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Anaerobic Fungi (Phylum Neocallimastigomycota) : Advances in Understanding Their Taxonomy, Life Cycle, Ecology, Role and Biotechnological Potential
Anaerobic Fungi (Phylum Neocallimastigomycota) : Advances in Understanding Their Taxonomy, Life Cycle, Ecology, Role and Biotechnological Potential
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved
2 R.J. Gruninger et al.
features in common with mitochondria (van der Giezen, et al., 2006a; Powell & Letcher, 2012). The phylum Neo-
2002) and are thought to be derived from them (Embley callimastigomycota currently comprises six genera, each
et al., 1997, 2003; Voncken et al., 2002; Muller et al., distinguishable by morphological features: thallus mor-
2012). Hydrogenosomes contain hydrogenase; producing phology (rhizoidal vs. bulbous) and zoospore flagellation
H2, CO2, formate and acetate as metabolic waste products (monoflagellate vs. polyflagellate) (Ho & Barr, 1995; Ozk-
(Brul & Stumm, 1994; Theodorou et al., 1996; Muller ose et al., 2001). These features are summarised in
et al., 2012). These, along with lactate and ethanol, are Table 1, along with some illustrative microscopy images
the main fermentation end products produced from the (Fig. 1). Although conclusive genus identification of
anaerobic fungal degradation and fermentation of a anaerobic fungi using microscopic approaches can be
variety of plant cell wall polysaccharides. challenging, assignment of isolates into bulbous (Caec-
Anaerobic fungi degrade recalcitrant lignocellulosic omyces, Cyllamyces), hyphael monocentric (Neocallimastix
material both by invasive rhizoidal growth and the associ- and Piromyces) and hyphael polycentric (Orpinomyces and
ated production of a range of powerful polysaccharide- Anaeromyces) by direct examination of colonies/cultures
degrading enzymes. The recently published genome is reasonably straightforward (Griffith et al., 2009). How-
sequence of Orpinomyces sp. strain C1A has provided ever, difficulties in observing zoospore release (Ho &
valuable insight into the diversity of these carbohydrate Bauchop, 1991), the pleomorphic growth form and vari-
active enzymes (Youssef et al., 2013), many of which able sporangial morphology of some isolates (Ho & Barr,
ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 3
600–700 bp. The ITS region comprises two type I introns sequencing (Liggenstoffer et al., 2010; Kittelmann et al.,
(ITS1 and ITS2) split by the 5.8S rRNA subunit (159 bp 2012, 2013). Furthermore, ITS1-based approaches have
long), the latter providing an additional region for design also been used for the quantification of anaerobic fungi
of conserved primers and amplification of ITS1 or ITS2 in environmental samples by qPCR (Denman & McSwee-
separately. To date, the ITS1 region has been the more ney, 2006; Edwards et al., 2008; Sekhavati et al., 2009;
widely used amplicon for comparison of different genera McDonald et al., 2010; Lwin et al., 2011; Kittelmann
and species of anaerobic fungi (Li & Heath, 1992; Brook- et al., 2012; Marano et al., 2012). The utilisation of these
man et al., 2000a; Fliegerova et al., 2004; Tuckwell et al., approaches has clearly demonstrated that the scope of
2005). These analyses consistently support the close rela- diversity of anaerobic fungi is significantly wider than
tionship between the two genera which form polyflagel- previously implied by culture-based studies (see Ecology).
late zoospores (Neocallimastix, Orpinomyces) and also the Despite the widespread use of ITS1 as the formal fungal
two genera which form bulbous holdfasts (Caecomyces barcode (Schoch et al., 2012), it is apparent that its use
and Cyllamyces). However, the phylogenetic relatedness of for anaerobic fungi is problematic. High sequence vari-
the rhizoidal genera with monoflagellate zoospores (Pir- ability can cause difficulties in ITS1 sequence alignment,
omyces and Anaeromyces) is less clear, and it seems likely while intragenomic variation within the ITS region causes
that the genus Piromyces is polyphyletic and in need of problems for direct sequencing of PCR products (Li &
reappraisal (Brookman et al., 2000a; Hausner et al., 2000; Heath, 1992; Brookman et al., 2000a; Hausner et al.,
Fliegerova et al., 2004). 2000; Ozkose et al., 2001; Fliegerova et al., 2004; Nichol-
In addition to its application in taxonomic studies, the son et al., 2005, 2010; Chen et al., 2007; Edwards et al.,
ITS1 locus has been widely used in culture-independent 2008). These problems have also been found for some
studies to assess fungal diversity and community struc- other groups of fungi (O’Donnell & Cigelnik, 1997; Ko &
ture. Various techniques utilising ITS-based PCR ampli- Jung, 2002; Nilsson et al., 2008). Lastly, the misidentifica-
cons have been employed in such studies, including tion of sequences in NCBI database has caused confusion
DGGE (Kittelmann et al., 2012), ARISA (Edwards et al., when attempting to classify novel sequences (Bidartondo,
2008; Cheng et al., 2009; Sundset et al., 2009), clone 2008; Kittelmann et al., 2012). To start addressing this
library sequencing (Fliegerova et al., 2006; Denman et al., issues, a revised taxonomic framework for the anaerobic
2008; Nicholson et al., 2010) and next-generation fungi has recently been proposed (Fig. 2; reprinted with
