HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Definition:

Human behavior refers to the physical actions of a person that can be seen or heard. In other words, it is
the way that humans act and interact to something, someone, or their surroundings.

Human behavior is quite complex as it is influenced, modulated, and shaped by multiple factors.

It is a complex interplay of three components: actions, cognition, and emotions.

An action denotes everything that can be observed, either with bare eyes or measured by physiological
sensors. Some examples of human behavior include smiling, frowning, whistling, among others.
Cognitions describe thoughts and mental images you carry with you, and they can be both verbal and
nonverbal. Cognitions comprise skills and knowledge, knowing how to use tools in a meaningful manner,
singing or memorizing. Emotion is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense
mental activity, and a feeling that is not characterized as resulting from either reasoning or knowledge.
This usually exists on a scale, from positive (pleasurable) to negative (unpleasant). Examples are being
happy, sad, and the like.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

This is defined as the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between
human behavior and the organizational context, and the organization itself. The three facets based on
this definition are the individual behavior, the organization, and the interface between the two. Each
individual brings to an organization a unique set of beliefs, values, attitudes and other personal
characteristics and these characteristics of all individuals must interact with each other in order to
create an organizational setting. The organizational behavior is specifically concerned with work-related
behavior which takes place in organizations.

THE GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

To explain behavior

In explaining behavior as a goal, organizational behavior needs to describe how people behave under a
variety of conditions and understand why people behave as they do. People in the organization exhibit
behaviors that may be similar or different from the others. In some cases, a group of people observe the
same situation or event, but they interpret it differently. In such a case the difference is due to the
difference in the perception. The perception can be defined as the organization and interpretation of
sensory impressions so that meaning can be given to the environment. This is why management for
example must understand the basic human element of their work. They should keep in mind that the
employees react according to their perception, not on the basis of reality. In order to be able to
understand the employees’ behaviors, one example is resorting to putting up interdisciplinary fields so
that managers, through this research will be able to determine how individual differences affect
individual’s behaviors and attitudes.

To predict behavior

Organizational behavior must be used to predict behavior so that support can be provided to productive
and dedicated employees, and measures could be instituted to control the disruptive and less
productive ones. Organizational behavior provides a systematic framework of knowledge that can be
quite helpful in prediction of human behavior. In this way management of the organization can motivate
people towards higher productivity, innovation, and change acceptance. For example, certain programs
can be used for the betterment of the employees that can promote the healthy working environment.
Managers should also consider the attitudes of employees because these serve as important parameters
in observing and predicting behaviors. In some cases, an individual feels inconvenience between attitude
and behavior or two or more attitudes. It is not a clear-cut fact that the happy employees are definitely
productive employees. Therefore, the managers should pay attention in understanding what are the
forces that make employees productive rather than only happy. It is important that within the normal
organizations, management coaches and guides the employees to perform the tasks in an efficient and
effective way.

To control behavior

Organizational behavior can offer some means for management to control the behavior of
employees. The understanding and prediction of employee behaviors can be used by the management
to achieve control. Recognizing ways to improve organization behaviors can help resolve underlying
issues between employees and promote an appealing workplace environment.

ELEMENTS OF OB

In this world, every substance has certain elements. Likewise, Organizational Behavior (OB) has also
four main elements.ie; people, structure, technology, and external environment. When people come
and join together in an organization to achieve or accomplish certain goals or objectives, some kind of
structure is required and people use different techniques to get the job done properly. So, there is an
interaction between elements; people, structure and technology which is influenced by the external
environment.

1. PEOPLE- People consist of individuals and groups in an organization. As we all know, an

organization is impossible to exist without people from owners, managers, to employees.
People make up the internal social system of the organization. Moreover, individuals and groups
are dynamic, such as that group may be formal or informal, small or large, interrelated and
complex. They are dynamic in nature as they connect and interact with each other while
influencing each other. Groups may also form, change, and dissolve, which may eventually affect
its members. Organizations are established to serve people, while people work in the
organization to achieve their objectives.
Example: from janitors to clerks, marketing staffs to managers, marketing team to finance team
all the employees working inside the organization. This people have different line of work or
jobs designated to them.

