EPITHELIUM

PRESENTED BY:

DR. KALPAJYOTI BHATTACHARJEE

DEPT. OF ORAL PATHOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY

 CONTENTS
 Definition
 Development
 Characteristics
 Classification
 Functions
 Cell polarity
 Membrane specialization of epithelia
 Glands
 Epithelial cell renewal
 Structure of the oral epithelium
 DEFINITION

Epithelium is an avascular tissue composed of cells that

cover the exterior body surfaces and line internal closed

cavities (including the vascular system) and body tubes

that communicate with the exterior (the alimentary,

respiratory, and genitourinary tracts). Epithelium also

forms the secretory portion (parenchyma) of glands and

their ducts. In addition, specialized epithelial cells function

as receptors for the special senses (smell, taste, hearing,

and vision).
 DEVELOPMENT
EPITHELIUM IS DERIVED FROM 3 GEREM LAYERS

 ECTODERM
 MESODERM
 ENDODERM

ALTHOUGH MOST OF THE EPITHELIA ARE DERIVED

FROM ECTODERM AND ENDODEREM
 ECTODERM: Oral and nasal mucosa, cornea, epidermis
of the skin & glands of the skin & the mammary glands.

 ENDODERM: The liver, the pancreas & the lining of the

respiratory and GIT.

 MESODERM: Uriniferous tubules of the kidney, the lining

of the male and female reproductive systems, the
endothelial lining of the circulatory system and the
mesothelium of the body cavity.
 CHARACTERISTICS

 They are closely apposed and adhere to one another by

specialized cell junctions.

 They exhibit functional and morphologic polarity through

a free surface or apical domain, a lateral domain, and a

basal domain.

 Their basal surface is attached to an underlying basement

membrane.
EPITHELIAL CELLS that lack a free surface are seen
in:

 interstitial cells of Leydig in the testis

 the lutein cells of the ovary

 the parenchyma of the adrenal gland

 anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

 Epithelioreticular cells of the thymus

 certain types of injury, Infections and tumors

 EPITHELIUM creates a selective barrier between the
external environment and the underlying connective
tissue seen in

 Blood

 lymph
 CLASSIFICATION
1) SIMPLE:
• Squamous
• cuboidal
• columnar

2) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED

3) STRATIFIED
• Squamous non keratinised
• Squamous keratinised
• Cuboidal
• Columnar
• transitional
SIMPLE- When it is one cell layer thick

STRATIFIED- When it has two or more cell layer.

SQUAMOUS- When the width of the cell is greater than

its height.

CUBOIDAL- When the width, depth & height are

approximately the same.

COLUMNAR- When the height of the cell

approximately exceeds the width.
 SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

 Composed of flattened, irregularly shaped cells

forming a continuous surface which may be reffered
to as pavemented epithelium.

 Term ‘squamous’ derives from the comparison of the

cells to the scales of a fish.

 Supported by an underlying delicate membrane.

 Involved in passive transport of either gases or fluids.

 PRESENT IN:
Lining- pulmonary alveoli, loop of Henle, parietal layer of
Bawman capsule, inner and middle ear, blood and
lymphatic vessels, pleural and peritoneal cavities.

FUNCTION:
 Limiting membrane
 Fluid transport

 Gaseous exchange

 Lubrication

 Reducing friction

 Lining membrane
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

 Intermediate form between simple squamous and

simple columnar epithelium.

 Nucleus is round and located in the centre of the cell.

Present in:
 Ducts of exocrine glands
 Surface of ovary

 Kidney tubules

 Thyroid follicles
Functions:
 Secretion
 Absorption

 Surface barrier
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
 SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

 Cells are taller and appear columnar in sections at right

angles to the basement membrane.

 Nuclei are elongated and may be located towards the

base, the centre or occasionally the apex of the
cytoplasm, this is known as polarity.

PRESENT IN:
 Small intestine & colon

 Stomach lining and gastric glands

 Gall bladder
FUNCTION:
 Transportation

 Absorption

 Secretion

 Protection
 SIMPLE COLUMNAR CILIATED EPITHELIUM

 Described as a special entity because of the presence of

surface specialisation called cilia.