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved
4 R.J. Gruninger et al.
permission from Koetschan et al., 2014) in the light of induction of sporangia by haem and other related por-
the large amounts of next-generation sequencing data that phyrins (Fig. 3), which are released from ingested plant
has being generated, and the discovery of many novel material (Orpin & Greenwood, 1986).
candidate genera that remain to be cultivated (Liggenstof- The locomotion of released Neocallimastix frontalis
fer et al., 2010; Kittelmann et al., 2012; Koetschan et al., zoospores is provided by beating of up to 8–17 flagella
2014; see also Ecology). A website has also been created which form a locomotory organelle, the activity of which
to allow for researchers to use the secondary structure has been described previously (Lowe et al., 1987a,b,c).
prediction approach used by Koetschan et al. (2014) to Motile zoospores locate plant material for colonisation
incorporate new ITS1 sequences from anaerobic fungi via chemotactic responses to soluble sugars (Orpin &
into this classification scheme (https://www.anaerobicfun- Bountiff, 1978) and/or phenolic acids (Wubah & Kim,
gi.biocommons.org.nz). 1996). Flagellated zoospores of Piromyces communis and
N. frontalis show chemotaxis in vivo towards stomata and
lateral spikes on ingested plant material, with certain sol-
Life cycle
uble sugars leaking from these and other areas of dam-
Anaerobic fungi reproduce through the asexual produc- aged tissues creating a gradient towards which zoospores
tion of flagellated zoospores from sporangia (Heath et al., are preferentially attracted (Orpin, 1975, 1977b; Orpin &
1986), with no sexual reproductive life stage identified to Bountiff, 1978). The high sensitivity of anaerobic fungal
date. Zoospores may be posteriorly monoflagellate or zoospores to soluble sugars means that freshly ingested
polyflagellate, with the subsequently developed thallus food is quickly colonised, prior to or at the same time as
being either monocentric (single reproductive body i.e. other rumen microorganisms (Orpin & Bountiff, 1978;
one sporangium from single zoospore) or polycentric Edwards et al., 2008). As soluble carbohydrates are gener-
(many sporangia from a single zoospore) (Ho & Barr, ally depleted 2–3 h after feeding in sheep, rapid colonisa-
1995). In the rumen, zoospores are released from anaero- tion of plant material by anaerobic fungi is crucial in the
bic fungal sporangia in response to ingestion of food, competitive environment of the rumen (Edwards et al.,
with the timing of peak zoospore density being reached 2008).
within 30–60 min (Orpin, 1975, 1976, 1977b; Orpin & Following attachment to plant material, the zoospores
Joblin, 1997). Ruminal zoospore differentiation and sub- shed their flagella to form a cyst, although amoeboid
sequent maturation are thought to occur through the movement across the plant surface has occasionally been
ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 5
observed (Orpin, 1975). Cyst formation and germination However, the development of these thalli, while not as
involve the thickening of the cell wall and production of strictly determinate as the monocentric/rhizoidal Neocalli-
a germ tube from the polar end opposite from where the mastix and Piromyces, is clearly more limited than the
flagella originated (Orpin, 1975, 1994). Cyst development polycentric/rhizoidal Anaeromyces/Orpinomyces.
