MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Occurs throughout Occurs during S

interphase phase
Transcription in Replication in
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION nucleus; translation nucleus
in cytoplasm

ORGANISM
 Store and preserve information STRUCTURAL CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEIC
 Pass information to future generations ACIDS
 Express information during life’s
processes Nucleotides, Nucleosides and
Nucleobases:
GENETIC INFORMATION
 Coded along a polymeric molecule  Building blocks of nucleic acids
(DNA)  Nucleotides have three characteristics
- The chemical basis of heredity components
 Organised into genes 1. A nitrogenous (nitrogen-
- Units of DNA that encodes a containing) base (nucleobase)
protein or DNA 2. A pentose
3. One or more phosphatase
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology  Nucleosides: nitrogenous base
(nucleobase) + pentose only
 Nucleobase: nitrogen-containing
aromatic compounds that make up the
coding portion of nucleic acids
 Transcription is carried out by RNA
polymerase
 Translation is performed on
ribosomes
 Replication is carried out by DNA
polymerase
 Reverse transcriptase copies RNA into
DNA
Nucleotide and Nucleic Acid Nomenclature
Base Nucleoside Nucleotide Nucleic
Gene Expression & DNA Replication acid
“the genetic information stored in the Purines
nucleotide sequence of DNA serves two Adenine Adenosine Adenylate RNA
Deoxyadenosine Deoxyadenylate DNA
purposes” Guanine Guanosine Guanylate RNA
Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanylate DNA
 Sources of information for synthesis of Pyrimidines
protein molecules of the cell Cytosine Cytidine Cytidylate RNA
Deoxycytidine Deoxycytidylate DNA
- GENE EXPRESSION Thymine Thymidine or Thymidylate or DNA
 Provides information inherited by deoxythymidine deoxythymidylate
Uracil Uridine Uridylate RNA
daughter cells or offsprings
- DNA REPLICATION

GENE EXPRESSION DNA REPLICATION

Produces all the Duplicates the
proteins required by chromosomes before
an organism cell division
Transcription of DNA copy of the
DNA: RNA copy of a entire chromosome
small section of a
chromosome
Average size of a Average size of
human gene: 104- human
105 nucleotide pairs chromosome: 108
nucleotide pairs
Translation of RNA:
protein synthesis

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
PURINES
 Is a heterocycylic aromatic organic
compound consisting of a pyrimidine
ring fused to an imidazole ring
Hydrogen bonds involving the amino and
PYRIMIDINES
carbonyl groups: most important mode of
interaction between two (and occasionally
three or four) complementary strands of
nucleic acid
 Is a heterocyclic aromatic organic
compound similar to benzene and
pyridine consisting two nitrogen atoms
as position 1&3 of the six-member ring.
NUCLEOBASES
 Purines & Pyrimidines are heterocyclic
compounds
 Heterocyclic compounds: cyclic
structures that contain, in addition to
carbon, other (hetero) atoms such as
nitrogen
 Electron decolization among atoms in
the ring  partial double-bond
character  planar purines and
pyrimidines  facilitates their close
association, or “stacking” that
stabilized double-stranded DNA
 Are hydrophobic and relatively
insoluble in water at the near-neutral
pH of the cell
 Hydrophobic staking interactions in
which the planes of their rings parallel
(like a stack of coins)
- The stacking also involves a
combination of van der Waals
and dipole-dipole interactions
between the bases
 Base staking:
- Helps to minimize contact of the
bases with water
- Very important in stabilizing the
three-dimensional structure of
nucleic acids
NUCLEOSIDES
 Are derivatives of purines and
pyrimidines that have a sugar linked to
a ring nitrogen of a purine or pyrimidine
 Numerals with prime (eg, 2’ or 3’)
distinguishing atoms of the sugar from
those of the heterocycle
 The sugar in ribonucleosides is D-
ribose
 The sugar in deoxyribonucleosides is
2-deoxy-D-ribose
DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 Both sugars are linked to the

heterocycle by an a-N-glycosidic
bond, almost always to the N-1 of a
pyrimidine or to N-9 of a purines

