Student Name : Azmat Guldasta

Student ID : LS2102205
Subject : Microwave Engineering
Dated:18th, Dec. 2021 Day: Saturday

Q1. Describe the development trend of microwave circuits?

Ans. MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

1. INTRODUCTION:

The trend of any maturing electronic technology is toward smaller size, lighter weight, lower
power requirements, lower cost, and increased complexity. Microwave technology has been moving
in this direction for the last 10–30 years with the development of microwave integrated circuits
(MICs). This technology strives to replace bulky and expensive waveguide and coaxial components
with small and inexpensive planar components, and is analogous to the digital integrated circuitry
that has led to the rapid increase in sophistication of computer systems. Microwave integrated
circuitry can incorporate transmission lines, discrete resistors, capacitors, and inductors, as well as
active devices such as diodes and transistors. MIC technology has advanced to the point where
complete microwave subsystems, such as receiver front ends and radar transmit/receive modules, can
be integrated on a chip that is only a few square millimetres in size. There are two distinct types of
microwave integrated circuits. Hybrid MICs have one layer of metallization for conductors and
transmission lines, with discrete components (resistors, capacitors, integrated circuit chips,
transistors, diodes, etc.) bonded to the substrate.
In a thin-film hybrid MIC, some of the simpler components are deposited on the substrate.
Hybrid MICs were first developed in the 1960s, and still provide a very flexible and cost-effective
means for circuit implementation. Monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs) are a more
recent development, where the active and passive circuit elements are grown on the substrate. The
substrate is a semiconductor material, and several layers of metal, dielectric, and resistive films are
used. Below we will briefly describe these two types of MICs in terms of the materials and
fabrication processes that are required and the relative merits of each type of circuitry.

2. HYBRID MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Material selection is an important consideration for a hybrid integrated circuit; characteristics
such as electrical conductivity, dielectric constant, loss tangent, thermal transfer, mechanical
strength, and manufacturing compatibility must be evaluated. Generally, the substrate material is of
primary importance. For hybrid circuits, alumina, quartz, and Teflon fiber are commonly used for
substrates. Alumina is a rigid, ceramic-like material with a dielectric constant of about 9–10. A high
dielectric constant is often desirable for lower frequency circuits because it results in a smaller circuit
size. At higher frequencies, however, the substrate thickness must be decreased to prevent radiation
loss and other spurious effects; then the transmission lines (typically microstrip, slotline, or coplanar
waveguide) can become too narrow to be practical. Quartz has a lower dielectric constant (∼4),
which, with its rigidity, makes it useful for higher frequency (>20 GHz) circuits. Teflon and similar
types of soft plastic substrates have dielectric constants ranging from 2 to 10, and can provide a large
substrate area at a low cost as long as rigidity and good thermal transfer are not required.
Transmission line conductors for hybrid integrated circuits are typically copper or gold.
 Computer-aided design (CAD) tools are used extensively for MIC design, optimization,
layout, and mask generation. Commonly used software packages include CADENCE (Cadence
Design Systems), ADS (Agilent Technologies), Microwave Office (Applied Wave Research), and
DESIGNER (Ansoft). The mask itself may be made on Ruby-Lith (a soft Mylar film), usually at a
magnified scale (2×, 5×, 10×, etc.) for high accuracy. Then an actual-size mask is made on a thin
sheet of glass or quartz. The metallized substrate is coated with photoresist, covered with the mask,
and exposed to a light source. The substrate can then be etched to remove the unwanted areas of
metal. Plated-through, or via, holes can be made by evaporating a layer of metal inside a hole that has
been drilled in the substrate. Finally, the discrete components are soldered or wire bonded to the
conductors. This may be done manually, but today the process is usually automated using computer-
controlled pick-and-place machines. The fabricated MIC can then be tested. Often provision is made
for variations in component values and other circuit tolerances by providing tuning or trim stubs that
can be manually trimmed for each circuit. This increases circuit yield but also increases cost since
trimming involves labour at a highly skilled level. A photograph of a hybrid MIC module is shown in

Figure 1.

Figure 1: Photograph of one of the 25,344 hybrid integrated T/R modules used in Raytheon’s Ground
Based Radar system. This X-band module contains phase shifters, amplifiers, switches,
couplers, a ferrite circulator, and associated control and bias circuitry.
Courtesy of Raytheon Company, Waltham, Mass

3. MONOLITHIC MICROWAVE IC (MMIC):

A Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit, abbreviated as MMIC, and pronounced as
‘mimic’, is a kind of integrated circuit device that works at frequencies (300 MHz to 300 GHz).
These devices usually perform activities, for example, power amplification, microwave mixing, high-
frequency switching, and low-noise amplification. Data sources and yields on MMIC devices are as
often as possible coordinated to a characteristic resistance of 50 ohms. This makes them simpler to
use, since integrating of MMICs does not require an outer coordinating system. Also, several
microwave test devices are intended to work in a 50-ohm condition.
 Figure 2: Layout of a monolithic microwave integrated circuit

3.1. Low Cost to Emerge as Major Fuelling Factor in Monolithic Microwave IC

(MMIC) Market

The fuelling factors behind the advancement of monolithic microwave IC market is mostly
due to low price, batch processing, small size, reproducibility, and compact size, similar to those of
silicon ICs. Semi-insulated crystal of gallium arsenide, epitaxial film development systems, gallium
arsenide substrates, and MESFET PC based circuit configuration, and the advancement of the
gallium arsenide metal-semiconductor field-impact transistor have given additional acceleration to
this development of the of monolithic microwave IC market over the past few years.

