02 Synchronous

Synchronous Machines
POWER SYSTEM MODELLING AND CONTROL (EEEN40550)
Prof. Federico Milano
Email: federico.milano@ucd.ie
Tel.: 01 716 1844
Room 157a – Engineering & Materials Science Centre
School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
University College Dublin
Dublin, Ireland
Dublin, 2021 Synchronous Machines - 1

Synchronous Machine Overview
• Generator Overview
• Model of the Synchronous Machine
• Models for Stability Analysis and Control:
◦ Subtransient Model
◦ Transient Model
◦ Electro-Mechanical Model
• Steady-State Model

Generator Components
Synchronous
Machine Elec Power
Steam, Pressure Torque Grid
Fuel
Entropy Speed Ω V, I
Boiler Valve Turbine GEN.
pressure
meas. field voltage
Firing Primary Excitation

Governor Primary
Control Frequency
AVR Voltage
Control
Control
Power V ref + − V
Control Power set-point
− Ω
+
Control Ωref
Center Signals from control Ω OEL, V
centers, market and AGC UEL,
PSS, etc,
Auxiliary Controllers

3-Phase Synchronous Machines
• Complete dynamic equations of 3-phase synchronous machines

• Characterisation of machine inductances
• Why transforming machine variables?
• Park’s transformation
• Transformed (d-q -0) circuit equations
• Steady-state open circuit operation

Synchronous Machine Types (I)
• Round Rotor
◦ Solid state rotor with (generally) only one pair of poles (Ωn = 3,000 rpm at 50Hz).
This is used in steam or gas turbine groups.
• Salient Pole Rotor

◦ Laminated rotor with several pairs of poles (Ωn 3,000 rpm at 50 Hz). This is
used in big hydro plants coupled with Kaplan’s turbines.
• Permanent Magnet/Brushless Rotor

◦ Mainly used for motors or for “small” generators (∼ 1 MVA). Since there is no need
for brushes, the machine is compact and robust. However, no reactive power
regulation is possible.

Synchronous Machine Scheme
a ωr
dr
Damper
c windings
b
q1 θr
Effects of induced currents f d q2
in the rotor core
d ar
q2 f
b q1 DC Field c
a qr

Synchronous Machine Windings
• a − a , b − b , c − c → stator windings (ac)

• f − f → field winding (dc)
• q1 − q1 → effect of induced currents in the rotor core
• d − d , q2 − q2 → damper windings (fictitious!)

Circuit Equations for 3-Phase Machine
• 3 stator coils (a, b, c)

• 2 rotor coils in direct axis:
◦ Field winding
◦ Direct-axis damper
• 1 rotor coil in quadrature (damper)

• The machine is represented by 6 coils
• There is no mutual coupling between the circuits in the direct axis and those in the
quadrature axis
• Rotor-stator and stator-stator inductances are a function of θr

Stator Flux Linkage Equations
ψa = + Laa ia − Lab ib − Lac ic

− Laf if − Lad id1 − Laq iq1
ψb = − Lab ia + Lbb ib − Lbc ic
− Lbf if − Lbd id1 − Lbq iq1
ψc = − Lac ia − Lcb ib + Lcc ic
− Lcf if − Lcd id1 − Lcq iq1

In Matrix Form
       
ψa laa −lab −lac ia laf lad laq if
       
 ψb  = −lab lbb −lbc   ib  −  lbf lbd lbq  id1 
       
ψc −lac −lcb lcc ic lcf lcd lcq iq1
       
−ψa laa −lab −lac ia laf lad laq if
       
 −ψb  = − −lba lbb −lbc   ib  +  lbf lbd lbq  id1 
       
−ψc −lca −lcb lcc ic lcf lcd lcq iq1

ψs = − Ls is + Lsr ir

Rotor Flux Linkage Equations
ψf = − Laf ia − Lbf ib − Lcf ic

+ Lf f if + Lf d id1
ψd1 = − Lad ia − Lbd ib − Lcd ic
+ Lf d if + Ldd id1
ψq1 = − Laq ia − Lbq ib − Lcq ic
+ Lqq iq1

In Matrix Form
       
ψf lf a lf b lf c ia lf f lf d 0 if
       
ψd1  = − lda ldb ldc   ib  +  ldf ldd 0 id1 
       
ψq1 lqa lqb lqc ic 0 0 lqq iq1

ψr = − Lrs is + Lr ir

Stator Voltage Equations
•
dψa
ea = − − Ra i a
dt
•
dψb
eb = − − Rb i b
dt
•
dψc
ec = − − Rc i c
dt

In Matrix Form
      
ea −ψa Ra 0 0 ia
      
 eb  = d  −ψb  −  0 Rb 0  ib 
  dt     
ec −ψc 0 0 Rc ic

d
es = ψ + Rs i s
dt s

Rotor Voltage Equations
•
dψf
ef = + + Rf i f
dt
•
dψd1
ed1 =+ + Rd1 id1
dt
•
dψq1
eq1 = + + Rq1 iq1
dt

In Matrix Form
      
ef ψf Rf 0 0 if
      
ed1  = d ψd1  +  0 Rd1 0  id1 
  dt     
eq1 ψq1 0 0 Rq1 iq1

d
er = ψ + Rr i r
dt r

General Equations in Matrix Form (I)
• Magnetical Equations:
ψ = L i
• Electrical Equations
d
e = ψ + R i
dt
• Where:
T
e = ea , eb , ec , ef , ed1 , eq1
T
i = ia , ib , ic , if , id1 , iq1
T
ψ = −ψa , −ψb , −ψc , ψf , ψd1 , ψq1

General Equations in Matrix Form (II)
 
−laa lab lac laf lad laq
 
 l −lbb lbf lbd lbq 
 ab lbc 
 
 l −lcc lcf lcd lcq 
 ca lcb 
L = 
−lf a −lf b −lf c lf f lf d 0 
 
 
−lda −ldb −ldc ldf ldd 0 
 
−lqa −lqb −lqc 0 0 lqq
 
−[Ls ] [Lsr ]
L =  
−[Lrs ] [Lr ]

General Equations in Matrix Form (III)
 
−Ra 0 0 0 0 0
 
 0 −Rb 0 
 0 0 0 
 
 0 −Rc 0 0 
 0 0 
R = 
 0 0 0 Rf 0 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 0 Rd1 0 
 
0 0 0 0 0 Rq1
 
[Rs ] [0]
R =  
[0] [Rr ]

Partitioned Matrix Equations
• Flux Linkage:

ψs = − Ls is + Lsr ir

• Voltage Equations:
d
es = ψs + Rs i s
dt
d
er = ψr + Rr i r
dt

Self & Mutual Inductances
• We make the following assumptions:

1. There is no saturation →The system is linear
2. Stator surface is smooth →We ignore the tooth ripple
3. We have a sinusoidally distributed MMF in the air gap. The winding and pole shape
are such that there are no space harmonics. In this case only fundamental
frequency EMF will be induced in the windings at steady-state.

Stator Self Inductance
• For the round rotor, the self inductance is constant i.e. not a function of θr .
Hence:
laa = lbb = lcc = constant
• For the salient pole rotor, there is a constant (average) and a variable part of the self
inductance dependent on θr .
Hence:
laa =laao + laa2 cos(2θr )

2π
lbb =laao + laa2 cos(2(θr − ))
3
2π
lcc =laao + laa2 cos(2(θr + ))
3

Stator Self Inductance of Salient Pole Rotors
• Variation of laa (θr ) in arbitrary units:
laa2
laao
θr
0 π
π
2
laa (θr ) = laao + laa2 cos(2θr )

Stator Mutual Inductances (I)
• For the round rotor case, the stator-stator mutual inductances are constant, i.e. not a
function of θr .
Hence:
lab = lbc = lca = labo = constant
• Observe that for symmetry:
lab = lba , lbc = lcb , lca = lac

Stator Mutual Inductances (II)
• For the salient pole rotor, the stator-stator mutual inductances is a constant plus a
sinusoidal function:
Hence:
π
lab = labo + lab2 cos(2(θr + ))
6
π
lbc = labo + lab2 cos(2(θr − ))
2
5π
lca = labo + lab2 cos(2(θr + ))
6
• Note that the argument of the cosine depends on 2θr , not θr .