NUCLEOTIDES
PHOSPHORYLATED NUCLEOSIDES

 Nucleotide: a nucleosides in which a

molecule of phosphoric acid is
esterified with an –OH of the
monosaccharide, most commonly
either the 3’-OH or the 5’-OH
 Polymerization leads to nucleic acids
 Linkage is repeated (3’,5’-
phosphodiester bond)

De Novo Synthesis of Purine

Sources of Atoms of Purines and
Pyrimidines
 The De Novo Synthesis of Purine
nucleotide means using phosphoribose,
amino acids, one carbon units and CO2
as raw materials to synthesize purine
nucleotide from the beginning
 It is the main synthesis pathway of
nucleotides
 Purine synthesis occurs in all tissues.
The major site of purine synthesis is in
the liver and, to a limited extent, in the
brain
- Substrates: Ribose-5-phosphate;
glycine; glutamine; H2O; ATP;
CO2; Aspartate
- Products: GMP; AMP; Glutamate;
Fumarate; H2O

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

catalysed by glutamine PRPP

amidinotransferase
 A series of nine reactions results in the
formation of IMP (Inosine 5’-
monophosphate).
 IMP can then be transformed either to
GMP by IMP dehydrogenase, or to AMP
by adenylosuccinate synthetase

Purine Salvage Pathway

What: Recycling of products of nucleic acid

breakdowns
Where: Salvage pathway occurs primarily in
extrahepatic tissues, de novo pathway occurs
primarily in the liver
How: From free bases (A, G)
 PRPP synthetase is the rate-limiting Who: APRT and HGPRT is responsible for
step in the synthesis of both purines most of the recycling
and pyrimidines How much: Salvage pathway accounts for
 Glutamine: PRPP amidotransferase 90% of daily purine nucleotide biosynthesis
catalyzes the first-committed step in Why: Most purine bases are recycled rather
purine synthesis than degraded. Salvage pathway requires less
 IMP branch to AMP energy than de novo pathway for purine
- Inhibitor: AMP synthesis
- Need for GTP
 IMP branch to GMP
- Inhibitor: GMP
- Need for ATP

Pyrimidine Synthesis
 Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides
can occur by a de novo pathway or by
the reutilization of preformed
pyrimidine bases or ribonucleosides
(salvage pathway).
 The pyrimidine synthesis is a similar
process than that of purine
 In the de novo synthesis of
pyrimidines, the ring is synthesized
 Ribose-5-phophate (as provided by first and then it is attached to a ribose-
the penose-phosphate pathway) is phosphate to for a pyrimidine
converted into PRPP (Phosphoribosyl nucleotide
pyrophosphate) by PRPP synthetase, in
a step requiring one ATP De Novo Pyrimidine Synthesis
 In the committed step in the process,
an alpha-amino group is then added to  CO2 and glutamine are combined to
PRPP from glutamine to form 5- from carbamoyl phosphate. This
phosphoribosylamine. This reaction is reaction is catalysed by carbamoyl

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

phosphate synthetase II, which is the Formation In 1st step A heterocyclic

major regulated step for this pathway. of N- of their ring is formed
 Carbamoyl phosphate is then combined Glycosidic biosynthesi first, then it
with water and aspartate before being Bond s (PRPP is reacts with
subsequently dehydrogenated in a the 1st PRPP
series of reactions to form orotic acid. substrate)
Products of Uric acid CO2, NH3,
 The ribose-5-phosphate ring is then
degradatio (poor Beta-Amino
attached to orotic acid by orotate
n solubility in Isobutyrate
phosphoribosyl transferase to form
H2O) NH3 and BetaAla
Orotidine 5’-monophosphate (OMP) (soluble in
 OMP is decarboxylated to form UMP by H2O)
OMP decarboxylase
 UMP can be phosphorylated to form Character Purines Pyrimidines
UTP De Novo De Novo
 UTP can subsequently be converted to Synthesis Synthesis
CTP with the addition of an amino Number of
group that is donated by glutamine. ATPs 6 ATPs 2ATPs
The conversation of UTP to CTP is Involved
catalysed by CTP synthetase Nucleotide
Produced IMP UMP
De Novo Synthesis of Pyrimidine in End
Ring 6 and 11 3rd step
Closure At steps