3.2. Low Manufacturing Devices to Bolster Demand Further

Because of its property of higher thickness, a huge number of devices can easily be developed
in a single MMIC during fabrication that makes lower manufacturing costs. Henceforth in general
MMIC cost is less. The delay of signal is minimum because of shorter distance between the parts on
a MMIC because of which, the insignificant mismatch between the segments happens. MMICs
(Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit) don’t have any wire security unwavering quality issues.
Execution of MMIC is undermined as ideal materials and can’t be utilized in making for every
component separately. Power handling ability with limit is lower since proper heat exchange are not
utilized in making of MMIC (Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit).

3.3. Increased Popularity of Smartphone in Asia Pacific to Augment Monolithic

Microwave IC (MMIC) Market

The development of the monolithic microwave IC market in Asia Pacific can be ascribed to
the high popularity of cell phones; significant move toward fast mobile technologies (for example,
shifting from 3G to 4G network connectivity); Surged utilization of mobile services, including social
media, video, money related services, and internet business, and surge in the Defense purpose in
nations, for example, India, China, South Korea, and Japan. China is a worldwide manufacturing hub
with a prospering electronics sector and one of the quickest developing economies globally. Factors,
for example, increasing spending on Defense sector, rising focus on automobile sector by the
governments, and advancement in technology propel the growth of the monolithic microwave IC
market.
 The report offers a comprehensive evaluation of the market. It does so via in-depth qualitative
insights, historical data, and verifiable projections about market size. The projections featured in the
report have been derived using proven research methodologies and assumptions. By doing so, the
research report serves as a repository of analysis and information for every facet of the market,
including but not limited to: Regional markets, technology, types, and applications.

3.4. Microwave Integrated Circuits (MIC) Market Size by Applications:

● Telecommunications
● Aerospace and Defence
● Consumer Electronics
● Other

4. CLASSIFICATION OF MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An active microwave circuit can be defined as a circuit in which active and passive
microwave devices such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors are interconnected by transmission
lines. At low frequencies, the transmission lines are a simple connection; however, at microwave
frequencies they are no longer just simple connections and their operation becomes a complicated
distributed circuit element. As a result, a microwave integrated circuit’s classification is based on the
fabrication method of the transmission lines used for interconnection.
There are various types of transmission lines in microwave integrated circuits; some common
examples are waveguides, coaxial, and microstrip lines. Figure 3 shows the transmission lines used in
microwave circuits. Although there are special cases of microwave integrated circuits that are
composed of coaxial lines and waveguides, in most cases the microwave integrated circuits are
formed using planar transmission lines. Therefore, the content of this book is restricted to microwave
integrated circuits formed using planar transmission lines, examples of which are microstrip, slot
line, and co-planar waveguide (CPW), as shown in Figure 4. These planar transmission lines are
frequently used in the large-scale production of microwave circuits and generally form the basic
transmission lines for microwave circuits.

Figure 3:  Some common transmission lines used in microwave circuits: (a) coaxial line, (b)

rectangular waveguide, and (c) microstrip line

Figure 4: Some common planar transmission lines used in microwave circuits: (a) microstrip, (b)
slot line, and (c) CPW (co-planar waveguide)
 The implementation of planar transmission lines on substrates can be classified into two basic
groups: monolithic and hybrid integrated circuits. In monolithic integration, the active and passive
devices as well as the planar transmission lines are grown in situ on one planar substrate that is
usually made from a semiconductor material called a wafer.

Figure 5 shows an example of monolithic integration. Figure 5 (a) is a photograph of the top
side of a wafer and Figure 5(b) shows a single monolithic microwave integrated circuit; the identical
circuits are repeatedly produced on the wafer in Figure 5(a). The monolithic microwave integrated
circuit in Figure 5(b) is found to contain active and passive devices, and planar transmission lines.
The monolithic integration provides a compact sized circuit and eliminates a significant amount of
assembly when building a component or a system. Especially because size is of critical importance in
most recent RF systems, monolithic integration is frequently employed to provide a compact
component. An advantage of monolithic integration is that it is well suited for large-scale production,
which results in lower costs. A disadvantage is that monolithic integration takes a long time to
develop and fabricate, and small-scale production results in highly prohibitive costs.

Figure 5: Monolithic integration circuit (a) wafer and(b) a monolithic microwave integrated
circuit on the wafer (28 GHz GaAs pHEMT Gilbert cell up-converting mixer)

Hybrid integration is a fabrication method in which the transmission lines are implemented by
conductor patterns on a selected substrate with either printing or etching, and active and passive
devices are assembled on the patterned substrate by either soldering or wire bonding. When
implementing transmission lines by conductor patterns on a substrate, careful consideration must be
given to the substrate material and the conductor material for the transmission lines because these
materials can have significant effects on the characteristics of transmission lines. Hybrid integration
is thus classified into three types based on the method by which the lines are formed on the substrate:
a printed circuit board (PCB), a thick-film substrate, and a thin-film substrate.

Figure 6 shows an example of how connection lines are formed on a PCB substrate. Both
sides of the dielectric material are attached with copper cladding that is then etched to obtain the
desired conductor patterns. For PCB substrate materials, epoxy fiberglass (FR4), Teflon, and Duroid
are widely used. FR4 substrate (a kind of epoxy fiberglass) can be used from lower frequencies to
approximately 4 GHz, while Teflon or Duroid can be used up to the millimeter wave frequencies,
depending on their formation. Generally, all these materials lend themselves to soldering while wire
bonding for an integrated circuit assembly is typically not widely used. Furthermore, compared with
other methods that will be explained later, a PCB can result in lower costs; its fabrication is easy and
requires less time to produce. In addition, production on a small scale is possible without the use of
expensive assembly machines; it is easy to fix and could also be used in large-scale production, and

is thus widely used.