 Each cilia consists of a finger like projection of the

plasma membrane.

 Not common in humans except in the female

reproductive tract.
Simple columnar ciliated epithelium
 GOBLET CELL

 These are modified columnar epithelial cells which

synthesize and secrete mucin.

 Scattered among the cells of many epithelial linings

particularly respiratory and GIT.

 Mucus content stain for glycoprotein using PAS.

 The part of the cell where secretory vesicle

accumulates bulges and compresses the
neighboring cells.
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

 The term pseudostratified is derived from the appearance

of this epithelium in section which conveys the erroneous
impression that there is more than one layer of cells.

 True simple epithelium since all the cells rest on the

basement membrane.

 Nuclei are disposed at different levels thus creating the

illusion of cellular stratification.
 Exhibit polarity with nuclei confined to the basal two-third
of the epithelium, cilia are never present on stratified
epithelium

PRESENT IN:
Trachea & bronchial tree
Ductus deferens
Auditory tube and tympanic cavity
Nasal cavity & lacrimal sac
Male urethra
Large excretory ducts
FUNCTION:
Secretion
Absorption
Lubrication
Transportation
Protection
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

 It consists of a variable number of cells layer which

exhibit transition from a cuboidal basal layer to a
flattened surface.

 Basal layer divide continuously.

 Well adapted to withstand abrasion since loss of

surface cells does not compromise the underlying
tissue.

 Nuclei become progressively condensed (pyknotic)

and flattened, before ultimately disintegrating.
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS NONKERATINISED
EPITHELIUM

Flattened with nuclei.

Moist superficial cells are living.

PRESENT IN:
Mouth
Epiglottis
Esophagus
Vocal folds
Vagina

FUNCTION:
Protection
Secretion
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS KERATINIZED
EPITHELIUM

Flattened without nuclei

Dry, superficial cells are dead.
Nuclei are lost.

PRESENT IN:
Epidermis of skin.

FUNCTION:
Protection.
 STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

 Thin, stratified epithelium which usually consists of

only two or three layers of cuboidal or low columnar
cells.

 Not involved in significant absorptive or secretory

activity

PRESENT IN:
Ducts of sweat glands
Large ducts of exocrine glands
Anorectal junction
FUNCTION:
Absorption
Secretion
 STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

PRESENT IN:
Conjunctiva of eye
Some large excretory ducts
Portions of male urethra

FUNCTION:
Secretion
Absorption
Protection
 TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
 Form of stratified epithelium.

 Highly specialized to accommodate a great degree of

stretch.

 So named because it has some features which are

intermediate (transitional) between stratified cuboidal and
stratified squamous epithelia.

 In relaxed state (contracted) state, transitional epithelium

appear to be about 4-5 layers thick. basal cells are
roughly cuboidal , the intermediate cells are polygonal, and
the surface cells are large and rounded and may contain 2
nuclei.
 In the stretched state, it appears 2-3 cells thick (although
the actual number of layers remains constant) and the
intermediate and surface layers are extremely flattened.

PRESENT IN:
Urethra
Ureters
Bladders
Renal calyces

FUNCTION:
Protection
Distensible
 FUNCTIONS

1) Protection of underlying tissue of the body from

abrasion and injury

2) Transcellular transport of molecules across

epithelial layers

3) Secretion of mucus, hormones, enzymes and so

forth from various glands.
4) Absorption of materials from a lumen

5) Control of movement of materials between body

compartments via selective permeability of
intracellular junctions between epithelial cells.

6) Detection of sensations via taste buds, retina of the

eye and specialized hair cells in the ear.
 CELL POLARITY

 The free or apical domain is always directed towards the

exterior surface or the lumen of an enclosed cavity or tube. It
is rich in ion channel, carrier protein and hydrolytic enzymes
as well as aquaporins, channel forming proteins that function
in regulation of water balance.

