F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Further Studies of a Vegetable-Oil-Filled

Power Transformer
Key words: transformer, oil insulation, dissolved gas analysis, natural ester

Introduction Daniel Martin, Nick Lelekakis, and Wenyu Guo

Since its introduction in the late 1990s, the use of vegetable
oil as a transformer dielectric has become more common in the
Centre for Power Transformer
power industry. Some of the advantages of using vegetable oil Monitoring, Diagnostics and Life
rather than conventional mineral oil are that vegetable oil is non- Management (the transformerLIFE Centre),
toxic and more biodegradable and has a fire point that is approx-
imately 200°C higher. Much research on the use of such fluids Department of Electrical and Computer
has been performed over the years, focusing on topics such as Systems Engineering, Monash University,
dielectric strength [1]–[3], aging [4], and dissolved gas content
[5]–[8]. The next step is to assist the users of vegetable-oil-filled
Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
transformers in monitoring the condition of the transformers
and to recognize oil test results that can be considered normal,
Yuriy Odarenko
although they differ from the corresponding results for mineral- Wilson Transformer Company,
oil dielectrics. In this article the test results for a new normally Glen Waverley, VIC 3150, Australia
operating power transformer, covering the first two years of its
service life, are presented. It is hoped that these results will as-
sist power industry personnel in recognizing the characteristics
of normal operation of vegetable-oil-filled transformers. Prelim-
inary results were published in our previous article [9]. Comprehensive data covering the
first two years of service of a vege-
Two Transformers
Two vegetable-oil-filled transformers of the same design,
table-oil-filled transformer are pre-
shown in Figure 1, were manufactured in 2008. They were in- sented. The characteristics that may
tended as direct replacements for two of four existing mineral- be expected during normal operation
oil-filled transformers, operating in pairs, in a substation in the
center of Sydney, Australia. However, only one was installed, are summarized.
and the other was placed in storage. They are three-phase units
with two secondary low-voltage windings per phase. A sum-
mary of their design rating is given in Table 1.
The installed transformer was exceptional in that it was fit-
ted with a comprehensive online monitoring system, which re- ence in mind. The temperature rise limits were the same as those
corded, at one-minute intervals, water content of the oil; cooling given in IEC 60076 for a mineral-oil-filled transformer [10].
system status; and the temperatures of windings, oil, ambient The transformer was water cooled, using two heat exchangers
air, and cooling water. The dissolved gas content of the oil was to increase the overall reliability of the cooling system. During
recorded every four hours. We began monitoring the transformer normal operation only one of these heat exchangers was active
in the factory during manufacture and testing, and were con- at any given time. Water pumped in through the left-hand heat
fident that it was operating normally because it passed all ac- exchanger flowed to the right-hand heat exchanger (Figure 1),
ceptance tests. with each heat exchanger functioning only when its oil pump
Both transformers used a soybean-based oil, Envirotemp was active. The heat exchanger ratings were such as to ensure
FR3 (Cooper Power Systems, Waukesha, WI), which is more that adequate cooling would be provided, even if the exchangers
viscous than mineral oil, and were designed bearing this differ- were to be coated with salts deposited by water over many years.

6 0883-7554/07/$25/©2011IEEE IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 1. Vegetable-oil-filled transformer and external equipment. DGA = dissolved gas analysis.