Stator Mutual Inductances (II)
• Variation of lab (θr ):
lab
labo
θr
0 π
π
2
lab (θr ) = labo + lab2 cos(2(θr + π6 ))

Mutual Inductance Between Rotor and Stator (I)
• Stator to rotor mutuals vary with rotor position

• d-axis rotor circuits (field and armortisseurs) vary as cos(θr )
• q -axis rotor circuits vary as sin(θr )
• Hence:
laf = laf 0 cos(θr )

2π
lbf = laf 0 cos(θr − )
3
2π
lcf = laf 0 cos(θr + )
3

Mutual Inductance Between Rotor and Stator (II)
• Variation of laf (θr ):
laf
laf 0
π
θr
0 2π
laf (θr ) = laf 0 cos θr

Mutual Inductance Between Rotor and Stator (III)
• For the damper winding we have:
lad = lad0 cos(θr )

2π
lbd = lad0 cos(θr − )
3
2π
lcd = lad0 cos(θr + )
3
• In the quadrature axis, we have:
π
laq = laq0 cos(θr + ) = −laq0 sin(θr )
2
2π
lbq = −laq0 sin(θr − )
3
2π
lcq = −laq0 sin(θr + )
3

Rotor Self and Mutual Inductances
• For both the round rotor and the salient pole case, rotor self-inductances are all
constant:
lf f = lf f 0 = constant
ldd = ldd0 = constant
lqq = lqq0 = constant
• For both the round and the salient pole rotor mutual inductances are:
lf q = ldq = 0
i.e., there is no mutual coupling between d- and q -axis circuits
• Moreover, we have:
lf d = lf d0 = constant

Inductance Matrices (I)
• Round Rotor:  
laao −labo −labo
 
Ls =
−labo laao −labo 

−labo −labo laao
• Salient pole rotor:
 
laao + laa2 cos 2(θr ) −labo − lab2 cos 2(θr + π6 ) −labo − lab2 cos 2(θr + 5π
6 
)

Ls = 
 −labo − lab2 cos 2(θr + 6 )
π
laao + laa2 cos 2(θr − 2π
3
) −labo − lab2 cos 2(θr − π2 ) 
−labo − lab2 cos 2(θr + 5π
6
) −labo − lab2 cos 2(θr − π2 ) laao + laa2 cos 2(θr + 2π
3
)

Inductance Matrices (II)
• Rotor-rotor inductances are all constant:

 
 lf f 0 lf d0 0

LR =  lf d0 ldd0 0 

0 0 lqq0
• Stator and rotor inductances are the same in the round rotor and salient pole cases.
 
 laf 0 cos(θr ) lad0 cos(θr ) −laq0 sin(θr )

Lsr = laf 0 cos(θr − 3 ) lad0 cos(θr − 3 ) −laq0 sin(θr − 3 )
 2π 2π 2π

laf 0 cos(θr + 2π
3 ) l ad0 cos(θ r + 2π
3 ) −l aq0 sin(θ r + 2π
3 )
• Moreover, due to symmetry: [Lsr ] = [Lrs ]T

Variable Transformation (I)
• Looking at the flux linkage equations, we see a possible transformation:

   T  
ψf laf 0 cos(θr ) lad0 cos(θr ) −laq0 sin(θr ) ia
     
ψd1  = laf 0 cos(θr − 2π ) lad0 cos(θr − 2π ) −laq0 sin(θr − 2π )  ib 
   3 3 3   
ψq1 laf 0 cos(θr + 2π 2π
3 ) lad0 cos(θr + 3 ) −laq0 sin(θr + 3 )
2π
ic
  
lf f 0 lf d0 0 if
  

+ lf d0 ldd0 0  id1 
 
0 0 lqq0 iq1

Variable Transformation (II)
• The rotor flux linkages are then:

2π 2π
ψf = − laf 0 [ia cos(θr ) + ib cos(θr − ) + ic cos(θr + )] + lf f 0 if + lf d0 id1
3 3
2π 2π
ψd1 = − lad0 [ia cos(θr ) + ib cos(θr − ) + ic cos(θr + )] + lf d0 if + ldd0 id1
3 3
2π 2π
ψq1 = − laq0 [ia sin(θr ) + ib sin(θr − ) + ic sin(θr + )] + lqq0 iq1
3 3

Variable Transformation (III)
• If we define a new variable proportional to:

2π 2π
ia cos(θr ) + ib cos(θr − ) + ic cos(θr + )
3 3
• then the dependence on θr of the flux linkage could be eliminated from the direct-axis
flux linkage equations.
• Let:
2π 2π
id = K(ia cos(θr ) + ib cos(θr − ) + ic cos(θr + ))
3 3
• id is the direct axis quantity.

Variable Transformation (IV)
• Similarly, if we define a new current proportional to:

2π 2π
−(ia sin(θr ) + ib sin(θr − ) + ic sin(θr + ))
3 3
the dependence on θr is eliminated.
2π 2π
• Let iq = −K(ia sin(θr ) + ib sin(θr − 3 ) + ic sin(θr + 3 ))
• iq is the quadrature axis quantity.

Zero Sequence Variables
• We have introduced id and iq in place of ia , ib and ic .

• To retain the complete information of a, b, c quantities, we introduce a third variable.
• A possible choice is as follows:
1
io = (ia + ib + ic )
3
• io is called the zero-sequence current and has no mutual coupling to any circuit on the
d and q axes.
• The zero sequence is null for balanced conditions.

Variable Transformation (V)
• For balanced 3-phase steady-state operation:
ia =IM cos(ωt)
2π
ib =IM cos(ωt − )
3
2π
ic =IM cos(ωt + )
3
• Substituting into the expression of id :
3
id = K IM cos(θr − ωt)
2
• Hence the maximum value for id is: id = K 32 IM
so we select: K = 23
• The constant K is arbitrary, but we choose it to make id and ia numerically equivalent.

Physical Interpretation
• id is a fictitious current that can be interpreted as the instantaneous current in a

winding that is rotating with the rotor and is symmetrical to the direct axis.
• id produces the same MMF on the direct axis as does the 3-phase currents in the real
stator windings.
• iq has the same interpretation but in the quadrature axis.

• io is the homopolar current.