 Lateral domain communicates with adjacent cells & is

characterized by specialized attachment areas.

 The basal domain rests on the basal lamina anchoring the

cell to underlying connective tissue.
 MEMBRANE SPECIALIZATION OF EPITHELIA

The intercellular, luminal and basal surface of epithelial

cells exhibit a variety of specialization.

1) INTERCELLULAR SURFACE:
The apposed surface of epithelial cells are lined by
several different types of membrane and cytoskeletal
specialization. Cell junctions are:

a) Occluding or tight junctions:

 Located immediately behind the luminal surface of
simple columnar epithelium
 Intercellular spaces are oblitereted
 Transmembrane adhesive protein- occludin, claudin,
junctional adhesive molecule
 Each tight junction forms a continuous
circumferential band or zonules around the cell and
are thus known as zonula occludens.

FUNCTIONS:
 Seal adjacent cells together
 Involved in cell signaling
 Defines apical and basolateral domain of
plasma membrane.

 Tightness of the junction is related to the claudins

present
b) Adhering junctions:

 Tightly binds the constituent cells of the epithelium

together and acts as an anchorage

 Cytoskeleton of all the cells are effectively linked into a

single functional unit

 Apoptosis, loss of cell polarity, unregulated cell

proliferation are absent.

 Important in cellular signaling

 Intercellular space- 20nm

 CELL TO CELL ADHESIVE JUNCTION:

 Transmembrane protein – cadherin

 Cytoplasmic adaptar protein- catenin

 Zona adherens- e-cadherin

A&B catenins, nectins
actin filaments

 Macula adherens- A desmosome also known as macula

adherens is a cell structure specialized for cell-to-
cell adhesion.
Desmoglein & desmocollin
Desmoplakin, Plakoglobin,
Plakophollin
Intermediate filaments
 CELL TO CELL MATRIX JUNCTION:

 Focal adhesion which anchor actin filaments of the

cytoskeleton into the basement membrane
 Integrin, A-actinin, vinculin, talin, actin filaments, remodelling
of actin filaments.

 Hemidesmosomes which anchor the intermediate filaments

of the cytoskeleton into the basement membrane.
 Hemidesmosomes are asymmetrical and are found in
epithelial cells connecting the basal face of the cell to basal
lamina. Similar in form to desmosomes when visualized by
electron microscopy
 Integrin, A6B4, BP230, Plectin, intermediate filaments links
the cells to the basal lamina.
Hemidesmosomes
c) Gap junction:

 Circular intercellular contacts areas containing hundreds

of tiny pores which permit passage of small molecules
between adjacent cells.
 Intercellular space- 2-3 nm

 Transmembrane protein- connexin (form aqueous

channels)
 Function-:-

Creates a (nexus) adjacent cell conduct between two

adjacent cells for passage of small ions and
informational micromolecules.
2) LUMINAL SURFACE:

Luminal surface of epithelial cells may incorporate

3 main types of specialization:

a)cilia
b)microvilli
c)stereocilli
 CILIA

 Relatively long motile structure which are resolved by

light microscopy

 They are hairlike extensions of the apical plasma

membrane containing an axoneme, the microtubule-
based internal structure.

 Cilia give a “crew-cut” appearance to the epithelial

surface basal bodies.
 MOTILE CILIA

 Active movement due to the presence of microtubule

associated proteins; rapid forward movement with slow
recovery stroke (half cone trajectory).

 most commonly found on epithelia which function in

transporting secretions .

 present on sperm cells as flagella; provides a forward

movement to the sperm cell.

 Motile cilia are capable of moving fluid and particles

along epithelial surfaces eg. Tracheobronchial tree and
oviduct.
 PRIMARY CILIA

 found in almost all cells in the body .

 transmit signals from extracellular space into the

cell.

 No active movement; passively bend due to flow

of fluid.

 Function: chemosensors
osmosensors
mechanosensors.
 NODAL CILIA

 Structure similar to primary cilia except they have

an ability for active transport, active rotational
movement

 Found in the embryo during gastrulation on the

bilaminar disc near the area of primitive node.

