p-n junction Characteristics

by Prof. A. K. Singh
Declaration-This content is solely for the purpose of e-learning by students and any commercial use is not
permitted and the author does not claim originality of the content and it is based on the following references.
1. Basic Electronic Devices and Circuits by R .Y. Borse
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits by S. Rama Reddy

Contents:
•Semiconductor Properties
•P-N junction
•Depletion layer
•Junction potential width of depletion layer (qualitative
only)
•Diode equation
•Diode Resistance
•Field and capacitance of depletion layer
•Effect of temperature on p-n junction diode
•Avalanche and Zener Breakdown
•Characteristics of Zener Diode
Semiconductors are the materials which have the electrical
properties in between Conductor and Insulator
A substance that conducts electricity is called a conductor, and a substance
that does not conduct electricity is called an insulator →→ So the
semiconductors are substances with properties somewhere between
conductor and insulator.
Conductor obey the Ohm`s Law, i.e. Ohmic
Semiconductors don`t follow the Ohm`s Law, i.e. Non-Ohmic
Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance

Diodes, transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors.

Common elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium. Silicon is well-known

of these. Common semiconductor compounds: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) or Indium
Phosphide (InP) or Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
Semiconductors are used in many electronic appliances as well as for social
infrastructure that support our everyday life. Semiconductors play key role in
equipment control in a variety of fields: Operating air conditioners at a comfortable
room temperature, Improving automobile safety, Laser treatment in cutting-edge
medical care and many more.
Semiconductors were discovered way back in 19th century. In the 1940s, transistors
were invented. Radios, which used vacuum tubes until then, were significantly
downsized and became portable.
p-n Junction: depletion layer
What is p-n junction?
Role of p-n junction in semiconductor electronics?
p-n junction is basic building block on which the
operation
of all semiconductor devices is dependent.

How does a p-n junction is formed?

What is the role of doping?

Is it a single crystal theory?

Formation of p-n junction

Unbiased p-n junction Forward biased p-n junction Reverse biased p-n junction
Formation of a p-n junction

Current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction

Formation of Depletion Layer: After formation of p-n junction, the free
electrons from n-region will diffuse into the p-region and recombine with the holes
present in the p-region. Each electron diffusing into the p-region will leave behind a
positive immobile ion on the n-side as shown in figure below.
When an electron combines with a
hole on the p-region, an atom which
accepts this electron loses its
electrically neutral status and
becomes a negative immobile as
shown in the figure. Atoms 1, 2 and
three are converted into positive ions
Fig. Creation of positive and negative immobile ions
and atom 4, 5 and 6 are converted
into negative ions.
Due to this recombination process,
a large number of positive ions
accumulate near the junction in n-
region and a large number of
negative immobile ions will
Fig. p-n junction with depletion layer
accumulate in the p-region near the
junction. Negatively charged ions in The shaded region on both sides of junction
the p-region will start repelling the in figure contains only immobile ions and no
electrons which attempt to diffuse free charge carriers such as electrons or
into the p-region and after sometime holes. In other words this region is depleted
the diffusion will stop completely. At of the free charge carriers and is called as the
this stage, the p-n junction is said to depletion region or the space charge region.
be attained at equilibrium. Depletion width ~ 0.5 1.0 micrometer.
Junction potential width or Barrier Potential ( VB ):
Due to the presence of immobile positive and
negative ions on opposite sides of the junction,
an electric field is created across the junction.
This electric field is known as the barrier
potential (VB) or junction potential. It has fixed
polarities as shown in figure. The polarities of Barrier potential across depletion region
barrier potential are decided by the type of
immobile ions present on two sides of the
junction. Thus the negative terminal of the
barrier potential is on the p-side and positive
terminal is on n-side as shown in the figure.
This is called as barrier potential
because it acts as a barrier to oppose the flow Unbiased p-n junction and variation of junction potential
of electrons and holes across the junction. The
barrier potential represent the height of the
barrier that is to be overcome for
commencement of flow of electrons and holes.
Barrier potential for Si ~ 0.6 Volts; For Ge ~ 0.2 Volts
Factors deciding barrier potential

Importance of barrier potential 1. Type of semiconductor material (Si or Ge)

Acting as a barrier BP does not allow the electrons
and holes to cross the junction. So, an external
voltage (called as bias) of approximate polarity has
to be applied in order to overcome the opposition
of the barrier potential.
2. The intrinsic concentration of Si or Ge before
doping
3. The impurity doping level on p- and n- sides
4. Temperature of semiconductor material
Diode Equation
The diode equation (Shockley diode equation) or the diode
law gives the I–V (current-voltage) characteristic of an
idealized diode in either forward or reverse bias (applied
voltage). The diode equation gives an expression for the
current through a diode as a function of voltage. The Ideal
Diode Law, expressed as:

