Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Electrical resistivity and geotechnical assessment of subgrade soils in

southwestern part of Nigeria
N.O. Adebisi, S.O. Ariyo*, P.B. Sotikare
Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The subgrade soils in areas underlain by the slightly Migmatized to Non-migmatized Metasedimentary
Received 6 January 2015 and Metaigneous rocks of Southwestern Nigeria have been considerably investigated. However, a serious
Received in revised form research which employs electrical resistivity method for insight into the profile development, as well as
29 March 2016
estimation of resistance to deformation for predicting the stability of flexible highway pavements is yet
Accepted 30 March 2016
to be carried out. In this study, Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) were carried out after a reconnaissance
Available online 1 April 2016
survey based on stable and unstable locations on the road. Index and strength tests related to road
construction were also carried out on bulk samples obtained from stable and failed (unstable) locations
Keywords:
Subgrade
of the Ago-Iwoye/Ishara highway. Results show mostly three (3) layers in the profiles with H, HK, and
Stable HKH curve types. The subgrade soils below the stable locations have better vertical and interval varia-
Failed tions in the resistivities (89e1095 Um) to a depth of 3.4 m as against those from the failed portions.
Resistivity Those from the stable locations also have higher specific gravity (2.72), low-medium plasticity and A-2-6
Strength kaolinitic clayey soils with higher compacted density (2090 kg/m3) compared to subgrade soils from the
failed locations. On the basis of Califonia Bearing Ratio (CBR), subgrade soils at stable locations have
greater strength than those obtained from failed locations. Estimated resistance to deformation (R-value)
and resilient modulus (MR) proved to be the overriding parameters for predicting the stability of the
flexible highway pavements.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The appraisal of subgrade soils on several roads, in parts of
Southwestern Nigeria has been carried out. For instance, Adeyemi
(1992, 1994) strongly stressed the relevance of knowledge of
compositional features prior to a rational understanding of some
geotechnical properties of such soils. It was established that
kaolinite and the silica-sesquioxides of iron, and alumina ratio in
the subgrade soils of Southwestern Nigeria strongly influence their
Califonia Bearing Ratio (CBR).
Adeyemi and Akinseli (1995) and Adeyemi (1995) also empha-
sized the role of parent rock factor on index and moisture-density
relationship of subgrade soils developed over certain Precambrian
parent rocks of Southwestern Nigeria.
Adeyemi and Oyeyemi (2000) in a similar research identified a
number of geotechnical properties peculiar to subgrade soils in the
failed sections of the Ibadan end of the LagoseIbadan express way.
Results of which revealed that significant differences need not exist
in all strength properties of soils below stable locations and failed
locations of a road.
These and many other previous researches extensively scruti-
nized series of geotechnical properties on subgrade samples from
Southwestern Nigeria. However, a literature search which marries
subgrade soils' resistivity with basic strength properties is yet to be
found for such tropical residual soils.
In this study, the electrical resistivity method is employed to
map the vertical and horizontal distribution of the profile devel-
oped over the crystalline bedrocks. This has been combined with
geotechnical evaluation to elucidate the weathered profiles and the
dominant parameters to develop a database for the stability of the
flexible highway pavements.

2. Site description and geological setting

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: noadebisi@yahoo.com (N.O. Adebisi), soariyo@gmail.com The Ago-Iwoye/Ishara highway is a very important road serving
(S.O. Ariyo). as a useful link between Lagos and other parts of the Southwestern

