnectedness, even global modernity. There are Starbucks branches
in both Melbourne and Manila, New York and New Delhi. All these
branches look more or less the same, and they have similar menus of
espresso-based drink. This sameness represents the cultural
homogenization that many critics have associated with globalization”
(Claudio in Steger, Battersby, and Siracusa, 2014).
 As of February 2020, Starbucks has more than 30,626 retail outlets. With the
presence of Starbucks in many countries across the globe, it may be said that it is “the
face of globalization”, representing cultural homogenization due to the somewhat
uniformity of its branches and drinks. But despite the seeming modernity and progress
that it presents, there are varying evidences of poverty and backwardness in its midst.
Outside of the Starbucks branch in Manila or in New Delhi, he contends that there are
child beggars and shanties a block or blocks away. The presence of these shanties near
modernized areas shows how globalization creates contradictions such as wealth in the
midst of poverty and vice versa.

From the illustration, it can be said that the Global South is a metaphor for
interstate inequality. As such, Connell states that there is a global south in the global
north.

A Starbucks outlet in Hollywood and the shanties in Manila (images from news.microsoft.com
and Smokey Mountain Tours)

This goes to show how defining the Global South may not be easy and
uncomplicated. Global South is an emergent term, and its definition is a work in progress,
as it is constructed and defined by various entities, such as policy-makers, economic
actors, as well as social movements. So what is the Global South?
 Dados and Connell (2012) describe the phrase “Global South” as a broad
reference to the regions of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. It is one of a family
of terms, including “Third World” and “Periphery,” that denote regions outside Europe and
North America, which are mostly low-income and more often than not, are at the
disadvantaged end in terms of politics and culture.

The idea of the “South” was initiated by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian, who wrote the
essay, “the Southern Question” which began with the idea that Southern Italy had been
colonized by capitalists from Northern Italy. Later economists and sociologists included
the history of slavery and colonization experienced by countries as part of the defining
characteristics of the Global South. These scholars use the term “Global South” to refer
to places and people negatively affected by globalization. This includes not only countries,
but also marginalized groups and poorer regions within a wealthy country (Mahler, 2018).

Scholars agree that in classifying countries, geography and geopolitical relations

should not be the only considerations. Also important are the growing gaps in wealth and
power within countries. With globalization, it was thought that there would be
homogenization of cultures and societies, that if a certain country would gain from
globalization, all countries would follow suit. However, it only resulted to more inequalities.
These inequalities were of the same character as before, where Western countries still
own a large share of the world’s wealth, trade, investment and access to modern
technologies, health, education, and others.

In addition, there are new challenges that add to the existing struggles of the
disadvantaged countries. Whenever they rise, they are again being pulled down by the
effects of climate change, spread of new diseases, in addition to their existing issues on
health, food security and deforestation.

Using the term Global South connotes shifting our focus from development on to
geopolitical relations of power. This shift aimed to make the South the center, instead of
being regarded as “the other” because of the “North” usually being the frame of reference.
 The term ‘Global South’ is a model of resistance. It is a term coined by people from
the Carribean, Africa, and Latin America, and some parts of Asia, which used to be known
as the Third World. The North-South terminology, like core-periphery, shows patterns of
wealth, privilege, and development across broad regions. It does not only refer to patterns
of underdevelopment, but also on a history of colonialism, new forms of imperialism, and
differential economic and social change. Through these, inequalities in living standards,
life expectancy, and access to resources still persist. Historically, many of these issues
have been brought by the North, hence, it is important that while placing the South at the
forefront, geopolitics between the North and South be considered.

Learning Activity 1

Do an online research and write a brief report on the history of the colonization of
any country from Latin America and Africa and be guided by the following:

1. Identify the details of the colonization, such as the colonizers, length of

colonization and the major events that happened during that period.
2. Examine how that has affected the current situation of the country that you
chose.

Example: Philippines
1. It was colonized by the Spaniards for 333 years, starting in 1565. In those
years, several events have happened. The form of government was
centralized, and the barangays were no longer as powerful as the time
before the Spaniards came. These barangays were consolidated into towns
or pueblos.
Several economic reforms were also made such as tax collection, polo y
servicios or forced labor, and the bandala or quotas of products to be sold
by the provinces to the government. It was in this time when the Galleon
Trade or the trade between Manila and Acapulco happened, enabling the
exchange of products between different countries.
 2. The Spanish colonization has greatly influenced our culture in terms of the
following:
1. Concept of time – The concept of Filipino time, which is late, was
influenced by the Spaniards
2. Christianity – Filipinos embraced Christianity introduced by the
Spaniards, and now, the Philippines is a predominantly Christian nation
3. Compadrazgo or kumpare system in politics and business- The
palakasan system started during the time of the Spaniards and sadly is
still manifested in Philippine politics

Key Points

1. Regions are defined as “a group of countries located in the same geographically

specified area” or are “an amalgamation of two regions or a combination of more than
two regions organized to regulate and oversee flows and policy choices.
2. Regionalization is different from regionalism: the former refers to the regional
concentration of economic flows, while the latter refers to the political process
characterized by economic policy cooperation and coordination among countries.
3. The tripartite classification of countries as First World, Second World and Third World
started during the Cold War, with the First World being the allies of the United States;
Second World to former socialist and communist states, which have been allies with
the Soviet Union; and the Third World, which are countries that were neither aligned
with the United States nor the Soviet Union.
4. First World and Third World became the terms that referred to rich and impoverished
nations after the Cold War.
5. “Global South” is an emergent term coined by people from the Carribean, Africa, and
Latin America, and some parts of Asia, which used to be known as the Third World. It
represents a shift in how people view world regions, from one that is traditionally
development-based to one that takes into consideration the geopolitical situations and
the history of struggles of nations.
6. The Global South does not only refer to countries, but also places of inequalities.
Guide Questions

1. What are the reasons for state regionalism?

2. Why do non-state actors form alliances?
3. How is the Third world different from the Global South?

Answers to Guide Questions

1. State regionalism serves several purposes: a) for military defense; b) to pool

resources, get better returns for their exports, and expand leverage against trading
partners; c) to protect countries’ independence from pressures of superpower
politics; and d) to overcome economic crisis.
2. Non-state actors form alliances or form “new regionalism” organizations for two
reasons: those who work with governments (legitimizers) participate in institutional
mechanisms to influence the policy-making processes of countries, while some
regional organizations have specialized causes.
3. The two terms Third World and Global South are related as both are attached to
impoverished nations, but there are characteristics that distinguishes one from the
other. Third World is a part of the tripartite classification of countries, originally
referring to countries that were not part of any alliances during the Cold War. It
later became known as a group of countries that are economically poor. The term
Global South is general term referring to Latin America, Africa, Caribbean and
some parts of Asia. It is an emergent term that reflects not only geography but also
geopolitical relations between nations.

References and Supplementary Materials

1. Aldama, P.R. (2018). The contemporary world. Rex Bookstore.
2. Claudio, L.E., & Abinales, P.N. (2018). The contemporary world. C & E
Publishing, Inc.

3. Connell, R. 2007. “Dependency, Autonomy and Culture. In Southern Theory: The

Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science, pp. 139-163. Cambridge, UK:
Polity Press.
4. Dados, N. & Connel, R.(2012)” The Global South”. American Sociological
Association. Accessed at http://contexts.sagepub.com

5. Steger, Manfred B., Paul Battersby, and Joseph M. Siracusa, eds. 2014.The SAGE
Handbook of Globalization. Two volumes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.