Steady State
• For balanced operation:
id =IM cos(θr − ωt)

iq = −IM sin(θr − ωt)
where ω is the frequency of the current and θr is the angle of the rotor:
θr = ωr t + θr0
• For steady state synchronous speed operation ⇒ ω = ωr , hence:
id = IM cos θr0
iq = − IM sin θr0

Park’s Transformation
• The transformation we have described is known as

• For example:
3
ψf = − Laf id + Lf f if + Lf d id1
2
3
ψd1 = − Lad id + Lf d if + Ldd id1
2
3
ψq1 = − Laq iq + Lqq iq1
2

• Projecting the phase quantities (abc) onto the (dq0) axis, we obtain:
2
fd = (fa cos θr + fb cos(θr − 120◦ ) + fc cos(θr + 120◦ ))
3
2
fq = − (fa sin θr + fb sin(θr − 120◦ ) + fc sin(θr + 120◦ ))
3
1
fo = (fa + fb + fc )
3

Inverse Park’s Transformation
• The inverse Park’s Transformation (dq0) to (abc) is:
fa = fd cos θr − fq sin θr + fo
fb = fd cos(θr − 120◦ ) − fq sin(θr − 120◦ ) + fo
fc = fd cos(θr + 120◦ ) − fq sin(θr − 120◦ ) + fo

Park’s Transformation Matrix
• In shorthand notation:
   
f d   fa 
fdq =  
 fq  ; fs =  
 fb  ;
fo fc
• hence:
fdq = P fs
• where:
 
2 cos θr cos(θr − 120◦ ) cos(θr + 120◦ )

P =  − sin θr − sin(θr − 120 ) ◦
− sin(θr + 120  ◦
3
1 1 1
2 2 2

Inverse Park’s Transformation Matrix
• In shorthand notation:
−1
fs = P fdq
• where:  
−1  cos θr − sin θr 1

P = ◦
cos(θr − 120 )
◦
− sin(θr − 120 ) 1
cos(θr + 120◦ ) − sin(θr + 120◦ ) 1

Alternative Park’s Transformation Matrices
• Sometimes it is required that:

T
P̂ = [P̂ ]−1
• To this aim we can define:

 
◦ ◦
cos(θr − 120 )
2 
cos θr cos(θr + 120 )

P̂ = − sin θr − sin(θr − 120 ) ◦
− sin(θr + 120  ◦
3
√1 √1 √1
2 2 2
• Using this formulation, the formal expression of instantaneous power is conserved:
P (t) =[Vs ]T [Is ] = [[P̂ ]−1 [Vs ]]T [[P̂ ]−1 [Is ]]
=[Vs ]T {[P̂ ]−1 }T [P̂ ]−1 [Is ] = [Vpq ][Ipq ] #

Derivatives of the Transformed Variables
• We define the time derivative of the transformed variables:

d
[P ][fs (t)]
dt
d
= [P ] {[P ]−1 [fdq (t)]}
dt
d d
= {[P ] [P ]−1 }[fdq (t)] + [P ][P ]−1 [fdq (t)]
dt dt
• where [P ][P ]−1 = [I3 ]

• and where: [P ] dt
d
[P ]−1 =
   
cos θr cos(θr − 120◦ ) cos(θr + 120◦ ) − sin θr − cos θr 0

2   
− sin θr − sin(θr − 120◦ ) − sin(θr + 120◦  
 ωr − sin(θr − 120 )
◦ − cos(θr − 120◦ ) 0
3 
1 1 1 ◦)
2 2 2
− sin(θ r + 120 − cos(θr + 120◦ ) 0
   
0 − 32 0 0 −1 0
2    
= ωr 

3
2 0 0 = ωr 
1 0 0 = ωr Pω
3
0 0 0 0 0 0
where
dθr
= ωr
dt

• Therefore:
d d
[P ] [fs (t)] = [fdq (t)] + ωr [Pω ][fdq (t)]
dt dt
• In scalar form:
d
f˙d (t) = fd + ωr fq
dt
d
f˙q (t) = fq − ωr fd
dt
d
f˙o (t) = fo
dt

Rotor Equations
 
id
    
ψf − 32 Laf 0 Laf Lf d 0   iq 

    
ψd1  = − 3 Lad 0 Lf d Ldd 0   
   2   if 
 
ψq1 0 − 32 Laq 0 0 Lqq  i
 d1

iq1
      
ef ψf Rf 0 0 if
      
ed1  = d ψd1  +  0 Rd 0  
  dt     id1 
eq1 ψq1 0 0 Rq iq1

Stator Equations
• We now transform the stator flux linkages and currents to the (dqo) frame.
 
i
 a
  i 
 b
ψa  
   i 
 ψb  = −[LS ][LSR ]   
c
   if 
 
ψc  
id1 
 
iq1

Expanding the Flux Linkage Equations
ψa = −[Laao + Laa2 cos 2θr]ia

π
+[Labo + Laa2 cos 2(θr + )]ib
6
5π
+[Labo + Laa2 cos 2(θr + )]ic
6
+Laf cos θr if
+Lad cos θr id1
+Laq sin θr iq1

Applying the Inverse Transformation
ψd cos θr − ψq sin θr + ψo =
−[Labo + Laa2 cos 2θr ](id cos θr − iq sin θr + io )
π 2π 2π
+[Labo + Laa2 cos 2(θr + )](id cos(θr − ) − iq sin(θr − ) + io )
6 3 3
5π 2π 2π
+[Labo + Laa2 cos 2(θr + )](id cos(θr + ) − iq sin(θr + ) + io )
6 3 3
+Laf cos θr if + Lad cos θr id1 − Laq sin θr iq1

Some Identities
• We now use the identities:

2π 2π
cos(θr − ) − cos(θr + ) = − cos θr
3 3
2π 2π
sin(θr − ) − sin(θr + ) = − sin θr
3 3
2π 2π √
cos(θr − ) − cos(θr + ) = 3 sin θr
3 3
2π 2π √
sin(θr − ) − sin(θr + ) = − 3 cos θr
3 3

Stator Equations (contd.)
−Laao id cos θr + Laao iq sin θr − Labo id cos θr + Labo iq sin θr
π 2π 5π 2π
−Laa2 id [cos 2θr cos θr − cos 2(θr + ) cos(θr − ) − cos 2(θr + ) cos(θr + )]
6 3 6 3
π 2π 5π 2π
−Laa2 iq [cos 2θr sin θr − cos 2(θr + ) sin(θr − ) − cos 2(θr + ) sin(θr + )]
6 3 6 3
+(−Laao + 2Labo )io
+Laf cos θr if + Lad cos θr id1 + Laq sin θr iq1

• The first term in square brackets can be simplified as:
π 2π 5π 2π
cos 2θr cos θr − cos 2(θr + ) cos(θr − ) − cos 2(θr + ) cos(θr + )
6 3 6 3
3 3
= cos 2θr cos θr + sin 2θr sin θr
2 2
3
= cos θr
2
• The second term in square brackets can be simplified as:
π 2π 5π 2π
cos 2θr sin θr − cos 2(θr + ) sin(θr − ) − cos 2(θr + ) sin(θr + )
6 3 6 3
3 3
= cos 2θr sin θr + sin 2θr cos θr
2 2
3
= − sin θr
2

• Substituting, we find:
3
[Laf if + Lad id1 − (Laao + Labo + Laa2 )id ] cos θr
2
3
+[−Laq iq1 + (Laao + Labo − Laa2 )iq ] sin θr
2
−(Laao − 2Labo )io
• Equating similar terms in each side, we obtain:

3
ψd = −(Laao + Labo + Laa2 )id + Laf if + Lad id1
2
3
ψq = −(Laao + Labo − Laa2 )iq + Laq iq1
2
ψo = −(Laao − 2Labo )io

Definition of Inductances
• We now define the inductances:

3
Ld =Laao + Labo + Laa2
2
3
Lq =Laao + Labo − Laa2
2
Lo =Laao − 2Labo
• The stator flux linkage equations can be rewritten as:
ψd = −Ld id + Laf if + Lad id1

ψq = −Lq iq + Laq iq1
ψo = −Lo io

Round Rotor Machine
• For round rotor machines:
Laa2 = 0
• Hence, the inductances become:
Ld = Lq = Laao + Labo
and
Lo = Laa2 − 2Labo
• Note that: L d > Lq > Lo

Stator Voltage Equations
• The transformation is done as follows.

• We begin with the voltage equations:
      
ea ψa Ra 0 0 ia
      
 e b  = d  ψb  −  0 Rb 0  ib 
  dt     
ec ψc 0 0 Rc ic
• We now expand the equation ea = d

dt ψa − Ra i a
and use the inverse transformation of variables.