varies depending on whether the fungus is mono- or The anaerobic fungal rhizomycelium physically pene-
poly-centric (Fig. 3; Table 1). In monocentric taxa, cyst trates and enzymatically digests plant material while pro-
germination is termed endogenous, as the nucleus viding an anchor for the production of an external
remains within the cyst which enlarges to form a zoospo- sporangium (monocentric) or multiple sporangia (poly-
rangium. Thus the rhizoids remain anucleate. In contrast centric) (Lowe et al., 1987b; Orpin & Joblin, 1997). The
polycentric taxa exhibit exogenous development, with rhizomycelium is categorised as being either filamentous
migration of nuclei into the more extensive rhizoidal sys- or bulbous (Table 1, Fig. 1), the latter possessing spheri-
tem and thereby enabling the formation of multiple spo- cal holdfasts (Ozkose et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2007). The
rangia on each thallus (Trinci et al., 1994; Orpin & developing rhizoids are capable of physically penetrating
Joblin, 1997). The terminology above is less clear when rigid, undamaged plant cell walls using an appressorium-
applied to the two genera which form bulbous holdfasts like structure (Ho et al., 1988a,b). This process opens up
(Caecomyces/Cyllamyces), as discussed by Ozkose et al. internal plant tissues to enzymatic breakdown, providing
(2001). In both cases nuclei are observed in the holdfast, nutrients that enable the development and maturation of
consistent with exogenous development, and in the case the multinucleate sporangia (Fig. 3). These mature spo-
of Cyllamyces, also in the branched sporangiophores. rangia may produce a few (1 or 2) to many (50–80)
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved
6 R.J. Gruninger et al.
zoospores (Heath et al., 1983; Lowe et al., 1987a). In the mammals lacking foregut and hindgut fermentation
presence of suitable inducers, the mature sporangium chambers such as the Panda (Milne et al., 1989), presum-
then undergoes zoospore differentiation, followed by the ably due to the simplicity of their alimentary tract.
release of its zoospores by the dissolution of the sporan- Within the reptiles (Class Reptilia), microscopic (Mac-
gial wall. kie et al., 2004) and molecular identification of anaerobic
The fact that it is very difficult to maintain host ani- fungi (Liggenstoffer et al., 2010) (Table S2) have been
mals free of anaerobic fungi (Becker, 1929) attests to the reported in the family Iguanidae; however, they have not
efficient dispersal of anaerobic fungi between hosts, pre- been identified in other herbivorous reptiles (i.e. Tor-
sumably via the formation of aerotolerant survival struc- toises) (Liggenstoffer et al., 2010). The microscopic evi-
tures. Several studies have demonstrated that anaerobic dence of structures resembling chytrid thalli (similar to
fungi can be cultured from faecal material following air- Caecomyces spp.) and zoospores in the gut of a burrowing
drying, freezing and even from cow dung left for many irregular sea urchin (Echinocardium cordatum), however,
months under field conditions (Lowe et al., 1987c; Milne is truly intriguing; potentially representing the first docu-
et al., 1989; Davies et al., 1993a; McGranaghan et al., mentation of anaerobic fungi in a nonherbivorous (detri-
1999; Griffith et al., 2009). Of the resistant structures that tivore) marine invertebrate (Thorsen, 1999). The
have been observed to date, probably the most convincing detection of Neocallimastigomycota DNA in soil (Lockhart
are the 2–4 chambered spores formed by some Anaeromy- et al., 2006), and estuarine sediments (Devon and Marti-
ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 7
Neocallimastix, Orpinomyces or Cyllamyces from hindgut In addition to the ecological insight obtained from
fermenters is currently available. While the communities these recent sequence-based surveys, these studies have
of anaerobic fungi within the alimentary tract of hindgut made substantial progress in furthering our understand-
fermenters appear to be dominated by a subset of the ing of the global genus-level diversity that exists within
currently described genera, this does not appear to be the the Neocallimastigomycota. The existence of new taxa is
case in ruminants. Ruminal anaerobic fungi are more perhaps unsurprising (Orpin, 1994; Fliegerova et al.,
diverse, with representatives of all six described genera 2010; Nicholson et al., 2010), although it is unclear
having been isolated from domesticated and wild rumi- whether these novel candidate genera are uncultivable
nants. Isolates belonging to the genus Neocallimastix using current methods or whether their occurrence has
appear to be the most commonly recovered, followed by merely been overlooked due to microscopic resemblance
members of the genus Piromyces. Orpinomyces and Anaer- to known genera. The relative lack of overlap between
omyces have also been isolated from several domesticated novel lineages identified in recent studies is striking
and wild ruminants. In contrast, members of the genus (Fig. 2, Koetschan et al., 2014) and suggests that addi-
Cyllamyces appear to have a fairly limited host distribu- tional, yet-unknown novel candidate genera may exist in
tion, having only been recovered from domesticated cattle nature.