 Essential in developing left-right asymmetry of

internal organs.
 MICROVILLI

 Microvilli are fingerlike cytoplasmic projections on the

apical surface of most epithelial cells .
 In intestinal absorptive cell this surface structure
was originally called the striated border; in the
kidney tubule cells, it is called the brush border.
 Can not be individually resolved with the microscope

 Internal structure contain a core of actin filament that

are cross linked by several actin binding protein
 Increase absorptive capacity
 STREOCILIA

 Stereocilia are unusually long, immotile microvilli.

 Found only singly or in small number in odd sites

such as the male reproductive tracts.

 Contains ezrin and A-actinin.

 Treadmilling effect- structure renewal process

STREOCILLIA
3) BASAL SURFACE

 The interface between all epithelia and underlying

supporting structures is marked by a noncellular
structure known as the basement membrane.

 It provides structural support for epithelia and

constitute a selective barrier to the passage of
material between epithelium and supporting tissue.
 Hemidesmosomes provides a mean of anchorage
of the cells via its cytoskeleton to the basement
membrane and underlying supporting tissue

 Consists of 3 zones:
lamina lucida
lamina densa
lamina fibroreticularis or sublamina densa
 LAMINA DENSA

 The lamina densa is a component of the basement

membrane zone between the epidermis and dermis of
the skin, and is an electron-dense zone between
the lamina lucida and dermis.

 Synthesized by the basal cells of the epidermis

 Electron dense matrix 50nm thick between the epithelium

and the adjacent connective tissue

 Exhibit a network of fine, 3-4nm filaments composed of

laminins, a type iv collagen molecule (chicken-wire) and
proteoglycans and glycoprotein.
 LAMINA LUCIDA

 The lamina lucida is a component of the basement

membrane which is found between the epithelium and
underlying connective tissue.

 Clear zone 40nm thick that attach the cells to the

basal lamina

 Contain- collagen type xvii, integrins, laminin v

 Anchoring fibrils consists of collagen type vii attach

basal lamina to connective tissue.
 GLANDS

Typically glands are classified into:

1)Exocrine glands discharge their secretory product via a

duct onto an epithelial surface. Cells of which are
composed of highly specialized epithelial cells, the
internal structure of the cells reflecting the nature of the
secretory product and the mode of secretion.
Morphology: a)simple: single, unbranched duct.
b)compound: branched duct system.

2)Endocrine glands are ductless. Secrete their product

into the connective tissue where they enter the blood
stream to reach the target cells. The products of
endocrine glands are called hormone.
 In some epithelia, individual cells secrete a
substance that does not reach the blood stream but
rather affects other cells within the same epithelia.
Such secretory activity is referred to as paracrine.
The secretory material reaches the target cells by
diffusion through the extracellular space or
immediately subjacent connective tissue.
 Cells of exocrine glands exhibit different
mechanism of secretion:

 Merocrine secretion- involves the process of

exocytosis and is the most common form of
secretion, protein are usually the major secretory
product

 Apocrine secretion- involves discharge of free,

unbroken, membrane bound vesicles containing
secretory product. This is an unusual mode of
secretion and appears to lipid secretory products in
the breasts and some sweat glands
 Holocrine secretion- involves discharge of whole
secretory cells with subsequent disintegration of the
cells to release the secretory product. Occurs
principally on the sebaceous glands.
 EPITHELIAL CELL RENEWAL

 The stratified squamous epithelium of skin is replaced in

approximately 28 days.

 Cells in the stratum basale undergo mitosis to provide

for cell renewal.

 As these cells differentiate they are pushed toward the

surface by new cells in the basal layer.

 Ultimately, the cells become keratinized and slough off.

 Thus a steady state is maintained within the
epithelium, with new cells normally replacing
exfoliated cells at the same rate.

 Cells arising by division in the basal layer may

remain in the progenitor cell population or undergo a
process of maturation as they move to surface.
 EPITHELIAL METAPLASIA

 Epithelial metaplasia is a reversible conversion of

one mature epithelial cell type to another mature
epithelial cell type.

