CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Structural design is a systematic and iterative process that involves: (to note is that
the complexity of the project will determine the participation of other key consultants in
the execution of the project, for instance quantity surveyors, electro-mechanical
engineers, among others)

ACTIVITY RESPONSIBILITY
1 Identification of intended use and occupancy
Client
of a structure
2 Development of architectural plans and layout Architect/client
3 Identification of structural framework
4 Estimation of structural loads depending on
use and occupancy
5 Analysis of the structure to determine member Structural Engineer
and connection design forces
6 Design of structural members and connections
7 Verification of design
8 Fabrication and Erection Contractor/Architect/Engineers
9 Inspection and Approval Statutory body
The primary responsibilities of all these players are as follows:

• Client - primary responsibility is determining the use and occupancy and approving
the architectural plans of the building. The client the main financier of the project
and is the one with the need for the structure.

• Architect - primary responsibility is the functionality of the architectural design,

considering design standards and the wishes of the client.

• Structural Engineer – is responsible for designing the structural elements of the

structure to ensure safety and serviceability.

• Contractor – is responsible for is ensuring the final design is

erected/fabricated/built economically while adhering to the engineer’s and
architect’s specifications.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

• Statutory body – primary responsibility is ensuring that the built structure satisfies
the appropriate building codes.

1.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

• From an engineering point of view the parameters that can be varied are: (1) the
material of construction, and (2) the structural framing plan.

• The choices for material include: (a) steel, (b) reinforced concrete, and (c) steel-
concrete composite construction. For purposes of this course, we shall work with
Steel.

• The choices for structural framing plan include moment resisting frames, braced
frames, dual frames, shear wall frames, etc.

• This course focuses on the design of individual structural components. The

material of construction will limited be steel, and the structural framing plans will
be limited to braced frames frames.

1.3 STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK

• Figure 1 shows an example structural plan and layout of a four-story office building.
Figure 2 show the structural elevations of frames.

Figure 1 Floor plan layout

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

Figure 2 Braced structural frames (a) end elevation (b) side elevation

• As shown in Figure 1, the building has two 7500mm bays in y-axis and three 10500mm
bays in the x-axis.

• There are four structural frames in the y-axis. These frames have structural elevations
like frame shown in Figure 2 (a).

• There are three structural frames in the x-axis. These frames have structural
elevations like frame shown in Figure 2(b).

• The building has a roof truss, which is shown in Figure 2.

• Frame Figure 2(a) is a braced frame, where all members are connected using
pin/hinge connections. Diagonal bracing members are needed for stability.

• Frame Figure 2(b) is a moment frame, where all members are connected using
fix/moment connections. There is no need for diagonal bracing members.

• The y-axis and x-axis frames resist the vertical gravity loads together.

• The three moment frames in the x-axis direction resist the horizontal lateral loads in
the x-axis direction.

• The four braced frames in the y-axis resist the horizontal lateral loads in the y-axis.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

1.4 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Structural members are categorized based up on the internal forces in them. For
example:

• Tension member –subjected to tensile axial force only

• Column or compression member –subjected to compressive axial force only

• Tension/Compression member –subjected to tensile/compressive axial forces

• Beam member –subjected to flexural loads, i.e., shear force and bending moment
only. The axial force in a beam member is negligible.

• Beam-column member – member subjected to combined axial force and flexural

loads (shear force, and bending moments)

In basic structural analysis students have come across two types of structures,
namely, trusses and frames. For example, Figure 2(a) shows a roof truss supported by a
braced frame.

• All the members of a truss are connected using pin/hinge connections. All external
forces are applied at the pins/hinges. As a result, all truss members are subjected to
axial forces (tension or compression) only.
• In braced and moment frames, the horizontal members (beams) are subjected to
flexural loads only.
• In braced frames, the vertical members (columns) are subjected to compressive axial
forces only.
• In braced frames, the diagonal members (braces) are subjected to
tension/compression axial forces only.
• In moment frames, the vertical members (beam-columns) are subjected to combined
axial and flexural loads.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

1.5 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

Members of a structural frame are connected using connections. Common connection

types include: (1) truss / bracing member connections; (2) simple shear connections; (3)
fully restrained moment connections; and (4) partially-restrained flexible moment
connections.