Where I is net current flowing through the diode (diode

current).
I0 is "dark saturation current" or the diode leakage current or
saturation current. Complete V-I characteristics of a diode
V is applied voltage across the terminals of the diode. q is Above figure shows the complete V-I
absolute value of electron charge characteristics of a p-n diode which
K is Boltzmann`s constant combines the forward and reverse
and T = absolute temperature (K) characteristics. VBR is reverse
If I0 increases as T increases and I0 decreases as material breakdown voltage at which
quality increases. At 300K, kT/q = VT (thermal voltage) = breakdown occurs. The reverse
25.85 mV. current I0 is very small and practically
constant up to VBR

For non ideal diode (actual diode), above expression

becomes

Where n is ideality factor, a number lies between 1 and 2

depending on semiconducting material.
Diode Resistance
The resistance of a p-n junction diode has non zero and finite value as diode is
neither a perfect conductor nor a perfect insulator. It will change depending on
the operating region of its characteristics. There are two types of resistances of a
p-n junction diode depending on whether it is operating in dc or ac conditions.
1. DC or Static Resistance 2. AC or Dynamic Resistance

DC or Static Resistance:
Static Resistance = RF = VF / IF Typical value of RF is in between 10Ω to 50 Ω
Similarly, we can define the static resistance of a diode in reverse biased condition as Rr
Which is ratio of reverse voltage to reverse current at a particular operating point.
Typical value ~ 100KΩ

AC or Dynamic / Incremental Resistance: When an AC voltage is applied across a

diode, the operating point of the diode does not remain fixed. Its position
changes continuously due to change in the input voltage.

Dynamic Resistance = rF = ∆VF / ∆IF = 1 / Slope of the characteristics

Diode junction capacitance
As we know, capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field. This charge storage is
done by using two electrically conducting plates (placed close to each other) separated by an
insulating material called dielectric. Just like the capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction also
stores electric charge at the depletion region which is made of immobile positive and negative
ions.
In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low resistance so p-type
and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates of the capacitor. The depletion
region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the depletion region acts like the
dielectric or insulating material. Thus, p-n junction diode can be considered as a parallel plate
capacitor.
In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move from one place to
another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force. Therefore, charge is stored at the
depletion region in the form of electric field. The ability of a material to store electric charge is
called capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance at the depletion region.

In a p-n junction diode, two types of capacitance take place. They are:
1. Transition capacitance (CT)
2. Diffusion capacitance (CD)

The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called transition capacitance. The
transition capacitance is also known as depletion region capacitance, junction capacitance or
barrier capacitance and is denoted as CT.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the change in electric charge
per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV; where CT = Transition capacitance; dQ = Change in electric charge
and dV = Change in voltage
The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W
Where, ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor ; A = Area of p-type and n-type regions;
W = width of depletion region
Diffusion capacitance (CD)

1. Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode

and is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance and is denoted
as CD.
2. In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than
the transition capacitance.
3. Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current
or applied voltage. If large electric current flows through the diode, a
large amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a
result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.
4. In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode,
only a small amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer.
As a result, small diffusion capacitance occurs.

When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion

capacitance increases. The diffusion capacitance value will be in the
range of nano farads (nF) to micro farads (μF).

The formula for diffusion capacitance is

CD = dQ / dV
Where,
CD = Diffusion capacitance
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the
depletion region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode
Effect of Temperature on Junction Diode
When Temperature of the PN junction increases it helps to
increase the velocity of holes and electrons and thus
results in increase in conductance, it simply means that the
barrier potential decreases and conductivity of
the diode increases.

The mobility of intrinsic semiconductor decreases with

increase in temperature because at higher temperature, the
numbers of carriers are more and they are energetic also.
This causes an increased number of collisions of charge
carriers with the atoms and thus the mobility decreases.

As with increase in temperature, loosely bonded electrons

are already free and to free the other electrons, it would
take more voltage than earlier. Hence breakdown voltage
increases with increase in temperature as shown in figure. Effect of increased temperature on p-n
junction diode
Reverse saturation current (IS) of diode increases with
increase in the temperature the rise is 7%/ºC for both
germanium and silicon and approximately doubles for every
10ºC rise in temperature.

From equation we can say that the current should decrease

with increase in temperature but exactly opposite occurs
there are two reasons:

Rise in temperature generates more electron-hole pair thus

conductivity increases and thus increase in current

Increase in reverse saturation current with temperature offsets the

effect of rise in temperature
 Breakdown in Reverse Biased p-n junction Diode
Reverse saturation or leakage current :

Depends only on temperature and is

independent of externally applied reverse
voltage.

This phenomenon is known as `Breakdown`

which takes place at a large reverse voltage
applied externally to the p-n junction diode.

The breakdown in a reverse biased p-n

junction diode can take place due to two
effects:

•Avalanche effect

•Zener effect
Avalanche Effect
– When a very large reverse voltage is applied externally to the p-n junction
diode the following things are happens:

•Due to large reverse voltage the velocity of the minority charge carriers will
increase and therefore the kinetic energy associated with them also increases
to a great extent.