Nucleic Acids
Levels of structure

1°Structure: the order of bases on the

polynucleotide sequence; the order of bases
specifies the genetic code

2°Structure: the three-dimensional

conformation of the polynucleotide backbone

3°Structure: supercoiling
Purine vs Pyrimidine Synthesis

4°Structure: interaction between DNA and

Purines De Pyrimidine
proteins
Characte Novo s De Novo
r Synthesis Synthesis
Nucleic Acids
Number
of steps 11 steps 6 steps
2 Kinds
involved
Precursor Amino acids:  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
s of ring Asp Gly and Amino acids:  RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Gln Asp and Gln
N10FormylTH CO2 Assembled from nucleotides
F CO2  Nitrogenous base
Major  Five-carbon sugar (pentose)
portion of Glycine Aspartate  Phosphate
ring
provided Nucleic Acids
by  Deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA: a
biopolymer that consists of a backbone
Character Purines Pyrimidine of altering units of 2-deoxy-D-ribose
De Novo s De Novo and phosphate
Synthesis Synthesis  The 3’-OH of one 2-deoxy-D-ribose is
Acquisition In starting In end steps joined to the 5’-OH of the next 2-
of Ribose- steps deoxy-D-ribose by a phosphodiester
Phosphate bond

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 Primary Structure: the sequence of coiled in a right-handed manner about

bases along the pentose- the same axis
phosphodiester backbone of a DNA - Structure based on X-Ray
molecule base sequence is read from crystallography
the 5’ end to the 3’ end
 System of notation single letter
(A,G,C,U and T) X-ray diffraction patter of DNA fibers

DNA differs from RNA

Sugar is 2’-deoxyribose, not ribose.

 Sometimes “d” used to designate
“deoxy”
 Writing a DNA strand
- An abbreviated notation
- Even more abbreviated notations
d(GACAT) pdApdCpdGpdT
pdACGT

- Rosalinda Franklin (1920-1958)

- Maurice Wilkins (1916-2004)

 It was deduced that DNA molecules are

helical with two periodicities along their
long axis, a primary one of 3.4 A and
secondary one of 34 A

DNA RNA
Molecule is a double Molecule is a single-
Watson and Crick Model of DNA
stranded helix stranded
 DNA consists of two helical DNA chains
Sugar is Sugar is ribose
wound around the same axis to form a
deoxyribose
Contains thymine Contains uracil, and right-handed double helix
and no uracil no thymine  The hydrophilic backbones of
A=T A =/≠U alternating deoxyribose and phosphate
G=C G =/≠C groups are on the outside of the double
helix, facing the surrounding water.
DNA - 2°Structure  The furanose ring of each deoxyribose
 Secondary structure: the ordered is in the C-2’ endo conformation.
arrangement of nucleic acid strands  The purine and pyrimidine bases of
- The double helix model of DNA 2° both strands are stacked inside the
structure was proposed by James double helix, with their hydrophobic
Watson and Francis crick in 1953 and nearly planar ring structures very
 Double helix: a type of 2° structure of close together and perpendicular to the
DNA molecules in which two long axis.
antiparallel polynucleotide strands are

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 The offset pairing of the two strands
creates a major groove and minor
groove on the surface of the duplex
Base Pairing
relationships it follows that the sum of
the purine residues equals the sum of
the pyrimidine residues; that is, A + G
= T + C.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

A Sample of Double Stranded DNA has 10%

C. What is the %T? %A? %G?

 Base pairing is complimentary

 A major factor stabilizing the double
helix is base pairing by hydrogen
bonding between T-A and between C-G
 T-A base pair comprised of 2
hydrogen bonds
 G-C base pair comprised of 3 hydrogen Other Forms of DNA
bonds

Complementarity of strands in the DNA

double helix

 the two antiparallel polynucleotide

chains of double-helical DNA are not
identical in either base sequence or
composition, rather they are
complementary to each other

