Experiment – 1

Discuss Power Quality & Causes of Poor Quality Problems

Power Quality –
Power quality is the ability of a power grid to supply power to the consumers efficiently and it
also expresses the ability of equipment to consume the power being supplied to it. In technical terms,
power quality is the measure, study and enhancement of sinusoidal waveform at the rated voltage and
frequency.
Power quality can have a big impact on the performance and cost of a power system. So, it is
essential to make sure that the power being consumed by the system is of right quality and the system is
compatible to function with the power delivered to it. Nowadays consumers have become well aware of
power quality, that’s why many governments have revised their policies to force electric utilities for
making sure the power quality according to the designed standards. Also the modern equipment is more
sensitive to any changes in power quality. Manufacturers, utilities and consumers all are concerned about
power quality and this concern is increasing day by day.
Power Quality is “Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations
those results in failure or misoperation of customer equipments”

Sources of Poor Power Quality –

 Non – Linear Loads
 Power Electronic Devices
 IT and Office Equipments
 Arcing Devices
 Load Switching
 Large Motor Starting
 Larger capacitor bank energies
 Embedded Generation
 Electromagnetic radiations and Cables
 Storm and Environment Related Causes
While power disturbances occur on all electrical systems, the sensitivity of today’s sophisticated
electronic devices makes them more susceptible to the quality of power supply. For some sensitive
devices, a momentary disturbance can cause scrambled data, interrupted communications, a frozen
mouse, system crashes and equipment failure etc. A power voltage spike can damage valuable
components. Power quality encompass a wide range of disturbances such as voltage sags/swells, flicker,
harmonics distortion, impulse transient, and interruptions.
 Experiment – 2
Discuss Major Poor Quality Problems
Voltage sag (or dip) –
Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the nominal rms voltage at
the power frequency, for durations of 0,5 cycle to 1 minute. Causes: Faults on the transmission or
distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders). Faults in consumer’s installation. Connection
of heavy loads and start-up of large motors. Consequences: Malfunction of information technology
equipment, namely microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a
process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of
efficiency in electric rotating machines.

Very short interruptions –

Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration from few milliseconds to one or two
seconds. Causes: Mainly due to the opening and automatic reclosure of protection devices to
decommission a faulty section of the network. The main fault causes are insulation failure, lightning and
insulator flashover. Consequences: Tripping of protection devices, loss of information and malfunction of
data processing equipment. Stoppage of sensitive equipment, such as ASDs, PCs, PLCs, if they’re not
prepared to deal with this situation.

Long interruptions –
Description: Total interruption of electrical supply for duration greater than 1 to 2 seconds Causes:
Equipment failure in the power system network, storms and objects (trees, cars, etc) striking lines or
poles, fire, human error, bad coordination or failure of protection devices. Consequences: Stoppage of all
equipment.

Voltage spike –
Description: Very fast variation of the voltage value for durations from a several microseconds to few
milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts, even in low voltage. Causes: Lightning,
switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors, disconnection of heavy loads. Consequences:
Destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and of insulation materials, data
processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic interference.

Voltage swell –
Description: Momentary increase of the voltage, at the power frequency, outside the normal tolerances,
with duration of more than one cycle and typically less than a few seconds. Causes: Start/stop of heavy
loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly regulated transformers (mainly during off-peak hours).
Consequences: Data loss, flickering of lighting and screens, stoppage or damage of sensitive equipment,
if the voltage values are too high.

Harmonic distortion –
Description: Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to
the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are multiples
of power-system frequency. Causes: Classic sources: electric machines working above the knee of the
magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush
motors. Modern sources: all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs,
switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high efficiency lighting. Consequences:
Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in 3-phase systems, overheating of all
cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic interference with
communication systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of
thermal protections.

Voltage fluctuation –
Description: Oscillation of voltage value, amplitude modulated by a signal with frequency of 0 to 30 Hz.
Causes: Arc furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance elevators), oscillating loads.
Consequences: Most consequences are common to under voltages. The most perceptible consequence is
the flickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.

Voltage Unbalance –
Description: A voltage variation in a three-phase system in which the three voltage magnitudes or the
phase angle differences between them are not equal. Causes: Large single-phase loads (induction
furnaces, traction loads), incorrect distribution of all single-phase loads by the three phases of the system
(this may be also due to a fault). Consequences: Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative
sequence that is harmful to all threephase loads. The most affected loads are three-phase induction
machines.
 Experiment – 3
Discuss the Methods of Alleviation Sag

