Wear, 61(1980) 273 - 282 273

0 Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne - Printed in the Netherlands

FRICTION AND BEAR IN RUBBERS AND TYRES*

DESMOND F. MOORE
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College, Dublin (Eire)
(Received July 26,1979)

Summary

A unified approach to the entire subject of friction and wear in rubbers

and tyres is presented. Friction is regarded as a fundamental energy
dissipative mechanism as a result of which surface degradation and wear
occur. At the same time the rolling tyre is considered as a combination of
rubber elements undergoing prescribed motions in the contact patch, and
this elementary macroscopic modelling of tyre frictional behaviour provides
a basic understanding of rubber friction and tyre mechanics simultaneously.
An analogy between friction and wear mechanism is developed. Thus the
adhesion and hysteresis contributions to friction on rough surfaces produce
abrasive and fatigue wear respectively, whereas waves of detachment on
smooth surfaces appear to produce wear by rolled fragments. The paper
concludes with a description of an elaborate experimental rig designed to
test elementary friction blocks of rubber or a complete tyre in various brak-
ing modes.

1. Friction and wear mechanisms

This paper offers a unified approach to the entire subject of friction

and wear in rubbers and tyres, and presents a clear understanding of the
physical phenomena involved. Thus friction is regarded as a fundamental
energy dissipative mechanism as a result of which surface de~adation and
wear occur. At the same time the rolling tyre is considered as a combination
of rubber elements undergoing prescribed motions in the contact patch, and
such elementary macroscopic modelling of tyre frictional behaviour [l]
provides a fundamental understanding of rubber friction and tyre mechanics
simultaneously.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of friction and wear mechanisms in
rubber-like materials. There are two principal components of rubber friction,
i.e. adhesion and hysteresis as shown [ 1 - 31. The adhesion contribution is a

*Paper presented at the International Rubber Conference, Kiev, U.S.S.R.,

October 10 - 14,197s.
274

I Friction
M&&m8 I

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the friction and wear mechanisms in rubber-like materials.

surface effect having its origin as a molecular kinetic stick-slip action

between rubber and the underlying surface, whereas the hysteresis factor is a
bulk phenomenon within the body of the rubber slider. It is seen that,
depending on the surface conditions, adhesion and hysteresis give rise to
several distinct wear effects. Thus on a perfectly smooth texture adhesion
may give rise to wear by roll formation in cases where the tear strength of
the particular rubber is low. A more common experience occurs on harsh
textures where the adhesion mechanism gives rise to abrasive or cutting
wear. Should the nature of the surface texture of the substrate be such that
its asperities are smooth and rounded rather than harsh, the hysteresis mech-
anism of friction gives rise to fatigue wear.
It has been shown [l] that the fatigue mechanism is relatively mild in
intensity but continuous, whereas the abrasive wear phenomenon is severe
and usually of short duration. For example a rolling unbraked tyre exhibits
the fatigue mechanism because of the repeated and cyclic loading and un-
loading of discrete asperities in the road surface if the latter are smooth and
rounded. Under wet conditions and with severe braking the same tyre will
experience locked wheel sliding, and on this particular surface hysteresis
friction will then induce a more severe form of the fatigue wear mechanism.
In contrast, locked wheel sliding of a tyre on a dry harsh texture causes
severe and perhaps irreversible abrasive wear resulting in local overheating
and the production of rubber wear fragments. Fatigue wear is also present in
the latter case but it is of such minor proportions as to be negligible. We see
then that the various mechanisms of friction and wear occur in different
combinations when a tyre is subjected to braking, driving, free rolling and
cornering manoeuvres.
It is impo~~t to stress the fact that, irrespective of the various compo-
nents of each, friction and wear are broadly classified as cause and effect in
circumstances where an energy dissipative mechanism is seen to occur at a
surface or boundary. Furthermore, the division of rubber friction into
adhesion and hysteresis components is simply a convenient method of
identifying features and properties of the frictional mechanism as a whole,
whereas in reality no such distinction necessarily exists. As an example con-
sider a progressive reduction in scale of the macrotexture of a solid substrate
subjected to sliding contact by a rubber-like material Ultimately the scale is
sufficiently small to cause microhysteresis within a very thin layer of rubber
at the sliding interface and it becomes virtually impossible to distinguish this
mechanism from macroadhesion. In the normal case we use adhesion and
hysteresis merely as convenient physical mechanisms for visualizing a total
frictional effect.
Consider next the relation between friction and wear as depicted in
Fig. 2. Here the energy index of abrasion (defined as the ratio of worn
rubber layer thickness to the work of friction) for various tread rubbers is
plotted as a wear factor against the corresponding measured coefficient of
friction. It is seen that the fatigue mechanism for frictional coefficients of
less than unity produces comparatively little wear, whereas severe abrasive
wear (on harsh rough surfaces) or roll formation (on smooth substrates) cor-
respond to frictional coefficients greater than 1.25.