The transformers were fitted with a comprehensive monitor- by measuring the water activity of a thin strip of polymer [11].
ing system, which, as stated above, recorded data every minute Water activity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of
from the various sensors mounted around the transformer, i.e., water vapor to the partial pressure of water vapor above pure
load current, winding temperatures measured by eight fiber-op- water at the same temperature [12]. Accurate measurement re-
tic probes, oil temperature and wetness measured by four Vaisala quires that the polymer strip be in thermodynamic equilibrium
probes, oil temperature and cooling water temperature recorded with the surrounding fluid. Despite the fact that the temperature
by resistance temperature detectors, and ambient temperature within a transformer is usually changing continuously, due to the
and relative humidity recorded by a Vaisala probe within the fluctuating load, thermodynamic equilibrium between the probe
substation. The advantage of such a system is that the regular and the oil will be reached provided the time required for the
recording of data allows trends and relationships between the probe strip to equilibrate with the oil is short compared with the
different properties to be observed. time within which the transformer internal conditions change
The four Vaisala probes measuring the wetness of the oil significantly.
were inserted into the top and bottom of the transformer tank, To determine how quickly the Vaisala probes responded to
and top and bottom of one of the heat exchangers. They operate a change in fluid wetness, a probe was suspended in air and al-
lowed to equilibrate with the ambient humidity and temperature.
It was then inserted in a sample of FR3 fluid, with a water con-
centration of 40 ppm at ambient temperature, and its output was
Table 1. Transformer Ratings. observed. The fluid was stirred by a mechanical bar rotating at
352 rpm. To calculate the concentration of water dissolved in
Parameter Value
the fluid as a result of the probe measurement, the fluid solubil-
Year of manufacture 2008 ity at the relevant temperature must be known. Equation (1) was
used to calculate solubility using the coefficients published by
Date first energized 12 October 2008
Lewand, i.e., A = 5.3318 and B = 684 [13]. T is the temperature
Cooling class KDWF in °C.
Rated power 50 MVA  B 
A− 
 T +273 
Rated voltage and frequency 132/11/11 kV, 50 Hz Solubility(T ) = 10 (1)
Rated current 218.7 A (HV winding)
When the probe was inserted in the fluid, its output reading
2 × 1,312.2 A (LV windings) fell rapidly for a short time and then reached an almost constant
value after approximately 100 minutes, as shown in Figure 2. It
Maximum temperature rise Top oil 60°C
follows that there will be a time lag between a change in water
Average winding 70°C content of the fluid within the transformer and the final response
of the probe to this change. Such time lags must be taken into
Insulation level HV lightning impulse 650 kV
account when analyzing temperature and moisture dynamics.
HV ac 275 kV However, under normal operating conditions the water content
of the fluid in the installed transformer would not be expected to
LV lightning impulse 95 kV
vary significantly over a 100-minute period.
LV ac 20 kV

September/October — Vol. 27, No. 5 7

 Figure 2. The output of the Vaisala probe measuring the wetness
of the oil. The oil (in a beaker) was stirred by a magnetic stirrer
rotating at 352 rpm.

The dissolved gas content of the fluid was measured and re-
corded every four hours by the online automated system, using
a gas chromatograph. Fluid was pumped from the transformer
tank through the online system and returned to the tank. The
dissolved gases were extracted from the fluid with the aid of he-
lium carrier gas. The dissolved gas content of the fluid was also
measured periodically by independent laboratories, as a check
on the reliability of the automated system. A detailed analysis
of our preliminary findings on gassing trends was given in [9].
Elevated ethane and hydrogen concentrations were found, as
predicted by various researchers on the basis of laboratory tests
[5], [8], [13], [14].
Transformer Condition Data
The temperatures of the oil and the paper insulation were
continually monitored, because such data could be useful in in-
terpreting any observed changes in the condition of the insu-
lation over long periods, or a phenomenon such as unusually
heavy gassing. The highest temperatures recorded by the array
of fiber-optic probes within the transformer are shown in Figure
3; they do not suggest overheating of paper or oil.
The water content of the oil was calculated from the output of
one of the Vaisala probes. At room temperature the solubilities
of water in mineral oil and in vegetable oil are approximately
50 and 1,100 ppm, respectively, so that a higher water content
is to be expected in a transformer using vegetable oil. The water
concentrations calculated from the Vaisala probe data (Figure 4)
agree fairly well with the Karl Fischer titration measurements
shown in Table 2. On energization of the transformer the water
content of the oil was 30 ppm. It fell to 22 ppm after 5 months
of operation, and the same value was observed after 25 months.
The difference between oil water content measured by Karl
Fischer titration, and that calculated using the Vaisala probe,
may be due to absorption of water by the oil sample in transit
from the transformer to the laboratory.
The insulation at the top of an energized transformer is usu-
ally hotter than the insulation at the bottom, and therefore water
released from the warmer cellulose at the top will tend to be
adsorbed on the cooler cellulose at the bottom. Over time this
Figure 3. The highest temperatures within the transformer as
measured by the fiber-optic probe array.
adsorbed water will slowly migrate toward the center of the cel-
lulose. Du [15] calculated the time taken for water to diffuse
through 1-mm-thick pressboard impregnated with mineral oil as
333 hours (≈14 days) at 20°C. Because much thicker blocks of
cellulose had been used in the construction of the transformer,
the corresponding diffusion times would be much longer. Con-
sequently, the water content of the oil may change slowly over
a long period, as water is exchanged between the center of the
thick cellulose block and the bulk oil.
Toward the end of its useful life mineral oil forms a sludge,
whereas vegetable oil becomes more viscous. The thermal per-
formance of a fluid is related to its viscosity [16], [17]. It may
therefore be possible to assess the condition of the vegetable oil
by monitoring the temperatures within the transformer and cor-
relating them with the load, i.e., when the viscosity changes the
temperature distribution may change sufficiently to be detected.
If the temperatures deviate from those expected, the usual oxida-
tion tests, which may include measurement of oxygen inhibitor
content, dielectric dissipation factor, and acidity, should be car-
ried out.
Figure 4. The concentration of water dissolved in the oil at the
top of the transformer tank, calculated from Vaisala probe data.