 B-DNA
Chargaff’s rule
- considered the physiological form
1. The base composition of DNA generally
- a right-handed helix, diameter
varies from one species to another.
11Å
2. DNA specimens isolated from different
- 10 base pairs per turn (34Å) of the
tissues of the same species have the
helix
same base composition.
 A-DNA
3. The base composition of DNA in a given
- a right-handed helix, but thicker
species does not change with an
than B-DNA
organism’s age, nutritional state, or
- 11 base pairs per turn of the helix
changing environment.
- has not been found in vivo
4. In all cellular DNAs, regardless of the
 Z-DNA
species, the number of adenosine
- a left-handed double helix
residues is equal to the number of
- may play a role in gene expression
thymidine residues (that is, A=T), and
the number of guanosine residues is
equal to the number of cytidine
residues (G=C). From these
DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

B form A form Z form

Intermolecular Forces in DNA
DNA DNA DNA
Helical sense
Right Right Left
handed handed handed

Major groove Present Present Absent

bp/helical
tern 10.5 11 12
Glycosyl Anti (for
bond pyrimidines
conformation Anti Anti ans syn (for
purines
)
Helical/Propeller Twists
Helix rise/bp 3.4 2.6 3.7  Bases that are exposed to minor
groove contact with water
Base tilt 6° 20° 7°
Structure
 They twist in a “propeller twist”
fashion
 Results in:
- less optimal base pair distance
- More optimal base pair stacking
(eliminates presence of water
molecules)
Comparison of A, B, and Z forms of DNA
 both A and B-DNA are right-handed
helices DNA - 3°Structure
 Z-DNA is left handed  Tertiary structure: the three-
 Z-DNA occurs in nature, usually dimensional arrangement of all atoms
consists of alternating purine- of a nucleic acid; commonly referred to
pyrimidine bases as supercoiling
 Methylated cytosine found also in Z-  Supercoiling: Further coiling and
DNA twisting of DNA helix.
 Circular DNA: a type of double-
Other Features of DNA stranded DNA in which the 5’ and 3’
 Base stacking ends of each stand are joined by
- bases are hydrophobic (Van der phosphodiester bonds
Waals Forces of their pi-cloud
electrons) and interact by
hydrophobic interactions DNA Topology
- in standard B-DNA, each base
rotated by 32° compared to the
next and, while this is perfect for
maximum base pairing, it is not
optimal for maximum overlap of
bases;
- bases exposed to the minor groove
come in contact with water

 The DNA molecules in human chromosomes are

linear
 The DNA molecules in prokaryotes are circular
(refers to the continuity of the DNA strands)
- Negative Supercoils: if the strands are
underwound
- Positive Supercoils: if the strands are
overwound

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

DNA Supercoiling

 DNA underwinding also makes the

separation of strands somewhat easier.
In principle, each turn of underwinding
should facilitate strand separation over
about 10 bp. However, the hydrogen-
bonded base pairs would generally
preclude strand separation over such a
short distance, and the effect becomes
Most Cellular DNA is Underwound important only for longer DNAs and
 Supercoiling results when DNA is higher levels of DNA underwinding.
subject to some form of structural
strain.
DNA Supercoiling
 In almost every instance, the strain is
 Prokaryotic DNA is circular. It can form
a result of underwinding of the DNA
supercoils.
double helix in the closed circle. In
 Double helix can be considered to a 2-
other words, the DNA has fewer helical
stranded, right handed coiled rope
turns than would be expected for the B-
 Can undergo positive/negative
form structure
supercoiling
 Underwinding decreases the total
number of helical turns in the DNA
relative to the relaxed, B form.
 To maintain an underwound state, DNA
must be either a closed circle or bound
to protein.

Effects of DNA underwinding

 A segment of DNA in a closed-circular

molecule, 84 bp long, in its relaxed
form with eight helical turns.