Ccsefficimt
of Friction, f

‘crit.

Fig. 2. Broad correlation of friction and wear.

2. Viscoelasticity

In contrast with metal friction both the adhesive and hysteretic mech-
anisms of friction for rubber-like materials are viscoelastic, This is
exemplified by characteristic friction uersus frequency (or sliding speed)
plots at a specified temperature as illustrated in Fig. 3. Each curve of the
total coefficient of friction exhibits two viscoelastic peaks. The first of these
is due to adhesion and occurs at a sliding speed of about 1 cm s-l which is a
typical value of slip speed in the contact patch of a rolling tyre. The second
or hysteresis peak occurs at about 150 - 200 km h- ’ at room temperature
and corresponds to sliding velocities in the contact patch for high speed
panic locked wheel braking. Each total curve with its twin peaks moves to
higher frequencies or sliding speeds as the temperature is raised. From a tyre
design viewpoint both peaks should be used at the extreme limits of driving
behaviour, i.e. slow speed rolling and high speed sliding, to maximize tyre/
road friction. By using the well-known Williams-Landel-Ferry transform it
is possible to convert the friction uersus frequency plots at a given temper-
ature as shown in Fig. 3 into equally useful friction uersus temperature plots
at a specified frequency. This technique has been used to extend the range of
validity of experimental data and in certain cases to obtain considerably
more data with given measuring equipment than would otherwise be
possible. It has also been shown that the characteristic peaks of rubber fric-
tion correspond to characteristic troughs of resultant wear or abrasion [l]
which is to be expected if both mechanisms, i.e. friction and wear, are visco-
elastic.

Fig. 3. Viscoelastic nature of rubber friction.

The adhesion peak of rubber friction has been predicted by a number

of theories based upon the fundamental molecular kinetic stick-slip action
which is believed to underlie viscoelastic properties [ 21. In contrast the
hysteresis peak can be simply shown with mechanical models using springs
and dashpots in various arrays of complexity [l] . What is not at all certain
as yet is whether it is valid to make any distinction at all between adhesion
and hysteresis as complementary mechanisms, and if so whether to ascribe
both to a common origin. The present state of the art appears to be that
viscoelastic behaviour for the adhesional mechanism can be traced back to
molecular kinetic and therefore microscopic origin, whereas viscoelastic
behaviour for hysteresis is usually ascribed to mechanical modelling of
rubber or macroscopic origin.
 277

3. Tyre tread motions

The path of a tyre tread element entering the contact patch of a rolling
tyre is complex [l] with a squirming motion of microscopic proportions
occurring in the forward part of the contact area and macroslip occupying
the rearmost part. Such a squirming motion produces microslip which gives
rise to adhesional friction, whereas the region of macroslip shows a progres-
sively increasing velocity of slip of rubber elements relative to the road sur-
face according as the rearmost point of contact is approached during rolling
action. Figure 4 shows the non-linear increase in slip velocity towards the
rear of the contact patch for braking, driving, left cornering and right comer-
ing conditions [l] . It should be noted that the direction of this increasing
slip velocity is forward, backward and lateral for these respective driving
modes.

-_- ---
cnm Lnm -I cmlm Fmch

Fig. 4. Increasing velocity of slip in the contact patch for a braking, driving or cornering
tyre.

Rather than being concerned with details of tyre and carcass construc-
tion which ultimately determine slip motion in the contact area, the
elementary macroscopic modelling technique assumes that individual tread
elements follow the motions shown in Fig. 4 which have been determined by
experiment. Vibrational effects are of course superimposed on this gross
macromotion but these are not considered to have a measurable influence on
tyre friction.
Figure 5 shows the traction ellipse corresponding to all modes of
driving behaviour and therefore complementary to Fig. 4. The boundary of
this ellipse defines the limits of traction in the broadest sense, and the
internal accident avoidance envelope is a statistical interpretation of actual
driving behaviour. It is interesting to note that with the exception of braking
all modes of driving fall well within the tractive capability of the vehicle.
278

S = Srakmg
L = Left
c = Cornering
R = Ri*t
D = Driving
‘RC

Driving

‘cl

Fig. 5. Traction ellipse and accident avoidance envelope.