8 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 2. Properties of Vegetable Oil.

In-service transformer Stored transformer

On energization of After 5 months of After 25 months of After 26 months of

Test transformer operation operation operation

75; IEC 60156; VDE 0370 68.2; IEC 60156; VDE 0370 67.2; IEC 60156; VDE 0370
Breakdown voltage (kV) —
electrodes electrodes electrodes

Moisture (ppm) Karl Fisher titration 30; ASTM D1533 22; IEC 60814 22; IEC 60814 7; IEC 60814

Acidity (mg of KOH/g of oil) 0.03; ASTM D974 0.03; AS 1767.2.1 0.03; AS 1767.1 0.03; ASTM D974

Interfacial tension (mN/m) 21.6; ASTM D971 21.6; ASTM D971 21.6; ASTM D971 24.5; ASTM D971

0.00273 at 25°C; 50Hz; 0.0042 at 30°C; 0.0358 at 0.0503 at 90°C; 50Hz;

Dielectric dissipation factor —
IEC 60247 90°C; 50Hz; IEC 60247 IEC 60247

Fiber-optic probes were inserted into different sections of the appear that the ethane-generating reactions slowed down and
windings to locate the hottest points within the transformer. Ex- possibly ceased. The concentration of hydrogen fell, perhaps be-
cessive heat and oxygen can together degrade oil and cellulose. cause hydrogen was consumed in further reactions. The online
Consequently, it is necessary to ensure that the cooling of the dissolved gas analysis measurements agreed satisfactorily with
transformer is adequate and the number of hot spots is mini- the independent laboratory measurements (Table 4).
mized. The dissolved gas content of the oil in the stored transformer
was measured (Table 5) to compare its dissolved gas analysis
Analysis of Dissolved Gas Concentrations to signature with that of the operating transformer. No ethane was
Determine Transformer Condition detected during factory acceptance tests conducted in July/Au-
Oil FR3 is known to produce higher levels of ethane (C2H6) gust 2008. However, two years later ethane was found in concen-
and hydrogen than mineral oil under nonfault conditions [5], trations comparable with those in the operating transformer. The
[7], [8], [13]. Some of the components of soybean vegetable oil, second transformer was energized only during carefully con-
such as linolenic acid, generate ethane by reacting with oxy- trolled factory testing two years prior to the sampling; therefore,
gen [18]. A catalyst, e.g., copper, is required for the ethane-pro- it would appear that ethane can be produced in the absence of
ducing reaction to proceed. The reaction noted by Schaich [18] a fault, in agreement with Duval’s observations of stray gassing
may be the source of ethane production within the transformer. [7], [8]. High ambient temperatures may have been responsible.
Atanasova-Hoehlein et al. [19] suggest that ethane is generated
by the lipid peroxidation mechanism, which can occur in all Using Water Content to Verify Absence of Vegetable-
omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids. They also suggest that ethane Oil Biodegradation in Transformer Tank
can be considered as the main gas involved in thermal-oxidative
degradation of vegetable oils.
Mineral oil generates less ethane than does vegetable oil be-
cause of differences in hydrocarbon molecular structure, i.e.,
Table 3. Ostwald Solubility Coefficients for FR3 and Mineral Oil.
ring structures in mineral oil but straight chains in vegetable oil
triglycerides. Consequently, ethane generation within a trans- FR3 Mineral oil
former may be related to the proportion of linolenic acid form-
Gas 25°C [19] 70°C [20] 25°C [19] 70°C [20]
ing the triglyceride, the temperature, the availability of oxygen,
and the copper surface area exposed to the oil. H2 0.05 0.097 0.05 0.092
A common measure of gas solubility is the Ostwald coef-
O2 0.15 0.255 0.17 0.208
ficient, which is the concentration of gas dissolved in the oil