Stator Voltage Equations (contd.)
• This gives:
ed cos θr − eq sin θr + eo
d
= (ψd cos θr − ψq sin θr + ψo ) − Ra (id cos θr − iq sin θr + io )
dt
d d dψo
= − ωr ψd sin θr + ψd cos θr − ωr ψq cos θr − ψq sin θr +
dt dt dt
− Ra (id cos θr − iq sin θr + io )

Stator Voltage Equations (contd.)
• Equating similar terms on each side gives:

d
e d = ψd − ω r ψq − Ra i d
dt
d
e q = ψq + ω r ψd − Ra i q
dt
d
e o = ψo − Ra i o
dt

Summary of Transformed Equations - Rotor
 
id
 
    iq 

ψf − 32 Laf 0 0 Lf f Lf d 0  
   
  io 
ψd1  = − 3 Lad 0 
   2 0 0 Lf d Ldd 
  
 if 
ψq1 0 − 32 Laq 0 0 0 Lqq  
id1 
 
iq1
      
ef ψf Rf 0 0 if
      
ed1  = d ψd1  +  0 Rd 0  
  dt     id1 
eq1 ψq1 0 0 Rq iq1

Summary of Transformed Equations - Stator
 
id
 
    i q


ψd −Ld 0 0 3
2 Laf
3
2 Lad 0  
     io 


 ψq  =  0 −L 0 0 0 3
L   
   q 2 aq   
 if 
ψo 0 0 −Lo 0 0 0  
id1 
 
iq1
        
ed ψd −ψq Ra 0 0 id
  d        
 eq  =       
  dt ψq  + ωr  ψd  −  0 Ra 0  iq 
eo ψo 0 0 0 Ra io

Mechanical Equations
• Mechanical equations are:

d
θ r = ωr
dt
d
J ωr = Tm − Te
dt
• In the equation above, ωr is the mechanical rotor speed.

If the number of pairs of poles p = 1, mechanical and electrical rotor speeds are
equal.
Otherwise:
ωr,elec = p · ωr

Electrical Torque (I)
• In general, the electrical torque of a machine is given by:

1 T d
Te = −p [I] [L(θr )][I]
2 dθr
• Imposing the structure of the synchronous machine, we obtain:
  
1 T d

−[Ls ] [Lsr ]
 
[Is ]

Te = −p [Is ] [−Ir ] T
2 dθr −[Lsr ]T [Lr ] [Ir ]
• Observe that [Lr ] does not depend on θr . Hence:

p
Te = + {+[Is ]T [Ls,θr ][Is ] + [Is ]T [Lsr,θr ][Ir ] + [Ir ]T [Lsr,θr ]T [Is ]}
2

Electrical Torque (II)
• Observe that, since Te ∈ R:
[Ir ]T [Lsr,θr ]T [Is ] = ([Ir ]T [Lsr,θr ]T [Is ])T
• Moreover:
([Ir ]T [Lsr,θr ]T [Is ])T = [Is ]T [Lsr,θr ][Ir ]
• Finally, we obtain:
p
Te = + [Is ]T [Ls,θr ][Is ] + p[Is ]T [Lsr,θr ][Ir ]
2

Electrical Power and Torque (I)
• The instantaneous 3-phase power output of the stator is:
P (t) = ea ia + eb ib + ec ic
• Substituting in terms of dqo components we have:

3
P (t) = (ed id + eq iq + 2eo io )
2
• Under balanced conditions:
3
P (t) = (ed id + eq iq )
2

Electrical Power and Torque (II)
• The electromagnetic torque Te can be determined using:


 e = dψ −ψ ω −R i
d dt d q r a d
 e q = d ψ q + ψd ω r − R a i q
dt
• and substituting ed and eq in P (t):
3
P (t) = 2 [(i d
d
dt ψd
d
+ iq dt ψq ) ← Rate of change of armature magnetic energy
+(ψd iq − ψq id )ωr ← Power transferred across the air gap
−(i2d + i2q )Ra ] ← Armature losses

Electrical Power and Torque (III)
• The air-gap torque Te is obtained by dividing the power transferred across the air-gap
by the rotor speed:
3 ωr
Te = (ψd iq − ψq id )
2 ωr,mec
3
= (ψd iq − ψq id )p
2
• where p is the number of pairs of field poles.

Reducing Rotor Quantities to the Stator
• Let’s define

3 Ns
vjs =vj ( )
2 Nj
Nj 1
s
ij =ij ( )
Ns 3
2

3 Ns
ψjs =ψj ( )
2 Nj
• where:
◦ j is the index of the j -th rotor winding;
◦ Ns is the number of turns of stator windings; and
◦ Nj is the number of turns of the j -th rotor winding.

Summary of Reduced Equations - Rotor
 
id
 
   
 iq 

ψfs − 32 L̂af 0 0 3
L̂ 3
L̂ 0  
   2 ff 2 fd

 io 
ψ s  = − 3 L̂ad 3 3
0 
 d1   2 0 0 L̂
2 fd
L̂
2 dd

 s  
 i f 
s
ψq1 0 − 32 L̂aq 0 0 0 3
L̂ qq  
2 isd1 
 
isq1
      
3
esf ψfs R̂
2 f
0 0 isf
      
e s  = d  ψ s  +  0 3
R̂ 0  i s 
 d1  dt  d1   2 d   d1 
3
esq1 s
ψq1 0 0 2
R̂ q i s
q1
Ns2 Ns2
• where L̂f f = L , L̂dd
Nf2 f f
= 2 Ldd
Nd1
etc.

Summary of Reduced Equations - Stator
 
id
 
    i q


ψd −Ld 0 0 3
2 L̂af
3
2 L̂ad 0  
     io 


 ψq  =  0 −L 0 0 0 3
L̂   
   q 2 aq   s 
 if 
ψo 0 0 −Lo 0 0 0 s 
id1 
 
isq1
        
ed ψd −ψq Ra 0 0 id
  d        
 eq  =       
  dt ψq  + ωr  ψd  −  0 Ra 0  iq 
eo ψo 0 0 0 Ra io

Per Unit System for the Stator Quantities
• Es,base = peak value of rated line-to-neutral voltage [V]

• Is,base = peak value of rated line current [A]
• fbase = fn = rated frequency [Hz]
⇒ Derived quantities:
ωn = ωbase = 2πfbase ωm,base = ωmn = p1 ωbase
Es,base Zn
Zs,base = Zn = Is,base [ω] Ls,base = Ln = ωn [H]

Other Derived Per Unit Quantities
Es,base
• Flux base: Ψs,base = Ψn = Ls,base Is,base = [Wb·t]
ωbase
Es,base Is,base 3
• 3-phase power base: Sbase = Sn = 3 √ √ = Es,base Is,base [VA]
2 2 2
Sn 3
• Torque base: Tbase = Tn = = pΨs,base Is,base [Nm]
ωmn 2

Summary of Per Unit Equations - Rotor
 
id
 
   iq 

ψfs −xaf 0 0 xsf f xsf d 0  
   
  io  
ψ s  = −xad 0 
 d1   0 0 xsf d xsdd 
 s  
 i f 
s
ψq1 0 −xaq 0 0 0 xsqq  s 
id1 
 
isq1
      
esf ψfs rfs 0 0 isf
      
es  = 1 d ψ s  +  0 s
rd1 0  i s 
 d1  ωn dt  d1     d1 
s
eq1 s
ψq1 0 0 s
rq1 isq1
3 R̂f
• where xsaf = 32 L̂saf /Ln , etc. rfs = 2 Zn
, etc.