 Removal of one turn induces structural
strain
 The strain is generally accommodated
by formation of a supercoil
Enzymes that affect the supercoiling of
DNA
 Topoisomerases: enzymes that are
involved in changing the supercoiled
state of DNA
- Class I: cut the phosphodiester
backbone of one strand, pass the
end through, and reseal
- Class II: cut both strands, pass
some of the remaining DNA helix
between the cut strands, and
reseal
DNA gyrase: a bacterial topoisomerase

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Supercoiling in Eukaryotes  a nearly equal mass of small basic

proteins termed histones
 Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with a  nonhistone proteins (most of which are
number of proteins, especially with acidic and larger than histones)
basic proteins that have abundant  small quantity of RNA
positively charged side chains at
Histones: most abundant chromatin
physiological (neutral) pH.
proteins
 Electrostatic attraction between the
 Histone: a protein, particularly rich in
negatively charged phosphate
the basic amino acids Lys and Arg;
groups on the DNA and the positively
found associated with eukaryotic DNA
charged groups on the proteins favors
the formation of complexes of this sort.
- five main types: H1, H2A, H2B, H3,
The resulting material is called
H4
chromatin.
- the DNA is tightly bound to all the
 Topological changes induced by
types of histone except H1
supercoiling must be accommodated by
 Nucleosome: DNA wound around an
the histone-protein component of
octameric complex of histone
chromatin
molecules

Organizing of Eukaryotes Chromosomes

 H1 histones are the ones least tightly

bound to chromatin and are, therefore,
easily removed with a salt solution,
after which chromatin becomes more
soluble.
 The organizational unit of this soluble
chromatin is the nucleosome.
 Nucleosomes contain four major types
of histones: H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

Histones
 The carboxyl terminal two-thirds of the
histone molecules are hydrophobic
 The amino terminal thirds are
particularly rich in basic amino acids
 These four core histones are subject to
at least six types of covalent
modification or posttranslational
modifications (PTMs):
- Acetylation
- Methylation
- Phosphorylation
CHROMATIN - ADP-ribosylation
Chromosomal material in the nuclei of cells - Monoubiquitylation
of eukaryotic organisms - Sumoylation
Chromatin consists of:

 very long double-stranded DNA

(dsDNA) molecules

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

firmly binds two additional half-turns of

DNA previously bound only loosely to
the (H3–H4)2.
 1.75 superhelical turns of DNA are
wrapped around the surface of the
histone octamer, protecting 145 to 150
bp of DNA and forming the nucleosome
core particle

 The histones interact with each other in

very specific ways.
 H3 and H4 form a tetramer containing
two molecules of each (H3–H4)2,
 H2A and H2B form dimers (H2A–
H2B).
 Under physiologic conditions, these
histone oligomers associate to form the
histone octamer of the composition
(H3–H4)2–(H2A–H2B)2

Nucleosomes

 In chromatin, core particles are

separated by a roughly 30-bp region of
DNA termed “linker.”
 Most of the DNA is in a repeating series
of these structures, giving chromatin a
repeating “beads-on-a-string”
appearance when examined by
electron microscopy

 In the nucleosome, the DNA is

supercoiled in a left-handed helix over
the surface of the disk-shaped histone Histone Tails
octamer
 The majority of core histone proteins
interact with the DNA on the inside of
the supercoil without protruding,
although the amino terminal tails of all
the histones are thought to extend
outside of this structure and are
available for regulatory PTMs
 The (H3–H4)2 tetramer itself can
confer nucleosome-like properties on
DNA and thus has a central role in the
formation of the nucleosome.
 The addition of two H2A–H2B dimers
stabilizes the primary particle and

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Nucleosome  30-nm chromatin fiber: 10-nm fibril

is further supercoiled with six or seven
nucleosomes per turn to form

Supercoiling in Eukaryotic DNA

 Chromatin: DNA molecules wound
around particles of histones in a
beadlike structure
 Topological changes induced by
supercoiling accommodated by
histone-protein component of
chromatin.

 DNA is wrapped around the surface of

a protein cylinder consisting of two Denaturation of DNA
each of histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4
that form the histone octamer.
 The ~145 bp of DNA, consisting of 1.75
superhelical turns, are in contact with
the histone octamer.
 The position of histone H1, when it is
present, is indicated by the dashed
outline at the bottom of the figure.
 Note that histone H1 interacts with
DNA as it enters and exits the
nucleosome

Compact of DNA in a eukaryotic

chromosome
Nucleosomes Are Packed into Successively
Higher-Order Structures

 Denaturation: disruption of 2°
structure
- most commonly by heat
denaturation (melting)
- as strands separate, absorbance at
260 nm increases
- increase is called hyperchromicity
- midpoint of transition (melting)
curve = Tm
- the higher the % G-C, the
higher the Tm
- renaturation is possible on slow
High Order Structure to Provide cooling
Compaction
 Electron microscopy of chromatin
reveals two higher orders of structure—
the 10-nm fibril and the 30-nm
chromatin fiber
 10-nm fibril: consists of nucleosomes
arranged with their edges separated by
a small distance (30 bp of linker DNA)
with their flat faces parallel to the fibril
axis

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

 Double helix unwinds when DNA is  Sequence then dictated by DNA

denatured sequence
 Can be re-formed with slow cooling and  Central dogma of biology
annealing

mRNA in Transcription

Principal Kinds of RNA

 RNA
- consist of long, unbranched
chains of nucleotides joined by
phosphodiester bonds between the
3’-OH of one pentose and the 5’-
OH of the next
- the pentose unit is β-D-ribose (it
is 2-deoxy-D-ribose in DNA)
- the pyrimidine bases are uracil
and cytosine (they are thymine
and cytosine in DNA)
- in general, RNA is single
stranded (DNA is double
stranded)
RNA

Classification of RNA The roles of different kinds of RNA

RNA Type Size Function
Transfer RNA Small Transports
amino acids to
site of protein
synthesis
Ribosomal Several Combines with
RNA kinds – proteins to form
variables ribosomes, the
in size site of protein
synthesis
Messenger Variable Directs amino
RNA acids sequence
of proteins
Information Transfer in Cell Small Small Processes initial
nuclear RNA mRNA to it
mature form in
eukaryotes
Small Small Affects gene
interfering expression;
RNA used by
scientists to
knock out a
gene being
studied
Micro RNA Small Affects gene
expression;
important in
growth and
development

tRNA

 Transfer RNA, tRNA:

- the smallest kind of the three
 Information encoded in the nucleotide RNAs
sequence of DNA is transcribed through
RNA synthesis

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

- a single-stranded polynucleotide  Found in nucleus of eukaryotes

chain between 73-94 nucleotide  Small (100-200 nucleotides long)
residues  Forms complexes with protein and form small
- carries an amino acid nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs)
at its 3’ end  snRNPs help with processing of initial mRNA
- intramolecular hydrogen bonding transcribed from DNA
occurs in Trna

miRNA
 A microRNA (abbreviated miRNA) is a
small single-stranded non-coding RNA
molecule (containing about 22
nucleotides) found in plants, animals
and some viruses that functions in RNA
silencing and post-transcriptional
regulation of gene expression.
 miRNAs function via base-pairing with
complementary sequences within
mRNA molecules.
 As a result, these mRNA molecules are
rRNA silenced, by one or more of the
following processes: (1) cleavage of
 Ribosomal RNA, rRNA: a ribonucleic the mRNA strand into two pieces, (2)
acid found in ribosomes, the site of destabilization of the mRNA through
protein synthesis shortening of its poly(A) tail, and (3)
- only a few types of rRNA exist in less efficient translation of the mRNA
cells into proteins by ribosomes.
- ribosomes consist of 60 to 65%
rRNA and 35 to 40% protein
- in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes, ribosomes consist of
two subunits, one larger than the
other
- analyzed by analytical
ultracentrifugation
- particles characterized by
sedimentation coefficients,
expressed in Svedberg units (S)

mRNA
 Messenger RNA, mRNA: a ribonucleic
acid that carries coded genetic
information from DNA to ribosomes for
the synthesis of proteins
- present in cells in relatively small
amounts and very short-lived
- single stranded
- biosynthesis is directed by
information encoded on DNA
- a complementary strand of mRNA
is synthesized along one strand of
an unwound DNA, starting from
the 3’ end

snRNA

 Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) is a recently

discovered RNA

DURANGO, FAIRY JEN CHESKA E.