Figure 6: A photograph of epoxy fiberglass PCBs. The PCBs on the left are for the X-band and 2
GHz frequency synthesizers using the phase locked loop. The PCB on the right is for the
VHF automatic identification system, which has a similar block diagram shown in Figure
9.The power amplifier is implemented in a separate block.

Thick-film substrates are produced by screen-printing techniques in which conductor patterns

are formed by pushing conductive paste on a ceramic substrate through a patterned screen and then
firing printed conductor patterns. The substrate is called thick film because the patterns formed by
such techniques are generally much thicker than those formed using thin-film techniques. As a
benefit of using screen-printing techniques, multiple screen printings are possible. Dielectric or
resistor patterns can also be formed by similar screen-printing techniques using dielectric or resistor
pastes. Using an appropriate order of multiple screen printings, it is also possible to form capacitors
and resistors on the ceramic substrate. Since the ceramic substrate is more tolerant of heat, it is easy
to assemble active devices in the form of chips. On the other hand, considering the lines and patterns
formed by this process, the pattern accuracy of thick film is somewhat inferior compared to that of
thin film. The costs and development time, on a case-by-case basis, are somewhere between those of
the PCB and thin-film processes. Recently, however, the integration based on thick-film technology
has become rare because its cost and pattern accuracy are between the PCB and thin-film technology,
while thick film is widely used to build multifunction components. A typical example is the package
based on LTCC (low-temperature co-fired ceramics) technology. 1 Multilayer ceramics and
structuring are possible in LTCC technologies. Figure 6 shows a photograph of thick-film patterned
substrates fabricated using the thick-film process.
 Figure 7: A photograph of substrates fabricated by the thick-film process. Identical circuits can be
arrayed for efficient production.

The thin-film technique is very widely used in the fabrication of microwave circuits for
military and microwave communication systems. In the case of the thin-film process, a similar
ceramic substrate material used in thick film is employed, but compared to the thick-film substrate, a
fine surface-finish substrate is used. The most widely used substrate is 99% alumina (Al 2O3). Other
substrates such as fused silica, quartz, and so on are possible for conductor-pattern generation based
on thin-film technologies. The pattern formation on the substrate is created with a photolithographic
process that can produce fine tracks of conductor patterns similar to those in a semiconductor
process. Since the thin-film substrate is also alumina as in the case of a thick-film substrate, the
assembly of semiconductor chips using wire bonding is possible. Thin film compared with PCB and
thick film is more expensive, and due to the requirement of fine tracks, a mask fabrication is
necessary and the process generally takes longer. Passive components such as resistors and air-bridge
capacitors can be implemented using this process. In addition, integrated circuits produced by the
thin-film process require special wire bonders and micro welding equipment for assembly. Compared
to the monolithic integration process, the thin-film process tends to be cheaper in terms of cost, but
compared to MMIC, the assembled circuit using the thin-film patterned substrate is difficult to
characterize precisely because of unknown or poorly described parasitic circuit elements associated
with the assembly methods such as wire bonding and die attach. Before the emergence of MMICs
(monolithic microwave integrated circuits), thin-film technology was the conventional method for
building microwave-integrated circuits (MICs). Figure 8 is a photograph of thin-film circuits
fabricated with the thin-film technique.

Figure 8: A photograph of substrates produced by the thin-film process. From top left to bottom
right, they are filter, phase shifter, power amplifier (presented in Chapter 9), path-switching
circuit by assembly, power divider, and 50 Ω lines.
The choice of integration method depends on the application and situation, taking into
account several factors mentioned previously, such as the operating frequency of the integrated
circuit, the types of semiconductor components (chip or packaged), the forms of the passive
components, large-scale fabrication costs, and method of assembly. These factors should all be
considered when selecting the optimum method of integration. For a description of microwave-
patterned substrate fabrication, assembly with wire bonding and soldering, and packaging, see
reference 1 at the end of this chapter. The book provides general information about microwave-
circuit fabrications. Table 1.1 provides a comparison of the hybrid integrations described previously.

Table 1.1 Comparison of hybrid integration

Technology Cost Fabrication Time Pattern Accuracy Assembly

PCB Low Short Low Soldering

Thick film Middle Middle Low Soldering and wire bonding

Thin film High Long Fine Soldering and wire bonding

Now we will consider the application of the planar transmission lines such as microstrip, slot,
and CPW to the monolithic and hybrid integration technologies. Microstrip lines are the most widely
used transmission lines for both monolithic and hybrid integration technologies. In microstrip lines,
the top conductor pattern is usually connected to the ground by a through hole or a via hole. Thus, the
back-side process for the through-hole or via-hole fabrication is essential to building a circuit based
on microstrip lines. This backside process is inconvenient especially in the monolithic integration. In
hybrid integration, the holes can be fabricated through simple mechanical drilling for a PCB case and
through laser or ultrasonic drilling for thick- and thin-film cases. Then, plating the fabricated holes
completes the fabrication of a through or via hole. However, to fabricate via holes in monolithic
integration, a wafer that typically has a normal thickness of about 600 mm should be polished down
to about 100 mm thickness. Current technology does not support via-hole fabrication beyond 100
mm. In Figure 4, we can see that the CPW and slot lines do not need the back-side metallic ground
and they eliminate the need for any additional backside metallization process. The CPW is very
helpful in monolithic integration and is widely used to build MMICs without vias. However, the
discontinuities of CPWs are not well understood compared to those of microstrip lines and the
integration based on a CPW is not as popular as that based on a microstrip.

5. Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMIC) Market – Global Industry

Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast 2018 – 2026
In recent years, ascending development of wireless communication products and huge trend
for commercial market in this ground caused significant improvement in modelling and simulation
approaches of radio frequency (RF) and microwave circuits. Such high-frequency circuits are leading
to the development of a large variety of microwave models for passive and active devices and circuit
components. Modelling and computer-aided design (CAD) methods have an essential role in
microwave designs and simulations. The older approaches were mainly based on slow trial-and-error
processes and an emphasis on performance at any price, but today seems to be a new era in high-
frequency circuit design and modelling, since development in this ground has enabled microwave
engineers to design larger, more efficient, and more complicated circuits than before. This
complexity requires new materials and technologies that require not only new models but also new
algorithms in computer-aided design for RF/microwave circuits, antennas, and systems to keep up
with the advancement of technology with emphasis on time-to-market and low-cost approaches. In
addition to accurate parametric-modelling techniques to describe the behaviour of the microwave
device, a reliable description that explains the changes of its behaviour against geometrical or
physical parameters is also needed.
Also, since circuit models at high frequencies often lack fidelity, detailed electromagnetic
(EM) simulation techniques are needed to improve design accuracy. Although EM simulation
techniques are heavily used yet, they are computationally expensive, so there is a demand for design
methodologies to be not only accurate but also fast. Another concerning problem today is
optimization. To meet this purpose, computer-based algorithms that work with iterative circuit
evaluation are needed; this process also needs a highly repetitive computational process. Another
concerning issue according to Ref. is the possibility of employing knowledge-based tools for initial
design, that is, one of the steps toward designing and modelling process. It is hard to satisfy all these
problems with the traditional CAD technologies. In conclusion, obviously there is a serious need for
a powerful accurate and fast processing and modelling tool.
The trend is clear, technology innovation will increase at an even faster rate in the future. This
has been particularly true in communications as RF technology becomes ubiquitous in daily life.
Radio Frequency (RF) technology is critical to many aspects of modern electronics. This is because
RF engineering is incorporated into almost everything that transmits or receives a radio wave across
the whole of the RF spectrum (3 KHz to 300 GHz), including mobile phones, radios, Bluetooth and
Wi-Fi. With the Internet of Things (IoT) and even greater wireless connectivity, there will be
increased demand for RF specialists and RF engineering jobs.
This specialised field typically falls into a couple of areas:

 Providing or controlling coverage with antenna/transmission system.

 Generating or receiving signals to or from that transmission system to other communications
electronics or controls.
 Verification and measurement of performance of radio frequency devices and systems.
 RF designers and engineers work with devices such as phase and amplitude detectors,
modulators, filters, switches, directional couplers, oscillators, amplifiers, attenuators and
others.
 Today, RF technology is used in many applications we use in our everyday lives, including
access control systems, wireless home security systems, digital audio/video transmission,
biological signal acquisition systems, wireless charging and much more.

6. THE PRESENT AND FUTURE TRENDS IN HIGH POWER MICROWAVE

CIRCUITS
6.1 Advances in Electronic Warfare (EW) Technology
Electronic Welfare (EW) is the “use of electromagnetic” and directed energy to control the
electromagnetic spectrum. Major Defense contractors will incorporate more and more EW
technology into their products in the decade to come. Lockheed-Martin, for example, features
sophisticated EW abilities in their new F-35 fighter which allows it to jam enemy frequencies,
suppress radar, and more.
Many of these new EW systems utilise gallium-nitride (GaN) devices to help meet their
demanding power requirements, as well as low-noise amplifiers (LNA) and more. Additionally, the
use of unmanned vehicles on land, in the air and the sea will also increase, along with a need for
sophisticated RF solutions to communicate with and control these machines on secure networks.
In both the military and the commercial sector, the need for advanced RF and MF solutions
for satellite communications (SATCOM) will also increase. One particularly ambitious project
requiring advanced RF engineering is the global Wi-Fi project from SpaceX, which will require over
4000 satellites in orbit to beam wireless internet down to people all over the world, using frequencies
of 10-30ghz, in the Ku and Ka-band range. 
The future is bright and the demand for radio frequency and microwave engineering
knowledge is high. In the next ten years, we are expected to see exceptional growth and innovation in
the industry.”

6.2 The Autonomous Car

Among the many technologies which make autonomous vehicles possible is a combination of
sensors and actuators, sophisticated algorithms, and powerful processors to execute software. The
sensors and actuators in an autonomous vehicle fall into three main categories; navigation and
guidance, driving and safety and managing internal systems.
The primary subsystem used for navigation and guidance is based on a GPS (Global
Positioning System) receiver, which computes present position based on complex analysis of RF
signals received from at least four of the constellations of over 60 low-orbit satellites. A GPS system
can provide location accuracy on the order of one meter.
The navigation and guidance subsystem must always be active and checking where the
vehicle is located. For example, if the originally "optimum" route has any unexpected diversions, the
path must be re-computed in real time to avoid going in the wrong direction.

The driverless car must be able to see and interpret what's in front when going forward and
backward when reversing. It needs a 360-degree view and uses a “vision” called a LIDAR system
(Light and Radar). For close-in control, such as when parking, lane-changing, or in bumper-to-
bumper traffic, radars are built into the front and rear bumpers and sides of the vehicle. Operating
frequency for this radar is usually 77GHz, which has good RF propagation characteristics, and
provides enough resolution.