Summary of Per Unit Equations - Stator
 
id
 
    iq 

ψd −xd 0 0 xsaf xsad 0  
    i 

 ψq  =  0 −xq 0 0 0 3 s 
x 
o

   2 aq   s 
 if 
ψo 0 0 −xo 0 0 0 s 
id1 
 
isq1
        
ed ψd −ψq ra 0 0 id
        
 e q  = 1 d  ψq  + ω  ψd  −  0 ra 0   
  ωn dt        iq 
eo ψo 0 0 0 ro io
ωr
where ω = ωn

Mechanical Equations in Per Unit (I)
• Torque equation in per unit:

τ e = ψd i q − ψq i d
• Mechanical equation:
d
Tm = Te + J ωr,mec
dt
Tm Te ωmn d
⇒ = +J ω
Tn Tn Tn dt
2
ωmn d
⇒ τm = τe + J ω
Tn ωmn dt

Mechanical Equations in Per Unit (II)
2
ωmn
• The quantity J M = start − up time
Sn is called
(observe that Tn · ωmn = Sn )
• It is often defined H = inertia constant as:
2H = M
• hence:
d
τm = τe + 2H ω
dt
• If considering damping:
d
τm = τe + D(ω − ωs ) + 2H ω
dt

Leakage Reactance
• Let’s define:
xd = x + xmd
xq = x + xmq
where x is the leakage reactance.
• hence
ψd = −x id + ψmd
ψq = −x iq + ψmq
where:
ψmd = −xmd id + xaf if + xad id1
ψmq = −xmq iq + xaq iq1
• hence: τ = ψd iq − ψq id = ψmd iq − ψmq id
Note that flux leakage does not contribute to the air-gap torque!

Steady-State Conditions
• In steady-state, we put all d
dt ψj terms to zero
• Therefore all amortisseur currents are zero: id1 = iq1 = 0

• Then:
ed = −ωr ψq − ra id
eq = ω r ψd − ra i q
esf d = rfs d isf
ψd = −xd id + xsad isf
ψq = −xq iq
ψfs = xsf f isf − xsad id
ψd1 = xsf d isf − xsad id
ψq1 = −xsaq iq

Steady-state Field Current
• According to the previous equations, the steady-state field current is:

ψd + x d i d
isf =
xsad
• Then, substituting ψd in terms of ed and iq in terms of ψd and eq :

eq + ra iq + ωxd id
isf =
ωxsad
• Finally, observing that in steady state ω = ωs = 1 pu, one has:

e q + ra i q + x d i d
isf =
xsad

Phasor Representation (Steady-State)
• Given:
ea =eT cos(ωs t + α)
2π
eb =eT cos(ωs t − + α)
3
2π
ec =eT cos(ωs t + + α)
3
• Applying the d-q axis transformation, we obtain:
ed =eT cos(ωs t + α − θr )
eq =eT sin(ωs t + α − θr )
where θr = ωr t + θo , where θr is the angle by which the d axis leads the a phase.

Phasor Representation (II)
• We can define the terminal bus voltage phasor as:

q -axis
ēT = ed + jeq eq ēT
where:
ed = eT sin δ
eq = eT cos δ δ
α−θ
ed d-axis
where δ is the angle by which the q axis leads the phasor ēT

Phasor Representation (III)
• The terminal current īT is defined as:
īT = id + j iq
where: 
 i = i sin(δ + φ)
d T
 iq = iT cos(δ + φ)
q -axis
ēT
iq īT
φ
id d-axis

Example - Park’s Vectors (I)
• Let consider a 3-phase symmetrical, time-invariant linear load:
a b c

Example - Park’s Vectors (II)
• Let assume to apply three-phase voltages at the terminals a, b, c.

• The circuit equations, in time domain, are:
dIa (t)
Va (t) = L + RIa (t)
dt
dIb (t)
Vb (t) = L + RIb (t)
dt
dIc (t)
Vc (t) = L + RIc (t)
dt
In (t) = Ia (t) + Ib (t) + Ic (t)
• The equations above are always valid.

Example - Park’s Vectors (III)
• We can rewrite circuit equations using Park’s vectors.

• Let define:
V̄p (t) = Vd (t) + jVq (t)

I¯p (t) = Id (t) + jIq (t)
• Then:
d
V̄p (t) = ( + jω(t))LI¯p + RI¯p
dt
• Where ω(t) is the speed of the Park’s transformation.
• Note that ω(t) can be any function of time (i.e., it is not necessarily constant).

Example - Park’s Vectors (IV)
• The vector representation can be rewritten as:

dId (t)
Vd (t) = L − Lω(t)Iq (t) + RId (t)
dt
dIq (t)
Vq (t) = L + Lω(t)Id (t) + RIq (t)
dt
• The equations above are always valid, but incomplete.

Example - Park’s Vectors (V)
• To complete the set of equations, we write the zero component equation:

dIo (t)
Vo (t) = L + RIo (t)
dt
• and the current balance:
In (t) = 3Io (t) if we use [P ]
• and
√
In (t) = 3Io (t) if we use [P̂ ]

Example - Park’s Vectors (VI)
• Hence, in Park’s coordinates we have:

dId (t)
Vd (t) = L − Lω(t)Iq (t) + RId (t)
dt
dIq (t)
Vq (t) = L + Lω(t)Id (t) + RIq (t)
dt
dIo (t)
Vo (t) = L + RIo (t)
dt
In (t) = 3Io (t)
• The equations above are always valid.

Example - Park’s Vectors (VII)
• If we assume balanced and symmetrical conditions (In = Io = 0), then the Park’s
vector equation fully describes the three-phase system for any transient condition.
• If we assume also steady-state conditions and that Va , Vb and Vc are symmetric and
√
sinusoidal, then, the Park’s vector coincides, except possibly for a factor 2, with the
well-known phasor representation if the reference speed ω is constant and equal to the
pulsation of the voltages Va , Vb and Vc .
• Hence, in steady-state, absolute values and for ω constant:
V̄p = jωLI¯p + RI¯p

Example - Park’s Vectors (VIII)
• Let rewrite the Park’s vector equations in per unit.

• We use the bases Vn , In and ωn , then:
Vn Zn
Zn = and Ln =
In ωn
• If ω = ωn , we have:
1 dīp
v̄p (t) = + (r + jx)īp
ωn dt
• Using d- and q -axis quantities:
1 did (t)
vd (t) = x − xiq (t) + rid (t)
ωn dt
1 diq (t)
vq (t) = x + xid (t) + riq (t)
ωn dt

No-load or open circuit conditions
• Let’s go back to the synchronous machine model.

• In open circuit conditions id = iq = 0
• Substituting in steady-state equations:
ψd = xsad isf
ψq = 0
ed = 0
eq = xsad isf
• Therefore the terminal voltage is:
ēT = ed + jeq = jxsad isf

Steady-State Equivalent Circuit
• If saliency is neglected: xd = xq = xs
where xs is defined as synchronous reactance.
• We have:
ēq = ēT + (ra + j xs )īT
where eq = xsad isα

rα xs
ēT ∠0
eq ∠δ

Operational Impedances
• Most rotor circuits are short-circuited

• So, voltages are zero (eq1 = ed1 = 0) and currents of short circuited circuits can be
eliminated from the system
• This leads to a formulation of stator equations in an operational form, i.e., transfer

functions
• Hence:
ψd (s) = −xd (s)id (s) + Gf (s)vfs (s)

ψq (s) = −xq (s)iq (s)

Operational Impedances (II)
• Hence:
(1 + sTd )(1 + sTd )
xd (s) = xd )(1 + sT )
(1 + sTdo do
(1 + sTq )(1 + sTq )
xq (s) = xq )(1 + sT )
(1 + sTqo qo
(1 + sTf )
Gf (s) = Gs )(1 + pT )
(1 + pTdo do

Operational Impedances (III)
• The order of the transfer functions depends on the number of circuits in the rotor
• Definition of time constants:

Tdo , Tdo , Tqo , Tqo Open circuit time constants
Td , Td , Tq , Tq Shortcircuit time constants

Tdo , Tqo , Td , Tq Transient time constants

Tdo , Tqo , Td , Tq Sub-transient time constants

Definition of Time Constants
• For example:
1 s
Tqo = s (x aq + xmq )
ωn rq1
1 s
Tdo = s (x af + xmd )
ω n rf
s
1 s
x md x af
Tdo = s (x ad + s )
ωn rd1 xmd + xaf
etc.