4. Elastohydrodynamics

The slip velocity distribution shown in Fig. 4 in the case of wet surfaces
generates elastohydrodynamic pressures on the slopes of individual asperities
of the road texture, thereby attempting to separate tread and surface as
shown in Fig. 6. It has been shown [ 1, 21 that the positive pressure incre-
ments far exceed the negative contributions so that a net uplifting force
occurs. The severity of this force increases towards the rear of contact where
slip velocities are greatest. This theory of viscous hydroplaning was
developed by Moore in 1966, and it explains the important role of micro-
texture in combating a dangerously slippery condition. The iterative
sequence in calculating the extent of the elastohydrodynamic separating
effect is shown in Fig. 7. In simple terms the generation of hydrodynamic
pressures along the leading slopes of surface asperities due to the slipping

Profile of
Draped Tread

Fig. 6. Elastohydrodynamic pressure generation on the individual asperities of a wet road

surface.
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Inflation
Plsuure

hwiw
I Incremental Wsdg8
b
Loading LOad swpwt

4
W-W
Ratio
NR
Loading Hitial Film
b
Thickness

Aswiw
Radius

Fig. 7. Iterative sequence in the elastohydrodynamic separation mechanism.

action of lubricated tread elements opposes the elastic pressures created by

initial contact, and under certain conditions the former exceed the latter and
produce a continuously slippery film at asperity peaks where dry contact
formerly prevailed. The condition of viscous entrainment can be effectively
counteracted by introducing a microroughness at road asperity tips (usually
by adding silica sand during road construction) such that the amplitude of
this roughness exceeds the film thickness which would otherwise have
existed as a consequence of elastohydrodynamic fluid entrainment. The
mathematical details of the entire mechanism can be found elsewhere [l]
and the consensus of informed opinion today is that the range of amplitude
for such microroughness is 10 - 70 pm. This is shown in Fig. 8 which also
illustrates the compromise which must be reached between wet friction and
tyre abrasion. The design texture band from 10 to 70 pm appears to offer

Fig. 8. Design texture band for microroughness.

280

reasonably high coefficients of wet friction with a tolerable level of abrasion

as shown.
The role of road surface texture is of course fundamental in determin-
ing the nature and extent of tyre friction. Thus a surface with distinct asper-
ities or macrotexture gives both adhesion and hysteresis in high speed sliding
under dry conditions but only hysteresis under wet conditions. This is
because of viscous or dynamic hydroplaning or both which have the effect of
producing a film of water at asperity peaks. The use of microtexture at the
peaks of the macrotexture elements restores the adhesional mechanism
under wet conditions by counteracting fluid entrainment and permitting
solid peak contact. Microtexture without macrotexture is effective only for
very thin films, even though the hysteresis contribution to friction is absent,
but there is no provision for bulk water to escape for normal heavy rainfall.

5. Recent work
One of the more interesting phenomena observed in recent years is the
occurrence of “waves of detachment” in the contact area of sliding rubber
[4]. These waves are folds in the rubber surface produced by buckling.
Whereas adhesion due to molecular kinetic stick-slip behaviour undoubtedly
occurs between the waves, the buckling itself can be attributed to compres-
sive tangential stresses which exceed the pressure forces tending to maintain
uniform contact. The motive force driving the waves of detachment across
the surface of contact appears to be a tangential stress gradient. These waves
have been observed to propagate at right angles to the imposed sliding
velocity [4] and in the same direction as that in which the rubber surface
moves relative to the other frictional member. They occur both between a
hard slider and a rubber track and between a rubber slider and a hard track.
It is interesting to note that the propagation of waves of detachment is
accompanied by hysteresis losses due to the microscopic undulation. Thus
from a fundamental friction viewpoint the loss of potential adhesion
between folds is compensated for, at least to some extent, by the creation of a
microhysteresis component of friction. This viewpoint supports the unified
theory of rubber friction by equating adhesion and microhysteresis as
discussed earlier. If we now extend the concept of undulating waves of
detachment as an observable adhesional mechanism of friction between
smooth surfaces to the probable resultant wear effect we conclude that wear
by roll formation is an extremely likely candidate for a number of reasons
[ 2, 51. Thus the most likely conditions of contact, i.e. a soft rubber with
low tear strength sliding on a smooth hard base, for both waves of detach-
ment and wear by roll formation are identical, and additionally the necessary
geometrical configuration required to initiate rolled wear fragments is surely
the region of periodic surface detachment due to buckling.
The analogy between friction and wear mechanisms as shown in Fig. 1
is now complete. The adhesion and hysteresis contributions to friction on
rough surfaces produce abrasive and fatigue wear respectively, whereas waves
of detachment on smooth surfaces would appear to produce wear by rolled
 281