6.3 Several RF and Microwave technologies will drive the industry forward in
2019
The RF and Microwave industry will continue to move towards technologies that have higher
levels of integration and flexibility to enable multiple use sub-systems. Re-usability will drive down
cost but more importantly, accelerates time to market. Manufacturers’ re-use of the same hardware
and software, as well as accumulated engineering knowledge across all platforms, mitigate risks and
allows for rapid reconfiguration.

6.4 Research and development will be ‘top priority’ with 5G on the horizon
As 5G continues to grow in relevance, everyone from component manufacturers to service
providers will be increasingly forced to manage their costs and respective business models. 5G
promises orders of magnitude improvement in data capacity, however, it comes at the expense of
added equipment complexity and higher costs.
6.5 Reinvention of RF And Antennas
Technology companies that design and manufacturer RF components or antennas will play a
critical part in adopting the new 5G standards and ensuring these devices fit in with new networks.
New 5G modelling software will allow companies to test designs and simulations to reduce costs
further.

6.6 Artificial Neural Networks

Neural networks (NNs), or artificial neural networks, are information-processing systems that
can imitate the ability of human brain to learn from observation and generalize by abstraction to
create complex models. Neural network gives a great approximation of system regardless of linear or
nonlinear correlation between the input data and can be used as knowledge-based tool (to be
employed for initial design in RF/microwave applications). The ability of NN to be trained resulted
in their use in many diverse fields such as pattern recognition, system identification, control,
telecommunications, biomedical instrumentation, and many other grounds. Recently, many
researchers in communication area are focusing on using neural network in their modelling and
simulation, and NN has been recognized as a useful alternative to conventional approaches in
microwave modelling. Neural network models are simple and fast, and they can enhance the
accuracy of existing models. The basis of neural network is on the universal approximation theorem,
which says that a neural network with at least one hidden layer can give an approximation of
nonlinear multidimensional function to any intended accuracy. This property makes neural network a
favourite modelling tool for microwave engineers. Neural network approach is generic, that is, the
same modelling technique that can be reused for passive/active devices/circuits. Another advantage
of NN is the ease of updating neural models regarding changes in technology. Neural network is now
used in various microwave modelling and simulation applications, such as vertical interconnect
accesses (Vias) and interconnects, parasitic modelling, coplanar waveguide (CWG) components,
antenna applications, nonlinear microwave circuit optimization, power amplifier modelling,
nonlinear device modelling, wave-guide filter, enhanced elemental method (EM) computation, and so
on.
Artificial neural networks are classified into two main categories: static neural networks and
dynamic neural networks. In this chapter, the first neural network structures will be presented, and
then a general overview of static and dynamic neural networks and different types of them and their
applications in microwave modelling will be discussed. The last part is devoted to another method
called vector fitting (VF) that is a numerical technique used for system identification and macro
modelling

Summary

 Microwave integrated circuits can be classified according to the fabrication method of

the patterned substrate and in terms of monolithic and hybrid integration. Hybrid
integration can be further classified into integrations based on PCB, thick film, and thin
film. In the selection of integration, one type cannot be said to be superior to the other;
the choice is made depending on the application and given situation, and by taking into
consideration several factors such as cost, time, pattern accuracy, and assembly.
  Among active microwave circuits, the most commonly used building blocks for wireless
communication systems or other systems, such as repeaters, transponders, and radars, are
amplifiers, oscillators, and mixers.

Q2. List the nonlinear effect in RF and microwave circuits and try to describe it?

Ans: EFFECTS OF NONLINEARITY IN RF AND MICROWAVE CIRCUITS

We have seen that thermal noise is generated by any lossy component. Since all realistic
components have at least a small loss, the ideal linear component does not exist in practice because
all realistic devices are nonlinear at very low signal levels due to noise effects. In addition, practical
components may also become nonlinear at high signal levels. In the case of active devices, such as
diodes and transistors, this may be due to effects such as gain compression or the generation of
spurious frequency components due to device non-linearities, but all devices ultimately fail at very
high-power levels. In either case, these effects set a minimum and maximum realistic power range, or
dynamic range, over which a given component or network will operate as desired. In this section we
will study the response of nonlinear devices in general, and two definitions of dynamic range.
Devices such as diodes and transistors have nonlinear characteristics, and it is this nonlinearity that is
of great utility for desirable functions such as amplification, detection, and frequency conversion.
Nonlinear device characteristics, however, can also lead to undesirable effects such as gain
compression and the generation of spurious frequency components. These effects may lead to
increased losses, signal distortion, and possible interference with other radio channels or services.
Some of the many possible effects of nonlinearity in RF and microwave circuits are listed
below:
1. Saturation (gain reduction in an amplifier)
2. Harmonic distortion (multiples of a fundamental signal)
3. Intermodulation distortion (products of a two-tone input signal)
4. Cross-modulation (modulation transfer from one signal to another)
5. AM-PM conversion (amplitude variation causes phase shift)
6. Spectral regrowth (intermodulation with many closely spaced signals)
Figure 9 shows a general nonlinear network, having an input voltage vi and an output voltage vo. In
the most general sense, the output response of a nonlinear circuit can.