Definition of Machine Parameters
• In steady-state:
xd (0) = xd
xd is the d-axis synchronous reactance
• During rapid transients, s → ∞, hence:

T d Td
xd = xd (∞) = xd
Tdo Tdo
xd is the sub-transient d-axis reactance

Definition of Machine Parameters (II)
• If we neglect the damper winding:

∼ T
xd = xd (s) ∼
= xd d
Tdo
• From the definitions of the machine time constants:

xmd xsaf
xd = x +
xmd + xsaf
xd is the d-axis transient reactance

• Finally:
xmd xsaf xsad1
xd = x +
xmd xsaf + xmd xsad1 + xsaf xsad1

Definition of Machine Parameters (III)
• Similarly we define xq , xq (and xq if we have a second q -axis amortisseur)

◦ Synchronous q -axis reactance xq = xq (0)
Tq
◦ Transient q -axis reactance xq = xq T
qo
Tq Tq
◦ Sub-transient q -axis reactance x
q = xq T T
qo qo
xmq xsaq1
• Then: xq = x + xmq +xsaq1 , etc.
• The following inequalities hold:

xd xq > xq xd > xq xd

Tdo > Td > Tdo

> Td > Tf

Tqo > Tq > Tqo

> Tq

Typical Values of Standard Parameters
Parameter Hydro Thermal
xd 0.6-1.5 1.0-2.3
xq 0.4-1.0 1.0-2.3
xd 0.2-0.5 0.15-0.4
xq - 0.3-1.0
x
d 0.15-0.35 0.12-0.25
x
q 0.2-0.45 0.12-0.25

Tdo 1.5-9.0 s 3.0-10.0 s

Tqo - 0.5-2.0 s

Tdo 0.01-0.05 s 0.02-0.05 s

Tqo 0.01-0.09 s 0.02-0.05 s
x 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.2
ra 0.002-0.02 0.0015-0.005

dq -axis models of Synchronous Machines
• We assume the machine is connected to bus h with voltage v̄h = vh ∠θh
• Common equations:
◦ Power injections:
ph = v d id + v q iq
qh = v q id − v d iq
◦ AC-grid interface:
vd = vh sin(δ − θh )
vq = vh cos(δ − θh )
◦ Electromagnetic Torque:
τ e = ψd i q − ψq i d

dq -axis models of Synchronous Machines
• Mechanical Equations:
δ̇ = ωn (ω − ωs )
1
ω̇ = (τm − τe − D(ω − ωs ))
2H
where:
◦ D is a damping coefficient.
◦ ωn is the base synchronous frequency in rad/s, e.g. 314.16 rad/s at 50 Hz.
◦ τm is the mechanical torque provided by the turbine.

Stator Electrical Equations
• Full dynamic equations:
ψ˙d = ωn (ra id + ωψq + vd )

ψ˙q = ωn (ra iq − ωψd + vq ) (∗)
• If we consider flux dynamics “fast”: ψ˙d = 0 and ψ˙q = 0, hence:
0 = ra id + ωψq + vd
0 = ra iq − ωψd + vq (∗∗)
• If we assume that speed deviations are small then ω ≈ 1 pu:
0 = r a i d + ψq + v d
0 = r a i q − ψd + v q (∗ ∗ ∗)

Sauer-Pai’s Model (I)
• Common model typically used for simulating US grids:
ėq = (−eq − (xd − xd )(id + γd2 ψ̇d ) + vf )/Tdo

ėd = (−ed + (xq − xq )(iq + γq2 ψ̇q ))/Tqo

ψ̇d = (−ψd + eq − (xd − x )id )/Tdo

ψ̇q = (−ψq − ed − (xq − x )iq )/Tqo

• Substituting the expressions of ψ̇d and ψ̇q :
ėq = (−eq − (xd − xd )(id − γd2 ψd − (1 − γd1 )id + γd2 eq ) + vf )/Tdo

ėd = (−ed + (xq − xq )(iq − γq2 ψq − (1 − γq1 )iq − γd2 ed ))/Tqo


ψ̇q = (−ψq − ed − (xq − x )iq )/Tqo


Sauer-Pai’s Model (II)
where:
xd − x
γd1 =
xd − x
xq − x
γq1 =
xq − x
xd − xd 1 − γd1
γd2 = =
(xd − x )2 xd − x
xq − xq 1 − γq1
γq2 = =
(xq − x )2 xq − x
and with the algebraic constraints:
0 = ψd + xd id − γd1 eq − (1 − γd1 )ψd

0 = ψq + xq iq − γq1 ed − (1 − γq1 )ψq

Marconato’s Model(I)
• An alternative model is the following (used by ENEL, Italian ISO):

(−eq − (xd − xd − γd )id + (1 − TAA
)vf )
Tdo
ėq =
Tdo
(−ed + (xq − xq − γq )iq )
ėd =
Tqo
(−eq + eq − (xd − xd + γd )id + TAA
vf )
Tdo
ėq =
Tdo
(−ed + ed + (xq − xq + γq )iq )
ėd =
Tqo

Marconato’s Model(II)
where:

Tdo xd
γd = (x d − x d)
Tdo xd

Tqo xq
γq = x
(x q − x q)
Tqo q
• and the additional algebraic constraints:
0 = ψd + xd id − eq
0 = ψq + xq iq + ed

Marconato’s Model - d-axis equivalent circuit
id
(xd − xd ) − γd (xd − xd ) + γd xd
− eq − eq − ψd
+ 1 + 1

sTd0 + sTd0 +
+ − + −
d-axis
TAA TAA
1−
Td0 Td0
vf

Marconato’s Model - q -axis equivalent circuit
q -axis
iq
(xq − xq ) − γq (xq − xq ) + γq xq
+ ed + ed + −ψq

1 + 1

sTq0 + sTq0 +
− −

Anderson-Fouad’s Model
• Most common model that can be found in text books:
e˙q = (−eq − (xd − xd )id + vf )/Tdo

ėd = (−ed + (xq − xq )iq )/Tqo

ėq = (−eq + eq − (xd − xd )id )/Tdo

ėd = (−ed + ed + (xq − xq )iq )/Tqo

• This model can be considered a simplification of the Sauer Pai’s model with:
eq = ψd , ed = −ψd , γd1 ≈ γq1 ≈ 0, γd2 ψ̇d ≈ 0, γq2 ψ̇q ≈ 0,
• This model can also be viewed as a simplification of the Marconato’s model with:
γd = γq = TAA ≈ 0

Simplified Magnetic Equations (I)
• Two d- and one q -axis model

• One d- and two q -axis model
• One d- and one q -axis model
• One d-axis model
• Electromechanical model
• “Classical” model

Two d- and one q -axis model (I)

• Let’s assume Tqo ≈ 0 and xq ≈ xq →ed ≈ 0. Hence:
ėq = (−eq − (xd − xd )(id − γd2 ψd − (1 − γd1 )id + γd2 eq ) + vf )/Tdo