 Metaplasia is generally an adaptive response to

stress, chronic inflammation, or other abnormal
stimuli.
EPITHELIAL METAPLASIA
 TUMOURS ARISING FROM EPITHELIA

 A tumour can arise from any tissue if there is uncontrolled

growth of cells.

 A malignant tumour arising from an epithelia is a

carcinoma.

 If it arises from squamous epithelium it is a squamous cell

carcinoma

 If tumour arising from glandular epithelium it is called

adenoma.

 Diagnosis can be made by Immuno histochemical

technique.
 STRUCTURE OF THE ORAL EPITHELIUM

 Stratified squamous variety.

 May be keratinized (ortho or parakeratinized) or

nonkeratinized depending on location.

 Keratinized: gingiva and hard palate (masticatory

mocosa). In many gingival epithelium is parakeratinized.

 Non keratinized: cheeks, faucial and sublingual tissue.

 Both keratinized and nonkeratinized contains 2 groups of

cells- keratinocytes and nonkeratinocytes.
 TURNOVER TIME OF THE EPITHELIUM

 Turnover time- time taken for a cell to divide and

pass through the entire epithelium.

 E.g. – * skin - 52 to 75 days .

* gut - 4 to 14 days.
* gingiva - 41 to 57 days.
* cheek - 25 days.

 Nonkeratinised buccal epithelium turns over faster

than keratinized gingival epithelium.
 Keratinized epithelium:
1) stratum basale
2) stratum spinosum
3) stratum granulosum
4) stratum corneum
 STRATUM BASALE

 Single layer of cuboidal cells

 Made up of cells that synthesize DNA and undergo

mitosis thus providing new cells

 Basal cells and parabasal cells are referred to as

stratum germinativum but only basal cells can
divide.

 Basal cells synthesize proteins

 Hemidesmosomes are found in basal layer.

 Lateral borders of the adjacent cells are closely

apposed and connected by desmosomes.

 The basal cells contain tonofilaments and are

attached to the attachment plaque

 Desmosomes consists of 2 principal proteins:

transmembranous protein and proteins within the
cells and related to attachment plaque.
STRATUM BASALE
 STRATUM SPINOSUM

 Irregular polyhedral cells larger than basal cells.

 In light microscopy, it appears these are joined by

“intercellular bridges”

 Tonofilaments seems to course from cell to cell

across the bridge.

 Electron microscopy revels- intercellular bridges are

desmosomes and tonofibrils are bundles of
tonofilament.
 Desmosome attachment plaques contain the
polypeptides desmoplakin and plakoglobin.

 Intercellular space contains glycoprotein,

glycosaminoglycan and fibronectin.

 Prickle cell layer- shrinks away from each other

remaining in contact at the desmosomes.

 Most active layer in protein synthesis.

STRATUM SPINOSUM
 STRATUM GRANULOSUM

 Flatter and wider cells larger than spinous cells

 Contains basophilic keratohyalin granules

 Nucleus show degeration and pyknosis.

 Tonofilaments are more dense in quantity and are often

seen associated with keratohyalin granules.

 Cell surface are more regular and more closely

attached to adjacent cell surface.
 Lamellar granules:
keratinosome or odland body-
membrane coating acts as permeability barrier.
Involucrin (keratolin)- protein present at
the upper half.

 Membrane coating granules are glycoprotein.

STRATUM GRANULOSUM
 STRATUM CORNEUM

 keratinized squamae which are larger and flatter than

granular cells.

 Nuclei and organelles have disappeared.

 Acidophilic and histologically amorphous layer.

 Keratohyalin granules have disappeared.

 Cells are composed of densely packed filaments coated

by basic protein of keratohyaline granules, filaggrin.
STRATUM CORNEUM
 Orthokeratinized epithelium:
 do not contain nuclei.

Parakeratinized epithelium:
 the stratum corneum retains pyknotic nuclei.