Figure 9: A general nonlinear device or network.

be modelled as a Taylor series in terms of the input signal voltage:

 vo = a0 + a1vi + a2v i 2+ a3vi3 +···, (1)
where the Taylor coefficients are defined as
a0 = vo (0) (DC output) (2a)
dv o
a1 = (linear output) (2b)
dv i Vi=0

d2 vo
a2 = (squared output) (2c)
d v 2i Vi=0

and higher order terms. Different functions can be obtained from the nonlinear network depending on
the dominance of particular terms in the expansion. The constant term, with coefficient a0, in (1)
leads to rectification, converting an AC input signal to DC. The linear term, with coefficient a1,
models a linear attenuator (a1 < 1) or amplifier (a1 > 1). The second-order term, with coefficient a 2,
can be used for mixing and other frequency conversion functions. Practical nonlinear devices usually
have a series expansion containing many nonzero terms, and a combination of several of the above
effects will occur.

Figure 10: An example of a linear and nonlinear PISPO network response, with its time-domain
representation denoted by y(t) and frequency-domain representation denoted by Y (f), to a
single frequency stimulus, x(t) and X(f).

1. Gain Compression
First consider the case where a single-frequency sinusoid is applied to the input of a general
nonlinear network, such as an amplifier:
vi = V0 cos ω0t. (3)
Equation (1) gives the output voltage as
vo = a0 + a1V0 cos ω0t + a2V2 0 cos2 ω0t + a3V3 0 cos3 ω0t +···
1 3 1 1
= (a0 + a2V2 0 ) + (a1V0 + a3V3 0 ) cos ω0t + a2V2 0 cos 2ω0t + a3V3 0 cos 3ω0t +··· . (4)
2 4 2 4

This result leads to the voltage gain of the signal component at frequency ω0
 (5)

Where we have retained only terms through the third order. The result of (5) shows that the
voltage gain is equal to a1, the coefficient of the linear term, as expected, but with an additional term
proportional to the square of the input voltage amplitude. In most practical amplifiers a 3 typically has
the opposite sign of a1, so that the output of the amplifier tends to be reduced from the expected linear
dependence for large values of V0. This effect is called gain compression, or saturation. Physically,
this is usually due to the fact that the instantaneous output voltage of an amplifier is limited by the
power supply voltage used to bias the active device.

Figure 11: Definition of the 1 dB compression point for a nonlinear amplifier

A typical amplifier response is shown in Figure 11. For an ideal linear amplifier, a plot of the
output power versus input power would be a straight line with a slope of unity, and the power gain of
the amplifier given by the ratio of the output power to the input power. The amplifier response of
Figure 11 tracks the ideal response over a limited range, then begins to saturate, resulting in reduced
gain. To quantify the linear operating range of the amplifier, we define the 1 dB compression point as
the power level for which the output power has decreased by 1 dB from the ideal linear characteristic.
This power level is usually denoted by P1dB, and can be stated in terms of either input power (IP1dB) or
output power (OP1dB). The 1 dB compression point is typically given as the larger of these two
options, so for amplifiers P1dB is usually specified as an output power, while for mixers P 1dB is
usually specified in terms of input power. The relation between a compression point referenced at the
input versus the output is given as, in dB, OP1dB = IP1dB + G − 1 dB.

2. Harmonic and Intermodulation Distortion

A portion of the input signal at frequency ω0 is converted to other frequency components. For
example, the first term represents a DC voltage, which would be a useful response in a rectifier
application. The voltage components at frequencies 2ω 0 or 3ω0 can be useful for frequency multiplier
circuits. In amplifiers, however, the presence of other frequency components will lead to signal
distortion if those components are in the passband of the amplifier. For a single input frequency, or
tone, ω0, the output will in general consist of harmonics of the input frequency of the form nω 0, for n
= 0, 1, 2,…. Often these harmonics lie outside the passband of the amplifier and so do not interfere
with the desired signal at frequency ω0. The situation is different, however, when the input signal
consists of two closely spaced frequencies.

3. Intermodulation Distortion (Products of A Two-Tone Input Signal)

Consider a two-tone input voltage, consisting of two closely spaced frequencies ω1 and ω2:
vi = V0(cos ω1t + cos ω2t) (6)

From (1) the output is

(7)

where standard trigonometric identities have been used to expand the initial expression. We see that
the output spectrum consists of harmonics of the form
mω1 + nω2, (8)
with m, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, .... These combinations of the two input frequencies are called
intermodulation products, and the order of a given product is defined as |m|+|n|. For example, the
squared term of (7) gives rise to the following four intermodulation products of second order:
2ω1 (second harmonic of ω1) m=2n=0 order = 2,
2ω2 (second harmonic of ω2) m=0n=2 order = 2,
ω1 − ω 2 (difference frequency) m = 1 n = −1 order = 2,
ω1 + ω 2 (sum frequency) m=1n=1 order = 2.
All of these second-order products are undesired in an amplifier, but in a mixer the sum or
difference frequencies form the desired outputs. In either case, if ω1 and ω2 are close, all of the
second-order products will be far from ω1 or ω2 and can easily be filtered (either passed or rejected)
from the output of the component. Note from (7) that the ratio of the amplitude of the second-order
intermodulation product ω1 − ω2 (or ω1 + ω2) to the amplitude of a second harmonic 2ω 1 (or 2ω2) is
2.0, so the second-order harmonic power will be 6 dB less than the power in the second-order sum or
difference terms. The cubed term of (7) leads to six third-order intermodulation products: 3ω1, 3ω2,
2ω1 + ω2, 2ω2 + ω1, 2ω1 − ω2, and 2ω2 − ω1. The first four of these will again be located far from ω 1 or
ω2, and will typically be outside the passband of the component. However, the two difference terms
produce products located near the original input signals at ω1 and ω2, and so cannot be easily filtered
from the passband of an amplifier. Figure 10.16 shows a typical spectrum of the second- and third-
order two-tone intermodulation products. For an arbitrary input signal consisting of many frequencies
of varying amplitude and phase, the resulting in-band intermodulation products will cause distortion
of the output signal. This effect is called third-order intermodulation distortion. The third-order
intermodulation product 2ω1 − ω2 (or 2ω2 − ω1) to the amplitude of the third harmonic 3ω1 (or 3ω2) is
3.0, so the third-order harmonic power will be 9.54 dB less than the power in the third-order
intermodulation terms.