• Truss / bracing member connections are used to connect two or more truss
members together. Only the axial forces in the members must be transferred
through the connection for continuity.

• Simple shear connections are the pin connections used to connect beam to column
members. Only the shear forces are transferred through the connection for
continuity. The bending moments are not transferred through the connection.

• Moment connections are fix connections used to connect beam to column

members. Both the shear forces and bending moments are transferred through
the connections with small deformations (full restraint).

• Partially restrained connections are flexible connections used to connect beam to

column members. The shear forces are transferred fully through the connection.
However, the bending moment is only transferred partially.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

Figure 3 Truss connection

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

Figure 4 Bracing connection and Simple Shear Connection Frame Figure 2(a)

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

Beam

Column

Figure
Figure 5 bolted double
6. All-bolted angle shear
double-angle shearconnection
connection.

• Bevel
• Full penetration groove weld
• Field welding
• Weld access hole
• back-up bar

Beam
• fillet welds
• shear tabs

Column

Figure 6 Directly welded flange fully restrained moment connection.

• Figure 3 shows an example truss connection. Figure 4Figure 5 shows an example

bracing connection. Figure 5 shows an example shear connection. Figure 6 shows
an example moment connection.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

• Connections are developed using bolts or welds.

• Bolts are used to connect two or more plate elements that are in the same plane.
Bolt holes are drilled in the plate elements. The threaded bolt shank passes
through the holes, and the connection is secured using nuts.

• Bolts are usually made of higher strength steel.

• Welds can be used to connect plate elements that are in the same or different
planes. A high voltage electric arc is developed between the two plate elements.
The electric arc causes localized melting of the base metal (plate element) and the
weld electrode. After cooling, all the molten metal (base and weld) solidifies into
one continuum. Thus, developing a welded connection.
• In Figure 3, all the truss members are connected by welding to a common gusset
plate. The axial forces in the members are transferred through the gusset plates.
This same connection can also be developed using bolts.
• In Figure 4, the bracing members are connected to gusset plates, which are also
connected to the beam and column. The bracing member can be connected to the
gusset plate using bolts or welds. However, the gusset plate must be welded to
the beam / column.
• In Figure 5, two angles are bolted to the web of the beam. The perpendicular legs
of the angles are bolted to the flange of the column. Thus, an all-bolted double-
angle shear connection is achieved. This bolted connection will be easier to
assemble in the field as compared to welding.

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

• In Figure 6, the beam flanges are beveled and welded directly to the flange of
column. Weld-access holes and skilled welders are required to achieve a weld of
acceptable quality.
• In Figure 6, the beam web is bolted to a shear tab (plate), which is fillet welded
to the column in the shop. This shear tab connection transfers the shear from the
beam to the column.
1.6 STRUCTURAL LOADS

The building structure must be designed to carry or resist the loads that are applied
to it over its design-life. The building structure will be subjected to loads that have been
categorized as follows:

• Dead Loads (D): are permanent loads acting on the structure. These include the self-
weight of structural and non-structural components. They are usually gravity loads.

• Live Loads (L): are non-permanent loads acting on the structure due to its use and
occupancy. The magnitude and location of live loads changes frequently over the
design life. Hence, they cannot be estimated with the same accuracy as dead loads.

• Wind Loads (W): are in the form of pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of the
building. They cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which can be
critical for tall buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.

• Values of structural loads are given in the publication BS 6399 and BS EN 1991.

1.7 Example 1 (wind design)

Consider the building structure (Figure 1 and Figure 2) with the structural floor plan and
elevation shown below. Estimate the wind loads acting on the structure when the wind
blows in the x-axis direction.

1.7 Load and Element Resistance Design

The following are the considerations for the loading of the structure as follows:

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

1.7.1 Step I. Determine the ultimate loads acting on the structure.

• The values of D, L, W, are nominal loads (not maximum or ultimate)

• During its design life, a structure can be subjected to some maximum or

ultimate loads caused by combinations of D, L, or W loading.

• The ultimate load on the structure can be calculated using factored load

combinations, which the most relevant of these load combinations are given

below:

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CSE 411 Structural Steel Design (2020/2021)

1.7.2 Step II. Conduct structural analysis

Determine the design forces (axial, shear and moment) for each structural

member.

1.7.3 Step III. Design the members.

Members are designed for the ULS and checked for SLS. Where the failure (design)

strength of the designed member must be greater than the corresponding factored

design forces (expected during the design life of the structure)

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 ADVANTAGES OF STEEL
• High strength: steel strength is designated by its
yield stress of by its ultimate strength. Steel has
a high ratio of strength to unit weight
• Tightness: this is because of a high density
index. Therefore steel can be used for reservoirs
and tanks
• Durability: steel is very durable, if properly
protected.
• Uniformity: the properties of steel as a material
as well as cross-sectional shapes is rigidly
controlled at the point of manufacture.
 DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL
• Corrosion in humid conditions: protective measures must be taken
to cover the steel by either special paint or concrete.
• Low fire resistance. Mild structural steel has a melting point of
approximately 1150oC. Steel will begin to lose the load carrying
capacity at 300oC and will have little strength at 650oC. Hot finished
structural steel will regain most of it’s strength on return to ambient
temperatures after exposure to fire. Some common methods of
protection include sprayed on coating of a cementitious mixture,
full concrete encasement or encasement using fire proof materials
such as gypsum board.
• Lack of flexibility: it is difficult to make non-rectangular structures
• Need for skilled labour in the fabrication of steel structures.
• Fatigue. Especially in bridges
NEED FOR & USE OF STRUCTURES
Fundamentally, structures are needed
for the following purposes:
✓to enclose space for environmental
control;
✓ to support people, equipment,
materials etc. at required locations in
space;
✓to contain and retain materials;
✓to span land gaps for transport of
people, equipment etc.
❖ The prime purpose of structures is to carry loads and
transfer them to the ground.
❖ Structures may be classified according to use and
need. A general classification is:
✓ residential—houses, apartments, hotels;
✓ commercial—offices, banks, department stores,
shopping centres;
✓ institutional—schools, universities, hospitals, gaols;
✓ exhibition—churches, theatres, museums, art galleries,
leisure centres, sports stadia;
✓ industrial—factories, warehouses, power stations,
steelworks, aircraft hangers
✓ bridges—truss, girder, arch, cable suspended,
suspension;
✓ towers—water towers, pylons, lighting towers etc.;
✓ special structures—offshore structures, carparks, radio
telescopes, mine headframes
✓Structural steels are alloys of iron, with
carefully controlled amounts of carbon
and various other metals such as
manganese, chromium, aluminium,
vanadium, molybdenum, neobium and
copper.
✓The carbon content is less than 0.25%,
manganese less than 1.5% and the other
elements are in trace amounts.
✓ The alloying elements control grain size
and hence steel properties, giving high
strengths, increased ductility and
Stress-strain curve for structural
steel
✓The slope of the stress-strain curve in the
elastic range is referred to as the modulus
of elasticity orYoung’s modulus and is
denoted by the letter E.
✓ Itindicates the stiffness of the material
and is used tocalculate deflections under
load. Structural steelhas a modulus of
elasticity of 205 kN/mm2.
✓Structural steel is manufactured in three
basic
grades: S275, S355 and S460. (43,50 and 55)
Common Steel sections
 General principles and design
methods
• As stated at the outset, BS 5950 is based on
limit state philosophy. Table 1 of BS 5950,
reproduced as Table 4.1, outlines typical limit
states appropriate to steel structures.
✓ For steel structures three principal methods of design
are identified in clause 2.1.2 of BS 5950:
❖ Simple design. The structure is regarded as having pinned
joints, and significant moments are not developed at
connections .
✓ The structure is prevented from becoming a
mechanism by appropriate bracing using shear walls
for instance.
✓ This apparently conservative assumption is a very
popular method of design.
❖ Continuous design(rigid design). The joints in the
structure are assumed to be able to fully transfer the
forces and moments in the members which they
attach.
✓ analysis of the structure may be by elastic or plastic
methods, and will be more complex than simple
design.
❖Semi-continuous design (semi-rigid). The
joints in the structure are assumed to have
some degree of strength and stiffness but
not provide complete restraint as in the
case of continuous design.
✓The actual strength and stiffness of the
joints should be determined
experimentally.
 Design of steel beams and joists
✓Structural design of steel beams and
joists primarily involves predicting the
strength of the member.
✓This requires the designer to imagine all
the ways in which the member may fail
during its design life.
✓It would be useful at this point,
therefore, to discuss some of the more
common modes of failure associated
with beams and joists.
 Bending
✓The vertical loading gives rise to bending of
the beam.
✓This results in longitudinal stresses being
set up in the beam.
✓ These stresses are tensile in one half of the
beam and compressive in the other.
✓As the bending moment increases, more and
more of the steel reaches its yield stress
Local buckling
✓if the compression flange or the part of the
web subject to compression is too thin, the
plate may actually fail by buckling or
rippling, before the full plastic moment is
reached.
 Shear
✓ Due to excessive shear forces, usually adjacent to
supports, the beam may fail in shear. The beam
web, which resists shear forces, may fail as shown
in Fig. 4.6(a), as steel yields in tension and
compression in the shaded zones.
✓ The formation of plastic hinges in the flanges
accompanies this process.
Shear buckling
✓ During the shearing process described above, if the
web is too thin it will fail by buckling or rippling in
the shear zone, as shown in Fig. 4.6(b).
Web bearing and buckling
✓ Due to high vertical stresses directly over a support
or under a concentrated load, the beam web may
actually crush, or buckle as a result of these stresses,
as illustrated in Fig. 4.7.
 Lateral torsional buckling
✓When the beam has a higher
bending stiffness in the vertical
plane compared to the horizontal
plane, the beam can twist
sideways under the load.
✓This is perhaps best visualised by
loading a scale rule on its edge, as
it is held as a cantilever – it will
tend to twist and deflect
General principles and
design methods
 Design of Steel Beams
SUMMARY OF BEAM DESIGN
1. determination of design shear forces, Fv, and bending
moments, M, at critical points on the element
2. selection of UB or UC;
3. classification of section;
4. check shear strength; if unsatisfactory return to(2);
5. check bending capacity; if unsatisfactory return to (2);
6. check deflection; if unsatisfactory return to (2);
7. check web bearing and buckling at supports or
concentrated load; if unsatisfactory provide web stiffener
or return to (2);
8. check lateral torsional buckling if unsatisfactory return
to (2) or provide lateraland torsional restraints;
9. summarise results.
INITIAL SECTION SELECTION
 CLASSIFICATION OF SECTION
Strength classification
✓ In making the initial choice of section, a steel strength
will have been assumed.
✓ If grade S275(43) steel is to be used, for example, it
may have been assumed that the strength is 275
N/mm2.
✓ Now by referring to the flange thickness T from the
steel tables, the design strength can be obtained from
Table 9 of BS 5950, reproduced as Table 4.3.
✓ If the section is fabricated from welded plate, the
strength of the web and flange may be taken
separately from Table 9 of BS 5950 as that for the
web thickness t and flange thickness T respectively
 Section classification
✓ The bending strength of the section depends on how the
section performs in bending. If the section is stocky, i.e.
has thick flanges and web, it can sustain the formation
of a plastic hinge.
✓ On the other hand, a slender section, i.e. with thin
flanges and web, will fail by local buckling before the
yield stress can be reached.
✓ Four classes of section are identified in clause 3.5.2
of BS 5950:
Class 1 Plastic cross sections: are those in which a
plastic hinge can be developed with significant rotation
capacity.
✓ If the plastic design method is used in the structural
analysis, all members must be of this type.
Class 2 Compact cross sections:
✓ are those in which the full plastic moment
capacity can be developed, but local buckling
may prevent production of a plastic hinge
with sufficient rotation capacity to permit
plastic design.
✓ Class 3 Semi-Compact cross sections can
develop their elastic moment capacity, but
local buckling may prevent the production of
the full plastic moment.
✓ Class 4 Slender cross sections contain
slender elements subject to compression due
to moment or axial load. Local buckling may
prevent the full elastic moment capacity from
being developed.
✓H-section A section with one central web and
two equal flanges which has an overall depth
not greater than 1.2 times the width of the
flange.
✓I-section Section with central web and two
equal flanges which has an overall depth
greater than 1.2 times the width of the flange.