 Incomplete removal of the organelles from the

cells of the granular layer occur so that the nuclei
remain as shrunken pyknotic structure, and
remnants of other organelles also may be
present in the keratinized layer
ORTHOKERATINISED EPITHELIUM
PARAKERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
NONKERATINIZED EPITHELIUM

 Layers
Basal - (Stratum Basale)
Intermediate - (Stratum Intermedium)
Superficial - (Stratum Superficiale)
 Basal cells are similar.

 Cells of stratum intermedium are larger than

spinosum and are attached by desmosomes and
other junction.

 More closely attached than spinous cells.

 No Stratum Granulosum
 No Stratum Corneum.

 Stratum Superficiale – nucleated cells

 Less number of tonofilaments

 Lack keratohyaline granules.

 Have higher rate of mitosis than keratinized
epithelium.

 Parakeratosis –physiologic
normally keratinizing tissue becomes
parakeratinized.

 Keratosis- Pathologic
keratinization occurs in anormally nonkeratinized
tissue.
 KERATINOCYTE

 Epidermal/epithelial cells that synthesize keratin.

 Characteristic intermediate filament protein is

cytokeratin.

 Show cell division, undergo maturation and finally

desquamate

 Increase in volume in each successive from basal to

superficial.
 NONKERATINOCYTES

 Donot possess cytokeratin filament

 Do not show mitotic activity undergo maturation and

finally desquamate

 Usually dendritic and appears unstained or clear in

routine H&E stains

 Identified by special stain or Imunohistochemical

technique

 Migrate to oral epithelium from neural crest or bone

marrow.
 MELANOCYTES
 Present in basal layer.

 Arise from neural crest ectoderm.

 Staining reaction- dopa oxidase- tyrosinase, silver

stains.

 Stained by : Mason-Fontana stain

 Dendritic, no desmosomes and tonofilaments.

 Premelanosomes and melanosomes are present.

 Function- synthesis of melanin pigment granules

(melanosomes) and transfer to surrounding
keratinocytes.
 LANGERHANS CELL
 Present in suprabasal layer.

 Arise from bone marrow.

 Dendritic or clear cells with no desmosomes or tonofilaments.

 Characteristic langerhans granule- Birbeck granules

 Staining reactions- cell surface antigen markers

 Stains by: gold chloride, ATPase & immunofluorescent

markers.

 Function-

antigen trapping and processing.

LANGERHANS CELL
 MERKEL CELLS

 Present in basal layer.

 Arise from division of epithelial cell.

 Staining reaction- PAS positive.

 Seen in masticatory mucosa but are absent in lining

mucosa

 Non-dendritic with less desmosomes and

tonofilaments.

 sensory and respond to touch.

 Characteristic electron-dense vesicles and associated

nerve axon.
MERKEL CELLS
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL CELLS

 Intracellular filaments- tonofilaments

 Intracellular proteins- cytokeratins

 Low mol wt keratin(40)- glandular & simple

 Intermediate wt- stratified epithelia

 Highest(67) – keratinized stratified

 Stratified oral epithelim - keratin 5 & 14

 Keratinized epithelium - keratin 1, 6, 10, 16

 Non-keratinized - keratin 4, 13, 19

 REFERENCES

 Michael H. Ross and Wojciech Pawlina;

Histology A Text & Atlas; 6th edition; p.105-146

 Kumar GS , Orban’s Oral Histology and

Embryology, 12th Ed,2009,Elsevier,New Delhi,
p.210-226.

 NanciA , Ten Cate’s Oral Histology Development

structure and function, 7th Ed,2008,Mosby,New
Delhi,p.320-336.
 Singh.I,Histology of Human Histology Colour Atlas,5th Ed
, Jaypee brothers , 2009,New Delhi, p.45-53.

 Wheaters, functional histology, a text and colour atlas,

4th edition, page 80-96

 BKB Berkovitz, oral anatomy, histology and embryology,

3rd edition, page 220-224

 Leslic P. Gartner, colour textbook of histology, 3rd

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