to date. Finally, although more commonly encountered in
hindgut fermenters, Caecomyces have also been isolated
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
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8 R.J. Gruninger et al.
quantity of anaerobic fungi highest in the rumen/omasum have investigated the biohydrogenation potential of
and then decreasing exponentially further down the tract anaerobic fungi, with seemingly contrasting findings
after the abomasum (Davies et al., 1993b). Anaerobic reported regarding their enzymatic capabilities and activi-
fungal communities sampled in the rumen, duodenum ties (Kemp et al., 1984; Maia et al., 2007; Nam & Garns-
and rectum of domesticated cattle have been shown to be worthy, 2007a,b,c). Like proteolysis, however, the rate
similar (Jimenez et al., 2007), suggesting that the higher and extent of biohydrogenation activity also appears to
proportion of anaerobic fungi with a resistance phenotype vary greatly among anaerobic fungal isolates (Nam &
in the ruminant hindgut (Davies et al., 1993a) is due to Garnsworthy, 2007a). In general, anaerobic fungi appear
an altered physiological state. The implications that this to play a less active role in biohydrogenation than rumen
has for the functionality of anaerobic fungi in the rumi- bacteria, suggesting that their contribution to this process
nant hindgut, as well as for nonruminants, are currently is limited. Anaerobic fungi themselves are also unlikely to
unclear. serve as a source of polyunsaturated fatty acids to the
In the rumen, anaerobic fungi are considered to con- host, as N. frontalis only contains saturated (48%) and
tribute significantly to the overall metabolism of their monounsaturated (52%) fatty acids (Body & Bauchop,
host by playing a major role in the degradation of ligni- 1985).
fied plant tissues (Akin et al., 1990). Experiments, where
anaerobic fungi were either absent or eliminated from the
ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 9
main recalcitrant component of these feedstuffs. These plant cell wall-degrading enzymes is greater than some
polymers also have well-known antinutritive effects that currently used commercial enzyme mixtures. Extracellular
are associated with the propensity of these molecules to enzyme preparations from a Piromyces strain and
form high molecular weight, viscous aggregates that N. patriciarum have been found to be highly stable and
reduce intestinal passage rate, decrease diffusion of diges- exhibited a higher capacity to degrade microcrystalline
tive enzymes, promote endogenous losses and stimulate cellulose than the commercial enzyme products derived
unwanted bacterial proliferation (Bedford & Schulze, from Trichoderma reesei (Celluclast: cellulase preparation)
1998). Dietary inclusion of anaerobic fungal glycoside and Aspergilus niger (Novozyme: b-glucosidase prepara-
hydrolases (GH) has been found to increase the growth tion, Novo-Nordisk, Denmark) (Dijkerman et al., 1997).
of broiler chickens by 25%, by aiding the breakdown of In the paper industry, anaerobic fungal cellulases and xy-
these polymers (Azain et al., 2002). lanases provide environmentally friendly methods to treat
The most significant challenge for the biotechnological paper pulp. As paper processing and pulp bleaching uti-
use of anaerobic fungi, however, as a feed additive or lises harsh conditions (high temperatures and pH),
otherwise, is the difficulty in setting up continuous-flow rational enzyme engineering using error-prone PCR has
cultures for the efficient production of anaerobic fungal been used to develop a xylanase, derived from Neocalli-
biomass and/or enzymes. For monogastric application, mastix, which is more stable during these processes (Liu
this has led to attempts to genetically engineer the bacte- et al., 1999; Wang et al., 2011). Perhaps one of the most