Voltage sags or dips can be alleviated by cooperation of the utility, end-user and the equipment
manufacturer in order to reduce the number and severity of its effects and to reduce the sensitivity of
equipment to such problem.
1.  Incorporate voltage sag ride-through capability into the equipment. This is generally the less costly
and best solution. Tips on ensuring voltage sag ride-through are as follows:
 Equipment manufacturers should have voltage sag ride-through capability curves available to
their customers, who should begin to demand these types of curves to be made available so that
they can properly evaluate the equipment.
 The company procuring new equipment should establish a procedure that rates the importance of
the equipment. If the equipment is critical in nature, the company must make sure that
adequate ride-through capability is included when the equipment is purchased.
 Equipment should at least be able to ride through voltage sags with a minimum voltage of 70
percent (ITIC curve). A more ideal ride-through capability for short-duration voltage sags would
be 50 percent, as specified by the semiconductor industry in SEMI F-47.
2. Apply an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system or some other type of power conditioning to the
machine control. This is applicable when the machines themselves can withstand the sag or
interruption, but the controls would automatically shut them down.
3. Backup power supply with the capability to support the load for a brief period.
4. Utility power system improvements to significantly reduce the number of sags and interruptions (e.g.
replacement of relays).
 Experiment – 4
Discuss Various FACTS Controllers for Power Quality Improvement

Static Var Compensator (SVC) Static Var Compensator or SVC is a shunt connected FACTS controller
that can adjusts its output to exchange capacitive or inductive currents thereby generating or absorbing
reactive power so as to control power system parameters such as bus voltage. It provides bus bar voltage
stabilization and damping of power system oscillations. SVCs are usually applied by utilities in
transmission applications for many purposes among which is rapid voltage control at weak points in
electrical power system network . SVC is of two types,
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor, TCR
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor, TSC

Fixed Capacitor Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) This is a shunt connected thyristor
controlled inductor whose effective reactance can be varied continuously by partial conduction control of
the thyristor value. FC-TCR consists of a capacitor in parallel with a thyristor controlled reactor. It is a
reactive power compensation device capable of providing continuous lagging and leading VARs to the
system. In the figure shown below, Is is the system current, Ir is the reactor current and Ic is the capacitor
current. The function of the capacitor, C is to supply leading VAR to the system whereas the supply of
lagging VAR can be achieved by rating the TCR larger than the capacitor
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) This is a capacitance reactance compensator that
comprises of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor that provides a smoothly
variable series capacitive reactance. TCSC consists of a series reactor shunted by a thyristor controlled
reactor to provide a smooth variable series inductive reactance. It is thus an inductive reactance
compensator that combines a thyristor controlled reactor and a capacitor to control capacitive reactance.
The reactor control is achieved by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor.
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) This is a static synchronous generator operated as
a shunt connected static VAR compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled
independent of the a.c system voltage. It is a member of GTO based FACTS family. It is a shunt
connected reactive power compensation device that can regulate bus voltage at the point of common
coupling (PCC). STATCOM can control the electric power system parameters by generating or absorbing
reactive power.
Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) A static synchronous generator operated without
an external electric energy source as a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadriture with, and
controllable independently of, the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall
reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted electric power. The SSSC
may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing devices to enhance the dynamic
behavior of the power system by additional temporary active power compensation, to increase or decrease
momentarily, the overall active (resistive) voltage drop across the line.
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) As the name implies, this FACTS device is capable of
controlling all power parameters, namely; voltage, phase angle, impedance, power factor, real and
reactive power. It can therefore be used for the enhancement of real and reactive power flow, steady state
stability as well as dynamic stability among others. A UPFC is made up of two VSCs that are coupled
through a common d.c link that provides bidirectional flow of real power the two outputs, - shunt
STATCOM and series SSSC.
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) DVR is a series connected FACTS device used for voltage
regulation especially across sensitive loads. A typical DVR consists of a VSC with an energy storage
connected to the d.c link. The VSC is connected in series with the power network by means of a series-
connected injection transformer and coupling filters. DVR is used as a protection device to sensitive
equipments and critical loads against electrical disturbances such as voltage dip.
 Experiment – 5
Discuss Harmonics its Causes & Consequences

Harmonics are described by IEEE as sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency at which the power system is designed to operate. This means that
for a 60-Hz system, the harmonic frequencies are 120 Hz (2nd harmonic), 180 Hz (3rd harmonic) and so
on. Harmonics combine with the fundamental voltage or current producing a non-sinusoidal shape, thus, a
waveform distortion power quality problem. The non-sinusoidal shape corresponds to the sum of different
sine waves with different magnitudes and phase angles, having frequencies that are multiples of the
system frequency.
Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum with
magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use the Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion. It has become an
increasing concern for many end-users and for the overall power system because of the growing
application of power electronics equipment. Protection from high levels of harmonics includes isolation
or modification of the source, phase multiplication, pulse width modulator (PWM) and application of
passive or active harmonic filters.