fragments. It is unlikely that either waves of detachment or rolled wear frag-

ments will be observed for hard rubbers with high tear strength.
A second interesting phenomenon observed in recent years is the
“stiffening” effect in rubbers according as the scale of roughness of the hard
frictional base is reduced for a given speed of sliding [6]. Thus the effective
hardness of rubber-like materials is altered depending upon the frequency of
indentation by asperities of the hard base surface during sliding. The effect
of this property on the frictional mechanism is two-fold:
(1) the microhysteresis contribution to friction becomes a truly
adhesional effect since the discrete periodic indentation caused by the very
small surface asperities disappears;
(2) the onset of viscous hydroplaning by the viscoelastohydrodynamic
entrainment of lubricant over the peaks of macroasperities is most effective-
ly opposed.

6. Experimental facility
In conclusion a brief description and illustration is given of a unique
braking test rig which now forms part of the Tribology Laboratory at
University College Dublin. This rig has the dual capability of using either a
test rubber block for measuring friction and wear or of testing the effective-
ness of tyre tread pattern and braking mode on traction. As the illustration
in Fig. 9 shows the rig is at present adapted to test the effectiveness of a new
and truly adaptive anti-skid braking system for all forms of road vehicle. A
test axle with variable wheel inertia, speed tachometer, test wheel, slip-ring
assembly, torsional strain gauges, drum brake, accelerometer sensing unit and
dummy support wheel is loaded by gravity against a simulated moving road-
way which consists of an endless stainless steel belt with variable texture
passing over end pulleys and driven by a variable-speed motor control unit.
The system is unique in that the pulsing sequence normally associated with
anti-skid systems is designed so that both the shape and intensity of each
braking pulse exactly matches the slipperiness of the road surface. In this
manner optimum braking is continually and automatically achieved.
The Tribology Laboratory contains a number of additional unique
items of equipment which have been developed and constructed within the
University for measuring rubber/tyre properties. These include in particular a
complex fatigue machine for cyclically applying three-dimensional stressing
to an elastomeric work sample, a new design of profile-measuring equipment
and a semi-automatic hydraulic texture meter for recording surface rough-
ness. Standard friction and wear measurement machines are also available, as
are viscometers and a range of calibration surfaces. The following unique
research goals were achieved during the period 1971 - 1978:
(1) measurement of the lowest coefficient of friction ever recorded
(0.0003);
(2) measurement of infinitesimal differential wear by a hydraulic
leakage flow method;
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Fig. 9. Overall view of the anti-skid braking rig and road friction simulator.

(3) development of a theory of elastohydrodynamic separation for

rubber-like materials slipping and sliding on lubricated textured substrate;
(4) measurement of texture by hydraulic leakage flow.
The Laboratory has the overall capability of measuring and recording
the dynamic properties of rubber-like materials under all conditions of
stressing including vibration, fatigue and impact.

References
1 D. F. Moore, The Friction of Pneumatic Tyres, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1975.
2 D. F. Moore, The Friction and Lubrication of Elastomers, Pergamon Press, Oxford,
1972.
3 D. F. Moore, Principles and Applications of Tribology, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1975.
4 A. Schallamach, Elementary effects in the contact area of sliding rubber, Symp. on the
Physics of Tire Traction, Plenum Press, New York, 1974, pp. 167 - 177.
5 D. I. James, Abrasion of Rubber, McLaren, London, 1967.
6 D. F. Moore, Scale effects in elastohydrodynamic lubrication for rubberlike materials,
Proc. 4th Leeds-Lyon Tribology Conf., Lyon, September 1977, Mechanical Engineer-
ing Pubhcations, London, pp. 315 - 320.