2. STRUCTURE- Structure defines the roles and formal relationships of the people in an
organization, which leads to a division of work. Different people in the organization are
performing different type of jobs or responsibilities, thus, they need to be related in some
structural way so that their work can be effectively coordinated. The structure defines and
clarifies the authority responsibility relationships.

Example: The manager provides a list of tasks for the business operations. He may divide the
tasks among the members (people) and write it down or make an illustration of the works
through a chart, so every employees knows what job they are responsible for. Without this
 formal structure, the employees would waste a lot of time trying to decide who should do what,
and many tasks would likely go undone, which can also influence the behaviors and attitudes of
the employees.
Examples of structure are work specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and
decentralization.

3. TECHNOLOGY- Technology provides economic and physical resources with which people use to
accomplish their works easy. It affects the tasks that they perform and has a significant
influence on working relationships within the organization. Technology allows people to do
more and better work but it may also put restrictions on the freedom of people in various ways.

Examples: in terms of workplace environment, technology has shifted the way the workplace looks
today. While many people still go into the office for their workday, other employees have the option to
work remotely. Some companies even operate strictly online and do not require a brick-and-mortar
workplace. In addition, video conferences have replaced in-person meetings and changed the dynamic
of many professional, working relationships.

4. ENVIRONMENT- Internal and external environments are important element in OB. It is because
all organizations operate within such environments. For external environment, it is a part of a
larger social system that contains many influencing factors such as socio-economic, political,
legal, technological, and geographical forces. These forces influence people’s attitudes, motives,
and working condition in an organization in so many ways.

Examples: A company engaged in a highly regulated business may have a strict and structured culture
due to the need to conform to certain laws and regulations from the company's external environment.
The internal environment of a company also affects organizational behavior. For example, a struggling
company will often have a different organizational behavior than a successful and growing business.
When a company's higher ups set an example in order to improve organizational behavior, the effects
trickle down to lighten the mood from one level to the next which is as good for morale as it is for
business.

The Benefits of Studying Organizational Behavior

1. Development of people skills
As we all know, people skills add value to the organization. They are those sets of ideas
that enable a person to effectively communicate with others and decrease the possibility of
miscommunication. No matter what role you play in your organization, your ability to work
effectively with others can have a positive impact on your workplace. People skills not only help
others to express in a better way but it also encourages listening carefully and then reacting to
a problem or a situation.
Within the workplace, it is absolutely critical that certain skills are improved in order to
make the organization more efficient and effective. Through the study of organizational
behavior, one can understand the others and provide feedback upon observing the behavior of
an individual. Organizational behavior helps in better management of business as it helps in
improving the skills of the people. For example, it provides insight into the skills that the
employees can use at work such as designing jobs and creating effective teams. In addition,
through knowing organizational behavior, individuals can resort to practicing a good
collaboration with everyone in the workplace and contribute to building harmony, trust and
mutual respect.
2. Personal growth
Personal growth and development is the art of your employees finding and morphing
into the person they want to become through an exploration of identity, talents, potential, as
well as dreams and aspirations.
With the study of organizational behavior, personal development opportunities will be
possible. This can encompass anything from leadership training or building a new skill, to simply
pursuing a passion that inspires an employee in and out of the workplace. Through taking into
account the goals of organizational behavior that is to explain, to predict and to control
behaviors of individuals, there are certain measures that the management can use in order to
improve the employee’s personal growth. For example, managers will be able to create growth
plans, set learning goals, offer innovative learning objectives, and map out the far-reaching
benefits by introducing personal development so staff can see the broader benefits beyond the
job. Understanding others leads to personal fulfillment, and can also lead to enhanced self-
knowledge and self-insight. Insight is useful for such purposes as selecting people for jobs and
assignments, communicating, and motivating
3. Enhancement of organizational and individual effectiveness
Organizational effectiveness is a concept that measures how thoroughly and efficiently a
company achieves its business goals. Individual effectiveness. Individual effectiveness on the
other hand is all about performing to the best of your abilities.
An important goal of organizational behavior is to improve organizational effectiveness,
the extent to which an organization is productive and satisfies the demands of its interested
parties. Substantial evidence has accumulated that emphasizing the human factor increases
productivity and gives a firm a competitive advantage. One reason is that people-oriented
management practices enable workers to use their wisdom and to receive appropriate training.
If a person develops knowledge about subject such as improved interpersonal communication,
conflict resolution, and teamwork, he or she will become more effective. Now if the
effectiveness of every individual in an organization is enhanced, the effectiveness of the entire
organization will enhance as well because effective workers will eventually result to effective
operations thus meeting the targeted organizational goals.
4. Sharpening and refinement of common sense
Organizational behavior sharpens and enlarges the domain for common sense.
Organizational behavior knowledge also refines common sense by challenging you to reexamine
generally accepted ideas that may be only partially true—such as inactivity reduces stress for
everybody. People differ in the degree of common sense they possess. Improvements in this
type of ability, however, can still be made and great benefits can be derived from continuous
learning of organizational behavior.