Causes
Harmonics exists due to the nonlinear characteristics loads and devices on the electrical power system.
These devices can be modeled as current sources that inject harmonic currents into the electrical system.
Consequently, voltage distortion is created as these currents produce nonlinear voltage drops across the
system impedance.
Prior to the proliferation of power electronic equipment, harmonics are commonly caused by
electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces,
welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors. Today, all non-linear loads, such as power electronics
equipment including Switched Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), Adjustable Speed Drives (ASD),  high
efficiency lighting and data processing equipment.

Consequences
Harmonics primarily result to significant overheating of equipment, cables and wires. Other consequences
of having a high harmonic level in the system include the following:

 Neutral overload in 3-phase systems

 Electromagnetic interference with communication systems
 Loss of efficiency in electric machines
 Increased probability in occurrence of resonance
 Nuisance tripping of thermal protections.
 Errors in measures when using average reading meters

Total Demand Distortion

Current distortion levels can be characterized by the total harmonic distortion, although sometimes this
can be misleading. For example, many ASDs will display high THD values for the input current when
they are operating at very light loads. Nonetheless, this is not alarming because the magnitude of
harmonic current is low, even though its relative distortion is high.
As a result, the IEEE (Std 519) defines the Total Demand Distortion (TDD), in order to typify
harmonic currents in a consistent manner. The TDD is the same as the total harmonic distortion except
that the distortion is expressed as a percent of some rated load current rather than as a percentage of the
fundamental current magnitude at the instant of measurement.
 Experiment – 6
Give the Study of Power Quality Parameters Required for measurement

PQ parameters required to be measured are specified in various Standards. Some of the International
Standards on PQ are listed as below:
 IEEE Standard 519-2014: IEEE Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control
in Electric Power Systems
 BS EN 50160:2010: Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public electricity networks
 IEC 61000-4-30: Testing and measurement techniques – Power quality measurement methods IEC
61000- 4-15: For Flicker
 IEEE Standard 1159: IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality
 IEEE Standard 1250: IEEE Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage Quality in Power
Systems
 CIGRE Report 596 - Joint Working Group CIGRE/CIRED C4. 112: Guidelines for Power Quality
Monitoring – Measurement Location, Processing and Presentation of Data
 IEC61000-3-6:1998 – Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads in MV and HV power
systems
 IEC 61000-3-3:2001 – Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low
voltage power systems, for equipment with rated current ≤ 16A per phase
 IEC 61000-3-11:2001 –Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public
low voltage power systems, for equipment with rated current ≤ 75A per phase
 IEC 61000-3-12:2005 – Limits of harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public
low voltage power systems, with input current >16A and
Frequency deviations The main cause of frequency variations is unbalance between generation and the
demand. There were wide variations in system frequency prior to introduction of Availability Based
Tariff (ABT) in India. Due to grid indiscipline by State entities in Indian transmission system, the
frequency was not stable. CERC in exercising its power under the Act has taken number of steps to
improve frequency profile in the grid over the time. The frequency band has been tightened from 0.5 Hz
(49.7-50.2) to 0.15 Hz (49.9-50.05) by amending the Grid Code by CERC.
Harmonics Another important aspect of power quality is Harmonics. Voltage or current
waveforms are normally sinusoidal in shape of fundamental frequency (50 Hz) but get distorted due to
nonlinear loads connected at user end. An important result of the increase of harmonic distortion is the
increase of losses in the network. Harmonics also cause overheating of electrical equipment and cause
interference with communication system. The amount of voltage harmonics often depends upon the
amount of harmonics current drawn by the load, and the 3CEA Grid Standards Regulation 46 Report on
Power Quality of Electricity Supply to Consumers source impedance.
Voltage variations and Flicker Equipment or devices that exhibit continuous, rapid load current
variations (mainly in the reactive component) can cause voltage fluctuations and light flicker.
Overloading conditions in distribution network cause voltage variations resulting in increased losses and
faults in the network. Voltage variations may also cause nuisance tripping and stress electrical and
electronic equipment which leads to their reduced performance. Flicker affects the production
environment by causing personnel fatigue and lower work concentration levels.
Voltage unbalance Voltage unbalance is caused by faulty operation of power factor correction
equipment, unevenly distributed single-phase loads, unidentified single-phase to ground faults, an open
circuit on the system primary, large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads), etc. The main
effect of voltage unbalance is motor damage from excessive heat.
Voltage dips and swells Voltage sags are caused by system faults, faults in consumer‟s
installation, abrupt switching in of heavy loads, start-up of large motors, etc. It may result into
malfunction of microprocessor-based control systems that may lead to a process stoppage, tripping of
contactors and electromechanical relays etc. On the other hand, voltage swells are caused by the
disconnection of a very large load, switching of large capacitor banks and switching of long transmission
lines etc.
Voltage Transient Transient voltages are short duration oscillatory or impulse over voltages
usually highly damped and with duration of few ms or in microseconds. These are caused by lightning,
arcing, switching or blowing of fuses. Capacitor switching is the most common cause of an oscillatory
transient and Lightning is the most common cause of impulsive transients. Transients affect equipment in
transmission/distribution system badly. At present there is no limits prescribed for voltage transients in
any Standards in India. The International standards prescribe the limits for Mains Signalling voltage.
A voltage interruption is the complete loss of electric voltage or a drop to less than 10% of
nominal voltage. Voltage interruptions may be further defined as instantaneous, momentary, temporary &
sustained. Short duration interruption for a time period less than 0.5 cycle is termed as instantaneous
interruption whereas interruption between 0.5 cycles and 3 seconds is called momentary interruption and
between 3 seconds and 1 min is known as temporary interruption. Long duration or sustained interruption
is complete loss of voltage for a time greater than 1 min.
 Experiment – 7
Discuss the Monitoring and Reporting of The Power Quality