divided by the concentration of free gas in the headspace of a N2 0.07 0.141 0.09 0.127
vessel, such as a sampling syringe [20]. Thus the concentration
CH4 0.30 0.387 0.43 0.432
of a gas dissolved in the oil can be calculated from a measure-
ment of the concentration of the same gas in the headspace of the CO 0.09 0.148 0.12 0.143
syringe. The Ostwald solubility coefficients for various gases in
FR3 and in mineral oil are given in Table 3 [21], [22]. CO2 1.33 1.187 1.08 0.921
The levels of dissolved gas in the transformer oil were moni- C 2H 2 1.63 1.763 1.20 0.992
tored for nearly two years. The ethane level increased around the
time of energization, plateaued at approximately 120 ppm, and C 2H 4 1.19 1.389 1.70 1.419
remained at that level for nearly two years (Figure 5). It would C 2H 6 1.45 1.677 2.40 2.022

September/October — Vol. 27, No. 5 9


Figure 5. Dissolved gas analysis results from the online monitor,
showing gas levels recorded over two years following energiza-
tion. The dashed lines indicate when the monitor was offline.
and covers the range 0 to 1, where 0 = dry and 1 = saturation.
The minimum water activity levels required to sustain various
organisms are given in Table 6 [24].
It is assumed in the water activity approach that the system
is in thermodynamic equilibrium, contrary to the usual situa-
tion in transformers. However, it may be reasonable to assume
that, provided the ratio (instantaneous water vapor pressure/
maximum water vapor pressure at the same temperature) is kept
below the relevant water activity, organisms will not survive
within the transformer tank. The solubility of vegetable oil in
water is around 1,000 ppm at room temperature and increases
with increasing temperature. The standard ASTM D6871 Stan-
dard Specification for Natural Ester Fluids Used in Electrical
Apparatus [27] specifies a maximum oil water content of 200
ppm (the breakdown voltage of FR3 falls at around 300 ppm
[1]). Thus, if the oil water content is kept below the level speci-
fied by the ASTM standard, the oil would be expected to be too
dry for microorganisms to survive within the transformer tank
and degrade the oil.

Using Changes in Dielectric Dissipation Factor to

A major advantage of using a vegetable oil is that, if a leak
occurs, the oil will be consumed by microorganisms. The manu-
facturers of FR3 noted some speculation that natural ester insu-
lation fluid may support microbiological growth in transformers;
however, their eight-year study did not produce any supporting
evidence [23].
The food industry has carried out much research on spoilage
prevention [22]–[26]. One method is to limit access to water,
thus preventing the growth of microorganisms. The term “water
activity” was first used by the food industry to determine the ef-
fect of the water content of a food on its spoilage [25] and is now
used in connection with loss or gain of water by a food in a given
environment [26]. It is a ratio, based on water vapor pressure,
Monitor Oil Condition
Regular monitoring of the condition of an oil allows a vari-
ety of problems to be detected and rectified before the overall
operation of the transformer is affected. However, without full
lifetime data it can be difficult to establish the significance of a
given parameter value for the condition of a transformer. Few
data are available for vegetable-oil-filled transformers.
The dielectric dissipation factor (DDF) of an oil is a function
of its relative permittivity and conductivity, both of which are
normally higher for a vegetable oil than for a mineral oil. It is ex-
pected that the DDF and acidity of an oil (vegetable or mineral)
will increase as the oil ages. Work is continuing to predict the
likely effect on the insulation of a transformer of the compounds
that cause its DDF to increase, e.g., acids [28].

