Name: kubra edris rasul group c

Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds such as starch, glycogen, and

cellulose. They were considered to be hydrated of carbon because they contain ( H
and O ) in ratio of ( 2:1) just as in water. Carbohydrates are now defined as Aldehydes
or Ketones of polyhydroxy alcohol, and the general formula of them is C n(H2O)n
Carbohydrates are divided into three major categories

1- Monosaccharaides: are simple sugars that cannot be changed into simple sugars
upon hydrolysis. (Reaction with H2O) e.g. Glucose, Fructose, Arabinose,
Xylose,...Etc.
2- Disaccharides: are double monosaccharaides linked by glycosidic link with loss
of a molecule of water . On hydrolysis ( by acids or by digestive enzymes ) they
yield two simple sugars e.g. Maltose , Sucrose and Lactose.
 Maltose :- consist of ( Glucose + Glucose )
 Sucrose :- consist of ( Glucose + Fructose )
 Lactose :- consist of ( Glucose + Galactose )
3- Polysaccharides: are complex saccharides on hydrolysis (by acids or by
digestive enzymes) many simple sugars such as Starch, Glycogen , and Cellulose.

Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates:

 Molisch's test : specific for carbohydrates.

This test is used to distinguish C.H.O from other compounds. The test is based
on destroying the glycosidic bonds of C.H.O by using concentrated H2SO4 to
formation Monosaccharaides which then deydrated to give furfural (from
pentose) or it' s derivative hydroxy methyl furfural (from hexoses) which react
with alcoholic α- naphthol to give purple ring.

Objectives of Molisch Test

 To distinguish carbohydrates from other biomolecules.

Reagent

 Molisch reagent: Dissolve 3.75 g of α-naphthol in 25 ml of Ethanol 99%. This

reagent should be prepared fresh.

o 3.75gr α-naphthol + 25ml Ethanol → reagent

 Concentrated sulphuric acid

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  Test sample

o Glucose + D.W + H2SO4→ glucose solution

o Sucrose + D.W + H2SO4 → sucrose solution

Materials required

 Test tubes
 Test tube stand
 Pipette
 Distilled water

Principle:
1) The test reagent (H2SO4) dehydrates pentose to form furfural and dehydrates
hexoses to form 5- hydroxymethyl furfural.
2) The furfural and 5- hydroxymethyl furfural further react with α-naphthol
present in the test reagent to produce a purple ring

Method:
1-Two ml of a sample solution is placed in a test tube.

2-Two drops of the Molisch reagent (which α-napthol in 95% ethanol) is added.

3-The solution is then poured slowly into a tube containing two ml of concentrated
sulfuric acid so that two layers form, producing violet ring appear as liaison between
the surface separations.

Sample solution + reagent + H2SO4 →↓

Result and Interpretation of Molisch Test

 The formation of the purple colored ring occurs at the interface between the
sulphuric acid and the test solution.

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  The sulphuric acid remains above the test solution as the acid is denser than
the test solution.
 The absence of color indicates a negative result, such as protein.
 The presence of color indicates a positive result, such as lactose.

 Iodine Test

Iodine test is a chemical test used to distinguish mono- or disaccharides from certain
polysaccharides like amylase, dextrin, and glycogen. This test has a variation termed
starch-iodine test that is performed to indicate the presence of glucose made by plants
in the leaves.

Objectives of Iodine Test

 To detect the presence of polysaccharides, primarily starch.

Reagent

 Lugol’s iodine: 5% elemental iodine is mixed with 10% potassium iodide to

form the Lugol’s iodine.

5gr I + 10gr KI +100ml D.W →MIX ALL(Lugol’s iodine.)

 Test sample

Starch + D.W→ starch solution

Glucose + D.W →glucose solution

Materials Required

 Test tubes
 Test tube stand

Principle

 The iodine test is based on the absorptive properties possessed by large

polysaccharide molecules. The glucose chains in most of polysaccharides are
organized to form helices. The space between the turns of the helix can hold
small iodine molecules. This is seen with amylase chains found in starch.
Glycogen and amylopectin can also absorb these iodine molecules on their
surface. The absorptive property of polysaccharides decreases upon heating.
 Blue or red-colored iodine complexes are formed in this test having ill-defined
chemical nature.

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Procedure
1) take 1 ml of a given sample in a clean, dry test tube.
2) Take control of 1 ml of distilled water in another tube.
3) Add about 2-3 drops of Lugol’s solution to both the tubes and mix them in a
vortex.
4) Observe the appearance of color in the test tubes.
5) Heat the test tubes in the water bath until the color disappears.
6) Take the test tubes out for cooling
7) Note down the appearance of color seen in the test tubes

Lugol’s iodine + sample solution → ↓

Observations

When the iodine is added to the solution, the color of the solution changes. It may
give the following colors;

 Blue
 Reddish-purple
 Reddish-brown

Result

 The appearance of a blue-black or purple color represents a positive test,

indicating the presence of starch.
 If there is no change in color, the result is negative and indicates the absence
of starch.

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