Monitoring of Power Quality

(1) PQ measurement shall be implemented in phased manner and during first phase, PQ meters shall be
installed at selective representative locations based on voltage level, type of consumers and
significance of the power quality in such a way that such measurements should adequately represent
the Power Quality and Reliability in the area of supply.
(2) The distribution licensee for the purpose of requirements for the quality of electricity supplied shall
identify the locations of 33kV/11kV feeders, Distribution Transformers (DTRs) and designated
customers to ensure the measurement of the power quality parameters at sufficient locations in their
electrical networks to adequately characterize and report performance in terms of these Regulations.
The feeders and DTRs should be identified for PQ monitoring based on type of load connected.
(3) The distribution licensee shall enforce the continuous monitoring of power quality standards at the
inter-connection point of identified locations at or below 33kV voltage level for development of
profile of power quality measurement in the area of supply;
(4) In the first phase, the distribution licensee shall install Power Quality meters for 50% of total
33kV/11kV feeders, 25% of total DTRs and at all designated customers supply terminals or at point
of common coupling (PCC). In the second phase, Distribution Licensee shall cover 100% of
33kV/11kV feeders and at least 60% DTRs. In the third phase 100% DTRs shall be covered.
(5) The measurements undertaken to determine compliance shall be carried out in accordance with the
requirements as specified in IEC 61000-4-7 and IEC 61000-4-30. There shall be continuous metering
of harmonics with permanent Power Quality meters complying with the IEC 61000-4-30 Class-A
meters for all new installations/connections of identified locations. For existing installations/
connections at identified locations where CTs/PTs are of lower accuracy class than mandated by IEC
61000-4-30 Class-A meters, the meters complying with the IEC 61000-4-30 Class-B may be
installed. These meters should be capable of detecting direction of Harmonics whether it is upstream
or downstream) for all new installations at identified locations.
(6) In the event when the distribution licensee receives a customer complaint concerning Power Quality,
the distribution licensee shall deploy power quality meter for a particular period for the purpose of
verification. Distribution licensee can also measure the level of harmonics generation at PCC of any
consumer on receipt of complaint from other affected consumer.
(7) These Regulations specifies the minimum requirements for Power Quality meters for measurement at
sites directly affecting the quality of the power supplied to the consumer. The distribution licensee
may require the additional PQ meters to establish the power quality at other bulk supply points and at
other major network nodes and to investigate consumer complaints, for which these additional PQ
meters may be installed temporarily.
(8) The distribution licensee may opt to integrate the smart grid meters compatible for measurement of
the PQ parameters for economic and operational optimization. Compliance of the Power Quality and
Reliability Standards.
(9) The distribution licensee shall submit the monthly and quarterly report of information collected on
PQ parameters extracted from power quality meters and machine based reliability data in standard
formats (as specified separately) to the Commission.
(10) It shall be the prime responsibility of the distribution licensee to comply with these Regulations and
submit the compliance report every 6 months in standard formats (as specified separately), including
transparent data disclosure regarding electrical system, to the Commission. Commission may direct
designated agencies to be notified separately, to carry out PQ audit on the basis of compliance
reports filed by distribution licensee for verification. The distribution company shall carry out 100%
audit by itself once a year and 5% random audit by the independent agency and shall file the audit
report along with ARR truing up petition.
(11) The distribution licensee shall publish the reports indicating the compliance with the standards under
these Regulations and post all the reports on its website. The distribution licensee shall also seek
comments, if any, on the same from the customers availing supply from the distribution licensee.
(12) The Commission from time to time may seek reports on PQ improvements from distribution
licensee.
(13) The distribution licensee shall make efforts to improve power quality in their supply area by
deploying devices to mitigate power quality issues such as filters or controllers etc. The expenses
incurred towards deploying these devices by the distribution licensee shall be considered in the
ARR.
(14) The distribution companies shall ensure the data security and the data should only be used for
identified purpose and should not be transferred to any other person without the consent of the
specific consumer.