Table 4. Laboratory Measurements of Dissolved Gas in the Oil of the Operating Transformer.1

11 March 2009 17 November 2010

Gas (ppm) Lab 1 Lab 3 Online May 2009 Lab 3 Online July 2010

H2 47 52 33 11 7

O2 321 448 330 846 368

N2 40,510 32,100 30,236 33,100 30,683

CH4 3 2.2 0 2.2 0

CO 77 60 55 53 55

CO2 313 200 361 308 479

C2H2 0 0 0 0 0

C2H4 2 1.5 0 0.9 0

C2H6 113 61 129 63 112

The laboratory measurement in March 2009 is compared with the closest online measurement in May 2009, and the laboratory
1

measurement in November 2010 is compared with the closest online measurement in July 2010.

10 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 5. Laboratory Measurements of Dissolved Gas in the Oil of the Stored
Transformer.

Factory testing
17 November 2010
August 2008

Online DGA record

Lab 2
Gas (ppm) during heat run test

H2 12 37

O2 156 5,833

N2 4,211 58,742

CH4 0 <1

CO 10 32

CO2 65 146

C2H2 0 <1

C2H4 0 <1

C2H6 0 62

Figure 6. Vegetable oil dielectric dissipation factors for the in-

The DDF of the FR3 in the two transformers was measured
in our laboratory, at various temperatures between ambient and
90°C, following IEC 61620 [29], and in a commercial labora-
tory, at ambient temperature and at 90°C, following IEC 60247
[30]. Figure 6 shows the changes in DDF over the first two years
of operation. In Table 7 our measurements are compared with
those made by a commercial laboratory. It can be seen that there
is reasonable agreement between the two.
Some differences between the DDF values for the in-service
transformer and the stored transformer can be seen in Figure
6, but they are small relative to the maximum value 0.005 sug-
gested for new vegetable oil in the IEEE Guide for Acceptance
and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transformers [31].
In this standard the suggested DDF limit (0.005) is applicable
only to the natural ester in new equipment; at the time of writing,
insufficient data were available to allow specification of limits
for service-aged oil. However, prompt investigation is recom-
mended in the IEEE guide if the dissipation factor exceeds 0.03
at 25°C. Another standard, developed for synthetic organic es-
ters, recommends a maximum value of 0.01 at ambient tempera-
ture [32].
service transformer (Unit A) and the stored transformer (Unit
B) over a two-year period. The relevant IEEE guide [29] recom-
mends a maximum value of 0.03 at 25°C.
Although the DDF values for the two transformers differ,
the differences are small compared with the maximum level
proposed in the IEEE guide (0.005). An increasing DDF may
indicate that chemical reactions, initiated by the reactions that
created ethane, are occurring.
Conclusions and Recommendations
In this article, data obtained from a transformer fitted with
an online monitoring system, and using FR3 vegetable oil,
were presented. The concentration of water dissolved in the
oil was initially around 15 ppm, increased to 25 ppm, and then
decreased to 15 ppm over a period of two years. These levels
are higher than the levels expected in mineral oil because of the
higher hygroscopy of vegetable oil.
Ethane was found in a nominally identical transformer that
had not been used for two years. This observation supports the
hypothesis proposed in previous work that ethane can be gen-

Table 6. Minimum Levels of Water Activity Required to Sustain Various

Organisms [24].1 Table 7. Comparison of Dielectric Dissipation Factors Measured by the
Authors and by a Commercial Laboratory.1
Range of water activity
Microorganism
required Authors; Commercial laboratory;
IEC 61620 IEC 60247
Bacteria 0.8–1.0
On energization 0.002 at 25°C 0.00273 at 25°C
Yeasts 0.7–0.9
After 25 months of
0.065 at 90°C 0.0503 at 90°C
Molds 0.6–0.8 operation

Water activity is a ratio, based on water vapor pressure, covering the range 0 to 1,
1 1
The authors’ measurements were performed at several temperatures, and the data
where 0 = dry and 1 = saturation. interpolated to the commercial laboratory measurement temperatures.

September/October — Vol. 27, No. 5 11

 erated in FR3 fluid even under no-fault conditions [6]. In the
operating transformer the ethane concentration increased during
the first month of energization and then decreased to a constant
value.
The DDF did not vary significantly between oil samples
taken from the operating transformer. In the IEEE Guide for Ac-
ceptance and Maintenance of Natural Ester Fluids in Transform-
ers, a maximum value of 0.005 at 25°C is suggested for unused
vegetable oil in new equipment. The corresponding value in the
operating transformer was around 0.003 at ambient temperature.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Ausgrid (Sydney, Australia) for funding
this project and Wilson Transformer Company (Glen Waverley,
Australia), Dynamic Ratings (Glen Waverley, Australia), and
TJ|H2b Australia (Glen Waverley, Australia) for their in-kind
support. They also thank Peter Cole and Matthew Gibson of
Ausgrid and Robert Wilson and Ken Budin of Wilson Trans-
former Company. Many technical discussions held over the
years with John Luksich, Kevin Rapp, and Patrick McShane, of
Cooper Power Systems (Waukesha, WI), were greatly appreci-
ated. Finally the authors wish to thank Dr. Valery Davydov for
his advice while he was working at Monash University.
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Daniel Martin received the BEng degree
in electrical and electronic engineering
from the University of Brighton, UK, in
2000 (with study abroad in Germany). He
then joined Racal Electronics, which be-
came the international electronics compa-
ny Thales, working on communication and
aircraft systems. He left Thales in 2004 to
pursue his PhD degree in electrical insula-
tion at the University of Manchester, UK. He investigated the
possibility of using vegetable oils and synthetic esters as substi-
tutes for mineral oil within large power transformers and gradu-
ated in 2008. In his current appointment as a research fellow at
Monash University he is project leader of studies investigating
the suitability of using vegetable oils as transformer dielectrics.
He provides technical expertise to industry on this topic.
 Nick Lelekakis holds a bachelor of science
with honors in chemistry from Monash
University. He has worked at Monash on
transformer-related projects since his grad-
uation in 1995. He has 14 years of experi-
ence in sampling, measuring, and monitor-
ing gases dissolved in electrical insulating
oil, using gas chromatography. He has
compared vacuum extraction with head-
space methods for dissolved gas analysis
and has made comparative tests with many other laboratories.
He also has experience with online gas chromatograph instru-
mentation.
Wenyu Guo received his PhD in computer
science from the University of Manchester
in 2007. He joined Monash University in
2007, initially engaged in computer vision
research. He later transferred to the Centre
for Power Transformer Monitoring, Diag-
nostics and Life Management (the trans-
formerLIFE Centre) to carry out research
in the area of computational modeling. He
has also been involved in dynamic thermal modeling and insula-
tion aging studies in power transformers.
September/October — Vol. 27, No. 5 13
Yuriy Odarenko graduated with an MEng degree in power
engineering from Zaporizhzhya State Engineering Academy,
Ukraine, in 2002. This program included participation in a re-
search project at the Institute of Polymer Technology of the Uni-
versity of Erlangen–Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany. Between
2002 and 2008 he was a research fellow at
the Thermal Laboratory of the Ukrainian
Transformer Institute (VIT), Zaporizhzhya,
investigating fluid dynamics and heat and
mass transfer phenomena in transformers
incorporating various types of insulation,
e.g., dielectric liquid and SF6 gas. At VIT
he also modeled the thermal performance
of transformer windings as part of a PhD
program, graduating in 2007. In 2008 he
moved to Melbourne to work with the Cen-
tre for Power Transformer Monitoring, Diagnostics and Life
Management within Monash University. Currently he is a de-
sign development engineer with Wilson Transformer Company.
He participates in the CIGRE working groups A2-24 Thermal
Performances of Power Transformers and IEC TC-14 MT-06
Thermal Performance of Transformers.