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved
10 R.J. Gruninger et al.
possible, and future efforts can now be directed towards 1.home.html), it has not been described in the literature
enhancing ethanol yield. to date. More recently, Youssef et al. (2013) reported on
A promising source of renewable, environmentally the genome sequencing of Orpinomyces sp. strain C1A,
friendly energy is the production of biogas from the where they used a combined strategy that utilised both
anaerobic digestion of organic waste. Currently used bior- single molecule real time (SMRT) and Illumina sequenc-
eactors display somewhat low degradation of organic ing approaches. This recently conceived approach (Koren
material (40–60%) (Prochazka et al., 2012) thus, technol- et al., 2012) utilises the short read high-accuracy data
ogies that can improve this efficiency are needed. The obtained by Illumina sequencing to correct errors
biological pretreatment of crop residues with white and encountered in long reads produced by SMRT sequenc-
brown rot fungi has been shown to be effective at ing. A comparison of the sequencing of the two currently
improving biogas production (Ghosh & Bhattacharyya, available anaerobic fungal genomes is shown in Table 2,
1999). However, as biogas production is an anaerobic although it should be noted that neither of these genomes
process, the inclusion of an aerobic pretreatment step have been closed. Despite this, however, genome analysis
increases the overall cost of biogas production. In con- has still provided valuable insights into anaerobic fungal
trast, the direct incorporation of anaerobic fungi into genomic features, metabolic capabilities and cellular pro-
these bioreactors would eliminate the requirement of an cesses. In particular, two key factors appear to have
aerobic predigestion. Incorporation of anaerobic fungi in shaped the genome of Orpinomyces sp. strain C1A: its
ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 11
Many of the unique features of the anaerobic fungal substrates to stimulate expression of cellulases, and the
genome could be considered a consequence of their evo- transcriptome then sequenced using a combination of 454
lution in the herbivore gut over hundreds of millions of and Illumina sequencing technologies. A total of 219 gly-
years. Several genomic features observed in the Orpinomy- coside hydrolases from 25 different GH families were
ces sp. strain C1A genome are characteristically associated identified, with a number of these enzymes displaying
with the process of genetic drift; a process that impacts novel cellulase activities (Wang et al., 2011).
the genomes of microbial lineages experiencing low- A meta-transcriptome approach has since been used to
effective population sizes, bottlenecks in vertical transmis- examine the activity of rumen eukaryotic microorganism
sion and an asexual life style. Genetic drift is character- in Musk-oxen (Ovibos moschatus), through targeted
ised by the expansion of genome size, accumulation of sequencing of the poly-adenylated mRNA extracted from
repeats, and gene duplications (Lynch & Conery, 2003; rumen solids (Qi et al., 2011). This approach detected
Kelkar & Ochman, 2012), and an increase in the rate of significantly more cellulases (28% of contigs) than that
nonlethal mutations, which tends to be biased towards previously found in a bovine rumen metagenome (8.5%
adenine or thymine mutations such as cytosine deamina- of contigs) (Qi et al., 2011). The lack of detection of
tion or guanine oxidation (McCutcheon & Moran, 2012). anaerobic fungal genomic sequences in recent rumen
Orpinomyces sp. strain C1A has a large genome relative to metagenomic studies is likely a contributing factor to this
other fungal genomes sequenced to date, the presence of observation (Brulc et al., 2009; Hess et al., 2011) and
FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90 (2014) 1–17 ª 2014 Federation of European Microbiological Societies.
Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved
12 R.J. Gruninger et al.
Transportation (Sun Grant Initiative award number rumen microbial community and on the representativeness
DTOS59-07-G-00053). RJG, RF and TAM would like to of bacterial fractions used in the determination of microbial
acknowledge support from Agriculture and Agri-foods protein synthesis. J Anim Sci 90: 3924–3936.
Canada and Genome Alberta. AT would like to acknowl- Bellissimi E, Van Dijken JP, Pronk JT & Van Maris AJ (2009)
edge support from Genome Canada and Genome Quebec. Effects of acetic acid on the kinetics of xylose fermentation
TMC would like to gratefully acknowledge funding from by an engineered, xylose-isomerase-based Saccharomyces
cerevisiae strain. FEMS Yeast Res 9: 358–364.
the Aberystwyth Postgraduate Research Studentship. JE
Bidartondo MI (2008) Preserving accuracy in GenBank. Science
received funding from the Biotechnology and Biological
319: 1616.
Sciences Research Council. SSD and AKP would like to Body DR & Bauchop T (1985) Lipid composition of an
acknowledge funding to visit Aberystwyth University obligately anaerobic fungus Neocallimastix frontalis isolated
(UK) from the Stapledon Memorial Trust, UK; DBT- from a bovine rumen. Can J Microbiol 31: 463–466.
CREST award and Network Project of VTCC – Rumen Bonnemoy F, Fonty G, Michel V & Gouet P (1993) Effect of
Microbes (ICAR). KF would like to acknowledge funding anaerobic fungi on the ruminal proteolysis in gnotobiotic
form ‘Ruminomics (project no. 289319 of EC’s 7th lambs. Reprod Nutr Dev 33: 551–555.
Framework Programme: Food, Agriculture, Fisheries and Boots B, Lillis L, Clipson N, Petrie K, Kenny DA, Boland TM
Biotechnology)’. & Doyle E (2013) Responses of anaerobic rumen fungal
diversity (phylum Neocallimastigomycota) to changes in
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Anaerobic fungi: the who, what, why, where and how useful 13
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