Some Key Behavioral Science Assumptions, Concepts, and Principles

Human behavior which is also called human act is different from act of man.

When man performs an act with free will, he does a human act. An act is perfectly human when it is
done with full knowledge and full consent of the will, and with full and unhampered freedom of choice.
If the act is hampered in any way, it is less perfectly human; if it is done without knowledge or consent it
is not a human act at all. In the terminology of classical realistic philosophy, a human act is actus
humanus; an act of a person is actus hominis.

The essential elements of a human act are three: knowledge, freedom, actual choice.

EXAMPLE:

Telling the truth and going to work

An act of man is performed by one who is forced to do so at the risk of his own life. An act that is not
proper to man as a rational being. It is instinctive; physiological. He does not have any other
alternative/s to choose from. He is not given the opportunity to use his free will and thus, he is not
responsible for this act. He, therefore, commits an act of man. An act of man is actus hominis.

EXAMPLE:

A man marrying a woman at the point of a gun. Instincts and reflexes are other examples of acts
of man such as blinking of the eyes, digestion, and perspiration.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Every person is significantly different from the moment of conception. The only thing that remains
constant is change. From the time an individual is conceived, he undergoes a plethora of changes –
physical, mental, social, psychological - as he grows and develops from childhood to adulthood. Different
tissues and different regions of the body constantly mature at different rates, and the growth and
development of a child consists of a highly complex series of changes. Similarly, personality gradually
change throughout life.

2. Every person is a constantly active, goal-seeking organism. Whether consciously or unconsciously, a

person is goal-oriented. It’s like we live for a goal. Mark Batterson states that, setting a goal creates
structural tension in your brain, which will seek to close the gap between where you are and where you
want to be, who you are and who you want to become. If we don’t set goals, our mind will be stagnant.

3. Every person is dynamic. Status quo does not characterize a person’s state since he is barraged by
different forces around him. A person is dynamic as its behavior changes due to factors such as new
experiences, learning, socio-cultural considerations, biological and psychological processes.
4. The characteristics of an organization influence the behavior of the entire organization and, to a
great extent, the behavior of individuals within it as well. When individuals join an organization, their
behavior is heavily influenced by the organizational culture. As social beings, people strive to fit in the
environment around them. If the organization has great characteristics, individuals within it will tend to
have an increase in productivity. If an organization encourages employees to speak up without fear or
reprisal, individuals within it gain confidence in expressing their ideas rather than keeping them to
themselves.

5. There are no simple cookbook formulas for working with people. No best answer. No ideal
organization exists, neither an ideal person.

CONCEPTS

1. Almost all behavior is learned. This is called behaviorism or behavioral psychology. This theory
focuses on the idea that all behaviors are taught by interaction with the environment through a
process called conditioning. As a result, behavior is nothing more than a reaction to external
stimuli. Simply put, behaviorists believe that all behaviors are the result of experience. Any
person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a particular manner given
the right conditioning. This applies to adults and children whose learning can be altered.
However, this is not true to a newly born infant and to a fetus in the mother’s womb. The
former consumes milk from the mother’s breast through instinct and not because the infant
thinks it is necessary.

EXAMPLE:
Parents often use a reward system when potty training a toddler. Each time a child does
a desirable behavior — for example, sitting on the potty, having a dry diaper in the morning, or
going to the bathroom on the potty — the parent gives the child a reward, such as a sticker or
piece of candy. The hope is that the child will continue to exhibit the desired behavior because
of the reward until it eventually becomes a habit.

2. Human being adapts Human beings adapt to their environment, whether it is about adjusting
to the changing weather or to new social cultures and norms. Adaptation is any variation that
can increase one’s fitness in a specific environment; more simply it is the successful interaction
of a population with its environment. In accordance with the needs and values, individuals
adjust to their environment. Similarly, employees adapt to the work culture of an organization,
the people working there and their expectations. When their new learnings are congruent with
their value system, they adapt them. What is adapted becomes part of their culture.

EXAMPLE: Migration.

PRINCIPLES

1. Thorndike’s law of effect. This law is developed by Edward Thorndike suggesting that responses
closely followed by satisfaction will become firmly attached to the situation and therefore more
likely to reoccur when the situation is repeated. Conversely, if the situation is followed by
 discomfort, the connections to the situation will become weaker, and the behavior of response
is less likely to occur when the situation is repeated.
There are two key aspects of the law of effect:
 Behaviors immediately followed by favorable consequences are more likely to occur
again. In our earlier example, being praised by a supervisor for showing up early for
work made it more likely that the behavior would be repeated.
 Behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to occur again. If you
show up late for work and miss an important meeting, you will probably be less likely to
show up late again in the future. Because you view the missed meeting as a negative
outcome, the behavior is less likely to be repeated.

EXAMPLE: If you study and then get a good grade on a test, you will be more likely to study for
the next exam.

2. Classical conditioning is a powerful technique for altering the behavior of others. Classical
conditioning is discovered by Ivan Pavlov. This is a type o learning that happens automatically or
unconsciously. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations
between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

EXAMPLE: Whenever Tom comes home wearing a baseball cap, he takes his child to the park to
play. So, whenever his child sees him come home with a baseball cap, his child gets excited
because he has associated his father’s cap with a trip to the park.

3. Stimulus response are the greatest forces in all cases of communication. It is a behavior that
manifests as a result of interplay between stimulus response. The belief is that a subject is
presented with a stimulus, and then respond to that stimulus, producing “behavior”.

EXAMPLE: You are hungry, so you eat some food.

4. There are no two individuals who are alike in all dimensions. The differences become more
striking as they are compared from the physical to the socio-psychological components. Hence,
the great disparity in behavior even between twins, since behavior reflects a person’s physical,
mental, psychological characteristics.

EXAMPLE: An identical twin sharing all of their genetics, grew up in the same house with the
same set of parents, with the same books on the wall and the same TV watching habits, went to
same schools at the same time, had similar group of friends, and yet two completely separate
personalities emerge.

METHODS IN STUDYING HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

 1. THREE LEVEL METHOD- Charles Milton proposed this “three-level model” of examining human
behavior. In this approach, human behavior is analyzed at three levels: individual, group, and
organization.
At individual level, it includes each individual person within an organization. Each of them acts
differently which affects the group dynamics and the organization as a whole. It is in this level
where individual’s learning, perception, creativity, motivation, personality, turnover, task
performance, cooperative behavior, deviant behavior, ethics, and condition are being studied.

The group level includes any group within an organization. It can range in size from a couple
people working together, to a large group with multiple of members. As individual can affect a
group, a group can also affect an organization. At the same time, a group can affect individuals
and an organization can affect a group. At this level of organizational behavior analysis, group
dynamics, intra- and intergroup conflict and cohesion, leadership, power, norms, interpersonal
communication, networks, and roles are being examined.

At the organizational level, it examines the overall behaviour of the organization itself. As
discussed in the first two levels, organization impacts the individual and group behavior, and
that individual and group behavior impacts an organization. This level involves the study of
organizational behavior relating to organizational culture, organizational structure, cultural
diversity, inter-organizational cooperation and conflict, change, technology, and external
environmental forces.

Example: It is impossible for a company to study each individual employee’s behavior, however,
it is important for a company to create guidelines and expectations that will attract employees
with desirable behaviors. For example, a company may hire employees based on their
personality or how they answer behavioral based interview questions. At the same time,
companies can help influence individual behavior. They do this by creating a code of conduct,
establishing policy and procedure guidelines, and by developing incentives and consequences.

2. Interdisciplinary Model
Organizational behavior is basically an interdisciplinary approach. It draws heavily
from other disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology. Besides, it also takes
relevant things from economics, political science, law and history. Organizational behavior
integrates the relevant contents of these disciplines to make them applicable for
organizational analysis.
At the individual level, psychology provides knowledge of perception, motivation and
learning, while physiology and anatomy gives information and principles on the body and how it
works. At the group level, sociology and other disciplines like social work and education have
given much contribution. Sociology offers insights into the roles, norms, authority, power,
influence and status. Anthropology and other sciences like economics, business, law and
medicine have wrought more changes and influences on human behavior at the organizational
level. Culture and its artifacts are the main contribution of anthropology in the study of
behavior in organization.
For example, it addresses issues such as the following which may be relevant to the
case: • What facilitates accurate perception and attribution? • What influences individual,
group and organizational learning and the development of individual attitudes toward work? •
How do individual differences in personality, personal development, and career
development affect individual’s behaviors and attitudes? • What motivates people to work,
and how does the organization’s reward system influence worker behavior and attitudes? •
How do managers build effective teams?

3. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

The Developmental Method is a way of looking at human behavior. It investigates the stages of
development and how they affect behaviour. It can be used by researchers to better understand why
people behave the way they do and to develop interventions to assist them modify their ways. People
grow and move on to higher levels of resourcefulness, creativity, competency, and self-realization
through proper maintenance, recognition and development programs.

The Developmental Method is a method for analyzing human behavior. The model's goal is to build a
structure that can aid in the comprehension of an organization's behavior, similar to studying and
explaining a system from a development standpoint. The goal is also referred to as "constructive" or
"adaptive." The Developmental Model is a method of understanding human behaviour that considers a
person's life history and experiences. It looks at the stages of development that people go through and
how those stages influence their behavior.

The Developmental Model can be used to assist people understand why they behave the way they do,
as well as to change their behaviour. The study of how childhood trauma might effect a person's
behaviour later in life is an example of the Developmental Model in action. Researchers can utilise the
Developmental Model to figure out why a child who has now been mistreated as a child is going to
engage in abusive behaviour as an adult.

It can also assist researchers in developing solutions for people who were abused as youngsters. The
study of how culture influences behaviour is another aspect of the Developmental Model. Researchers
can use the Developmental Model to figure out why people in different cultures act the way they do. It
can also aid researchers in the development of interventions to assist people from various cultures in
changing their behaviour.

 Keith Davis call this “Human Resource” (supportive) Approach. [According to Keith Davis
“Human relations deals with motivating people in organizations to develop teamwork
which effectively fulfil their objectives and achieves organizational objectives.”] [In
literal terms, ‘human relations in industry’ is a term generally used for organizational
behaviour. From the point of view of management, human relations is motivating
people in organizations to develop teamwork spirit in order to fulfil their needs and to
achieve organizational goals efficiently and economically.]
  These basic and potent needs are recognized and fulfilled by the organization which
considers them as “the central resource in any organization and any society”
 These six components in turn, influence the individual who modifies his behavior in a
context that he has created.
- Philosophy – Mission, Goals, Objectives, and Aims.
- Funds – Equity, Borrowings, Loans.
- Values – Needs, Motivation, Work ethic.
- Structure – Organization chart, Roles, Tasks, Responsibilities.
- Facilities – Land, Buildings, equipment, supplies
- Technology – Processes, knowhow

People – are the main crux and heart of the organization.

>>> A developmental model can be used as a benchmark against which client behavior can be
measured. One model for assessing people’s behavior, for example, is based on Erik Erikson’s
eight phases of psychosocial development from infancy to late adulthood, which he described in
the twentieth century. Assessing clients based on the developmental tasks of their specific life
stage is an example of a developmental method in social work, according to Erikson’s paradigm.

The symptoms and actions of a teenage client, for example, might be compared to a
developmental period characterized by the battle to acquire a satisfying identity. A client’s late-
adolescent behavior might be related to a period of life marked by the struggle to feel fulfilled
by previous decisions and accomplishments.