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.03.019
1464-343X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263
Nigeria. As shown in Fig. 1, it is located in a tropical area between
latitudes N06
560 eN06
580 and longitudes E003
510 eE003
540 .
Geologically, the area is part of the Precambrian Basement Com-
plex, which according to Oyawoye (1972) is underlain by the
slightly Migmatized to Non-migmatized Meta-sedimentary and
Meta-igneous rocks (Fig. 2).
Rahaman (1988) studied the occurrence and structural re-
lationships of the metamorphic history and evolution of the Base-
ment Complex rocks. Basement Complex rocks classification by
Oyinloye's (2011) and Imasuen et al. (2013) also recognised the
Migmatized to Non-migmatized Meta-sedimentary and Meta-
igneous rock groups.
The rocks had since been attacked by water that etched away
the soluble components in the minerals (Gidigasu, 1974; Buol et al.,
2003). The result of spontaneous weathering of such rocks under
the influence of tropical climate, and its acids is a cross section of
laterised soils extending from the surface to the parent material.
Adebisi (2010) further revealed that the profile developed over the
crystalline rocks in the area varies in thickness. Fig. 3 is a good
representation of the profile development in the area. The top soil is
underlain by residually-laterised soils whose grain-sizes vary in
color, and appear do increase with depth.
3. Methodology
This research was executed in three stages namely; reconnais-
sance field mapping, ground electrical resistivity survey and labo-
ratory testing of bulk (subgrade) soil samples. The fieldwork
involved both geological and pedological survey with identification
of stable and failed locations on the studied road. The Vertical (VES)
techniques as employed for the resistivity method. The VES stations
Fig. 1. Map of the part of Southwestern Nigeria showing the studied road/locations.
257
for the geoelectrical survey were located based on the stable and
unstable locations on the road. An ABEM Terammeter SAS 300C was
used for 15 VES with electrode separation (AB/2) range of 1e100 m
to cover 5 locations. VES curves generated were used to construct
geo-electric sections for the profiles with their corresponding re-
sistivities and thicknesses.
Furthermore, fifteen bulk samples from the subgrade soils were
obtained from five trial pits. Three samples from stable locations,
and two samples from failed locations on the roads. Laboratory
geotechnical tests carried out on the samples for this study are
specific gravity, grain-size distribution, consistency limits,
moisture-density relationship and Califonia Bearing Ratio (CBR).
These were based on test procedures in the British Standards BS:
1337 (1990), Day (2001) and ASTM Standard D1557 (2009).
Direct measurements of Resistance values (R-values) and resil-
ient modulus (MR) require equipment that is not readily available to
most laboratories in Nigeria. However, there are many CBR corre-
lation equations between R-value and MR. A widely used empirical
relationship developed by Heukelom and Klomp (1962) only for
fine-grained non-expansive soils with a soaked CBR of 10 or less.
MR ¼ ð1500Þ ðCBRÞ (1)
The 1993 AASHTO Guide offers some correlation equation be-
tween R-value and MR for fine-grained soils with R-values less than
or equal to 20. One interesting relationship between the R-value
and resilient modulus is shown below:
MR ¼ ð1000Þ þ ð555ÞðR  valueÞ (2)
Moreover, these correlations were not established for directly
relating R-value and CBR, but rather for estimating such
258 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263

Fig. 2. Geological map of the part of Southwestern Nigeria showing the studied road/locations.

Fig. 3. Typical lateritic profile developed over a bedrock (a ¼ soil; b ¼ laterite, a regolith; c ¼ saprolite, a less-weathered regolith; d ¼ bedrock).
Source https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search;_ylt¼A0LEVi_sWJJUwwQACo8PxQt.;_ylu¼X3o.

parameters. In this study, R-value and are estimated from CBR were Resistance values (R-values) and resilient modulus (MR) was
using Correlation Chart for Common Soil Tests (Van Til et al., 1972; estimated from existing correlations that link with CBR values us-
Hashiro, 2005). ing AASHO interim guide for design of pavement structures based
 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263 259

on Van Til et al. (1972).
4. Discussion of results
4.1. Electrical resistivity evaluation
The application of geophysics to successfully evaluate profiles
developed over crystalline rocks requires a proper understanding of
its geoelectrical characteristics (Telford et al., 1990). From the
interpretation provided in Table 1, three major layers are delineated
with H, HK, and HKH curve types. This is consistent with the
findings of Adelusi et al. (2009) and Alisiobi and Ako (2012) in the
determination of subsurface layers in the Basement Complex of
Southwestern Nigeria.
From traverse AA0 (VES 1, 2, 3; Fig. 4a) the profile consists of the
topsoil (resistivity range 103e205 Um and thickness range 0.6 and
1.0 m), the weathered layer (resistivity range 34.7e602 Um and
thickness range 1.0e43.5 m) and the basement (resistivity range
615e4092 Um to a total depth of 50 m).
Traverse BB0 for the VES 4, 5 and 6 (Fig. 4b), reveals the topsoil

Table 1
Resistivity values and thicknesses from VES curves for profile description.