Figure 12: Output spectrum of second- and third-order two-tone intermodulation products,
assuming ω1 < ω2.

3.1 Third-Order Intercept Point

The output power of the first-order, or linear, product is proportional to the input power, and
so the line describing this response has a slope of unity (before the onset of compression). The line
describing the response of the third-order products has a slope of 3. (The second-order products
would have a slope of 2, but since these products are generally not in the passband of the component,
we have not plotted their response in Figure 13.) Both the linear and third-order responses will
exhibit compression at high input powers, so we show the extension of their idealized responses with
dotted lines. Since these two lines have different slopes, they will intersect, typically at a point above
the onset of compression, as shown in the figure. This hypothetical intersection point where the first-
order and third-order powers would be equal is called the third-order intercept point, denoted as IP3;

Figure 13: Third-order intercept diagram for a nonlinear component

The output power of the desired signal at frequency ω 1

 (9)

Similarly, define P2ω1−ω2 as the output power of the intermodulation product of frequency 2ω 1- ω 2

(10)
)

By definition, these two powers are equal at the third-order intercept point. If we define the input
signal voltage at the intercept point as VIP, then equating (9) and (10) gives

Solving for VIP yields

(11)

Since OIP3 is equal to the linear response of Pω1 at the intercept point, we have from (9) and (11)
that

(12)

4. CROSS-MODULATION
Cross-modulation is an effect in which amplitude modulation (AM) from a strong undesired
signal is transferred to a weaker desired signal. Testing is usually done (in HF receivers) with a 20-
kHz spacing between the desired and undesired signals, a 3-kHz IF bandwidth on the receiver, and
the desired signal set to 1,000 μV EMF (-53 dBm). The undesired signal (20 kHz away) is amplitude
modulated to the 30 percent level. This undesired AM signal is increased in strength until an
unwanted AM output 20 dB below the desired signal is produced.
A cross-modulation specification ≥ 100 dB would be considered decent performance. This
figure is often not given for modern HF receivers, but if the receiver has a good third-order intercept
point, it is likely to also have good cross-modulation performance.
Cross-modulation is also said to occur naturally, especially in transpolar and North Atlantic
radio paths where the effects of the aurora are strong. According to one (possibly apocryphal) legend,
there was something called the “Radio Luxembourg Effect” discovered in the 1930s. Modulation
from a very strong broadcaster (BBC) appeared on the Radio Luxembourg signal received in North
America. This effect was said to be an ionospheric cross-modulation phenomenon and apparently
occurs when the strong station is within 175 miles of the great circle path between the desired station
and the receiver site.
 Figure 14: Cross Modulation
The Cross modulation is the intermodulation distortion caused by multiple carriers within
the same bandwidth. This can happen when strong nearby unwanted AM signal gets added with the
wanted AM signal. The effect will be observed on the weaker input signal. This results into receiver
gets overloaded.

Examples
Cross modulation is observed in cable TV and OFDM based systems. In cable TV, same
amplifier is used for multiple channels for amplification. OFDM uses multiple carriers within the
bandwidth of the single amplifier. OFDM (Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing) modulation
technique is used in WiMAX or WLAN based technologies.
Measurement:
Turn on all tones or carriers except the one and measure the power at the frequency that was
not turned on.

Figure 15: depicts frequency spectrum of the various signals.

As shown the jammer signal is present just outside the edge of channel filters. Hence large
part of cross modulation signal falls within passband of filter. If LNA IP3 point is not higher, the
cross-modulation power within filter pass band exceeds total thermal noise power.

Cross modulation power equations is as follows.

Total unwanted signal at the LNA input is sum of first jammer and transmitter leakage.
x(t) = Aj*cos(Wj*t) + r(t)*cos[WTt + θ(t)] (13)
Average cross modulation power is expressed as
 Pcrossmod = 6 + 2*( Ptxin - PIIP3 ) + Pj (14)
All the units are in dBm.
For the smaller jammer signal, cross modulation can be observed as a form of a time varying
gain compression of LNA. This can result due to transmitter leakage signal which uses non-constant
envelope modulation. The cross-modulation noise power is the total power in the AM spectrum
which is present around the single tone jammer. Small cross modulation power leads to larger IP3 for
the LNA.

4.1 Cross Modulation Testing

Cross modulation testing is done using two tone tests. Some frequency spacing is kept
between desired and undesired signal. Desired signal is set to -53 dBm power. Undesired signal is
amplitude modulated with 30% level and kept at 20KHz away. Now the power of undesired AM
modulated signal is increased until unwanted AM output is 20 dB below the desired signal power.

Cross modulation specification of >=100dB is considered to produce good system

performance. Receiver having higher TOI point also results into better cross modulation system
performance.

4.2 Intermodulation
Intermodulation distortion is relevant to devices which handle multiple frequencies. There are
second order and higher order intermodulation distortions. Refer second order vs third order intercept
point which describes intermodulation products, TOI point and IP2 point.

5. AM-PM phase distortion:

Nonlinear circuits may also contain reactive elements that give rise to memory effects.it is
usually unnecessary to extract the entire Volterra representation of a nonlinear circuit with reactive
elements if a few assumptions can be made. For bandpass nonlinear circuit with memory effects of
time duration of the order of the period of the carrier waveform, a simple model is often used to
describe the phase deviation verses amplitude.

Figure 16: Effect of AM-PM distortion on a modulated signal, input signal has AM component only.
Output signal has interrelated AM and FM components due to the AM-PM distortion of the circuit

Vout(t) = A(t)cos {2 π f c t+Φ [ A (t ) ]} (15)

Equation (15) represents the AM-PM distortion caused by short term memory effects (i.e., small
capacitance and inductance in microwave circuits). The effects of AM-PM on an amplitude-
modulated signal are illustrated in Figure 16.
For the case of input signals with small deviations of amplitude ΔA, the phase deviation may
be considered linear, with a proportionality constant kϕ as seen Figure 16. For a sinusoidal modulated
input signal, an approximation for small modulation index FM signals may be utilized. One obtains
the following expression for the output signal
Vout(t) = [A+ ΔAsin(2πfmt )]cos{2πfct + kϕA + kϕΔAsin(2πfmt)}
∞
≈ Acos(2πfct + kϕA)∑ J n(kϕΔA) cos (2πfmt) (16)
n=0

Where Jn is the nth order Bessel function of the first kind. Thus, like amplitude distortion, AM-
PM distortion creates sidebands at the harmonics of the modulating signal. Unlike, amplitude
distortion, the sidebands are not limited to the first sideband. The AM-PM distortion effects often
dominate the out-of-band interference beyond fc ± fm as seen in figure 17.
The FM modulation index kϕ may be used as a figure of a merit to access the impact of AM-
PM on signal with small amplitude deviation. The relative level of the sidebands may be calculated
from equation 16. It must be noted that two sidebands nearest to the carrier may be masked from the
AM component of the signal, but the out-of- band component are readily identical.

Figure 17: Output components of an amplitude modulated signals distorted by AM-PM effects

6. Spectral Regrowth (Intermodulation with Many Closely Spaced Signals)

A typical digital transmitter architecture is shown in Figure 18.
 Figure 18: A digital direct conversion transmitter.
The low-pass filters can eliminate out-of-band signal components from the input baseband
signal, but these components may re-appear as a result of intermodulation distortion generated within
the transmitter, for example in the downstream power amplifier. This tendency to regain undesirable
signal components is called “spectral regrowth.” Adjacent Channel Power Ratio (ACPR) is a popular
measure of spectral regrowth in digital transmitters and is often a design specification. To get the
frequency resolution required for accurate estimation of ACPR in Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) systems, the simulation must often process a random sequence of between 500 to 10k input
symbols. Even with envelope techniques, direct transistor-level simulation requires a taxing number
of resources except for simple circuits. However, the MFT method enables fast indirect ACPR
estimation. The MFT algorithm is first used to extract a behavioural baseband-equivalent model of
the transmitter. In transmitter circuits the input baseband signal is usually well within the
transmitter’s bandwidth, so a memoryless model often suffices. Because the behavioural model
abstracts away the carrier and unnecessary circuit details, the following ACPR calculation step is fast
regardless of circuit size or complexity. The most familiar spectral regrowth mechanism is
intermodulation distortion of amplitude modulation (AM) signal components entering the power
amplifier. Modulation schemes that carrier information only on the carrier phase or frequency try to
minimize spectral regrowth by eliminating this AM component. Even so, the digital baseband filters
can convert discontinuous phase changes into amplitude transients in the composite RF signal.
Models based on AM/AM and AM/PM conversion capture most such power amplifier related
distortion mechanisms. However, imperfections in the I/Q modulators can convert input phase
variations into output amplitude and phase variations that also contribute to the distortion. For this
reason, we also include PM/AM and PM/PM conversion effects in our model. In extracting the
behavioural model using the mixed frequency/time algorithm (MFT) algorithm, the inputs are best
written in polar coordinates, i.e., magnitude ρ and phase φ. The mapping f (ρ, φ) from input to output
is periodic in φ and so can be expressed as a Fourier series,

f (ρ, φ) = ∑ A k (¿ ρ)e
jk ∅
¿ (17)
k

where the magnitude-dependent Fourier coefficients are.

2π
1
Ak(ρ) = ∫
2π 0
f (ρ , φ) e
− jk ∅
dϕ (18)
 To extract the Fourier coefficients, the I and Q inputs of the transmitter are driven with
sinusoids in quadrature, at a frequency within the transmitter’s bandwidth. For these circular input
trajectories, φ = ω0t, and the Fourier coefficients are given by.
2π
ωo
Ak(ρ) = ω o f (ρ , ω t)e− jk ω t dt (19)
∫
2π 0 o
o

Thus, for a given input magnitude, the Fourier coefficients are obtained directly from the
output spectrum calculated by the MFT. For example, if the input circle is large enough to alternately
saturate the modulators, the –3 harmonic of the complex baseband tone dominates the distortion. Let
the carrier frequency be ωc. The output spectrum has lines at ωc+ω0 and ωc – 3ω0. The MFT computes
the real and imaginary parts of the Fourier coefficients. The simulation is repeated for a range of
input magnitudes to capture the magnitude dependence of the Fourier coefficients. At each input
magnitude, the fundamental and its relevant harmonics are recorded for interpolation. The model
implementation reads the recorded data then processes any amount of input baseband data. Figure 19
shows a simulated ACPR measurement.

Figure 19: Output of the model.