4. SYSTEM MODEL

Systems modelling is a scientifically grounded comprehensive method to researching human behaviour.

It considers the individual's place in a larger system, which includes his or her family, job, and
community. There are four types of system models and how they might be applied to human behaviour
analysis. A wide range of problems, such as familial violence, workplace animosity, and community
violence, are investigated using systems modelling. The model was created using a combination of
theory, research, and observation. The study used a theoretical model that looked at the entire
organization. One example of Systems Modeling is a study of workplace aggression.

A systems model is a way of looking at how individuals in an organization react to a system change. It
entails looking at individual variables, their interactions, and the overall system reaction. To explain this
strategy, we'll go through four different sorts of system models and how they can be utilized to analyze
human behaviour. The following is a list of terms that can be defined and explained:

 A systematic approach to specific problems and challenges for a defined purpose is the Systems
Model way of researching human behaviour (now called systems thinking). It's applicable to
every aspect of labour, management, and education. Because each problem is viewed as an
interconnected system rather than a collection of unrelated elements, systems thinking differs
from traditional approaches to business, management, and problem-solving.
 Systems modelling is a holistic method to studying human behaviour that is based on science. It
takes into account the individual's location within a larger system, which includes the family,
 job, and community. The idea is to figure out how these systems influence the individual and
how the individual influences these systems.
 There are two main components to systems modelling: 1) Theoretical Modeling- This entails
creating a model of the system's operation. Theory, study, and observation have all been used
to develop the model. 2) Data Collection and Analysis- This entails getting information about
how the system works and analyzing it to understand how it affects the individual. Systems
modelling is used to investigate a broad range of topics, including familial violence, workplace
hostility, and community violence.
 A study of workplace aggressiveness is an example of Systems Modeling. The study's purpose
was to figure out how hostility affects productivity. The research used a theoretical model that
looked at the workplace as a whole. Interviews with employees who had been involved in
confrontational episodes provided the data. The information was examined to discover how
hostility affects productivity. Aggression has a negative influence on production, according to
the study's findings.

5. CONTINGENCY MODEL

The first stage is to identify the Humans involved in a task or job. These workers can be disorganized or
well-organized. The contingency model can also be used to forecast how people's behaviour will change
over time. A person's behaviour at work and at home, for example, may be radically different.

Model of Contingencies Human behaviour is studied using this method. This is a common strategy for
researching and understanding human behaviour. As soon as a student is requested to complete an
assignment, he must be given a task, such as identifying and explaining the many categories of workers
in this model. Identifying the Humans engaged in a task or job is the first step. These people can be
either unorganized or organized workers.

Employees are identified by assessing their contribution to the organization's production. They are
attributed to individual attributes such as abilities, knowledge, and traits connected to this project or
task in nominal analysis. To define them in relation to one another, a contingency model is created.

Contingency models are based on three factors: contingent human qualities, function type, and the
relationship between them. The contingency model is a method of examining human behaviour that
considers the person's interaction with the environment. It is predicated just on premise that there is no
one-size-fits-all tool for organizing or leading people, and that the optimum approach depends on the
situation.

While a manager's team is faced with a difficult assignment, for example, she may need to be more
directive, but when working on a project that involves creativity, she may need to be more flexible.
Another example is a leader who is task-oriented and directive when the team initially begins a project,
but becomes more participative and encouraging as the project progresses.

The contingency model can also be used to determine how people's behaviour evolves over time. For
example, a person's behaviour at work and at home may be completely different.

>>>> The link between two occurrences, one of which is “contingent” or a result of the other, is
known as contingency. All conduct, according to behaviorism (ABA), is a reaction to an
antecedent and is motivated by the consequences, even if the link isn’t always obvious to the
spectator or the employee who may be the target of a behavioral or instructional intervention.

People and animals can learn to link neutral stimuli with stimuli that cause reflexive, automatic
reactions, and they will learn to respond to the new stimulus in the same way they responded to
the previous one.

A manager dealing with an employee who is frequently late to work is an example of the
contingency perspective in action. A management might have documented process in place for a
circumstance like this, when there is just one option: provide notification to the employee.