Site condition VES no. No. of layers Resistivity Thickness Depth Lithology Curve types

Unstable 1 1 179.2 0.6 0.6 Topsoil

2 98.5 1.4 1.9 Clay
3 362.0 3.3 5.2 Sandy clay HKH
4 34.7 16.1 21.3 Clay
5 615.3 e e Fractured bedrock
2 1 205.3 1.0 1.0 Topsoil
2 601.7 5.5 6.5 Laterite KH
3 153.2 43.5 50.0 Sand
4 4092.3 e e Fresh bedrock
3 1 163.0 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 150.1 1.1 1.9 Sandy clay HKH
3 351.4 4.1 6.0 Sand
4 107.3 15.0 21.0 Sandy clay
5 3010.1 e e Fresh bedrock
Stable 4 1 462.4 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 153.8 5.7 6.6 Sand clay HK
3 273.5 53.3 59.8 Sand
4 4200.9 e e Fresh bedrock
5 1 822.9 0.6 0.6 Topsoil
2 235.1 1.0 1.6 Sandy clay HKH
3 653.3 6.2 7.8 Sand
4 100.4 28.3 36.2 Clay
5 761.9 e e Fractured bedrock
6 1 23.2 0.6 0.6 Topsoil
2 111.3 1.3 1.8 Sandy clay KH
3 11.8 7.4 9.2 Clay
4 822.8 e e Fractured bedrock
Stable 7 1 666.4 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 144.3 3.4 4.3 Sandy clay H
3 1315.3 e e Fresh bedrock
8 1 181.8 1.0 1.0 Topsoil
2 343.7 3.4 4.4 Laterite KH
3 124.9 13.6 18.0 Sand
4 3478.1 e e Fresh bedrock
9 1 304.6 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 88.7 2.6 3.4 Clay HK
3 487.3 24.7 28.1 Sand
4 152.6 e e Fractured bedrock
Unstable 10 1 533.5 1.0 1.0 Topsoil
2 1094.5 2.1 3.1 Laterite KH
3 105.4 17.7 20.8 Sandy clay
4 9076.3 e e Fresh bedrock
11 1 1262.3 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 134.1 17.1 18.0 Sandy clay H
3 1193.4 e e Fresh bedrock
12 1 367.9 0.9 0.9 Topsoil
2 660.8 1.8 2.7 Laterite KH
3 163.8 11.4 14.1 Sand
4 1593.7 e e Fresh bedrock
Stable 13 1 185.6 1.5 1.5 Topsoil
2 49.4 7.3 8.7 Clay H
3 2744.1 e e Fresh bedrock
14 1 140.0 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 382.4 0.8 1.6 Laterite KH
3 57.0 7.4 9.0 Clay
4 1706.7 e e Fresh bedrock
15 1 179.1 0.8 0.8 Topsoil
2 534.3 1.9 2.8 Laterite KH
3 58.1 13.9 16.7 Clay
4 4839.4 e e Fresh bedrock
260 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263
Fig. 4. aee. Geoelectric sections along locations 1, 2, 3 4 & 5.
with resistivity range of 23e823 Um and thickness range of
0.6e0.9 m. This is followed by a weathered layer composed of clay,
sandy clay, laterite and sand with resistivity range of 112e653 Um
and thickness range of 1.0e53.3 m. The resistivity of the last layer
ranges from 762 to 4201 Um to bedrock varies between 9.2 m and
59.8 m at VES stations 6 and 4 respectively.
Traverse CC0 for the VES 7,8 and 9 in Fig. 4c shows the topsoil
resistivity ranging from 182 to 666 Um at thickness range of 0.8 and
1.0 m. The next layer is weathered, and composed of laterite, sandy
clay, sand, and clay with resistivity range of 89e487 Um at
2.6e24.7 m. The basement bedrock has resistivity ranges from
152.6 to 3478.1 Um with estimated depth varying from 4.3 to
28.1 m. Along traverse DD0 for the VES 10, 11, and 12 (Fig. 4d), the
topsoil has resistivity values ranging between 368 and 1262 Um
with thickness range of 0.9e1.0 m. This is underlain by a weathered
layer of clayey sand having resistivity range of 105e1095 Um and
thickness range 1.8e17.7 m. The fresh basement has resistivity
ranging from 1193 to 9076 Um to a depth of 20.8 m. Fig. 4e covers
VES 13, 14, 15, with resistivity of the topsoil ranges between 140 and
186 Um and thickness of between 0.8 and 1.5 m. The second layer
which weathered layer has resistivity values of 49e382 Um and
thickness of 0.8e13.9 m. The last layer is a fresh bedrock with re-
sistivity values that varies between 1707 and 4839 Um. It is noted
that the unstable locations of the road contain clay layers at shal-
lower depth than those of the stable sections. Thus local geological
condition plays an important role in the stability of roads.
5. Geotechnical consideration
The success or failure of a pavement is more often dependent
upon the index properties of the underlying subgrade soils. On the
basis of shape, grading curves displayed in Figs. 5 and 6, for soils
from stable and failed locations cover a wide range of log cycles
indicating well-graded soils. Although soils from both stable and
failed locations of the road can be rated as good to fair subgrade
materials, however soils those from the stable locations are much
better graded than those from failed sections.
The specific gravity, consistency and grain-size distribution of
the subgrade soils summarized in Table 2 is an easy transition from
the laboratory to basic predictions of soil engineering performance.
It can be seen that soils from stable locations have higher specific
gravity (GS ¼ 2.72) with less amount of clay (22.3%), and fall under
group A-2-6 of American Association of State Highways and
Transport Officials (AASHTO) classification.
The consistency is indirectly capable of revealing the clay
mineralogy and shrink/swell potential of a soil (Carter and Bentley,
1991). Obviously, fine soil mixtures from (failed) locations 1 and 4
contained clay with higher plasticity index and linear shrinkage
values than soil mixtures from (stable) locations 2, 3 and 5.
Based on the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), inorganic
clays of low to medium plasticity (CL-ML) with gravelly sand are
more commonly contained in the subgrade. Soil mixtures at stable
locations are predominantly kaolinitic clayey silts with fine sands,
while illitic clays are present in the subgrades from the unstable
locations. It is apparent that the subgrade soils from locations 1 and
4 have excessive fines. Based on FMWH (1997) standard and Davis
(2008), such soils are susceptible to cyclically shrinking and
swelling, causing damage on a road (Fig. 7).
Subgrade soils are typically characterized by their bearing ca-
pacity. According to Das (2002) and McCarthy (2007) the resistance
of a soil to deformation under load is usually a measure of its
strength. The four basic strength characterizations used in this
study are summarized in Table 3. They are Moisture-Density rela-
tionship, Califonia Bearing Ratio (CBR), Resistance Value (R-Value)
and Resilient Modulus (MR).
For West African Level of compactive effort, soils from stable
locations have higher Maximum Dry Densities (MDD) with lower
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) compared to soils from failed
locations. The highest density obtainable when the compaction was
carried out on the subgrade soils at stable locations is 2090 kg/m3.
CBR values are related to soil classification in a way; however,
they depend not only on soil type but also on density and moisture
content. These need be fathom into plans when correlating CBR
with soil classification. It was noted that the soaked (3.08e3.95%)
and unsoaked (5.57e6.55%) CBR values of samples from stable lo-
cations are higher than those from failed locations soaked CBR
range of 2.13e2.60% and unsoaked CBR range of 4.50e7.05%).
The knowledge of resistance value (R-value) and resilient
modulus (MR) of soils are of major importance, whether the flexible
pavements projects are in the stage of design, construction or
compaction check.
Soils from failed sections have lower MR and R-values than soils
 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263 261

SILT SAND

CLAY
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
GRAVEL
100

90

80
Percentage passing (%) 70

60

50 L1, @ 0.2m
40 L1, @ 0.4m
L1, @ 0.6m
30

20

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain-size (mm)
Fig. 5. Selected grading curves for the soils sampled in Pit 1(Failed location).

SILT SAND
CLAY

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse

GRAVEL
100

90

80
Percentage passing(%)

70

60

50 L5, @ 0.4m

40 L5, @ 0.6m
L5, @ 0.7m
30

20

10

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain size(mm)

Fig. 6. Selected grading curves for the soils sampled in Pit 5(Stable location).

from stable sections. One very noticeable thing is that subgrade solution to meet design reliability.
soils under unsoaked condition have higher CBR, MR and R-values
compared to those tested under soaked condition. The soaked CBR
6. Summary and conclusion
values so far obtained revealed that subgrade soils at locations 1
and 4 are capable of undergoing some amount of volume change if
Soil solids typically encountered in the subgrades of South-
exposed to excessive moisture. For more effective design regarding
western Nigeria were studied by their grain-size distributions,
target reliability the R-value and MR were evaluated to express the
specific gravity consistency, and moisture-density relationship.
subgrade variability. An assessment of lowest R-value (11.0) and MR
Ground surface electrical resistivity surveying and test pits revealed
(22.08 kN/m2) for making the decision of subgrade performance
clayey content in the subgrade of the laterised overburden. There
shows that increasing the R-value and MR will always be the proper
exist significant differences in the depth and thickness of the
262 N.O. Adebisi et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 119 (2016) 256e263

Table 2
Index properties of the studied soils.

Road Pit Depth Specific gravity Size distribution Consistency USCS AASHTO Activity Inferred clay
condition no. (m) (GS) range classification classification of clay mineral
Average clay-sized Average Plasticity index Linear shrinkage
particles % fines % range (IP) % range (LS) %

Failed L1 0.2e0.6 2.62e2.67 32.0 62.4 20.8e30.1 8.14e12.5 CL A-2-7 0.81 Illite
Stable L2 0.3e0.6 2.68e2.72 22.3 48.6 19.2e21.0 5.14e7.0 ML A-2-6 0.63 Kaolinite
Stable L3 0.55e0.9 2.61e2.66 20.3 36.4 10.0e19.5 5.27e7.71 ML A-2-6 0.74 Kaolinite
Failed L4 0.4e0.7 2.64e2.68 36.0 58.7 19.0e26.0 9.29e14.0 CL A-2-7 0.89 Illite
Stable L5 0.4e0.7 2.64e2.66 13.3 36.9 7.0e11.5 2.86e4.29 ML A-2-6 0.66 Kaolinite

USCS- Unified Soil Classification System.

AASHTO- American Association of State Highways and Transport Officials.

70
COHESIONLESS

EXTREMELY HIGH
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
VERY HIGH

PLASTICITY
PLASTICITY PLASTICITY PLASTICITY
PLASTICITY

60

50
PlasƟcity Index (IP) %

40
CL-OH

Stable LocaƟons
30
NH or OH
Failed LocaƟons
CL-OL

20

10
CL-ML
ML or OL

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Liquid Limit (LL) %

Fig. 7. Casagrande chart for fines classification.

Table 3
Strength properties of the studied soils.

Road Pit Depth Compaction @West African level Califonia bearing ratio (CBR) % and estimated modulus of elasticity
condition no. (m)
Maximum dry density Optimum moisture Soaked Resistance value Resilient modulus Unsoaked Resistance value Resilient modulus
(MDD) kg/m3 content (OMC) % CBR % (R-Value) MR (kN/m2) CBR % (R-Value) MR (kN/m2)

Failed L1 0.2e0.6 2020 14.3 2.60 15.3 25.53 4.80 28.0 38.64
Stable L2 0.3e0.6 2090 9.5 3.08 18.0 28.64 5.57 31.0 43.47
Stable L3 0.55e0.9 2083 9.27 3.72 23.0 32.43 6.55 34.0 49.68
Failed L4 0.4e0.7 2070 11.57 2.13 11.0 22.08 4.05 28.5 38.75
Stable L5 0.4e0.7 2108 8.3 3.95 23.5 33.81 6.09 32.0 46.23

subgrade soils within the respective lateral distances. cohesive subgrade soils.
Plasticity index tends to have a great influence on the activity of
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Further reading
Akintorinwa, O.J., Adeusi, F.A., 2009. Integration of geophysical and geotechnical
investigations for a proposed lecture room complex at the Federal University of
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