ψ̇q = (−ψq − (xq − x )iq )/Tqo

• Plus the algebraic equations:
0 = ψd + xd id − γd1 eq − (1 − γd1 )ψd

0 = ψq + xq iq − (1 − γq1 )ψq

Alternative Two d- and q -axis model

• Using Marconato’s model and imposing Tqo ≈ 0, we obtain:
TAA
ėq = (−eq − (xd − xd − γd )id + (1 − )v f )/T
do
Tdo
TAA
ėq =
(−eq + eq − (xd − xd + γd )id + vf )/Tdo
Tdo

0 = vq + ra iq − eq + xd id
0 = vd + ra id − ed − xq iq

One d- and Two q -axis model
• Let’s assume that: xd ≈ xd ≈ xq , hence we have:
ėq = (−eq − (xd − xd )id + vf )/Tdo

ėd = (−ed + (xq − xq − γq )iq )/Tqo

ėd = (−ed + ed + (xq − xd + γq )iq )/Tqo


One d- and one q -axis model

• If we assume that Tdo ≈ Tqo ≈ 0, then we obtain the so-called two axis model. This
is the model used in most stability studies. We have:



One d-axis model
• Further simplifying the machine magnetical equations, we can neglect the dynamic on

the q-axis (Tqo ≈ 0). We obtain:

0 = v d + ra i d − x q i q

Electromechanical model
• A pure electromechanical model neglects all dynamics of magnetical equations. As a

consequence, the field voltage is substituted by a constant eq . Another assumption is
that ω ≈ 1, hence pe ≈ ωTe ≈ Te . We have:
pe = (vq + ra iq )iq + (vd + ra id )id
• Moreover if ra ≈ 0, pe = ph (power injected into the grid at bus h).

• Finally let assume that xq = xd . These assumptions lead to: eq = constant emf
behind the transient reactance ed . We have:
0 = vd + ra id − xd iq

Electromechanical (classical) model
• In summary the most simplified dynamic model is the following:
δ̇ = Ωb (ω − 1)
ω̇ = (pm − pe − D(ω − 1))/2H
0 = (vq + ra iq )iq + (vd + ra id )id − pe
0 = vd + ra id − xd iq
0 = vh sin(δ − θh ) − vd
0 = vh cos(δ − θh ) − vq
ph = v d i d + v q i q
qh = v q id − v d iq

Sub-transient Electromechanical Model
• For very fast transients, it may be convenient to assume constant eq and ed .
• Hence:
vd = ed − ra id + xq iq
vq = eq − ra iq − xd id
• This is an alternative electromechanical model where we define a “constant emf”

behind the sub-transient reactance
• Observe that the so-called classical machine model also assumes that ra ≈ 0 and
D ≈ 0. ⇒ Lossless Model

Comparison of Machine Models of Different Orders
6.a ⇒ (∗ ∗ ∗)
6.d ⇒ (∗∗)
8.a ⇒ (∗)
All models are based on the Sauer-Pai’s model for magnetic equations.

Comparison of Models of Different Types
All simulations are solved using same integration step.

Dynamic Shaft Model (I)
δ̇HP = ωn (ωHP −ωs )

We model the shaft as a
ω̇HP = (Tm −DHP (ωHP −ωs )−D12 (ωHP −ωIP )
+KHP (δIP −δHP ))/2HHP mass-spring system
δ̇IP = ωn (ωIP −ωs )
ω̇IP = (−DIP (ωIP −ωs )−D12 (ωIP −ωHP )−D23 (ωIP −ωLP )
+KHP (δHP −δIP )+KIP (δLP −δIP ))/2HIP
δ̇LP = ωn (ωLP −ωs ) τm τe
ω̇LP = (−DLP (ωLP −ωs )−D23 (ωLP −ωIP )−D34 (ωLP −ω)
+KIP (δIP −δLP )+KLP (δ−δLP ))/2HLP
δ̇ = ωn (ω−1)
ω̇ = (−Te −D(ω−ωs )−D34 (ω−ωLP )−D45 (ω−ωEX ) HP IP LP rotor EX
KLP (δLP −δ)+KEX (δEX −δ))/2H
δ̇EX = ωn (ωEX −ωs )
ω̇EX = (−DEX (ωEX −ωs )−D45 (ωEX −ω)
+KEX (δ−δEX ))/2HEX

Time Domain Simulation using a Dynamic Shaft

Subsynchronous Resonance Model
τm τe
r xL xC vh ∠θh
+ − h
vd + jvq
iL,d + jiL,q vC,d + jvC,q
HP IP LP Rotor EX


 i̇L,d = ωn (iL,q + (vd − riL,d − vC,d − vh sin(δ − θh ))/xL )



 i̇
L,q = ωn (−iL,d + (vq − riL,q − vC,q − vh cos(δ − θh ))/xL )
Line Model →

 v̇C,d = ωn (xC iL,d + vC,q )



 v̇ = C,q ωn (xC iL,q − vC,d )


 ψ̇f = ωn (vf − xf if )



 ψ = x i − (x − x )i
f f f d L,d
Generator Model → and flux eqs. (*)

 ψd = (xd − x )if − xd iL,d



 ψ = −x i
q q L,q

Time domain simulation with subsynchronous resonance

The resonance model has a frequency ≈
xC
ωn (1 + xL )

Infinite Bus Model
• Let’s consider the simplified electromechanical equations of the synchronous machine:
δ̇ =ωn (ω − ωs )
1
ω̇ = (pm − pe (δ))
2H
• A common approximation of network equivalents with “high” energy/power is to
consider the network as a machine with H → ∞ and eq = constant.
• Observe that if H → ∞ then ω̇ → 0, then ω = constant (typically ω = ωs is

assumed).
• Then if ω = ωs ⇒ δ̇ = 0 ⇒ δ = constant ⇒ Phase Reference.

Electromechanical Oscillations
• Let’s consider the One-Machine Infinite-Bus (OMIB) system:
e∠δ v∠0
xd xL xTh Inﬁnite Bus
• From machine equations we obtain:

p
pe δ̇ = ωn (ω − ωs )
1
ω̇ = 2H (pm − pe (δ))
A B
pm with: pe = xev
eq
sin δ
xeq = xd + xL + xTh
π
2 π δ

Equilibrium Points of the OMIB
• The OMIB has two equilibrium points:

• Let x = [δ, ω]T , then:
• Assume:
e = v = pm = 1.0 pu
xeq = 0.5 pu
xA = [0.5236, 1]T
xB = [2.6180, 1]T

Stability of the equilibrium points of the OMIB
• Point xA :
Let’s assume a small perturbation ∂δ >0
Then pe (δA + ∂δ) > pm ⇒ ω̇ < 0 ⇒ ω decreases
⇒ ω < ωA = 1 ⇒ δ̇ < 0 ⇒ δ decreases
A similar conclusion can be drawn if ∂δ < 0
Point xA is a “sink” ⇒ Stable equilibrium point
• Point xB :
Let’s assume a small perturbation ∂δ >0
Then pe (δB + ∂δ) < pm ⇒ ω̇ > 0 ⇒ ω increases
⇒ ω > ωB = 1 ⇒ δ̇ > 0 ⇒ δ increases
A similar conclusion can be drawn if ∂δ < 0
Point xB is a “source” ⇒ unstable equilibrium point

General Approach to define the stability of E.P.s
• Let’s consider an ODE system:
ẋ = f (x), x ∈ Rn
• Be xo an E.P. of f such that 0 = f (xo )

• Then the solution λ of
det(F x|xo − λI n ) = 0
are the eigenvalues of the system (or characteristic roots)
• F x|xo ≡ As is the system STATE MATRIX.

• I n the identity matrix of order n.

First Lyapunov’s Stability Criteria
• If all {λj } < 0 for j = 1, . . . , n then the E.P. is stable.