•During the travelling, these minority charge carriers will collide with the
stationary atoms and impart some of their kinetic energy to the valence
electrons present in the covalent bonds. Due to this additional acquired energy,
these valence electrons will break the covalent bonds and jump into the
conduction band as free electrons for conduction.
•These free electrons will be accelerated due to intense electric field of reverse biased
voltage and they knock out some more valence electrons by means of collisions. Thus
the minority charge carriers get multiplied and the reverse current increases
enormously. This chain of collisions is called as Avalanche effect. In a very short time, a
large number of free minority electrons will be available for conduction and a large
reverse current will flow through the reverse biased pn-junction diode. This
phenomenon is called as avalanche breakdown.
•During the avalanche breakdown very large reverse voltage appears across the pn-
junction diode and large leakage current flows through it. Therefore a large amount of
heat gets dissipated in the pn-junction diode and the junction temperature of the pn-
junction diode may exceed its safe limits. Due to this the diode will be damaged
permanently. Therefore, the reverse breakdown condition should be avoided.
Zener effect:
– The breakdown in the reverse biased pn-junction
diode will take place due to Zener effect called as
Zener breakdown are as under:

•When the p and n-regions are heavily doped, the

depletion region of pn-junction diode becomes very
narrow and the electric field strength in the
depletion region increases sufficiently to break
covalent bonds and generate hole-electron pairs.

•The electrons generated become free electrons. A

large number of such free electrons can constitute
a large reverse current through the diode. This
phenomenon is called as Zener breakdown.

•The breakdown phenomenon is not harmful at all times. It

is useful in some applications. If we use the external
current limiting resistance such that the reverse current at
the time of breakdown is kept below the certain low level,
then the power dissipation taking place in the diode will
be well below the dangerous level and the diode does not
get damaged, otherwise the diode cannot sustain the
breakdown and it will be damaged permanently.
ZENER DIODE
Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon (or germanium) pn-
junction diode which is operated in the breakdown region where current is
limited by both external resistance and power dissipation of the diode.
Silicon is preferred to Ge because of its higher temperature and current
capability.
When a diode breakdown, both Zener and avalanche effects are present
although usually one or other predominates depending on the value of reverse
voltage.
At reverse voltages less than 6V, Zener effect predominates whereas above 6V,
avalanche effect is predominant.
Strictly speaking, the first one should be called Zener diode and the second
one as avalanche diode. But the general practice is to call both types as Zener
diodes.
Operating Principle
The Zener diode can be operated in forward or reverse biased mode. Its
operation in the forward biased mode is same as that of the ordinary pn-
junction diode, but the operation in the reverse biased mode is substantially
different.
Circuit Symbol
The circuit symbol of a Zener diode is as shown in figure. It is a two terminal device and the,
terminals are anode and cathode. The arrowhead in the symbol points towards the conventional
direction of current through the Zener diode, when it is forward biased
Biasing of a Zener Diode
1. Forward biasing
When the anode or the Zener diode is connected to the positive terminal of
the external dc source and the cathode is connected to the negative
terminal, the Zener diode is said to be forward biased. The forward biased
Zener diode behaves like to a forward biased ordinary pn-junction diode.
The Zener diode is generally not used in the forward biased condition.

2. Reverse biasing

When cathode of Zener diode is connected to the positive terminal of the

external dc source and anode is connected to negative terminal, the Zener
diode is said to be reverse biased. The operation of Zener diode in the
reverse biased condition is substantially different from that of an ordinary
diode. Zener diode in the reverse biased condition is used as a voltage
regulator.
I-V Characteristics of a
Zener Diode

I-V characteristics of a Zener

diode can be divided into two
parts:
(i) Forward characteristics
It is almost same as the
forward characteristics of an
ordinary pn-junction diode.

(i) Reverse characteristics

The reverse characteristics of a

Zener diode are substantially
different from that of the pn-
junction diode.
As we increase the reverse voltage, initially a small reverse saturation
current Io which is in mA will flow. This current flows due to the thermally
generated minority carriers. At a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse
current will increase suddenly and sharply. This is an indication that the
breakdown has occurred. This breakdown voltage is called as Zener
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted by Vz.

The value of Vz can be precisely controlled by controlling the doping levels

of p and n-regions at the time of manufacturing a Zener diode.

After breakdown has occurred, the voltage across Zener diode remains
constant equal to Vz. Any increase in the source voltage will result in the
increase in reverse current in Zener diode.
The Zener current after the reverse breakdown must be controlled by
connecting a resistor R as this is essential to avoid any damage to the
device due to excessive heating.
Zener region and its importance
After breakdown, the Zener diode operates in a region called Zener region.
In this region the voltage across Zener diode remains constant but current
changes depending on the supply voltage. Zener diode is operated in this
region when it is being used as a voltage regulator.
Applications – As a voltage reference in emitter follower type voltage regulator; as a
regulated power supply; in the protection circuits for MOSFET; in the clipping
circuits; in the pulse amplifier.
Comparison of p-n diode and Zener diode

Reference:
1. Basic Electronic Devices and Circuits by R .Y. Borse
2. Electronic Devices and Circuits by S. Rama Reddy