Chapter 9:

Deformation & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

1
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
• Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

• If dislocations can't move, Adapted from Fig. Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

plastic deformation doesn't occur! 2

 Motion of Edge Dislocation
Dislocation motion is analogous to the mode of locomotion
employed by a caterpillar
 Dislocation Motion
• A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip direction
perpendicular to the dislocation line
• The slip direction is the same as the Burgers vector direction

Edge dislocation

Adapted from Fig. Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Screw dislocation

4
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
– Slip directions - directions of movement
• Highest linear densities

Adapted from Fig.

Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems
6
Slip System

7
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, tR
– results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

F slip plane tR = FS /AS

A tR
normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
FS F nS f
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR = s cos l cos f
Shmid factor
8
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress

• The minimum shear stress required to initiate slip is

termed the critical resolved shear stress:

t CRSS  s y (cosf cosl ) MAX

s y  t CRSS (cosf cos l )
MAX

s y  2t CRSS when f  l  450

Slip will occur first in slip systems oriented close to this angle
(φ = λ = 45o) with respect to the applied stress
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR > tCRSS
• Ease of dislocation motion depends typically
on crystallographic orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
tR = s cos l cos f
s s s

tR = 0 tR = s/2 tR = 0
l = 90° l = 45° f = 90°
f = 45°

t maximum at l = f = 45º 10
Single Crystal Slip

Adapted from Fig.

7.9, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig.

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
11
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f = 60°
tcrss = 20.7 MPa
l = 35°
t R  s cos l cosf
s  45 MPa

Adapted from
Fig. , Callister
& Rethwisch
9e.

s = 45 MPa
So the applied stress of 45 MPa will not cause the
crystal to yield
12
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss = 20.7 MPa = s y cos l cos f = s y (0.41)

tcrss 20.7 MPa

\ sy = = = 50.5 MPa
cos l cos f 0.41
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must
be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s ³ s y = 50.5 MPa
13
Question

14
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Polycrystals stronger than s
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion
Adapted from Fig. 7
• Slip planes & directions Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(l, f) change from one (Fig. is courtesy of
C. Brady, National
grain to another Bureau of
Standards [now the
• tR will vary from one National Institute of
Standards and
grain to another Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

• The grain with the

largest tR yields first

• Other (less favorably

oriented) grains 300 mm
yield later
15
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation Adapted from Fig. Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Fig. is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip

• Hall-Petch Equation: s yield = so + k y d -1 / 2

16
Question

17
=1/2.0x10-3

18
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice strains

• These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

19
 Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Atoms immediately above and adjacent to the dislocation line are

squeezed together
20
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Small impurities atoms (exert tensile strain on crystal
lattice) tend to concentrate at dislocations (regions of
compressive strains) - partial cancellation of dislocation
compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
• Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength

Adapted from Fig. 7.17,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
21
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Large impurities imposes compressive strains
in its vicinity & tend to concentrate at
dislocations (regions of tensile strains)

Adapted from Fig. 7.18,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

22
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16(a) and (b),
Callister &
120 Rethwisch 8e.
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

23
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: s y ~
S
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofoRSFZn_MQ
24
 Application:
Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted Callister &
Rethwisch . (courtesy of
G.H. Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.

1.5mm
25
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals)
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister & roll
Rethwisch 8e.
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao - Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao 26
Question

27
28
29
 Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
• Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Fig. Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(Fig. is courtesy of
M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
Technological
University.)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BV1cxwxnhPs 30
 Dislocation Density Increases
During Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystals
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases as rd increases:

31
 Lattice Strain Interactions
Between Dislocations

Adapted from
Callister & Rethwisch
9e.

32
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Low carbon steel

33
Example

A - Ad
%CW = o x 100
Ao

34
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working (Example)

pDo2 pDd2
-
Copper %CW = 4 4 x 100
Cold pDo2
Work
4
Do2 - Dd2
= x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2

(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
(15.2 mm) 2
35
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

sy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals
Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes
(Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker
L f - L o x36 100
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) %EL 
Lo
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 • Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. Recovery

ductility (%EL)
50 2. Recrystallization
500
40 3. Grain Growth

400 30
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch
ductility 20 8e. (Fig. 7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

37
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
plane
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

38
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21(a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 7.21(a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
39
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Fig. 1(c),(d) are
courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

40
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. (d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. (d),(e) are
courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
- don = Kt
41
Example

d n - don = Kt

42
Question

d n - don = Kt

43
44
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 7.22,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

º
45
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:
• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

• Hot working  deformation above TR

• Cold working  deformation below TR 46

 Grain Size Influences Properties

• Metals having small grains – relatively strong

and tough at low temperatures

• Metals having large grains – good creep

resistance at relatively high temperatures

47
 Summary

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties
will be altered.

48
Questions for Practice

49
Question 2

50
Question 2 continued

51
Question 3

52