• If exists at least one {λj } > 0 for j = 1, . . . , n then the E.P. is unstable.
• If exists at least one {λj } = 0 for j = 1, . . . , n then the stability of the E.P. cannot
be defined ⇒ the E.P. is a bifurcation point.

OMIB Example
• Let’s compute the eigenvalues of the OMIB system with e = v = pm = 1 pu and

xeq = 0.5 pu, H = 8 MWs/MVA and ωn = 314.16 rad/s
• We have:
det(As − λI 2 ) = 0
where  
0 ωn
As =  
1 ev
− 2H xeq cos δ 0

1 ev
• For xA ⇒ λ1,2 = ± −ωn 2H xeq cos δA = ±j5.8317 → stable?
• For xB ⇒ λ1,2 = ±5.8317 ⇒ U.E.P.

Effect of Damping
• Point xA leads to {λ1,2 }=0, hence we do not know if the point is stable or not.
• However, let consider the following modification:
1
ω̇ = (pm − pe (δ) − D(ω − ωs ))
2H
• Hence:  
0 ωn
As =  
1 ev
− 2H xeq cos δ − 2H
D
For D > 0 ⇒ λ1,2 = −α ± jβ with α > 0 ⇒ hence xA is a weakly stable

equilibrium point.

Synchronisation of Synchronous Machines
• Let’s assume the two-machine system:
A pA pB
B
• pmA − pA = MA dω
dt
A
pmB − pB = MB dω
dt
B
then
pA = A sin δAB + B cos δAB + C
pB = −A sin δAB + B cos δAB + D
where A, B , C and D depend on machine and system parameters:
eA , eB , xdA , xdB , xLine , etc.

• Finally: dδA
dt = ωn (ωA − ωs ), dδB
dt = ωn (ωB − ωs )

Synchronisation of Synchronous Machines (II)
• If the two machines are synchronous ⇒ ωA = ωB and δAB = δA − δB is constant
⇒ δAB = const
• Scheme of the whole system:
pmA
+ ωA
1
sMA
−
eA
pA
δAB +
ωn
Grid s
−
pB
eB
− 1
sMB
pmB + ωB
• In steady-state the input signals to the integrators must be 0.

Relative motion between machine rotors
• Let’s consider again the two machine system and define:
δAB = δA − δB
ωAB = ωA − ωB
• Then we can combine the differential equations of the two machines:

dωAB pmA − pA pmB − pB
= −
dt MA MB
dδAB
= ωn (ωA − ωB )
dt

Relative Motion between Machine Rotors (II)
⇒ Expanding the
dωAB
dt equation:
dωAB MB pmA − MB pA − MA pmB + MA pB

=
dt MA MB
MB pmA − MA pmB MB pA − MA pB
= −
MA MB MA M B
dωAB MB pmA − MA pmB + ((MA + MB )pmA − (MA + MB )pmA )
⇒ =
dt MA MB
−MB pA − MA pB + ((MA + MB )pA − (MA + MB )pB )
+
MA MB

Relative Motion between Machine Rotors (III)
• Let’s define:
MA MB
MAB =
MA + MB
pmA − MA (pmA + pmB )/(MA + MB )
pmAB =
MAB
pA − MA (pA + pB )/(MA + MB )
pAB =
MAB
• Hence we obtain:
dωAB pmAB − pAB
=
dt MAB
dδAB
= ωn ωAB
dt

Relative Motion between Machine Rotors (IV)
• The resulting scheme is as follows:
pmAB + ωAB
1
sMAB
−
pAB
δAB ωn
Grid s
pAB
• We have obtained a system similar to the OMIB

If pmAB = constant, eA and eB are constant,
pmAB
then the stability can be defined based on δAB .
(The OMIB can be obtained by imposing MB → ∞)
δ1 δ2 δAB

WSCC 9-bus 3-machine system
WSCC 3−machine, 9−bus system (Copyright 1977)
Example 2.6−2.7, pp. 41−46, Power System Control and Stability, P.M. Anderson and A.A. Fouad
Bus 7 Bus 9
Bus 8
Bus 2 Bus 3
Bus 5 Bus 6
Bus 4
Bus 1

Eigenvalues at the E.P. (no damping)
15
10
5
Imag
−5
−10
−15
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real

Eigenvalues at the E.P. (with damping)
15
10
5
Imag
−5
−10
−15
−0.025 −0.02 −0.015 −0.01 −0.005 0
Real

Transient following a fault
12
10
8
Rotor angles (rad)
δSyn 1
δSyn 2
2
δSyn 3
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time (s)
A fault occurs at bus 7 at t = 1 and is cleared at t = 1.083 s

Center of Inertia (COI)
• It is useful to refer machine angles and speeds to the center of inertia (COI), which is a
weighted sum of all machine angles and speeds:

j∈G Hj δ j
δCOI =
j∈G Hj

j∈G Hj ω j
ωCOI =
j∈G Hj
where G is the set of generators.
• Machine rotor angle equations are modified as follows:
δ̇ = ωn (ω − ωCOI )

Transient following a fault (with COI)
1.2
δSyn 1
1
δSyn 2
δ
Syn 3
0.8
Rotor angles (rad)
0.6
0.4
0.2
−0.2
−0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time (s)

Small Signal Stability of a General System
• In general we have several machines (with their controllers) connected to the grid
(power flow equations).
• The resulting model is:
ẋ = f (x, y)
0 = g(x, y)
where
◦ x ∈ Rn ,
◦ y ∈ Rm ,
◦ f : R(n+m) → Rn , and
◦ g : R(n+m) → Rm .
• The equilibrium point is (x0 , y 0 ) s.t. 0 = f (x0 , y 0 ), 0 = g(x0 , y 0 ).

State Matrix of a General System
• Let’s determine the state matrix As :
      
∆ẋ F Fy ∆x ∆x
 = x    = Ac  
0 Gx Gy ∆y ∆y
As = F x − F y G−1
y Gx , with Gy non-singular!
• Let
D = F y G−1
y Gx
which is often called degradation matrix
• D provides a “measure” of the effect of the grid on the stability of the dynamic system,
i.e., F x (which is generally stable!)
→ ONLY the eigenvalues of As provide information on the stability of the system.

02 Synchronous

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02 Synchronous

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Synchronous Machines

POWER SYSTEM MODELLING AND CONTROL (EEEN40550)

Prof. Federico Milano

Tel.: 01 716 1844

Room 157a – Engineering & Materials Science Centre

School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

University College Dublin

Dublin, 2021 Synchronous Machines - 1

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Firing Primary Excitation

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• Complete dynamic equations of 3-phase synchronous machines

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• Salient Pole Rotor

• Permanent Magnet/Brushless Rotor

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• a − a , b − b , c − c → stator windings (ac)

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• 3 stator coils (a, b, c)

• 1 rotor coil in quadrature (damper)

• Rotor-stator and stator-stator inductances are a function of θr

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ψa = + Laa ia − Lab ib − Lac ic

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ψf = − Laf ia − Lbf ib − Lcf ic

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• Flux Linkage:       

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• We make the following assumptions:

2. Stator surface is smooth →We ignore the tooth ripple

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laa =laao + laa2 cos(2θr )

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• Variation of laa (θr ) in arbitrary units:

laa (θr ) = laao + laa2 cos(2θr )

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• Observe that for symmetry:

lab = lba , lbc = lcb , lca = lac

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• Variation of lab (θr ):

lab (θr ) = labo + lab2 cos(2(θr + π6 ))

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• Stator to rotor mutuals vary with rotor position

laf = laf 0 cos(θr )

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• Variation of laf (θr ):

laf (θr ) = laf 0 cos θr

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• For the damper winding we have:

lad = lad0 cos(θr )

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i.e., there is no mutual coupling between d- and q -axis circuits

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• Flux Linkage: