(1)

SR.NO " # $
Ubi Jus ibi remedium
Qui facit per alium facit per se.

Actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea.

! " # $# ! #
Actio personalis moritur cum persona. % & #% & ' ""
' ' (
Volenti non fit injuria. ( Leave & License)
) * ') ' #
Vigilantibus et non dormientibus jura subveniunt. " ""
+ "
Damnum Sine Injuria, Injuria Sine Damnum.
( + (
Salus populi est supreme lex. , ' * "
Nemo dat quod non habet. ! !' ( #
Impossibilium nulla obligatia est.
Res Ipsa Loqutor. ) )
Rex Non Potest Peccare. -. #
Respondeat Superior. "
Ignorantia Facti Excusat: Ignorantia Juris non Excusat. ,/ 01 +
" ,
In Jure Non Remota causa sed Proxima Spectatur. " 2
3 + " )#
Affirmanti Non neganti Incumbit Probatio. % & ' ) ,
+ !4
Nemo Debet Bis Puniri Pro Uno Delicto. ! ' . -
(
nemo debet esse judex in propria causa
in pari delicto, potior est conditio possidentis – .' / +

Nemo contra factum suum venire potest " 05 3 #

'De minimis non curat lex.'
Caveat Emptor. - "
Delegata potestas non potest delegari.
In pan i delicto poitor est conditio Defendantis
utere tuout alienum non loedas
A Discussion on Law of Double Jeopardy in India : – 6 7 ' 0 Jeopardy
0 + .! 0 ' . ( + 8 & 9 & - (
# - '

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 (2)

(( 1)) : - % & % '

(There is no wrong without a remedy) OR (Where there is a right there is a remedy)
If the plaintiff has right he must of necessity have a means to vindicate and maintain it
and a remedy if he is injured in the exercise or enjoyment of it and it is a vain thing to imagine
a right without a remedy, because want of right and want of remedy are reciprocal. The
significance of this maxim means that law provides a remedy for every wrong. If man will
multiply injuries action must be multiplied too, for every man that is injure ought to have bis
recompense.
It is a general rule that remedy is provided for every violation ( ) of a right. The
law of torts is said to be a development of the maxim “Ubi jus ibi remedium”. Here, Jus
signifies that the legal authority to do or to demand something and remedium may be the right
of action, or the means given by law, for the recovery or assertion of a right ( ). “If a
man has a right, he must have a means to vindicate ( ) and maintain it and a remedy if
he is injured in the exercise or enjoyment of the right, and it is useless thing to imagine a right
without a remedy; want of right and want of remedy are reciprocal.” (Ashby V. White).
The maxim does not mean, as it is sometimes supposed, that there is a legal remedy for
every moral or political wrong. If this were its meaning, it would be absolutely untrue. There
is no legal remedy for the breach of a solemn ( ) promise not under seal ( ) and made
without consideration; nor for many kinds of verbal slander ( ); nor for oppressive
( ) legislation, though it may reduce men practically to slavery ( ).
The maxim means only that legal wrong and legal remedy are correlative terms; and it
would be more intelligibility and correctly stated, if it were reversed so as to stand, where
there is no legal remedy, there is no legal wrong. Again, there is in law no right without a
remedy; and if all remedies for enforcing (executing) a right are gone, the right has in point of
law ceased (prevent, to close, to terminate) to exist.
The maxim was not applied in the following cases: -
(1) Ashby V. White : (1703) 2 Raym Ld. 938
In this leading English case, the defendant, a returning officer at a voting booth, wrongfully
and maliciously refused to register a duly tendered vote of the plaintiff, who was a qualified
voter. The candidate for whom the vote was sought to be tendered was, however, elected and
no actual loss was suffered by the rejection of the plaintiff’s vote. The court held that the
plaintiff had a right to vote and this legal right was violated by the defendant. He would,
therefore, have a remedy at law. The plea that the rejection of the vote did not result in an
injury was not allowed as a defence.
(2) D.K. Basu V. State Of West Bengal : (1997) 1 SCC 416
In this landmark case, the Executive Chairman, legal aid Services, West Bengal, a non-
political organization wrote a letter to the Chief Justice of India drawing his attention to the
news items published in some newspapers regarding custodial deaths. Applying this maxim,
the court Held that a mere declaration of invalidity of an action or finding of custodial violence

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 (3)

or death in lock-up, does not by itself provide any meaningful remedy to a person whose
fundamental right to life has been infringed. Hence, although the Constitution has no provision
for compensation, the Supreme Court has judicially evolved a right to compensation in such
cases.

The maxim was applied in the following case: -

(1) Munster V. Lamb : 11 O.B.D. 588
A lawyer, who is working in his professional capacity under the instruction of his client, will
fall under the class of privileged persons, and hence, no action will lie against an advocate for
slander uttered in the course of a judicial inquiry. In such case, this maxim will not hold good.
(2) A’Bad Municipal Corporation V. Nawab Khan Gulab Khan : AIR 1997 S.C. 152
This writ petition was filed by pavement dwellers who were in unauthorized occupation of
footpaths on the main road in A’Bad, contending that the Corporation sought to remove their
encroachments before granting them an opportunity of being heard. Reversing the decision of
the High Court, the Supreme Court Held that the encroacher cannot claim any legal right so as
to have a remedy, and therefore, cannot demand compliance with the principles of natural
justice.

(( )) * + +

( he who does a thing through another does it himself.) OR (He who does an act or thing
through another is deemed in law to do it himself.)
This maxim based on the principle of vicarious liability. A master may be held
liable in damages for the negligence or wrongful act of his servant. If it is done in the ordinary
course of the employment. This is so because a master is supposed to have control over his
servant. The master is held responsible in damages, as the servant may be too poor to pay the
damages.
So, also a person who employs another to do an act for him or to represent him, is
answerable, in civil law, for the act of the agent, done by the agent in the ordinary course of
agency and within the scope of the agent’s authority. Moreover, the agent was appointed to act
for the benefit of the principle. So the principle should be prepared for the liability, as much as
for the benefit.
The doctrine of liability of the master for the acts of his servant is of modern
growth. A master may be liable in damages for the negligence or wrongful act of his servant, if
it is done in ordinary course of employment. This is so because a master is supposed to have
control over his servant. The master is held responsible in damages as the servant may be too
poor to pay the damages. The master’s responsibility for his servant’s acts has also its origin in
the maxim, ‘qui facit per alium facit per se’.
In civil law (torts),

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 (4)

A person who employs another to do an act for him or to represent him is answerable
for the acts of the agent done by the agent in the ordinary course of agency and within the
scope of the agent’s authority. Moreover, the agent was appointed to act fro the benefit of the
principal. So the principal should be prepared for the liability as much as for the benefit.
In criminal law,
Vicarious liability is something exceptional. A master who entrusts some risky work
with an incompetent employee is responsible even criminally for his criminal negligence,
e.g. where the incompetent servant is asked to clean a revolver which goes off in the act,
is liable vicariously. The master is also liable for the act of his servant, where he has left
the whole management to his servant.
Under the Bombay Prevention of Adulteration of Food Act, the Bombay shops and
establishment Act, the Bombay Weight and Measures Act, the master can be held
responsible criminally for the act of the servant.
Where a work involves a danger to the public, a person cannot escape liability by having
it done by an independent contractor, for he knows or ought to know that the work
involves a public nuisance as danger. Both the independent contractor and his engager
are liable in such cases.
Every man in the management of his own affairs whether by himself or by his agents or
by servant shall so conduct them as not to injure another and if he does not and another
thereby sustains damages, he shall answer for it.
He who acts through another is deemed to act in person. A principal is liable for the acts
of his agents.
MASTER IS VICARIOUSLY LIABLE FOR THE ACTS OF HIS SERVANT - A master
is vicariously liable for the acts of his servant in the course of his employment, for the master’s
liability to arise, the act should be authorised by the master or a wrongful and unauthorised mode of
doing some act be also authorised by the master. The driver of a car taking the car on the master’s
business makes him vicariously liable if he commits an accident. But it is equally well settled that if
the servant, at the time of the accident, is not acting within the course of his employment, but is doing
something for himself, the master is not liable. There is a presumption that a vehicle is driven on the
master’s business and by his authorised agent or servant but the presumption can be met
FRAUD BY SERVANT, MASTER IS LIABLE - A master is liable for his servant’s fraud
perpetrated in the course of master’s business, whether the fraud is for the master’s benefit or not, if it
is committed by servant in the course of his employment. There is no difference in the liability of a
master for wrongs whether or not fraud or any other wrong is committed by a servant in the course of
his employment, and it is a question of fact in each case whether it is committed in the course of the
employment.
SERVANT, CONTRACTOR AND AGENTS DISTINGUISHED - An agent is to be
distinguished on the one hand from a servant and on the other hand from an independent contractor. A
servant acts under the direct control and supervision of his master and is bound to conform to all
reasonable orders given to him in the course of his work. An independent contractor, on the other
hand, is entirely independent or any control on interference and merely undertakes to produce a
specified result employing his own means to produce that result. An agent, though bound to exercise

!
 (5)

his authority in accordance with all lawful instructions which may be given to him from time to time
by his principal, is not subject to the direct control or supervision of the principal. An agent as such is
not a servant. But the converse may not be true. A servant may for some purposes be his master’s
implied agent. The extent of the agency depends upon the duties or position of the servant. For
ascertaining whether a person is a servant or an agent of another, a rough and ready test is whether
under the terms and conditions, governing their mutual relationship, a supervisory control is exercised
by the latter in respect of the work entrusted to the former. But this test is not universal in its
application. In determining whether a relationship of employer and employee exists, due regard must
also be had to the nature of particular business, the terms of the engagement and the nature of the
duties to be performed by the person in respect of whom the question has arisen as to whether he is an
employee.

(( )) , -
! " # $# ! #
(The intent and the fact must both concur ( ) to constitute a crime)

An act done without a guilty mind ( ) does not constitute a crime

because the crime is not complete unless there is a guilty mind behind it. Act and intent
together with to create an offence. It means an offence = Criminal Act + Criminal Intention.
Bear intention by itself is not an offence. No crime is committed if the mind of the person
doing the fact is innocent. Law must enquire into the mental attitude of the doer. The
principles of English Common Law embodied in the maxim ‘Actus non facit reum, nisi mens
sit rea.’
This maxim has a limited application and in the modern day, crimes are more
accurately defined by statutes. The doctrine of “Mens Rea (Guilty mind)” in its application to
criminal law requires that a guilty mind should be associated with the fact. The guilty mind
must consist of either intention or negligence. Very often even, knowledge of the
consequences will be considered as a part of guilty mind.
This maxim has no application to offences under the Indian Penal Code, because the
definitions are clear. Every ingredient or elements of the offence is stated in the definition
expressly as to the state of mind of the accused. It states whether the act must have been done
knowingly, dishonestly, fraudulently, voluntarily etc. thus, the definition of the offence is self-
sufficient ( ). Crime is proved by proving the ingredients in various Sections of the I.P.C.
However, mens rea is an essential ingredient of every offence except: -(Exceptions)
(1) Where statutes impose strict liability- cases not criminal in real sense but are
prohibited under public interest.
(2) Public nuisance.
(3) Cases criminal in form but are really only summary mode of enforcing a civil
right.
(4) Ignorance of law is no excuse- the fact that he was not aware of the rule of
law and he did not intend to do it, is no defence.

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 (6)

Cases where the maxim was applied: -

In Re. Tunda ; (1950) 51 Cr. L. J. 402 : - In this case, the accused and the deceased were
wrestlers. They arranged a bout in the course of which the deceased fell as a result of a blow
from the accused and broke his skull. Under the circumstances, selecting books for educational
institutions were themselves the author of the books whish were to be considered for selection.
It was held that the Supreme Court that the possibility of bias could not be ruled and that “ it is
not the actual bias in favour of the author-member is material, but the possibility of such bias.”
Cases where the maxim was not applied: -
(1) Jaswant Singh Nerwal V. State of Punjab (1991) Supp 1 SCC 311: -
In this case, at the viva voce examination held by the Public Service Commission for
recruitment of officers, where the marks were distributed between the examiners, one of the
examiner’s son was appearing it. Hence, that examiner was not present and his marks were
distributed amongst the other examiners. When the examiner’s son was declared successful,
the unsuccessful candidates challenged the results as being in violation of natural justice due to
existence of reasonable likelihood of bias. Reversing the order of lower Court, the Supreme
Court held that, considering the manner evidence showing the father’s involvement in the
selection of his son, and hence this maxim could not apply.
(( . )) , + + % & #% & ' "
" ' ' (
(A person right of action dies with the person)
This maxim refers to extinction of liability on the death of a person common law if
and injury was done either to the person of the poetry of another for which only damages
could be recovered the on died with the person to whom or by whom the injury was sed in
other words a personal right of action didn’t survive on death of either paety. Exception to the
maxim are almost the same under Indian law also the statutory exception being contained in
the legal representatives suits act 1855 the fatal accidents act 1855 and the Indian succession
act,1965.

At common law, if an injury were done either to the person or property of another ,
for which damages only could be recovered in satisfaction, the action dies with the person to
whom, or by whom, the wrong was done. It is not known when this principle came into being,
the ambit (border) of its application was limited or shorten by several statutes.
=> At common law, none can recover damages for the death of another. This is known
as the rule of Baker V. Bolton.
‘In civil court, the death of a human being could not be complained of as an injury’-
meaning an actionable injury. A husband, parent, or master can’t recover damages in respect
of instantaneous ( ) death of a wife, child or servant. If there is interval between
the wrongful act and the death, damages may only be recovered for loss of society or services
upto the time of death.

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 (7)

=> In Baker’s case the plaintiff ( ) and his wife were passengers on the top
of a stage-coach belonging to the defendants. Owing to the negligence of the defendants, the
stage-coach was over-turned and the plaintiff was much bruised ( ) and his wife so
severely hurt that she died a month after. It was held that the plaintiff was entitled to damages
for the bruises sustained by him and for the loss of the wife’s society till the moment of her
death.
Indian Law : - According to a Section-306 of the Indian Succession Act, 1625, “All
demands whatsoever and all rights existing in favour of or against a person at the time of his
decease, survive to and against his executors or administrators; except causes of action for
defamation (sec-499), assault (sec-351) as defined in the I.P.C., or other personal injuries not
causing the death of the party.”
=> The general rule of common law still applies for causes of action for defamation,
seduction (sec-366,366A of I.P.C.) ( : + ! "! "#$ ), including one’s spouse to live
with another, and to claims for damages for adultery (%& ; & <3
" )$ & ( ) (sec-497 of IPC). The right of a father to sue for
compensation for the seduction of his daughter is a personal right and dies with the father.
=> Except in the cases specified above, the right to sue for a tort does not cease with the
life of either party. Hence the application of the maxim ‘actio personalis moritur cum
persona’ is confined only to those cases. For example, the maxim does not apply to torts
which involve the wrongful appropriation or acquisition by one man of property belonging to
another and the remedy for such wrongful act can be pursued (sec-48 of CrPC) ( ' )
against the deceased wrongdoer.
Illustrative cases where the maxim was applied:-
Prusti v. Mohanty:A.I.R1978 / in this cases the orissa high court held that where a money
decree was passed against a hindu in respect of the amount received by him from the decree
holder by misrepresentation of facts the liability would be personal and could not be extended
to his son under hindu law it was held that whatever relief the decree holder had against the
father under the law of torts did not subsist against his son as it ended with his father’s death.
Illustrative cases where the maxim was not applied:-
Hyde v. Dean of Windsor: cro. Elliz.552/ in this case the court held that the personal
representatives of the deceased defendant were liable in so far as they had assets on all the
contracts of the deceased broken during his lifetime and also contracts broken after his death
for the performance of which the deceased’s skill was not required and which were not to be
performance by the deceased in person.

(( / )) 0 ) * ') ' #
[L. volens / willing + non / no + facere / to make, do + iniuria / injury, injustice, wrong]
( Damage suffered by consent not cause of action OR Concent does not creat any harm )
( Harm suffered voluntarily does not constitute a legal injury and is not actionable) OR (He
who volunteers cannot complain injury)

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 (8)

Where the sufferer is willing no injury is done. It means a man cannot complain of
harm to the chances of which he has exposed himself with knowledge and his free will. The
maxim ‘Volenti Non fit Injuria’ is founded on good sense and justice.
The maxim literally means that no breach of a legal right is committed against one who
is a willing party.
In other words no man can enforce a right which he has voluntarily waived or
abandoned.
It applies to cases where one consents to run the risk of unintentional harm, e.g.
spectators at cricket, football, and hockey matches etc., or a patient in the case of a
surgical operation.

The maxim applies in the first place, to intentional acts which would otherwise be
tortuous ( # ()& *&). A trespasser, having knowledge that there are spring guns in a wood,
although he may be ignorant of the particular spots where they are placed, cannot maintain an
action for injury received in consequence of his accidentally treading (walking) on the latent
( (+& , ) wire communication with the spring gun and thereby letting it off, for he voluntarily
exposes himself to the mischief (damage). But a person, who climbs over a wall in a stray ( -
. $ ) fowl and is shot by a spring gun, set without notice, can recover damages pursuit. (Bird
V. Holbrook).
The maxim applies; in the second place, to consent to run the risk of harm which would
otherwise be actionable. Thus the master is not liable for injury done to a servant who
undertaken service knowing the risks incidental there to.

There are certain limitations to the applicability to this maxim: -

(1) No consent can legalise an unlawful act e.g. fighting with naked fists ( / 0
) , a duel (11&23) with sharp swords (3 0).
(2) The maxim has no validity against an action based on a breach of statutory duty.
Thus, it is no answer to a claim made by a workman against his employer for injury
caused through a breach by the employer of a duty imposed upon him by a statute.
(3) Rescuing ( & 4 5- %& 3 '): - It doesn’t apply where the plaintiff
has, under an exigency ( " +& ) caused by the defendant’s wrongful misconduct,
consciously ( 6 " ) and deliberately ( 3 0 7 ) faced a risk, even of death,
to rescue another from imminent ( $ 7 ) ) danger of personal injury or death, whether
the person endangered ( & ) is one to whom he owes a duty of protection, as a
member of his family, or is a mere stranger to whom he owes no such special duty.
(4) It doesn’t apply to cases of negligence.

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 (9)

(( 1 )) Vigilantibus et non dormientibus jura subveniunt. " "" +

"
(Law helps those who are alert/the vigilant ( "&) and not those who sleep on their tights/the
dormant( # " &)

In order to avoid the difficulty and error that necessarily result from the lapse of time,
the presumption of the coincidence (one time made event) of fact and the right is accepted as
final after a certain number of years. Whoever wants to dispute this presumption within that
period, his right will be forfeited as a penalty for “Vigilantibus et non dormientibus jura
subveniunt”.
The Indian Limitation Act, 1963 says that “to consolidate and amend the law of
limitation of suits and other proceedings and for purposes connected therewith”. The
provisions of this Act will apply to all civil and criminal proceedings which can be taken in to
a court of law. However, the Limitation Act cannot apply to proceedings like an election
petition in as much as the Representation Of the People Act is a Complete and self-
contained Code which does not admit of the introduction of the principles or the provisions of
law contained in the Indian Limitation Act.
( Ex. Indian Criminal Law : IPC_376 Under 15 year wife RAPE case, The Nagociable Instrument
Act_ dis Honour of cheque, In civil Law : suit, aplication, apeal & 9 -
The principles upon which laws of Limitation, the court will denied enforcement of
duty when last demand was made. It is enforceable by law to pay the amount. According to
Pothier, upon the presumption of payment or Release ( ) arising from length of time, and
partly also because a debtor should not to be obliged to take care forever of his evidence,
which prove a demand to have been satisfied and it is proper to limit a time beyond which he
shall not be under the necessity of producing them. In the great variety and complexity of the
questions which arise on this subject there are yet some general rules of almost universal
application.
The utility of a Statute Of Limitation has never been a matter of serious doubt or
dispute. It has been said that the statute of repose ( 8 , Trust), peace and justice. It is one of
repose because it extinguishes stale demands, and title. It secures peace as it ensures security
of rights: and it secures justice, as by lapse of time evidence in support of rights may have
been destroyed. There can thus be no doubt that it rests on sound policy.

(( 2 )) # " 0 -" 0 #
( + (
(Actual Damage suffered without legal injury)
‘Damnum’ means damage or injury in the legal sense of the term means legal injury, as
for instance, a tort. Such injuria may or may not accompanied by damnum, i.e. actual loss or
damage. The maxim thus covers actual damage, where there is no infringement of a legal

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 ( 10 )

right. The mere fact of harm or loss does not make the act wrongful in such cases, although the
loss may be substantial, and in some cases, irreparable (means it cannot be rectified). Damage
thus suffered in the absence of the violation of any legal right is referred to as Damnum Sine
Injuria. (
Thus, in order to make a person liable in law, some legal injury must be proved. Actual
damage without such legal injury would not be actionable. There are many acts, which though
harmful, are not wrongful in the eyes of law, and therefore, don’t give a right of action in
favour of the person who suffers such harm.
This maxim is a reflection of the fact that there are many acts which may inflict ( -
.$ ) the most terrible harm, and yet, no legal redress (relief) is available in respect of such
acts. For Example, Dr. A is the only doctor in his neighborhood, and Dr. B decides to open his
clinic just across the same street. Dr. A may suffer a huge financial loss, but he’ll have no
remedy at law, as his Damnum is not accompanied by injuria.
The general principle under this maxim is that exercise of one’s ordinary rights, within
reasonable limits, does not give rise to action, merely because it causes damage to another. If it
were otherwise, it would become almost impossible to carry on the ordinary affairs of life
without doing anything which may cause loss or inconvenience to others. Every act of one
man may, in this sense, cause damage (detriment) to another.

Gloucester Grammar School case : (1410) Y.B. 11. Hen. IV : -

In this case, the defendant, a school-master, set up a rival (competitive) school next to that of
plaintiff, with the result that boys from the plaintiff’s school flocked to that of the defendant.
The plaintiff sued the defendant for the loss thus suffered by him. The court held that no suit
would lie, because bona fide competition can afford no ground of action, whatever damage it
may cause.
= > !? - " # !: " ! !' 9#
" = ' " = ( # ( # ( #
# - _ wind power water mill case
Injuria Sine Damnum : ( - The expression Injuria Sine Damnum is just the
reverse of Damnum Sine Injuria. There are cases where ‘legal injury’ is present, though no
actual loss or damage has been inflicted. The law believes that if there is an infringement of a
legal right, the same is actionable, whether or not any actual loss or damage has been caused. –
as will be clear from the following cases.
injuria sine damno - Injury without damages ( . Whenever there is an
invasion of a legal right, the person in whom the right is vested is entitled to bring an action
and may be awarded damages although he has suffered no actual damage. The law presumes
damage owing to the mischievous tendency of the act and therefore, prohibits it absolutely. In
short, a man is entitled to have his person and property preserved inviolable. Every injury

!
 ( 11 )

imports a damage, though it does not cost the party one farthing; a damage is not merely
pecuniary, but an injury imports a damage when a man is thereby hindered of his right.
(1) Ashby V. White : (1703) 2 Raym Ld. 938
In this leading English case, the defendant, a returning officer at a voting booth, wrongfully
and maliciously refused to register a duly tendered vote of the plaintiff, who was a qualified
voter. The candidate for whom the vote was sought to be tendered was, however, elected and
no actual loss was suffered by the rejection of the plaintiff’s vote. The court held that the
plaintiff had a right to vote and this legal right was violated by the defendant. He would,
therefore, have a remedy at law. The plea that the rejection of the vote did not result in an
injury was not allowed as a defence.
(2) Larzetti V. Williams : (1830) 1 B. & Ad. 415
In this case, it was held that a suit can be filed against a bank, which has sufficient funds
belonging to the customer in its hands, for refusing to honour the customer’s cheque. In such
cases, whether the customer has or has not sustained any actual loss or injury would be
immaterial. Although the customer could not show that he suffered any actual loss, the court
held that he was entitled to damages.

(( 3 )) + + + 4 , ' * "
(the public welfare is the supreme law)
(Regard for the public welfare is the highest law) OR (the good of the people is the supreme
law)
The welfare of the people, or of this public, is supreme law. The maxim is founded on
the implied assent on the part of every member of so-city, that his own individual welfare shall
in case of necessity, yield to that of the community and that his property, liberty, and life, shall
under certain circumstances, be placed in jeopardy or even sacrificed for the public good.
This maxim is of prime importance and lays down that individual welfare must, in
cases of necessity, yield to the welfare of the community. Not only that, but when necessary,
an individual’s property and liberty may be placed in jeopardy- or even sacrificed- for public
good. (Buller J. In Plate Glass co. V. Meredith)
“There are many cases in which individuals- sustain an injury for which the law gives
no action, as where private houses are pulled down, or bulwarks ( 7 23 ) are raised on
property, for the preservation and defence of the kingdom against the king’s enemies”.
Thus, a person would be excused by the law for committing a private injury for the
public good, as when a house is pulled doen to stop a fire from spreading. (Greemwich V.
Moudslay)
Case where the maxim was applied: -
Edginton V. Swidon Borough Council : (1939) 1 K.B. 86
In this case, power was given to a local authority to erect bus shelters, and it was found to be
practically impossible to do so. Without taking away the access of some persons from their

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properties to the highway. The court held that no action would lie against the local authority,
even though the Act had not specified the exact locations of the shelters. When the legislature
gave this power to the local authority, it would have known that such construction would
interfere with private rights of some persons. As the local authority had acted reasonably, no
suit would lie against it.
Case where the maxim was not applied: -
R.Vs. Dudly , Stephens: (1884) 14 Q.B.D. 173
Three seamen, along with a young boy of 18 years, were traveling on a small boat after a
shipwreck. For many days, no food and water were available to them, and if this were to
continue for some more time, they would have died of hunger. So, two of the seamen killed
the boy, so that they could survive on his flesh. Later, they were rescued and brought to
England, where they were tried for murder. Their defence of necessity was ruled out and they
were held guilty of murder, as the court held that though self-preservation is a duty, self-
sacrifice is a higher duty, and since all human lives are equal in value, it is unjustifiable to take
another’s life for self-preservation.
The Andhra Pradesh High Court observed in Special Deputy Collector v. N. Vasudeva Rao
[2003] 12 ILD 342 :
“The maxim ‘salus populi suprema lex’ i.e. ‘the welfare of the people is the supreme law’
adequately enunciates the idea of law. This can be achieved only when justice is administered
lawfully, judicially, without fear or favour and without being hampered and thwarted, and this
cannot be effective unless respect for it is fostered”

(( 5 )) 6 %
! !' ( #
(No one can give what he does not possess) OR (If you don’t have, you can’t give)
‘Nemo dat qoud non habet’ means that “The buyer cannot acquire a better title to the
goods than the seller has. The seller cannot convey to buyer of goods, a better title than the
himself has”. It is a general rule of the Transfer of Property Act. If a person acquires
possession of property by theft and sells it to another, the buyer acquires no title, though he
may have acted honestly and paid the value of the goods, the real owner of the goods is
entitled to recover the possession without paying anything to the buyer. The mere fact of an
innocent and bonafide purchase from a person with no title is no answer to the claim of the
true owner. This rule does sometimes results in hardship to the innocent buyer, but it is
necessary in the larger interests of society and for security of property.
Exceptions: - The rule reflected in the maxim admits of nine important exceptions as uder :-
1. sale with consent or authority of the owner:- if A is the owner of goods B can sell such
goods, if he is authority by A or if A has consented to such sale.
2.title by estoppel :- if B sells goods belonging to A the sale will be valid if A by his words or
conduct causes the buyer to believe that B was the owner of such goods. This is also known as
title by estoppel

!
 ( 13 )

3.sale by mercantile agent:- if a mercantile agent is in possession of goods or a document of

title of goods with the consent of the owner i.e. his principal and he makes a sale of those
goods in the ordinary course of business as mercantile agent the sale would be valid provided
the buyer acted id good faith and had no notice at the time of the sale.
4.sale by a joint owner:- if goods belong jointly to A & B but B has sole possession there of
with A’s consent B can make a valid sale of those goods. Provided that the buyer acts in good
faith and has no notices at the time of the sale that B had no authority to sell such goods.
5.sale by a person having possession under a voidable contract:- if B has obtained possession
of goods form A under a voidable contract but if such contract has not been rescinded B can
sell the goods if the buyer acts in good faith and has no notice of B’s defect of title.
6.sale by a seller in possession:- if A sells goods to B but B allows A to continue in
possession any sale of such goods by A has the same effect as if he was expressly authority by
B to sell the goods, provided the subsequent buyer buys them in good faith and had no notice
of the previous sale.
7.sale by buyer in possession before property has vested in him:- if B has bought or agreed to
buy goods form A and with A’s consent , he has taken possession of the goods ,any sale by B
of such goods to a buyer who buys them in good faith and without notices of any lien or other
right of A over the goods has effect as if such lien or other right did not exist.
8.sale by unpaid seller:- if A has sold goods to B but has not received the full amount of the
price he may resell the goods if B does not pay or tender the price within a reasonable time if
the goods are of a perishable nature or if a has given notice of his intention to resell the goods.
9.sale in market overt:- under English law if goods are sold in market overt according to the
usage of the market the buyer acquires good title to the goods provided he buys in good faith a
without notice of any defect or want of title on the part of the seller.

(( 78 )) " + % %
(It is not obligatory to do anything impossible. OR there is no obligation to impossible thing
or act.)
According to Section-56 of the Indian Contract Act, an agreement to do an impossible
act is void. The impossibility may be prior to contract or subsequent to contract. An agreement
to do an act impossible in itself is void-prior- an agreement to discover the treasure by magic.
Sometimes, the performance of a contract is quite possible when it is made by the
parties. But some event subsequently happens which renders its performance impossible or
unlawful. For instances,
(i) A contract of marriage- one party goes mad afterwards.
(ii) Contract for import of goods-import thereafter forbidden.
(iii) A Singer contract to sing- becomes too ill.
Impossibility of performance may be due to : -

!
 ( 14 )

(1) Destruction of the subject matter (The destroyed subject matters).: - Where the actual
and specific subject-matter has ceased to exist i.e.: music hall destroyed by lighting,
crops destroyed by flood.
(2) Change of circumstances:-Performance will be impossible, where circumstances
arises which makes the performance of the contract impossible in the manner and at
the time contemplated partition of the country.
(3) Non-occurrence of a contemplated event: - i.e. contract to hire room-coronation-
which was postponed
(4) Death of or incapacity of party: - A party to a contract is excused fro performance
if it depends upon the existence of a given person if that person parishes or becomes
too ill to perform. Contract requires personal performance by the promissor his
death or incapacity puts an end to the contract.
(5) Government or legislative intervention: -Where a vender of land could not
execute the sale-deed as he ceased to be the owner by operation of law-cultivator- or
acquisition.
(6) Intervention of war-acquisition of certain thing:- Impossibility must be legal or
physical and not from the point of view of inability of the parties acts upon the
belief so induced and whose position is altered by his belief is entitled to plead
acquiescence-irrespective of the period of limitation.
(( 77 )) 9 "+ 6 ) )
(The thing speaks for itself)
There is a general rule of evidence that a person has to produce proof before he can
receive benefits. In certain cases, the mere fact that a particular accident has taken place may
become prima facie evidence of negligence. Such cases are referred to in Latin as ‘Res Ipsa
Loquitor’.
The application of the maxim has been explained that “Where the thing is shown to be
under the management of the defendant or his servants, and the accident is such, as in the
ordinary course of things, does not happen if those who have the management use proper
care, it affords reasonable evidence, in the accident arose from want of care.”
Thus, if a man’s dead body is found on the railway lines, near a level crossing, having
been apparently run over by a passing train; it is not a proper case for the application of this
maxim. It cannot be presumed, in such case, that persons who cross railway lines are always
careful. Also, if a hammer falls out of a window it could be a case of somebody’s negligence
or even a mischief. But it is not a case of ‘Res Ipsa Loquitor’.
The following are the three essential requirements of the application of the maxim----
(1) The thing causing the damage should be under the control of the defendant or his
servants.

!
 ( 15 )

(2) The accident must be such as would not, in the ordinary course of things, have
happened without negligence.
(3) There must be no evidence of the actual cause of the accident.
It is a general rule that the plaintiff should prove the negligence of the
defendant and not for the defendant to disprove it.
Cases where the maxim was applied: -
Byrne V. Boadle : (1863) 2 H. & c. 722: - In this case, the plaintiff was passing along the
street, and when he came near the defendant’s shop, was injured by the fall of a barrel of flour,
which rolled out of a window on the second floor. There was no evidence on the part of
plaintiff as to how the accident happened, beyond the facts that, while on the road, he was
knocked down by the barrel and was injured. It was held that the accident was a prima facie
case of negligence.
Cases where the maxim was not applied:
(1) Crisp V. Thomas : (1891) 63 L.T.R. 756: - In this English case, the blackboard of a
classroom slipped down and fell, injuring one of the students. It was held that the mere fall of
the blackboard was not evidence of the teacher’s negligence.
(2) Brick falling from the arch: - One essential features common to all such cases is that the
subject matter is under the control of one something happens while it is under control of that
party which would not in the ordinary course of things happens without negligence.
(3) where the defendant’s motor car being left unattended runs down a hill and an injury is
caused to the plaintiff.
(4) A barrel rolled out of open doorway on the upper floor of the defendant’s warehouse and
fell upon the plaintiff, a passerby in the street below.
One essential feature common to all such cases is that the subject-matter is under
the control of one something happens while it is under the control of that party which would
not in the ordinary course of the things happens without negligence.

(( 7 )) 9 4 : : -. #
(The king can do no wrong)
[L. rex / king + non / not, negative + posse, potui / to be able or possible + pecco, peccare / to make a mistake, do
something wrong]
One of the most fundamental principles of the English Constitution is that ‘The king
can do no wrong’. According to Mr. Justice Holmes, “ A sovereign is exempt from suit, not
because of any formal conception or obsolete theory, but on the logical and practical ground
that there can be no legal right as against the authority that makes the law on which the right
depends.” Today, the ground of exemption stated by Justice Holmes appears neither Logical
nor practical, and total immunity of the State from tortuous liability is not acceptable in the
modern context. Therefore, this maxim must not be understood to mean that the king is above
the law, and that whatever he does, is necessarily just and lawful.

!
 ( 16 )

Under Article 361 of Constitution of India, the President, Governors and Rajpramukhs
of states are not answerable to any court for the exercise and performance of the powers and
duties of their office, or for any act done by them in the exercise of those powers and duties.
According to Austin, a subject or citizen can have no rights against the state of which
he is a member. He says that a State has no legal duties by which it can be bound to its
subjects.
Cases where the maxim was applied: -
Kasturilal V. State of U.P. : A.I.R. 1956 S.C. 1039
In this case, Police Officers of the State of U.P. in the exercise of their statutory powers,
seized some gold from Kasturilal. Owing to their negligence in keeping safe custody of the
gold, it could not be returned to Kasturilal. In a suit filed by him against the State for return of
the gold, or its value in cash, the Supreme Court held that the State was not liable. The court
observed that the State was not liable for the tortuous acts of its servants done in the exercise
of sovereign power.
Cases where the maxim was not applied: -
State of Rajasthan V. Vidyawati: A.I.R. 1962 S.C. 933
In this case, the defendant was a driver employed on probation by the State of Rajasthan.
While he was driving a jeep car to a workshop for repairs, he knocked down a person who was
injured, and later died. His widow filed a suit for damages against the State of Rajasthan. The
court held that the State was liable for the tortuous acts of its servants like any other employer,
on the ground that the maxim “The king can do no wrong”, had no place in the Constitution of
India. It was observed that the immunity of the Crown was based on a feudal concept not
accepted or recognized in India.

(( 7 )) 9 + + "
(Let the principal be held responsible)
The two main reason underlying the principles of this maxim are: -
(1) It would generally be very difficult to show that the master had actually
authorized the servant to commit the act in question.
(2) Secondly, the servant would normally not be financially sound to bear the
monetary liability, and a rich master could employ a poor servant to commit
wrongful acts.
This rule has its origin in the legal presumption that all acts done by the servant in and about
his master’s business are done by his master’s express or implied authority and are, in truth the
act of the master. This maxim on the ground of policy and general convenience, puts the
master in the same position as if he had. The loss in such cases is not caused by wrong but by
another’s exercise of legal right.
Cases where the maxim was applied: -
(1) Lambert V. Great Eastern Railway: (1909) 2 K.B. 776

!
 ( 17 )

A Railway Company was empowered to employ special constables. One such constable
arrested a person for felony ( 3), without any reasonable cause. The court held that the
Railway Company was liable for the constable’s act.
(2) Milner V. Great Northern Railway : (1884) 5 L.T.N. 367
A cloak-room in the employment of a Railway Company had to take parcels of the passengers
in the cloak-room to the train as part of his duty. Whilst doing so one day, when he was
coming back, he ran against another porter, who in turn dashed against the ticket collector, and
the ticket collector collided ( 0- ) with the plaintiff’s wife, causing injuries, which resulted
in her death. When the plaintiff sued the Railway Company, it was held that the Company was
liable in damages, as, at the time of the accident, the clerk was acting within the scope of his
employment.
The superior must be responsible or let the principal be liable. In such cases not only
he who obeys but also he who commands becomes equality liable. This rule has its origin in
the legal. Presumption that all acts done by the servant in and about his master’s business are
done by his master’s express or implied authority and are in truth. The act of the master. This
maxim on the ground of police and general convenience puts the master in the same position
as if be had. The loss in such cases is not caused by wrong but by another’s exercise of legal
right. Chas more vs. Richards interception of under ground percolating water.
Cases where the maxim was not applied: -
Deatons Proprietary Ltd. V. Flew: (1949) 79 C.L.R. 370
In this case, X entered the defendant’s hotel and spoke to a barmaid (woman serving in a pub
etc.), who threw a glass of beer on his face. According to X, he had asked her a polite
question, but the barmaid said that he had insulted her. When the matter went to court, it was
held that although the barmaid was liable, the owner of the hotel was not liable, as the
barmaid’s act was an independent personal act which was not connected to the work which she
was employed to perform.

(( 7. )) " ; 4 '" & 4

,/ 01 + " ,
(Ignorance of fact is an excuse, ignorance of law is not an excuse)
This maxim is recognized by every legal system. Ignorance may be either of fact or of
law. For example, if an heir is ignorant of the death of his ancestor, he is ignorant of that fact;
but if being aware of the death, and of, his own relationship with the ancestor, he is
nevertheless ignorant of those rights that have thereby become vested in him; he is ignorant of
the law.
Mistake is not mere forgetfulness. It is a slip made, not by design but by mischance.
Under English Common Law, an honest and reasonable belief in the existence of
circumstances which would have made that act an innocent act, has always been a valid
defence. Under Section-76 of the Indian Penal Code- “Nothing is an offence which is done by

!
 ( 18 )

a person who by reason of mistake of fact and not by reason of mistake of law, in good faith
believes himself to be bound by law to do it.”
When mistake of fact is no defence: - It is not a defence if the fact itself is illegal. One
cannot do an illegal act and then plead ignorance of a fact.
Why mistake of law is not an excuse: - The basic reason for not excusing a mistake or
ignorance of law is that every man is presumed to know the law of the land, if mistake of
law was to be allowed as a defence, it would be urged in almost every case and lead to
absurd results.
When mistake of law is excused: - Under Section 78 Of Indian Penal Code, total
ignorance of the law is no excuse, but a mistaken interpretation of the law can be
considered a good excuse. A mistake of foreign law is considered as a mistake of fact
because though everyone is supposed to know the law of his own country, he cannot be
expected to know the law of other countries. This is, however, not so in the field of
criminal law.
Cases where the maxim was applied: -
Tolson’s case: (1889) 23 Q.B. 168
Mrs. Tolson, who had been deserted by her husband, and had married again within seven years
of desertion, was held not guilty of the offence of bigamy, because she had believed, on
reasonable grounds, that her husband had died (which was mistake of fact), and her act of
getting married could not be regarded as an act which was illegal per se ( & 9).
Cases where the maxim was not applied: -
It was held, in this case, that a person, who kidnaps a girl under the legal age of consent i.e. 18
years, is guilty of kidnapping even though the girl might have urged the accused to take her
away from her parents, and she lied about her age and even appearing to be more than 18, the
accused was held guilty, as the girl’s consent was immaterial, she being a minor. In such cases,
the accused must take the risk of having involved himself with a minor, which is an act mala
in se (bad in itself). Thus, in such cases, ignorance of fact does not excuse.

(( 7/ )) " & 9 : 4 +
" 2 3 + " )#
(In law, the proximate cause ( : is considered and not the remote cause ( 0 ).

The damage suffered by the plaintiff must be the direct and natural cause of the
defendant’s act. These teach us law as to remoteness of damage. The law will permit no
damages to be recovered excepting such as are the natural and legal consequences of a
wrongful act. In law the immediate and proximate, not the remote cause must be considered. A
man is presumed to intend the natural, but not the remote consequences of his act. A man is
not liable for all consequences of his wrongful act or default. Where the casual connection

!
 ( 19 )

between the wrongful act and the injury is not sufficiently direct, there is no liability, for the
damage is too remote.
Under the law of Contracts, no compensation can be recovered for any remote or
indirect loss or damage sustained by a breach of contract.
Under the law of Torts, when a plaintiff sues on the ground of negligence, he must
show that the defendant was under a legal duty to exercise due care and skill towards
him—which he did not exercise. However, he must also show that the breach of such
duty was the causa causans ( %& ), i.e. the direct and proximate cause of his loss or
injury. If the connection between the negligent act and the damage suffered is not direct,
the damage is too remote, and the plaintiff cannot succeed. If an accident is partly caused
by the interference of a third person, the defendant will be responsible only if it is found
that his negligence is the effective cause of the accident.
Cases where the maxim was applied: -
9 < ' 7. = > < .21 ' ?
( ; 6 ). When the ship was being loaded, it was damaged by negligent
loading of cargo by the natives of Africa, and since it was pronounced unseaworthy, it was run
ashore to prevent it from sinking and to save the cargo. In the circumstances, the court held
that the maxim, “In Jure Non Remota causa sed Proxima Spectatur”, would apply. The
immediate cause of the loss, i.e. the stranding of the ship, was a peril of the sea.
Cases where the maxim deos not applied: -
Lord bacon’s case: - In this case, the maxim does not apply in criminal matters, as will be
clear from the following example. A, intending to kill B, fires a gun at him, but misses. So, he
throws down his gun and runs away. B, however, runs after him in order to kill him.
Thereupon, A takes out a dagger and stabs B, resulting in B’s death. In this case, if only the
immediate cause is to be taken into consideration, A may go scot-free, as his act would be
justified as being in self-defence. But the law would look beyond the immediate cause, and
when the remoter cause is seen, would be guilty of murder, having done an act in execution of
his earlier murderous intentions.

(( 71 )) , " % : %
% & ' ) , + !4
(The burden of proof lies upon him who asserts not upon him who denies)
(EVI. ACT SEC.101-102)
The burden of proof means the duty of proving a disputed assertion (declaration) or
charge. The most important canon (principle) of evidence is that the point in issue is to prove
by the party, who asserts the affirmative. When a person is bound to prove the existence of any
fact it is said that the burden of proof lies on that person. The expression burden of proof really
means two different things.

!
 ( 20 )

(1) It means that a party is required to prove an allegation (unproved, assertion) before
judgment can be given in his favour.
(2) It also means that on a contested (dispute) issue, one of the two contending parties has
to introduce evidence.
There is a difference between the burden of proof on the pleadings and the burden of adducing
evidence.
The burden of proof on pleadings depends upon the facts asserted of denied and is
determined by ruled of substantive or statutory law. Such a burden never shifts.
While burden of adducing (proof, evidence) evidence shifts-in case of admission by
defendant, but alleging another thing e.g. receiving of money but paid.
The burden of proof on pleadings is fixed on the basic of the pleadings and is unchanged
during the entire trial.
Whereas the burden of adducing evidence is not constant but shifts as soon as the party
adduces sufficient evidence to raise a presumption in his favour.
The burden of proof lies upon the party, whether plaintiff or defendant who substantially
asserts the affirmative of the issue. The reason is partly, that he who invoke the aid of the law
should be the first to prove his case and partly because in the nature of things a negative is
more difficult, if not impossible, to establish than an affirmative.
The expression burden of proof really means two different things. It means sometime that a
party is required to prove an allegation before judgment can be given in his favor. It also
means that on a contested issue, one of the two contending parties has to introduce evidence.
There is a difference between the burden of proof on the pleadings and the burden
of adducing evidence. The burden of proof on pleadings depends upon the fact asserted or
denied and is determined by rules of substantive or statutory law. Such a burden never shifts
while burden of adducing evidence shifts-in case of admission by defendant, but alleging
another thing. e.g.- receiving of money but paid. The burden of proof on pleadings is fixed on
the basic of during the entire trial, whereas the burden of adducing evidence is not constant but
shifts as soon as the party adduces sufficient evidence to raise a presumption in his favors.

(( 72 )) # % : : #
! ' . - (
(No one must be punished twice for the same offence) OR ( No one should be punished twice
for one fault )
No one aught to be punished twice for the same offence double jeopardy. Once a
person id acquitted by a court of competent jurisdiction he can’t be charged or tries again on
the same facts. Once he is acquitted he can’t be tried again for his case been determined and he
has been found not guilty and acquitted. The same principal applies to conviction.

!
 ( 21 )

This maxim is embodied in article 20 of the Constitution. It means that a man must
not be put twice in peril for the same offence. If a man is indicted again for the same offence
in an English court, he can plead, as a complete defence, his former acquittal or conviction, or
as it is technically expressed, take the plea of autrefois acquit or autrefois convict
Once a person is acquitted ( ) by a court of competent
jurisdiction, he cannot be charged again on the same facts. Once he is acquitted, he cannot be
tried again, for his case been determined and he has been found not guilty and acquitted. The
same principle applies to conviction.
Article 20(2) of the Constitution Of Indian says that no person shall be prosecuted and
punished for the same offence more than once. But before any one can claim the punishment
of acquittal before a judicial tribunal. An earlier prosecution and punishment must be to/for an
offence-an act forbidden by law and punishable by way of fine, imprisonment or death. The
prosecution must be before a court of law or judicial tribunal in accordance with the procedure
prescribed by the statute which creates the offence.
Under the American Law, the principle is known as that of protection from double jeopardy.
The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution Of U.S.A. provides that no person shall be subject
for the same offence, on the same facts, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.
The English Common Law also provides that rule Nemo Debet Bis Vexeri-means that a man
may not be put twice in peril for the same offence.
Section -26 of the General Clauses Act also operates as a bar against double punishment.
Section -300 of Criminal Procedure Code, this rule is incorporated.
The ambit and content of guarantee under our constitution is narrower that Common Law and
American Constitution. In the American system, the constitutional bar applies to the second
prosecution irrespective of the result of the first prosecution.
The object of Res Judicata is also founded on this maxim-Nemo debet Bis vexari Pro Una Et
Eadem cause- no man should be vexed ( ) twice over the same cause.
The bar which law impasses on subsequent litigation is created by the existence of a previous
judgment whereby the matter has once already fully canvassed and finally decided between
the parties by a competent court. By the general law, where a material issue has been tried and
determined between the same parties in a proper suit, and in a competent court, it cannot be
tried in another suit between them.

(( 73 )) -

The maxim is based on the principle that the justice should not only be done but should
manifestly be seen to be done. This could be possible only when a judge or an adjudicating
authority decides the matter impartially and without carrying any kind of bias. Bias may be of
different kind and form. It may be pecuniary, personal, or there may be bias to the subject-
matter etc. [Amar Nath Chowdhury v. Braithwaite & Co. [2002] 111 Comp. Cas. 707 (SC)]

!
 ( 22 )

This maxim applies only when the interest attributed is such as to render the case his own
cause. This principle applies not only to the justices but also to all tribunals and bodies which
are given jurisdiction to determine judicially the rights of parties. ' 0 0 @AB
- ( + 6 -

(( 75 ))
– .' / +
(Where both parties are equally in fault, the condition of the possession is the best.)
This maxim has much relevance to the money paid by mistake and the refusal
to refund resulting in the unjust enrichment. The money may not be recoverable if in paying
and receiving it the parties were in pari delicto. Tax paid under mistake of law is refundable.
A person is entitled to recover money paid by mistake or under coercion, and if it is
established that the payment, even though it be tax, has been made by the person labouring
under a mistake of law, the party receiving the money is bound to repay or return it though it
might have been paid voluntarily, subject, however, to questions of estoppel, waiver,
limitation or the like. The person and the Government in paying and receiving are not in pari
delicto; and, therefore, the aforesaid person is entitled to recover the amount. The amount does
not become recoverable if in paying and receiving both the payer and the recipient are in fault,
i.e., they are pari delicto. Where each party is equally in fraud, the law favours him who is
actually in possession, or where both parties are equally guilty, the estate will lie where it was.

( 8) +

Nemo Contra Factum Suum Venire Potest is a Latin maxim which means ‘no one can go
against his own act’. When an act has once been performed, which is binding on the actor,
s/he cannot at will depart from that act or do anything contrary to it. Thus if one has submitted
a question to arbitration s/he cannot resile there from. S/he cannot validly do anything to
prevent the submission proceedings. An agent who enters into a contract on behalf of his
principal cannot subsequently depart from his contract on the ground that he had no authority
from the principal to enter into it. That might be a good defence in the mouth of the principal,
but would not be available to the agent.

( 7) 4 " 05 3 #
(The law takes no account of trifles.)
Sec. 95 of the I. P. C. lays down that an act is not an offence if the
harm resulting from it is so slight that no man of ordinary sense and temper would
complain of it.
There are innumerable acts, without performing such acts men cannot
live together in society. Acts which all men constantly do and suffer in turn and
which it is desirable that they should do and suffer in turn and which such acts
ought not to be treated as crimes. It is theft to dip a pen in another man's inkpot,
mischief to crumble one of his wafers are trifles of which law takes no account.
They are so minute that no person of ordinary sense and temper would
complain of it.

!
 ( 23 )

( )@ + - "
Under the contract of sale there is no implied condition or warranty as to quality or fitness of
goods supplied for any particular purpose. The buyer buys on his own judgement and skill if he
selects the specific goods he requires. Also where the goods are inspected by the buyer without
any fraud on the part of the seller, the maxim applies even though the defect which exists in
them is latent and not discoverable on examination. Thus, if the buyer depends upon his own
skill and integrity and the goods turn out to be defective, it is his own fault and it is not the duty
of the seller to point out the defects in the goods he is selling.
The principle of Caveat emptor lays down that---
( 1) Where the contract is for sale of a specified article under its patent or other trade name, there
is no implied condition as to its fitness for any particular purpose.
(2) Where the buyer has examined the goods, there shall be no implied condition as regards
defect Exceptions to the rule of Caveat emptor The rule of Caveat emptor does not
apply where there is an implied warranty or condition as to the quality or fitness.

1. Where the buyer expressly or by implication makes known to the seller the particular purpose for
which the goods are required, there is an implied condition that the goods shall be reasonably fit for
such purpose.

2. Where the goods are bought by description from the seller who deals in goods of that description;
[whether he be the manufacturer or not], there is an implied condition that the goods shall be of
merchantable quality. But if the goods are examined by the buyer there shall be no implied condition
as regards defect.

( ) # + +

The Indian constitution, though a federal constitution has not adopted the doctrine of
separation of powers, unlike the American Constitution.
The state legislature under the Indian Constitution is not a delegate of the Union
Parliament. Both legislatures derive powers from the same constitution. Since both the Union and
the State legislatures derive their respective powers from the same constitution, one cannot by
delegation of subjects clothe the other, with the legislative capacity to make laws on that subject.
Hence, the Union legislature cannot delegate or transfer its powers to the State legislatures and
vice versa.
The Supreme Court has held that the Legislature cannot delegate its essential functions
which have been entrusted to it by the Constitution.
The essential legislative functions are the determination of the legislative policy and
its formulation. In other words, it cannot delegate to another agency the exercise of its judgement
on the question as to what the law should be. The Administrative Law of India does recognise the

!
 ( 24 )

principle of delegated legislation. The power to frame rules not altering or modifying the basic
policy of law can be conferred Qn the Executive.
( .)
( Where both parties are equally to blame, neither can hold the other liable. )
Contributory negligence is negligence in not avoiding the consequence arising from
the negligence of some other person, when means and opportunity are afforded to do so. It is the
non-exercise by the plaintiff of such ordinary care, diligence and skill, as would have avoided the
consequences of the defendant's negligence The doctrine of contributory negligence rests upon
the view that though the defendant has been in fact negligent, yet the plaintiff has by his own
carelessness served the causal connection between the defendant's negligence and the
accident which has occured; and that the defendant's negligence accordingly is not the
true proximate cause of the injury. The doctrine is founded upon the maxim - ' in jure
non remota causa sed proxima spectatur' The law takes into consideration any act or
conduct of the party injured or wronged which may have immediately contributed to
that result. And one who has by his own negligence contributed to the injuiry of which he
complains cannot maintain an action against another in respect of it for he will be considered
in law to be the author of his own wrong, But Lord Halsbury is of the opinion that this
doctrine is merely a special applicatibn of the maxim "in pan i delicto poitor est conditio
defendantis " ( Where both parties are equally to blame, neither can hold the other liable. )
Where the plaintiff so far contributes to the misfortune by his own negligence or
want of ordinary and common care and caution, he is not entitled to recover.
There is no rule of law that a person riding or driving in the dark must be held to be
negligent if he is driving at such a speed that he is not able to pull up within the limit of his
vision.
Contributory negligence, to afford a defence must be that of the plaintiff
himself or of his servants, whom he has selected from his knowledge or belief in their
care or skill, the contributory negligence of a third person, not being the servant of the
plaintiff, will not suffice. The defence of contributory negligence has no place in suit
brought for damages on account of an intentional wrong.
The onus of proving affirmatively that there was contributory negligence on
the part of the person injured rests, in the first instance upon the defendants, and in the
absence of evidence tending to that conclusion, the plaintiff is bound to prove its non
existence. If the Court finds itself unable to discover the extent of negligence of the plaintiff
or that of the defendant who contributed to bring about the accident, the defendant is
entitled to succeed, for in pan i delicto poitor est conditio defendantis.
When contributory negligence is set up as a defence, its existence does not depend
on any duty owed by the injured party to the party sued and all that is necessary to establish
such a defence is to prove to, the satisfaction of the Court that the injured did not in his own
interest take reasonable care of himself and contributed, by that want of care to his own
injury.
( /)
! "

!
 ( 25 )

Whoever does any act, whether negligently or not, whereby damage is done to property of another,
is held responsible for it Holt, C, J, laid down the strict principle of law sic utere tuo ut alienum
non loedas ( every one must so use his own as not to do damage to another ). An improper use by
one man of his land, that is a use in excess of his rights, may cast an additional burden on to his
neighbour. and there by curtail the later's legitimate enjoyment of his property or cause him grave
personal inconvenience; or even danger. The plaintiff must show not only that he has sustained
damage, but that the defendant had caused it by going beyond what was necessary in order to
enable him to have the natural use of his own land If the plaintiff only shows that his own land is
damaged by the defendant using his land in the natural manner he cannot succeed.
If an alteration is made in the normal stage of things, calculated to cause injury to a
neighbour, an obligation is cast upon the person who makes such an alteration to protect his
neighbour from injury ; the liability of an occupier on whose land such an alteration has been
made would be absolute unless the case falls within one of the exceptions or the liability is
excluded or limited by statute.
An occupier is liable for the escape of fire caused by the negligence not only of his
servant but also of his independent contractor and one who is on his Land with leave and licence.
The maxim applies in day to day activities of man. It regulates every day human affairs and is
based on common sense; rules of safety and precautions.
(26) A Discussion on Law of Double Jeopardy in India
The principle of double jeopardy as enshrined in Article 20(2) of the Constitution of India,
Section 300 Cr.P.C, Section 26 of the General Clauses Act, and Section 71 I.P.C lays down foundation
for the plea of autrefois acquit and autrefois convict. The pre-requisite for the rule of double jeopardy
to come into play is that the accused should have been tried for the same offence on an earlier
occasion. The second prosecution must be for the same offence. The ingredients of the two offences
should be identical. If the offences are distinct the embargo placed by the doctrine of double jeopardy
will not be applicable. The doctrine of double jeopardy does not bar prosecution for the same offence
under different sections of the same act or under different acts.

The pre-condition for double jeopardy rule to be applicable is that the second
prosecution must be for the same offence. The ingredients of one offence should be same as the
ingredients of another offence. To determine whether the second prosecution is hit by the rule of
double jeopardy the emphasis has to be on the ingredients of both the offences and not the allegations.
If the ingredients of both the ffences are different, then notwithstanding the rule of double jeopardy the
subsequent prosecution is not hit by double jeopardy even if the allegations are same. Principle of
double jeopardy does not bar rosecution under different sections of the same act or different acts.
However, if the offence falls under two different sections, the sentencing power of the court is
circumscribed by s.71 IPC to impose a sentence which does not exceed the maximum sentence which
the court could award for any of those offences. Going by your statement of facts, if the investigation
in relation to the first complaint has not been completed yet, the trial has effectively not started.
Therefore, there is no double jeopardy.

DOUBLE JEOPARDY IN FAMILY LAWS?

Article 20 (2) of the constitution of India states " NO PERSON SHALL BE PROSECUTED AND
PUNISHED FOR THE SAME OFFENCE MORE THAN ONCE." Similarly Sec. 26 of the General
clause Act 1897 says: Where an act or omission constitutes an offence under two or more enactments,

!
 ( 26 )

then the offender shall be liable to be prosecuted and punished under either or any of those
enactments,but shall not be liable to be punished twice for the same offence.
The question is : Is a simultaneous prosecution under Section 20 (1) (d) of Protection of Women from
Domestic Violence Act-2005 and also U/S 125 Cr.P.C. contrary to the aforesaid Article of the
Constitution 20(2) and also to Sec. 26 of General Clause Act 1897.
An expert said that "First of all please note that proceedings under SEc.125 is not criminal prosecution
at all. It is for claim of maintenance. Therefore in your case doctrine of double jeopardy has no
application at all.. "From the womb of this reply another question came out that if section 125 CRPC
is criminal case if we read it's prefix (CRPC) but its run in family court, when we look into Indian
Constitution article 20(2) does not mention anything like CRIMINAL or NONCRIMINAL but they
talk about "PROSECUTED AND PUNISHED FOR THE SAME OFFENCE MORE THAN ONCE."
But to the contrary Sec. 26 of General Clause Act 1897 " the offender shall be liable to be prosecuted
and punished under either or any of those enactments" by reading this above line its is indirectly
implies Criminal prosecution "offender " so I would like to still go ahead and ask the same question.
Once CRPC 125 case trial completes and gives judgment awarding amount XXXX to petitioner, how
can the same petitioner asks for the same relief of XXXX amount because of the same offence again
under DVC ACT? Why Is this not called "Double jeopardy" ? Really it is a "Double jeopardy" hit by
article 20(2) of constitution of India and section 26 of the General clause Act 1897.
ABSTRACT This paper traces the shifting contours of double jeopardy in India and how it
evolved from procedural criminal law top being a constitutional right. The paper would have in-depth
analysis of judicial pronouncements on the limits and boundaries of doctrine of double jeopardy and
would try to sensitize readers alien to Indian laws on the variations present in Indian system in this
near universal doctrine that a man should not be punished twice for one crime.

Constitution of India - Double Jeopardy

DOUBLE JEOPARDY – A GURANTEE AGAINST MISCARRIAGE OF JUSTICE :

The term "double jeopardy" refers to the "danger" of a second punishment whenever an individual
is brought to trial again for the same crime (or a greater or lesser included crime). This means that there cannot
be a second prosecution for the same criminal act (both in fact and in law) upon which a first prosecution was
based. The accused must be released and the case dismissed. The challenge is determining what constitutes the
"same" crime for double jeopardy purposes. Some of the simpler examples include:
• an acquittal or conviction for murder will bar any prosecution for manslaughter if based on the same facts
(lesser included example)
• an acquittal or conviction for larceny-theft will bar any prosecution for robbery if based on the same facts
(greater included example)
• an acquittal or conviction for burglary will bar any prosecution for robbery (even if the burglar woke up the
sleeping couple and robbed them) unless there are distinct elements in one crime that are not included in the
other (multiple criminal transaction example).
• an acquittal or conviction for R.I.C.O. will bar any prosecution for conspiracy or attempted R.I.C.O.
(continuing crime example)
• an acquittal or conviction for battery will not bar any later prosecution for murder if the victims later dies as a
result of injuries (separate and distinct new crime example)
ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE JEOPARDY IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION Art . 20 (2 ) which runs as “ No person
shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once “ contain the rule against double
jeopardy .
The principle was in existence in India even prior to the commencement of the Constitution , but the
same has now been given the status of a constitutional , rather than a mere statutory , gurantee .
Both Prosecution and Punishment should co-exist for Article 20 (2) to be operative . A prosecution without
punishment would not bring the case within Art 20 (2 ) . If a person has been prosecuted for an offence but
acquitted , then he can be prosecuted for the same offence again and punished .
Ex- a person was prosecuted and punished under S.161 I.P.C . On appeal , the High Court quashed the trial

!
 ( 27 )

holding it void ab- initio as no sanction for the same had been obtained under the law . Art 20 (2 ) would not bar
a second trial for the same offence , as the accused had not been prosecuted and punished fot that offence .
Enhancement of punishment by the revising authority does not amount to a second punishment . Preventive
Detention is not ‘prosecution and punishment’ and , therefore , it does not bar prosecution of the person
concerned . Prosecution has no fixed meaning and is susceptible both of a wide and a narrow meaning . But as
used in Art 20 (2) it embodies the following
THREE ESSENTIALS :
a) There must be a person accused of an offence . The word “offence” has to be taken in the sense in which it is
used in the General Clauses Act , 1897 as meaning ‘an act or omission made punishable by any law for the time
being in force’
b) The proceedings should have been taken before a ‘court’ or ‘judicial tribunal’ . The revenue authorities , like
the sea customs authorities , are not judicial tribunals . . Likewise proceedings before a tribunal which entertains
departmental or administering enquiries
c) cannot be considered as proceedings in connection with proceedings in connection with prosecution and
punishment .
d) The proceedings should have been taken before the judicial tribunal or court in reference to the law which
creates offences . Thus , where an enquiry is held before a statutory authority against a government servant , not
for the purposes of punishing for the offence of cheating and corruption but to advise the government as to the
disciplinary action to be taken against him , it cannot be said that the person has been prosecuted . It would
make no difference even if the enquiry is required to act judicially
DOUBLE JEOPARDY FOLLOWED IN OTHER COUNTRIES:
1.Australia 2.Canada 3.Europe 4.Germany 5.United Kingdom 6. USA

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* ' -Mr. A, a Talathi of a village is put up for a trial for an offence under section
409 of the IPC. The prosecution case against him is that he failed to send to the Government
treasury an amount of Rs. 5 out of the amount he had collected as land revenue. An offence
under Section 409 is non-bailable offence. The accused is an old man of 52, and comes of a
respectable family. He has been arrested and is an under trial prisoner.
Draft an application for bail on his behalf, you may choose your own set of facts. Such
as the court in which he is being put up for trial, the name of the accused and other necessary
details.
ANS: -
BAIL APPLICATION

IN THE COURT OF THE JUDICIAL MAGISTRATE F.C., SURAT

CASE NO. 111/2013
STATE OF GUJARAT ………..Complainant
V/S
Mr. A ………….Accused
Sub: -Application for bail under section 536 of Cr.P.C.

It is submitted on behalf of the above named accused as follows: -

(1) The accused was arrested by the Varachha Police Station on 2nd April, 2013 under
Section 409, IPC and is in police custody for last 10 days.
(2) The main allegation of the police is that the accused who is a Talathi of the village Mota
Varachha in the capacity of public servant has failed to account for a paltry (worthless,
) sum of Rs. 5 to the Government treasury, and has hereby committed criminal
breach of trust.
(3) Although the offence is a non-bailable one considering such a small amount involved, it
is highly improbable that he would ever think of misappropriating such a paltry sum,
there must be some honest mistake on the part of the accused concerned which can well
be attributed of his old age.
(4) The accused is a respectable family man and is a resident of the said village having
immovable property of his own and he is not likely to abscond (
(5) Under the above circumstances it is requested that the said accused may be released on
bail and the accused is ready and willing to give such surety as the court would be
pleased to order.
(6) And for this act of kindness the accused as in duty bound shall ever pray.
PLACE: SURAT
Date.: 16th December, 2013. Sd.
(Advocate for Accused)

!
 ( 56 )

( ) ,++ B . 2(7) @ :@
' "F" ' >

1. A person may be accused of a Bailable or a Non Bailable offence. In case of a

bailable offence, the accused has a right to secure his release by applying for bail
under S. 436(1) of Cr P C, while in case of non-bailable offence, the accused may be
released by the court on its discretion after he applied for bail under S. 437(1) of Cr
P C. In case of a bailable offence, if the accused in indigent, he may be released my
executing a personal bond without sureties.
2. The application for bail is made to the court in which the accused is tried (that
depends on the offence). However, S. 439 gives special powers to HC and Court of
Session to release a person on bail (after imposing certain conditions), and so an
application may be made to HC or Court of Session as well if the person is under
arrest.
3. No Verification, Notary, and Affidavit required.

Before the Judicial Magistrate Ist Class at Surat

Criminal Misc. Petition No ....../2009
in
Crime No. 1234 / 2009
(or Criminal Complaint No 1234/2009)
A. B. s/o B. C.
age 30 yrs
resident of 123, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Petitioner/Accused

vs

State of Gujarat
through Station House Officer,
Police Station, Katatgam, Surat ......................................... Respondent/Prosecution
(or M. N. s/o N.O.
resident of 222 AB Road, Surat ......................................... Complainant)

Application for Bail under under S. 437(1) of Cr P C

The aformentioned accused/applicant begs to state as under:-

1. That the accused is facing trial before this Hon'ble Court in case titled as State of
MP vs A.B. for the offence under Sections 323 and 325 of IPC.

!
 ( 57 )

2. That this Hon'ble court was pleased to issue a Warrant and the Police has
accordingly arrested the accused/applicant.
3. That the accused was not at all involved in the crime alleged in the said case.
4. That the accused is a permanent resident of Surat and earning livelihood by working
as a fruit vendor in trains.
5. The accused has his old parents dependent upon him and the accused is the only
bread earner for the family.
6. That by getting the accused/applicant arrested the accused has been deprived of his
valuable fundamental right of liberty by abuse of powers and process of law by the
complainant.
7. That the accused is willing to furnish surety and bail bonds to the satisfaction of this
learned court in case he is ordered to be released on bail.
8. That the accused will abide by all the conditions as imposed by this Honourable
Court.

It is, therefore, most respectfully prayed that this application for bail may kindly be
allowed in the interest of justice and the accused be released on bail upon such conditions a
this Honorable Court may deem fit.

Surat
10/11/2009 Through, Advocate

( )# , ? " 0 ++
+
IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT
Civil Suit No. 91 of 2012
PARMANAND GANESHNAND OJHA
Room No. 12, Maruti Colony,
SURAT. …….Plaintiff
V/S
KARUNBABU RAMBABU KANANI
Room No. 19, Bomaby Colony,
SURAT. ……..Defendant
Sub: - Application for Ad-interim Injunction (easement of light and air)

(1) The above named plaintiff submits by this application as under that ----
(2) The plaintiff has filed a suit for declaration and injunction against the defendant claiming a
right of easement of light and air peaceably enjoyed for continuous period of 20 years and
more through the window on this western side of the plaintiff’s house.
(3) The defendant is contemplating ( ! " # ! ) to erect a wall on the
western side of the house belonging to the plaintiff and obstruct the light and air enjoyed
by the plaintiff for the last 20 years and more.

!
 ( 58 )

(4) The plaintiff is likely to put to an irreparable loss by the erection of the wall by the
defendant. It is therefore in the interest of justice that the defendant may be restrained
( "$ " % ! ) from committing the contemplated injury to the plaintiff
and the status quo should be maintained during the pendency (pending, $ ) of the
suit.
(5) The plaintiff has filed the necessary affidavits of his neighbours and his own affidavit
swearing ( & &' () that A has enjoyed light and air for 20 years without
interruption (! *) " + ) from the window in the room on the upper storey
(floor).
(6) The plaintiff therefore prays that the defendant may be restrained from creating the wall
on the western side during the pendency of this suit.
Sd. Sd.
PARMANAND GANESHNAND OJHA Plaintiff’s Advocate

(4) A Plaint in a Civil Suit : for Specific Performance of Contract

' "F" ' >As per Order VI (Pleading) and Order VII (Plaint) CPC, Every
plaint must contain the following things:

a. Name of the court

b. Name and details of the Parties
c. If the plaintiff or the defendant is a minor/insane, a declaration to that effect
d. facts of the case - ( )
e. facts constituting cause of action and when it arose
f. a statement about the value of the subject matter for the purpose of
jurisdiction and court fees.
g. facts showing that the court has jurisdiction (territorial as well as pecuniary)
h. Relief prayed
i. Description of the set-off (if claimed)
j. Verification

Although there is no special rule for this but general convention seems to be that, in the
title of a suit, the word "Respondent" is used in Original civil suit while the
word"Defendant" is used in applications made to - appellate court or supreme court.
IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT

Civil Suit No. ………… / 20…….

A. B. s/o B. C.
123, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Plaintiff

!
 ( 59 )

Vs.

M. N. s/o O. P.
456, A K Road, Surat, ......................................... Respondent

Suit for Specific Performance of Contract to sell a residential plot

The plaintiff respectfully states as follows : -

Inducement:
(1) Plaintiff is a Govt. Servant working in Surat, MP. and so on
(2) Respondent is a property broker having an office at ...

Material Facts of the case:

(3) The plaintiff agreed with the respondent on 10 Aug 2008 to purchase the Plot No 123 at
Rani Bagh Colony, Surat. A copy of the contract is attached with the petition.
(4) The boundaries of the plot is as under:
East: Road
West: Plot number 124
North: Road
South: Colony wall
(4) The total value of the plot to be paid by the plaintiff to the respondent, as agreed upon
in the contract, is Rs. 40,000/-.
(5) The respondent accepted a payment of 10,000/- though Check No. 123 of SBI, Surat
Branch at the time of making the contract and promised to do registry upon payment of
remaining amount of 30,000/-
(5) The plaintiff tried to pay the remaining amount on several occasions by cash as well as
check but the respondent refused to take the payment.
(6) The plaintiff also sent a notice about the same to the respondent on 10/10/2009.
(7) The plaintiff is ready to pay the remaining amount of Rs 30,000/- but the respondent is
not willing to transfer the said plot.

Cause of Action and Limitation

(8) The cause of action for the present suit first arose on 10/10/2009, when the respondent
refused to convey the said property as per the terms of the agreement and hence, the suit
filed today is within time.

Valuation:
9 The suit is valued for the purpose of jurisdiction and court-fee at Rs. 30000/-.

Jurisdiction:
(10) The plot is located in Surat, which is within this court's territorial jurisdiction.

(11) The value of the contract is 40,000/- which is within this court's pecuniary

!
 ( 60 )

jurisdiction.

Relief Claimed:
(12) The plaintiff, there fore prays that

1. the court be pleased to order the respondent to perform his part of the contract by
accepting the remaining payment and conveying the said plot to the plaintiff.
2. the plaintiff be permitted to deposit the balance of consideration in this Hon'ble
Court.
3. the respondent be ordered to pay compensation for mental harrasment, loss of
wages, and cost of this litigation.

Place: …………………. (Signature of the plaintiff)

Date: …………………..
YYY
Advocate

Verification

I, ______, do hereby solomnly verify that the contents from paras 1 to 4 are correct and
true to the best of my knowledge and contents from para 5 to 12 are based on legal advice,
which I believe to be correct. Affirmed at Surat this 4th Day of September 2009.

(Signature)
Plaintiff

(/) 38 @ : @ - 7583
Notice: Registered A.D & Speed Post.
Advocate
Mr. Ashvin B. Prajapati
Resident of 96, Gita Nagar Society,
SURAT.
Date: 16-12-2013
To,
The General Manager,
Central Railway,
Bandra Terminal,
Surat-395 006.
SUB: - Notice under Section 80 of C.P.C., 1908.
Dear Sir,

!
 ( 61 )

I, do signature hereunder Advocate, Mr. Arvind K. Shah, under instruction of my

client Mr. Rameshkumar J. Patel, Aged about 30 years, Resident of 10, Jivandeep Society,
Varachha Road, SURAT, I write a Notice to you that: -
(1) My client’s office in MUMBAI had booked a Consignment in favour of my client at
SURAT by the Central Railway.
(2) When my client made inquiries on 1st October, 2013 at the Sardar Railway Station he
was informed that the Consignment would be release to him only on payment of sum of
Rs. 5,000/- while according to my client, it was totally illegal and without the authority of
law.
(3) As the Parcel Office at the Sardar railway Station refused to deliver the Consignment to
my client, if the said amount was not paid. My client paid a sum of Rs. 5,000/-under
Protest and without prudence to his legal right in the matter. A photo copy of the Receipt
issued to my client in respect of the said amount is enclosed.
(4) Thereafter on 1st November, 2013 and again on 20th November, 2013, my client writes to
you requesting you to refund the sum of Rs. 5,000/- illegally charged charges. But he has
not received any reply till date.
(5) In view of what is stated in above my client intends to file a suit against the Central
Railway in a Competent Court of law, after the expiry of 2 (two) months from the receipts
of this Notice by you.
(6) As per the draft plaint enclosed unless the relief claimed in the said plaint are granted to
my client within the said period of 2 (two) months.
(7) Kindly treat this as a Statutory Notice under Section 80 of the Code of Civil Procedure,
1908.
(8) Central Railway is liable for the expenses of this Notice.
PLACE: SURAT Sd/
DATE: - 16TH DECEMBER, 2013 Advocate

(1) : A"A"C <"; # 9 @A"C 7 /- @ :@

;C9 =," A , @
( ) " - + # ( .' + #
.( . : ' . .( : : (
. : Judicial Magistrate Ist Class ' . < #+
. ( = : # . ' 2+ .( &
' " ' - < #

Before the Principal Judge, Family Court at Surat

In the Court of Judicial Magistrate Ist Class at Surat

Maintenance Application No. 125 of 2005

!
 ( 62 )

A. B. d/o B. C. & w/o. M.N. ( name of D )

123, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... : B +
Vs.
M. N. s/o O. P.
456, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Oponant

%' ? ,++ B 7 / @ :@ +

The above named applicant hereby states on solemn affirmation as under: -

(1)The applicant as a legally wedded wife of the opponent where marriage was solemnly as
per Hindu Rights and Customs on at the date: 12-10-2000 at SURAT. There is no issue out of
the said wed look even though three years time has been lapsed.
(2)The applicant began to ill treat that applicant for the reason that she could not conceive any
child through three years has lapsed. The applicant was beaten and driven out of the house on
01-06-2003. The applicant being helpless return to her parent’s house and ever since than she
is living with her parents. The parents of the applicant are old people and are striving hard for
survival
(3)The applicant cannot be found fault of the non-conception. The opponent is trying to
remarry with another woman. The applicant approached danger to her life in the hands of the
opponent, even if she joints him at any moment.
(4)The applicant is thus justified in living away from the husband who is the opponent herein.
(5)The opponent has neglected and refused to maintain the applicant which he is legally liable
to maintain her
(6)The applicant has no source of income for her livelihood. The applicant is unable to
maintain herself.
(7)The opponent is working as a contractor earning a salary of Rs. 10,000/- per month. Apart
from his source the opponent is in possession of 4 acres of land in Village. Fetching him an
income of Rs. 50,000/- per annum.
(8)The applicant claims a sum of Rs. 5,000/- per month towards her Maintenance.
(9)The applicant therefore prays: -
(A)That the honorable Court may be pleased to award a sum of Rs. 5,000/- toward.
(B)Any other order, which the honorable Court claim fit may be made
(C)Caused of his applicant may please be awarded from the opponent.

Sd.
Advocate for the Applicant
VERIFICATION
I, the applicant to hereby declare that the facts maintain declare that the facts maintain above
all true and correct to the best of my (notice), knowledge, belief and information.
PLACE: SURAT
DT.: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006
Sd.
OF THE APPLICANT

!
 ( 63 )

: A"A"C <"; # 9 @A"C 7 /- @9 :@ ;C9 =," A , @

In the Court of Judicial Magistrate Ist Class at Surat

Maintenance Petition No. ... / 2009

A. B. w/o B. C.
123, A B Road, Surat, Gujarat ......................................... Petitioner

Vs.

M. N. s/o O. P.
456, A B Road, Surat, Gujarat ......................................... Respondent

Application for maintenance by wife under S. 125 Cr P C, 1973

The aformentioned petitioner begs to state as under:-

That the petitioner is the wife of the respondent, their marriage having been solemnized at
Surat on 10/10/2006 according to the Hindu religion, vedic ceremonies.

1. That after the marriage, the petitioner and the respondent cohabited and resided
together for about threeyears, and during this period, the petitioner did not bear any
child.
2. That since the petitioner did not bear a child, the respondent started to ill-treat her,
and on a number of occasions, she was driven out of the matrimonial house, and had
no other go but to stay with her parents against her and their wishes.
3. That on 10/10/2009, the repondent beat the petitioner up and threw her out of the
house and did not let her come back in the house.
4. The petitioner and her parents tried their best to convince the respondent and his
parents but the respondent did not allow the petitioner to cohabit with him.
5. That the petitioner is, thus, forced to stay with her parents, who are very poor.
6. Due to extreme emotional stress, that the petitioner is not able to pursue any job or
vocation and so is unable to maintain herself.
7. That the respondent is employed in XYZ Company and is drawing a salary of
Rs. 20,000/- per month, and even though he has sufficient means, the respondent has
refused and neglected to maintain the petitioner.
8. That the petitioner served upon the respondent a notice, on 20/10/2008 calling upon
him to pay to the petitioner a maintenance allowance @ Rs. 5000/- per month, but
the opponent has not done so, and hence this application.
9. That the petitioner resides within the local limits of the jurisdiction of this Court,
and hence, this hon’ble Court has jurisdiction to try and decide this application.

!
 ( 64 )

10. That this application being chargeable with a fixed rate of Court fee, the same is
paid herewith.
11. That the petitioner, therefore, prays that –
(a) This application be kindly allowed, and the opponent be ordered to pay to this
petitioner maintenance allowance @ Rs. 5000/- per month from the date of this
application;
(b) The Costs of this application be awarded from the opponent;
(c) Any other orders in the interest of justice be kindly passed.

Place: …………………. (Signature of the Petitioner)

Date: …………………..

Advocate for Petitioner

Verification

I, ______, do hereby verify that the contents from paras 1 to 12 are correct
and true to the best of my knowledge and personal belief and no part of it is
false and nothing material has been concealed therein. Affirmed at Surat this
4th Day of September 2009.
(Signature)
Petitioner
(7) Notice in case of Cheque Bouncing
' "F" ' >
Cheque Bouncing is a quasi criminal matter covered under Sec. 138 of Negotiable
Instruments Act.
Conviction under this section may incurr prison sentence.
1. However, before a law suit can be filed, the receiver of the cheque must send a
notice to the cheque issuer demanding money. The demand should clearly mention
the details of the transaction that obligated the issuer to issue the cheque and the
request that the money should be paid within 15 days.
2. The notice must be sent within 30 days of receiving information from the bank that
the cheque has been dishonoured.
3. If the payment is not received within 15 days after sending the notice, a law suit can
be filed within the next 30 days.
4. For example:
o Cheque given on 1/1/2010
o Cheque put up in the bank on 5/1/2010 (cheque must be put up within six
months of the date on the cheque).
o Bank dishonours the check on 10/1/2010.
o Notice demanding money sent on 15/1/2010.(Notice must be sent within 30
days i.e. before 9/2/2010).

!
 ( 65 )

o Need to wait for payment for 15 days i.e. 30/1/2010

o Law suit may be filed between next 30 days i.e. 1/2/2010 and 2/3/2010.

@ @ + # @ 6
7 3 % " , '?
IN THE HONORABLE COURT OF JUDICIAL MEGISTRATE FC at SURAT.
Criminal Complaint No.: 100 of 2005.
Date: - 20-3-2005
Shri Bharatkumar Babulal Shah
Aged: 42 years, Resident of 11, Keshav Park,
Surat. ………………….Complainant
V/S.
Shri Arvind Nirubhai Kakdiya
Aged: 48 years, Resident of 10, Deep Society,
Surat. ………………….Accused
SUB: - Complained filed under Section-138 of the negotiable Instrument Act.
(1) The accused is carrying on business in the name ‘GOPI TRADERS’.
(2) The accused in the course of business had to repaid the balance amount against the legal
dues of the complaint for which the accused had drawn and delivered a Cheque
NO.12345 of Rs. 1,00,000/- on 11-03-2005 drawn in the Bank Of Baroda,
(3) The Bank memo of which was issued on 14-03-2005, the complainant has received the
intimation from the Bank on 15-03-2005.
(4) Thus the accused had committed an offence of drawee cheque without funds and the
cheque was dishonoured on the ground of “Insufficient of Funds”.
(5) Hence, the accused has committed an offence punishable U/S 138 of N. I. Act as the
cheque was dishonoured by the drawee Bank on 18-03-2005 and intimation of which was
received on 19-03-2005.
(6) The Complainant served upon a legal demand notice U/S 138 of N. I. Act on your
Registered Post which was served to him on 01-04-2005 and a copy of said notice was
also sent to them by on 02-04-2005 which has been received. Thus notice is served to the
accused, but even after the expiry of 15 (fifteen) days after the serving of the said notice,
he has not paid the amount to the complainant and thus he has committed an offence
punishable under Section 138 of N. I. Act and therefore he is required to the prosecuted
and punished.
(7) Under the above circumstances the accused had committed an offence punishable U/S 138
of N. I. Act as the cheque was dishonoured at SURAT by the Bank at SURAT.
(8) The offence has been taken place within the jurisdiction of this court.
(9) The complainant prays as follow that: -
(a) Process made please be issued against with the accused, and
(b) He may please be tired and punished in according with the providence of law.
PLACE: SURAT
DATE: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006
Sd/
Advocate for the Complainant Complainant

!
 ( 66 )

The complainant realized upon the following list of document.

(1) Copy of the Cheque.
(2) Copy of the Bank Memo dated 15-03-2005.
(3) Copy of the intimation received by the Complainant of Bank.
(4) Copy of the Notice sent by the Complainant.
(5) Copy of the white slip of the registered post.
(6) Copy of the acknowledgement.
The complainant realized upon the following list of witnessed.
(1) The Complainant himself.
(2) The officer of the Bank of Baroda.
PLACE: SURAT
DATE: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006 Sd/
Complainant

Note: Attaching a copy of all the referred documents is not necessary.

(3) : 9 = : '?
IN THE COURT OF THE SMALL CAUSES JUDGE, SURAT
Suit No. 50 of 2005
Shri Balwant Kumar Chopra
Aged: 42 years, Resident of 11, Keshav Park,
Surat. ………………….Plaintiff
V/S.
Shri Amit Nirubhai Sangani
Aged: 48 years, Resident of 10, Deep Society,
Surat. ………………….Defendant
The above named plaintiff states as follows that: -
(1) The plaintiff is money-lender carrying on business of money-lending in SURAT. The
defendant is serving as clerk in “A. V. and Sons Pvt. Ltd.”.
(2) The defendant on or about 10th January, 2005 approached the plaintiff for a sum of Rs.
5,00,000/- which sum he needed at that time for the purchase of plot of land in the out of
city. The plaintiff agreed to lend the said sum at an interest of 12% per annum.
(3) The plaintiff lent and advanced the said sum of Rs. 5, 00,000/- to the defendant on or
about the 10th January, 2005 and defendant as a collateral security executed a promissory
note in favour of the plaintiff for the said amount. The defendant had agreed to pay the
amount to the plaintiff whenever demanded.
(4) On 15th July, 2005, the plaintiff demanded the said amount from the defendant by letter
which was not responded.
(5) On 31st August, 2005, the plaintiff served a notice by registered post which also was not
replied.
(6) The defendant has failed to repay the amount as per agreement.
(7) The cause of action arose on 31st August, 2005 when the defendant refused to repay the
said amount finally.
(8) The promissory note was executed in SURAT and the defendant is residing in SURAT,
therefore, this court has a jurisdiction to hear and decide the matter.

!
 ( 67 )

(9) The suit or plaint is not time barred by any limitation.

(10) The suit is valued at Rs. 3000/- for the purpose of court fees and jurisdiction.
(11) The plaintiff therefore prays that: -
(a) The Court be pleased to pass a decree against the defendant for a sum of Rs. 5,
00,000/- and interest thereon in favour of the plaintiff.
(b) Cost of the suit.

PLACE: SURAT
DATE: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006
Plaint drawn by
Sd/ Sd/
Advocate for the plaintiff Plaintiff

VERIFICATION
I, the applicant to hereby declare that the facts maintain declare that the facts maintain above
all true and correct to the best of my knowledge, belief and information.

PLACE: SURAT
DATE: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006
Sd/
Plaintiff

(9) Application to report an offence to Magistrate

' "F" ' >

1. As per S. 190 of Cr PC, any Magistrate of First Class (or any Magistrate of Second
Class specially appointed for this purpose by Chief Judical Magistrate) can take
cognizance of any offence upon receiving a complaint, or upon a police report, or
upon information received from any person other than a police officer, or upon his
own knowledge.
2. As per S. 193 of Cr PC, a Court of Session cannot directly take cognizance of any
offence. The JMFC may "commit" the case i.e. transfer the case to Court of Session
if the offence is trialable only by Court of Session (S. 209).
3. S. 200 specifies the procedure for complaining to a magistrate of any offence.
4. There is no prescribed form of a complaint. In general:
1. the complaint should be about a non-cognizable offense (because for a non-
cognizable offense, the police does not register FIR). For a congizable
offence, if the police refuses to register FIR, a complaint may be made about
it to the JMFC.
2. it must be addressed to JMFC
3. state facts relating to the offence
4. must pray for action against the prepetrators
5. Important IPC Sections under which complaint is usually made:

!
 ( 68 )

Crime Cognizable? Bailable? Tried By

False Evidence - 193 NC B JMFC
False Charge - 211 NC B JMFC
Adulteration of food - 272 NC B JMFC
Water Pollution - 277 C B Any Magistrate
Atmosphere - 278 NC B Any Magistrate
Rash Driving - 279 C B Any Magistrate
Negligent Conduct w.r.t. Poison - 284 C B JMFC
Public Nuisance - 290 NC B Any Magistrate
Murder - 302, Culpable Homicide N A Murder - 304 C NB Court of Session
Death by rash or negligent Act - 304 A C B JMFC
Dowry Death - 304 B C NB Court of Session
Hurt - 323 NC B Any Magistrate
Grievous Hurt - 325 C NB Any Magistrate
Theft - 379, Robbery - 392 C NB Any Magistrate
Criminal Breach of Trust - 406 C NB JMFC
Defamation - 500 NC B Court of Session
Criminal Intimidation - 506 NC B Any Magistrate

In the Court of Judicial Magistrate Ist Class at Surat

Criminal Complaint No. ... / 2009

A. B. s/o B. C.
123, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Complainant

Vs.

M. N. s/o O. P.
456, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Accused

Complaint of Offence under S. 506 (Criminal Intimidation) I P C

Complaint of Offence under S. 290 (Public Nuisance) I P C

The aforementioned complainant begs to state as under:-

1. That the complainant is a resident of 123, MG Road, Surat.

2. That the accused is a resident of 222, MG Road, Surat, which is in the same area.
3. Since 10/10/2009, the accused and his friends have started playing cards on the
street in front of the plaintiff's house every evening and late night.
4. The accused and his friends create a lot of noise while playing and also shout
obscenities at each other.
5. Due to this behavior the plaintiff is not able to life peacefully in his house.

!
 ( 69 )

6. The plaintiff has requested the accused several times to stop playing in front of or
near his house but to no avail.
7. The plaintiff also gave the respondent a written notice in this respect.
8. The complainant, therefore, prays that –
(a) appropriate proceeding be initiated against the accused under Cr P C.
(b) the accused be stopped from continuing the nuisance in the residential locality.
(c) the accused be convicted of the offence under S. 290.
(d) the accused be ordered to pay compensation for medical treatment, mental
agony to the amount of 100,00/-

Place: …………………. (Signature of the

Complainant)
Date: …………………..

No Verification

No Notary

(10) Application by husband and wife for Divorce by mutual consent

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

!"# $ % & '

' "F" ' >

1. All petitions related to family matters such as divorce, restitution of conjugal rights,
adoption, child custody, etc are filed before Family Court. There is a family court
for each district and it is at the same level as the District Court. If no Family Court
has been set up for a district, a petition may be filed in the District Court.
2. The petition for such matter is to be submitted directly by the applicants. No
advocate is allowed. [For a applicant to appear through advocate, a special
permission from court is required.]

Before the Principal Judge, Family Court at Surat

Divorce Petition No. ... / 2009
A. B. s/o B. C.
123, A B Road, Surat,
......................................... Petitioner 1

!
 ( 70 )

M. N. wife /o O. P.
456, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Petitioner 2

Application for Divorce by husband and wife under S. 13-B of H M Act, 1955.

The aformentioned parties beg to state as under:-

1. That the parties to this present petition are both by religion and faith Hindus and
they were married per Hindu rites/customs at Surat on 10/10/2006 and the said
marriage is still existing. They are of age above 21 years.
2. That ever since the marriage, the petitioners did not live happily being of different
tastes habits, ideas, and bearing and so being completely different nature and
temperament.
3. That the petitioners could never adjust themselves even for some days and so had no
love nor heart for each other
4. That the petitioners have no hope for reconciliation between them in future.
5. That the parties last lived/cohabited at Surat, within the jurisdiction of this court.
6. On 10/10/2008 respondent, of own and out of free will broke the matrimonial home
and withdrew herself from the company of said petitioner 1 and since then she has
been residing and living at her father's house.
7. That both the parties have decided to dissolve the marriage.
8. That except as hereunder stated there were no other proceedings between parties.
9. That the above petition is bona fide and not presented in collusion between the
parties.
10. That there is every legal ground in granting the relief.

Your petitioners hence pray for a decree of dissolution of marriage by mutual consent
under section 13B of the Hindu Marriage Act 1955.

Place: …………………. (Signature of the Petitioner 1)

Date: …………………..

Place: …………………. (Signature of the Petitioner 2)

Date: …………………..

Verification
I, A. B s/o B. C., do hereby verify that the contents from paras 1 to 9 are correct and true
to the best of my knowledge and personal belief and no part of it is false and nothing
material has been concealed therein. Affirmed at Surat this 4th Day of September 2009.

(Signature) Petitioner 1

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 ( 71 )

Verification

I, A. B w/o B. C., do hereby verify that the contents from paras 1 to 9 are correct and true
to the best of my knowledge and personal belief and no part of it is false and nothing
material has been concealed therein. Affirmed at Surat this 4th Day of September 2009.

(Signature) Petitioner 2
.( - " "" " - (
!"# $ % &
the petition is above named most respectfully begs to submit as under.(1)that the
petitioner’s are husband and wife. Their marriage having been solemnized at surat on 1-1-
1998 according to the Hindu religion. (2) that out of the said wedlock the petitioners have got
a son by name suraj and daughter name nisha. (3) that the petitioner is submit that during the
recent past, they reqlised that they their, likings testes of life temperaments ideas, thinkings,
nature and life are so different from each other that it wailed not be possible in future.(4) that
the petitioners have tried their best to have a reconciliation for a happy domestic life, but they
have been very unfortunate to bring about the same. (5) that the petitioners have, therefore
decided to dissolve their marriage by mutual consent and hence this petition. (6) that the
petitioners do here by declare and confirm by them is not collusive. (7) that the petitioners
also submit and declare that they have been residing separately for last more than 2 years and
hence this petition is maintainable. (8) that this petition is file on the court fee stamps of
rs.50/- (9) that the petitioner therefore prey that- this petition be allowed and marriage
between the petitioners be dissolved by a decree of divorce on the basis of their mutual
consent.-no orders be passed as to the costs. –any other order in the interest of justice be
kindly passed.

(77) : 9 0 E= 75//
D

Before the Principal Judge, Family Court at Surat

case/pitition No. ... / 2009

M. N. wife /o O. P.
456, A B Road, Surat, .................................... Petitioner/applicant
V/s

A. B. s/o B. C.
123, A B Road, Surat, ......................................... Oponanet

SUB:- petition for Restitution of conjugal right of H.M.act.1955

The above named of petitioner most respectfully begs to submit as under:-
(1) the petitioner wedded with the opponent on 10-04-2001 lawfully according to the custom
and tradition. We both lived to 11-05-2013. we have no any child for during the marriage life.

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 ( 72 )

(2) the opponent makes/represent excuse for going to the out of city, the said opponent left me
at parent’s house on 12-05-2013. The opponent gave me a trust that when he will come back
from out of city, he will take me at our house.
(3) That opponent is coming from out of city on 15-07-2013 for this matter the time has passed
for 6 months, even though the opponent did not took me yet. The petitioner has sent latter on
01-08-2013 and on 15-08-2013 and on 01-09-2013. By her father and by her brother, but there
is no answer for the said latter.
(4) the opponent is breaching the duty of the restitution of conjugal right without any reason.
(5) the reason for this petition, opponent made excuse for going out of city, he left ma at my
parent’s hours on 12-05-2013,he gave me trust to took me at our house when he came back
from out of city, and so many latter’s sent on 10-08-2013 and 15-08-204 and on 01-09-2013,
he did breach the right and duty of restitution of conjugal right , from and when produced.
(6) the petitioner has married with opponent at surat within the territorial limits of the
jurisdiction, so you gave me decree on behalf it.
(7) the petitioner and opponent are Hindu by birth and they continue to be so.
(8) there has no action has been taken except this petition.
(9) at this time the petitioner is living her parent’s house . there is no fixed source of income.
The petitioner was ready to fulfill the right of marriage and to be continue.
(10) The petitioner has applied this petition by bona fide, not by mal fide.
(11) The petitioner pray that:-
(a) a decree for the restitution of conjugal right against the opponent may please be
passed.
(b) cost of this petition.
(c) any other decree this honorable court deems fit may please be passed.

Sd.
OF THE APPLICANT

VERIFICATION
I, the applicant to hereby declare that the facts maintain declare that the facts maintain above
all true and correct to the best of my (notice), knowledge, belief and information.
PLACE: SURAT
DT.: 16TH DECEMBER, 2006
Sd.
OF THE APPLICANT

Sd. Advocate for the Applicant

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 ( 73 )

(12) A Plaint claiming compensation for Defamantion

IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT

Suit No. ………… / 20…….

A. B. s/o B. C.
123, Katatgam Road, Surat, ......................................... Plaintiff

Vs.

M. N. s/o O. P.
456, Katatgam Road, Surat, ......................................... Respondent

Plaint under Order 7 Rule 1 for Compensation for Defamation

The plaintiff respectfully states as follows : -

Brief Description of the case:

(1) The respondent publicly accused the plaintiff of selling watered down milk, which has
caused immense harm to the reputation of the plaintiff. The present suit is meant for
compensation for the harm done to the plaintiff's reputation.

Matters of Inducement:
(2) Plaintiff is a milk man and sells milk in many colonies of Surat including Katatgam
Road, AB Nagar.
(3) Respondent is the president of an informal residents association of Katatgam Road.

Facts constituting cause of action:

(4) In a residents association meeting held on 10/10/2009, the respondent publicly accused
the plaintiff of selling milk mixed with water. A tape record of the respondent making the
accusation is attached with this petition.
(5) The said speech made by the respondent was heard by hundrends of residents of
Katatgam Road, where the plaintiff sells milk.
(6) The said speech has caused the plaintiff a lot of embarrament and loss of business.
(7) The plaintiff denies that he sells watered milk and claims that the statement made by
the respondent was completely baseless.
...
Jurisdiction:
(10) The meeting where the defamatory statement was made by the respondent happened
in Surat, which is under this court's jurisdiction.
(11) The plaintiff claims, on account of the loss of business as well as mental agony, an
amount of 40,000/- which is under this court's jurisdiction.

Relief Claimed:
(12) The plaintiff prays that the court be pleased to order the respondent to pay sum of Rs

!
 ( 74 )

40000 on account of the loss of business because of his baseless and false speech. The
plaintiff further prays that the respondent be ordered to pay compensation for mental
harassment and cost of this litigation.

Place: …………………. (Signature of the plaintiff)

Date: …………………..

Advocate for Plaintiff

Verification

I, ______, do hereby verify that the contents from paras 1 to 12 are correct
and true to the best of my knowledge and personal belief and no part of it is false
and nothing material has been concealed therein. Affirmed at Surat this 4th Day of
September 2009.............................................................................
(Signature) Plaintiff

(13) Notice By Lessor To Lessee To Quit For Non Payment Of Rent

Notice: Registered A.D & Speed Post.
Advocate
Mr. Ashvin B. Prajapati
Resident of 96, Gita Nagar Society,
SURAT.
Date: 16-12-2013

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 ( 75 )

(14) Suit for ejection of a tenant

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A, son of B, aged about 55 years,
residing at ...Plaintiff
X, son of Y, aged about 30 years,
residing at ...Defendant

The plaintiff begs to state as under that :-

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The plaintiff, therefore, prays that....................
(a) The Honourable Court be pleased to order the ejectment of the defendant,
(b)A decree for arrears of rent of Rs. 3000/- be made against the defendant in favour of the plaintiff.
(c) C o s t s o f t h e s u i t
Plaint drawn by Sd.
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 ( 76 )

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 ( 77 )

(16) Suit for arrears of rent u/s 12(2) A of The Rent Act.

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The Plaintiff is the owner of the premises situate at.... The defendant, prior to
termination of the tenancy, was monthly tenant in respect of premises belonging to
the plaintiff as aforesaid at monthly rent of Rs. 16/-
The defendant failed to pay rent of the said room in spite of repeated demands, the
plaintiff by his. Advocate's notice dated 20-10- 19 demanded arrears of rent from 1-1-
19 and also duly terminated his tenancy and called upon him to quit and deliver vacant
and peaceful possession of the said room. The defendant has been duly served with
the said notice but failed to vacate the said room and is holding over.
The plaintiff submits that in as much as the defendant failed to pay arrears of rent as
demanded of him in terms of section 12(2) of the Rent Act., he is not ready and willing
to pay the rent and therefore, is not entitled to the protection under the Rent Act. The
plaintiff is, therefore entitled to a decree and order in respect of the said room against
the defendant under section 12(2) A of the. Rent Act.
The premises in suit are situate in Surat and both the plaintiff and the
defendant are residing in Surat. This Honourable Court has, therefore,
jurisdiction to try this suit.
The plaintiff values the subject - matter of the suit for court fees and jurisdiction at
Rs. 192/- being the annual back rent the suit room.
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The plaintiff therefore prays for a judgement and decree against the defendant ordering him
to quit and deliver over vacant possession of the rent room... situate at.... and for costs and such order and
further reliefs as this Honourable Court may in the circumstances of the case deem fit and. proper. .
Sd. Sd.
Advocate for plaintiff Plaintiff

I, Ramkhilawan Shivram Pathak, the plaintiff herein do hereby solemnly affirm and
say that what is stated in the fore going plaint is true to my knowledge and to the best of my
information and belief. Solemnly affirmed at Bombay this 18th day of Dec
Sd, Sd,
Advocate for plaintiff Plaintiff
List of documents 1. Rent bills.
2. Copy of notice with R. P. acknowledgement and service endorsement.
3. Other documentary evidence.

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 ( 78 )

(17) Civil Suit : Application for interim injunction for easement of

light and air
IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT
Civil Suit No. - of

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// 5
//// 2
Suit for declaration and injunction

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: & : :

The plaintiff has filed a suit for declaration and injunction against the defendant claiming a
right of easement of light and air peaceably enjoyed for continuous period of 30 years and
more through the window on this western side of the plaintiff's house.
The defendant is contemplating to erect a wall on the western side of the house belonging to
the plaintiff and obstruct the light and air enjoyed by the plaintiff for the last 30 years
and more.

The plaintiff is likely to be put to an irreparable loss by the erection of the wall by the
defendant. It is therefore in the interest of justice that the defendant may be restrained
from committing the contemplated injury to the plaintiff and the status quo should be
maintained during the pendency of the suit.
The plaintiff has filed the necessary affidavits of his neighbours and his own affidavit
swearing that A has enjoyed light and air for 30 years without interruption from the
window in the room on the upper storey.
The plaintiff therefore prays that the defendant may be restrained from creating the wall on
the western side during the pendency of this suit.
Sd. Sd.
5 I & 5
Verification.

(73) ,++ = "

Before the Principal Judge, Family Court at Surat

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 ( 79 )

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(75) @ ' ;C9 :,9A"A"C :9C:,9A

IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT
Civil Suit No .................. /200.

Shri SI __.(Full Name) ________ Plaintiff

age 32 years, occupation - agriculture,
resident of .....................

Versus

Shri _F__ (Full Name) ________________

age 63 years, occupation - agriculture,
Smt. _M_ (Full Name) _
age 55 years, occupation - agriculture,
Shri _S2_. (Full Name) _______________
age 26 years, occupation - agriculture,
all residents of ............................ Defendant

A SUIT FOR PARTITION

The plaintiff abovenamed submits this plaint, praying to state as follows :

1. The Pedigree G : That the pedigree is as follows :
F (Defendant No. 1)
M (Defendant No. 2)
SI (Plaintiff) S2 (Defendant No. 3)

That the defendant No. 1 is the father of the plaintiff and the defendant No. 3 and
husband of the defendant No. 2, while the defendant No. 2 is the mother of the plaintiff
and the defendant No. 3, and the plaintiff and the defendant No. 3 are full/real brothers.
2. Description of Property : All that piece and parcel of land situate within the
Registration Division & District Surat, Sub-Division & Taluka City, within the local limits
of the Surat Municipal Corporation, revenue village Katargam, bearing R.Survey No. 302,
admeasuring 2 hectares or thereabouts, and bounded
by as follows:
On or towards the East _ CTS No. 300,
On or towards the South _ CTS No. 299,
On or towards the West _ Public Road,
On or towards the North _ Nullah.
3. That the property described in para 2 above originally belonged to GF, who died in June
200_, and on his death, the suit property came to be devolved upon the family of the

!
 ( 81 )

plaintiff and the defendants, and since then, the defendant No. 1 has been managing the
suit property as a Karta of the joint family.
4. That since last one and a half years, the relationship between the plaintiffs wife and the
defendant No. 2 is so strained that there have been frequent quarrels, and it has finally
become necessary for the plaintiff to live apart.
5. That the plaintiff accordingly called upon the defendant No. 1, on , to effect
partition, but he refused to do so.
6. That the plaintiff submits that the defendants have been obstructing this plaintiff
in his enjoyment of the suit property along with them, and this plaintiff has no other
source of income except and save the suit property.
7. That the plaintiff, therefore, served upon the defendants a notice, dated ____calling
upon them to effect partition, but the defendant No. 1, once again, refused to do so, and
hence, this suit.
8 . T h a t t h e p l a i n t i f f a n d t h e d e f e n d a n t s a r e g o v e r n e d b y t h e Mitakshara School of
Hindu Law, and accordingly, the plaintiff i s e n t i t l e d t o o n e - f o u r t h s h a r e i n t h e s u i t
property.
9 . T h a t t h e c a u s e o f a c t i o n f o r t h i s s u i t f i r s t a r o s e o n _______________ ., when the
plaintiffs demand for partition was turned down by t h e d e f e n d a n t s a n d h a s s i n c e t h e n
been arising every day thereafter, and hence, the suit filed today is well within
limitation.
10. T h a t t h e p r o p e r t y i s s i t u a t e w i t h i n t h e l o c a l l i m i t s o f t h e j ur isdi cti on o f t hi s
Cour t, and hence, th is H on 'bl e Co urt h as j u r i s d i c t i o n t o t r y a n d d e c i d e t h i s s u i t .
1 1 . T h a t t h e s u i t i s v a l u e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f j u r i s d i c t i o n a t Rs.__t h a t b e i n g t h e
a m o u n t e q u a l t o 2 0 t i m e s t h e r e v e n u e as s e s s m e n t , a n d o n t h e o n e - f o u r t h o f su c h
a m o u n t , p r o p e r c o u rt -f e e i s p ai d h e r ew i t h .
12. That the plaintiff, therefore, prays that –
(A)It be declared that the plaintiff is entitled to one-fourth share i n t h e su i t p r o p e r t y ;
( B ) T h e p l a i n t i f f s o n e - f o u r t h s h a r e b e d i v i d e d a n d g i v e n i n h i s po s se s si on ;
( C ) T h e d ef e n d a nt s b e p e r m a n e n tl y r e st r ai ne d f r o m o b st ru c t i ng t h i s pl ai nt i ff i n hi s
e n jo y m e nt of th e su i t p r op e rt y;
(D)The plaintiff be paid the costs of this suit from the defendants,
and
(E) A n y ot h er o r d e r s i n t h e i nt e r e st o f j u st i c e b e k i n d l y p a s se d .

Surat,
Dated:
Sd/- S1 PLAINTIFF
Sd/- xXx
ADVOCATE FOR PLAINTIFF

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 ( 82 )

VERIFICATION

I, Shri S1, the present plaintiff, do hereby state on solemn affirmation that the contents of
this plaint in paras 1 to 12 are true and correct to the best of my knowledge and belief,
and I have signed hereunder.

Sd/- SI PLAINTIFF

#'($ )
Important points (Assuming that the reader knows what is an interpleader suit)

Format of all Civil suits are pretty much the same. They are governed by Order VI
(Pleading) and Order VII (Plaint) CPC.

1. Conditions required for an Inter pleader Suit:

1. There must be some debt, sum of money, or other property - movable or
immovable, in dispute.
2. Two or more persons must be claiming the same property advesrly to each
other.
3. Plaintiff must not be interested, partly or wholely, in the same property
(subject matter of the suit).
4. There must not be a suit pending wherein the rights of rival claimants can be
properly adjudicated.
2. As per Order 35 of CPC, in every interpleader suit, the plain must state the
following -
1. the plaintiff claims no interest in the subject matter in dispute other than
charges and costs
2. the claims have been made by the defendants severally
3. there is no collusion between the plaintiff and any of the defendants
3. As per O 35, R 5, an agent cannot sue his principal or a tenant his landlord for the
purpose of compelling them to interplead with persons other than persons claiming
through such principal or landlord. This is because an agent cannot dispute the title
of his principal and a tenant cannot dispute the ownership of his landlord.

IN THE COURT OF THE PRINCIPAL SENIOR CIVIL JUDGE at SURAT

Suit No. ………… / 20…….

1. A. B. s/o B. C.
123, M G Road, Surat, MP ......................................... Plaintiff

Vs.

1. M. N. s/o O. P.
456, M G Road, Surat, MP ......................................... Respondent 1

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 ( 83 )

2. X. Y. s/o Y. Y.
555, M G Road, Surat, MP ......................................... Respondent 2

Plaint under Order 35 Rule 1

The plaintiff respectfully states as follows : -

(Matters of Inducement)
(1) Plaintiff is a Govt. Servant employed with ... .
(2) Respondents 1 and 2 are both is the president of an informal residents association of
MG Road.

(Facts constituting cause of action)

(3) On 10/10/2008, Respondent 1 gave the plaintiff gold bangles for safekeeping.
(4) On 10/11/2008, Respondent 2 came to the plaintiff asking for the gold bangles claiming
that they were pawned by respondent 1 to respondent 2.
(5) On the same date, 10/11/2008, Respondent 1 also came asking for the bangles.
Respondent 1 denied pawning the bangles to respondent 2.

(Statements as per O 35)

The plaintiff has no interest in keeping the gold bangles.
There is no collusion between the plaintiff and any of the defendants
The bangles are being claimed by the respondents severally and the plaintiff is ignorant of
the respective rights of the claimants.
...
(Jurisdiction)
(10) Respondent 1 is a resident of MG Road, which is under this court's jurisdiction.
(11) The cost of the bangles is 40,000/- which is within this court's pecuniary jurisdiction.

(12) Relief Claimed: The plaintiff prays that

1. the respondents be restrained , by injunction, from taking any proceedings again the
plaintiff in relation thereto
2. the respondents by required to interplead together concerning their claims to the said
property
3. some person be authorized to receive the said property pending such litigation
4. upon delivering the property to such receiver the plaintiff be discharged from all
liability to either defendants in relation thereto.

Place: …………………. (Signature of the plaintiff)

Date: …………………..

Advocate for Plaintiff

!
 ( 84 )

Verification

I, ______, do hereby verify that the contents from paras 1 to 12 are correct and true to the
best of my knowledge and personal belief and no part of it is false and nothing material has
been concealed therein. Affirmed at Surat this 4th Day of September 2009.

(Signature)
Plaintiff

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 ( 85 )

Q-1 MY VIEWS ON CAPITAL PUNISHMENT OR CAPITAL PUNISHMENT

":+
":+ " ": .
ANS: - INTRODUCTION OR HISTORY: -
Capital punishment occupies an important place in the history of punishment, but till in
the middle ages, ‘sentencing (punishing) offenders to death’ was a very common kind of
punishment, even for petty offences ( ). In those days, Capital punishment was also
awarded (. ) for the theft (* and for forgery (counterfeit) ( $ $).
th
In the 18 century, BETHAM, he was a first jurist to raise “The Voice Of Protest
(Opposition)” against this punishment. India is one of the country where capital punishment
can be awarded under the law.

OBJECT OF THE CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: -

Capital punishment, by killing the offender, aims to create a terror in the mind of other
offenders and secondly it aims to prevent the repetition of the offence. However, this
punishment may be cruel and inhuman. There have been many arguments for and against this
kind of punishment.

=>ARGUMENTS AGAINST CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: -

(1) Deterrent Effect/Deterrent object( 3 &) ) :- Capital punishment does not
leave any chance to the offender for improvement. It does not serve its deterrent object
at all. For example: - In certain states of U.S.A. where the death penalty has been
abolished, there are fewer serious crimes than in other states where capital punishment
is retained (3 69 ). But if capital punishment has the deterrent effect in the
former states, crimes ought to have decreased. That’s why; the statistics don’t prove the
deterrent effect of capital punishment.
(2) Prevention at what cost and under what justification:-Human rights are opposed to
this punishment. They say this punishment is cruel, barbarious ( !#$) and
inhuman. It’s not even certain that a murderer would repeat the murder again. He might
have committed this heinous crime ( 3 ) under extraordinary circumstances. No
civilized country should continue with this punishment. In Sanjay Chopra & Geeta
Chopra’s case, Billa & Ranga, the two accused were awarded the capital punishment.
They made a petition to the Supreme Court, contending ( 3 .) that the method of
hanging by rope in India is unconstitutional. But the Supreme Court had rejected it and
they were hanged ultimately.
(3) It is neither effective nor just, it should be abolished:-Our law of evidence and the
law of procedure are not fool proof. It is possible that once the capital punishment is
awarded and the person executed, cannot be revoked. Therefore, it is argued that this
punishment is neither effective nor just, and it should be abolished.
(4) It is argued that it’s better to save 9 murders from capital punishment, than inflict it on
one who may be, in fact, innocent. OR “Let 99 offenders be set free, but an innocent
may should not be convicted ( )”.

!
 ( 86 )

=>ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: -

(1) Incorrigible Offenders ( ):- Those who advocate ( ) capital
punishment, argue that there are some offenders who are not only incorrigible ( ) but
who are immensely ( 3 ) dangerous to the society and there is no reason why the
society should be burdened with maintaining such people. If you can’t cure (
4 ), and if this incorrigible element is harmful to human society, why not quietly
remove it ? A man who is hanged to death will never be able top commit any offence in
future.
(2) Punishment by the state is a substitute for private revenge ( " + 3): - If a murderer
is not punished with death, it’s quite possible that other relatives of the victim might
murder, the murderer, and thus a chain of murders might set in. so long as human
emotions are powerful , so long as powers of vengeance (revenge) prevail ( " ),
capital punishment is a necessary kind of punishment.
In conclusion, it may be said that some countries adopt and some countries abolish this
punishment. Looking to the trend of human rights movement, it appears that this punishment
may be abolished in India in the near future.

Q-2: - NATURAL JUSTICE OR PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL JUSTICE.

" 4 & 3
ANS: - The rules of natural justice can be broadly classified under the following categories: -
[1] No man shall be a judge in his own cause.
[2] No man shall be condemned ( unheard ("< =>
[3] One who hears should decide.

[1] No man shall be a judge in his own cause : -

It follows from the fact that a judge must decide impartially between the parties before
him and he should have no direct interest in the subject of the enquiry which would lead him
to decide the matter in favour of one of parties. Bias ( by interest which disqualifies a
judge falls into two broad classes.
(A) Where the judge has a pecuniary (economic) interest in the subject matter of the
litigation ( - the least pecuniary interest in the subject of the litigation
will disqualify any person from acting as a judge and would vitiate(to reduce the
value) the administrative action.
(B) Where from kindred ( or other cause, the judge may have a bias in
favour of one of the parties the right thing in this case is – to disqualify a person
from acting in judicator quasi-judicial capacity on the ground of interest in the
subject-matter of the proceeding.
[2] No man shall be condemned unheard. “Audi alteram partem”: -
This rule involves two propositions, Firstly, the person who is to be condemned or
whose rights are to be affected must have notice of such proceeding. Secondly, he must have
an opportunity, reasonable opportunity to be heard.
The opportunity to be heard may resolve itself into the following questions: -
1. Is an oral hearing necessary in every proceeding?
2. Is it necessary to examine witnesses?

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3. Has the affected person the right to cross examine witnesses whose evidence is to be
used against him?
4. Has a party the right to appear through counsel (legal advice) or by an agent?
Answers to these questions would vary with the varying constitutions of the different quasi-
judicial authorities, the statutory provisions under which they function and the issues involved
in the proceedings. Though uniform answer cannot be given in all the cases, yet some rules
can be formulated on the basis of judicial decisions.
Oral hearing is not integral part of fair hearing unless circumstances are such that
without oral hearing a person cannot put up an effective defence. So also courts do not insist
on cross-examination unless circumstances are such that in absence of it the person cannot put
up an effective defence.
Lastly, right to appear through counsel is not an indispensable part of natural justice.
The denial of legal representation may be justified on the ground that a lawyer of choice
would give edge to the rich over the poor who cannot afford a good lawyer.
In short, notice, personal, right to examine witnesses, right or cross-examination and
right to explain things against oneself are included in the right of being heard.
[3] One who hears should decide: -
The decision in many administrative proceeding is not the decision of one man from the
start to the finish. Often one hears and other decides. Therefore one who decides must hear.
Q-3 LAMPS ( OF ADVOCACY OF WOES ( OF A JUNIOR
ADVOCATE.
ANS: -
Legal practice as a profession requires a sort of particular education, code of ethics and
professionalism through experience and work. Lawyers adopt unprofessional tactics
(, - * ). There is a provision for punishment to an advocate for his professional
misconduct under Advocate Act, 1961.
The legal profession is a noble profession, for those who are already established in the
profession and who have some fame and name in the field but, for a junior advocate,
this profession seems to be ignoble in India.
The legal profession unlike other professions is over-populated. Every year, hundreds
of law colleges send the so called new advocates to the various courts. They are
beginners the tricks of trade under this or that old chap (man) called senior advocate.
There are other less fortunate lawyers who are not able to find a shelter (protection) of
the senior advocate. These fresh lawyers like ‘Eklavya’ learn the profession in their
own way by trial and error method. It is rightly said that “if a doctor makes a mistake
the man goes six feet down and if a lawyer makes a mistake, the man goes six feet high
!” But there is no practical solution to the problem. On e cannot be expected to wait
and learn at the Bar ( without earning for years together.
An ideal lawyer is loyal to his profession and not to his client. He should protect the
interest of his client within the four corners of law. A lawyer’s communication with his
client is strictly confidential. An ideal lawyer will not disclose it.
In India, there are other problems such as social and psychological one over and above
to the economic of India. The profession is not regarded as suitable one for women. The
practice on criminal side would be more difficult for a lady lawyer. The junior
advocates have to face the problems of adjustment. The atmosphere the court
compounds can, in no way be called healthy and inspiring. Tension and torture exist

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everywhere. A cut-throat (murderer) competition from the fellow members and an

unsympathetic attitude ( ( ' ) of the court, hostility of the parties
and malpractices by the lawyers in the courts and amongst all, the undignified
("% ( $) practice has become a reality and one has to stoop ( ) so
law to get a brief or to maintain it that one would like to go for other profession even
after qualifying for entrance at the Bar ( . ) +).
The legal profession is a jealous mistress. One cannot spare time for social activities or
national services. In the mornings and evenings, a junior has to attend his senior’s
office. The day round he has to rush from this court to that court and so in the night he
is so worn out and tired that he would avoid the company of his wife and al this is a
thankfulness task for a junior advocate.
At last, the hard work and honesty, sincerity and truthfulness build the career of the
advocate. The virtues pay and when they pay, a lawyer sees his ambition fulfilled, his
dream come true. He has, then a good reputation, a social status, and riches, everything
that one lives for.

Q-4 Role of Election Commission in Democracy.

Ans: -
Elections and selection are two sister words; very often misunderstood though very
different in their sense. ‘Selection’ is choosing a thing or things from a number by giving it
preference for one cause or another or for its special merit or usefulness. Election is elected by
Election Commission choosing person or persons from others by the number of votes he or
they get, to fill up an office or post. One has to decide oneself whether the elected person can
discharge his or her duties properly and conscientiously and whether he or she is properly
qualified and experience for the office or post or responsibilities.
In selections we have no voting methods. One is selected on his qualification and
experience and his testimonials (certificate of character or conduct) in a person interview on
his or her application. The Prime Minister is elected and not selected. Similarly, the members
of a working committee are elected. In election we require to get the opinion of the majority.
In selection we have to act on our own judgment. But the election is genuine only when the
voters are allowed to vote on their own personal judgment. In selection also the selecting
president has to use his own judgment and not to be influenced (affected) by any one.
Nowadays elections have gained utmost importance. We are living in the age of
democracy and Democracy succeeds only when the Elections are held fair and honest.
Elections are schools for educating Public opinion. Education has nowadays spread and is
spreading far and wide. Each candidate for the election should prepare his manifesto
(declaration of policy) and write down what he intends to do if he is selected. A special
committee should examine the manifesto and if the facts are correct it should be published for
the voters. Then the candidate may works his way on the manifesto. The public service
committee clearly notifies that canvassing (requesting for vote) directly or indirectly
disqualifies a candidate. Similarly those who want to be appointed as examiners are not
allowed to canvass vote.
The candidate may have their own propaganda ( * ), but no candidate should cause
Bar ( . ) +). or belittle ( / ) ) the other in doing that. If he does, his
candidature must be cancelled.

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He may extol (! & & & ) his own capacity, ability, his experience etc. in any
way he likes.
He may advertise or stick posters to house walls or have cinema slides exhibited at the
show.
He may hold meetings with loud speakers.
He may distribute leaflets.
He may have his propaganda, but if he belittles any other candidate in any way, he must
go.
If he or his supporters makes noises or cause disturbance in any way in his opponent’s
propaganda he must be disqualified.
Elector’s voice comes from his heart, and not out of feelings but out of deep thinking
and decision.
If he is coerced or threatened it is not his voice that votes. If he is considered to fit vote,
he must vote on his own judgment otherwise his voting is not his voting but it is the
voting of the candidate himself.

Q-5 Legal Profession and Social Contribution.

ANS:-

Legal profession is noble profession. It is learned profession because it calls for the
high noble conduct. Every member of legal profession is an officer of the court and hence,
should help the court in administration of justice. He should be honest and respectful to the
court and he should always remember that the judge is the presiding deity (god) of the temple
of justice. Even if the ruling of the court is erroneous or irregular, he should maintain a
respectful attitude towards the court. He should not take advantage of personal relations with
the judge. Being an officer of the court he should never try to mislead the judge in any fact or
law and should not unnecessarily waste the time of the court by delay tactics.
A lawyer should remember that he owes a duty to his client. He ahs to represent his
client’s cause by tooth and nail. It is his duty to be loyal and faithful to his client and to
preserve (to keep safe) the confidence of his client. If he finds that his client’s case is hopeless
and a settlement would be better it is his duty to advise his client to make a settlement and
persuade (cause to believe) him to do so. He should remember that it is a noble profession
with public service as motto and not a business for making money.
A lawyer’s attitude towards his fellow-lawyer must be courteous and friendly to wards
a young lawyer starting his career. He should not indulge ( 0 ) in unhealthy competition
with the fellow-brothers. He must not steal another’s client and encroach upon the profession
of another. A lawyer cannot advertise himself’ is a feature, which distinguishes a profession
from a business.

As a servant of society and officer of the court,

It is his duty to assist poor litigations.
He should render services for really needy and poor.
He should never forget to protect the defenceless.

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Q-6 Human Rights.

ANS: -
The General Assembly of United Nations Organization (UNO) has issued Declaration
of Human Rights on 10th Dec.1948. Its Preamble declares that recognition of the inherent
dignity and of the equal rights is the foundation of justice, freedom and peace.
≈ Article-1 provides that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
Article-3 declares that everyone has a right to life, liberty and security.
≈ Article-5 provides that no one shall be subjected to torture or cruel or inhuman
treatment.
≈ Article-4(1) of the American Convention Of Human Rights, 1969 declares that every
person has the right to have his life respected and his right shall be protected by law.
≈ Under Article-5, the right of every person to have his physical, mental and moral
integrity respected is recognized.
In India, the essential human rights are contained in Part-3 and Part-4 of the constitution of
India. Our Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles are nothing but the declaration of
human rights.

Our preamble declares human rights. It means there will be justice, social, economic
and political, equality of status and opportunity and to promote them fraternity (brotherhood,
( * ) assuring the dignity of the individual. Article-21 of our constitution provides
protection of life and personal liberty of freedom of person. According to Claire L’Heureux
Dube of the Supreme Court Of Canada: “Human rights are yardsticks against which all
persons must measure their conduct and that of their governments and public officials, and
against which the global community as a whole must measure its progress”.
Article-21 of Indian Constitution cannot be denied to under trials, convicts, except
according to the procedure established by law. The action of the State must be right, just and
fair. The custodial crime is an insult to the human dignity. Rape is also an offence against
human rights and compensation can be ordered. When the train did not stop on pulling the
chain when the dacoits ( $ " ) murdered the victim’s wife, it was held as an offence against
the human dignity.
In D.K. Basu V. state of W.B. it has been held that custodial torture (
) is a naked violation of human dignity. Whenever human
dignity is violated, civilization takes a step backward.
In Premshankar Shukla’s case, that no prisoner shall be handcuffed ( )")
routinely. If the prisoner is handcuffed without there being any justification, it would
violate (/1 2 ) Article-14 and Article-19.
In Vishakha’s case, the Supreme Court recognized the need to alter systematic
violence against women. It acknowledged the sexual integrity of woman as a basic and
fundamental right. Violence against women is an offence against human dignity and a
violation of human rights.
The entire human rights jurisprudence is founded on the chapter on Fundamental Rights and
chapter on the Directive Principles of State Policy. That jurisprudence has also been deeply
influenced by the international human rights norms first set out by the United Nations in
Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

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The World Conference on Human rights was held in Vienna in 1993 to deliberate on
the issue of elimination of discrimination on the ground of sex. The Women’s World
Conference was held in China in 1995. Article-14 of the Constitution has accepted the right to
equality. Therefore, all human rights, conferred by the Constitution of India on every person,
are available to woman also.

Q-7 Legal Education in 21st Century.

ANS: -
Advocacy to law is a legal profession and it is a noble profession. Because it is nothing
but an attempt for discovery of truth. It is said that within first post-independence 10 years in
some parts of the county, lawyers did not use to charge for their services. Whatever might be
paid to them was accepted. It was never considered to be a business. It is a matter of pride that
our most of the freedom-fighters were lawyers, like Mahatam Gandhi, Motilal Nehru,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Dadabhai navroji, Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
After independence, Supreme Court of India at Delhi and High Court for nearly each
state at state capital were established. To be good lawyers requires certain qualities like
patience, preparation of case, good presentation, courteous behaviour etc. as legal profession
in India is a British legacy; it has also inherited a code of Ethics for lawyers and the judges.
Legal profession and legal education in India, both are facing certain challenges. It is
understood that legal profession is not taken as seriously, as it should have been. Lawyers do
not attend the courts well prepared either in facts or in law. They remain indifferent for the
cause of their client. There is no accountability on their part. Often they go on strikes without
taking any care of their client’s case.
In 21st century, the lawyers are liars. It is the main function of the lawyers to paint as
white and white as black. The represent the false cases and fabricate false evidences. The real
function of the lawyer is to represent his client’s case. Only the court can decide whether that
case is right or wrong, good or bad, just or unjust. But on the other hand, the lawyers are true,
the complexities of laws and the rules of evidence have made the task easier for the lawyers.
They have to create complications that they can do very easily in the already complicated fibre
of law and justice.
Gandhiji found that legal practice is far away from morality and therefore gave it up
completely. The lawyers must cherish the ideal of Gandhiji. They must not forget that the
ultimate end of their profession is to see that justice prevails in the 21st century.
≈ In Mahavirprasad singh V. Jacks Aviation Private Ltd. A lawyer had kept the case
papers with him and he was not attending the curt regularly. He pleaded that he
remained absent in response to a call of strike by Bar Association of Delhi. It was held
that it was his professional misconduct.
Bar council of India has prescribed a code of ethics. But there are number of cases of
professional misconduct. For example: -
≈ D. S. Dalal V. State Bank Of India case: - A lawyer was held liable for
misappropriation of the amount of fee and for not presenting the case papers in the
proper court.
≈ In R. D. Saxena V. Balram Prasad Sharma’s case: - A lawyer was held liable for not
returning the case papers to his client.

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In the 21st century, cases of professional misconduct and indiscipline among lawyers have
increased. In every state of Bar Council, a disciplinary committee works to meet with such
cases. The Bar Council of India is also attempting to train lawyers in the field of law.
Legal education in India is in a poor state. For the students, it is a second choice. This is
a professional course. Lawyers should be well prepared as other professional men like doctors
and engineers. But this is not the case in India. Attendance in law colleges is a big problem.
The Bar Council of India is keen to make improvement in the standards of legal education. It
has restructured the LL.B syllabus and it has also proposed to start 5 year law course in place
of 3 year law course. Because there is no quality in the standard of legal education, there is no
quality among lawyers and the judges. It implies that the legal profession and the judiciary
have to suffer from quality point of view.
Admissions should be strictly on merits to upgrade the standard of legal education.
Apart from structural changes some other changes should be made to improve the quality. For
example, viva and practical training may be introduced. Attendance must be enforced.
Assessment of the students should be made 2-3 times during the academic year. It is true that
there are challenges before legal profession and legal education in India. But by combined
efforts, it is not difficult to meet them.

Q-8 Law in Changing Society.

ANS:-

According to Marxist doctrine, lies in this belief that the root of all social evil is
classism; social classes can, and must, be suppressed by prohibiting appropriation of
productive forces and by putting them at the disposal of all for common interest. In this
communist society all coercion will be needless: state and law, the aim of which is to assure
the compulsion, necessary in their societies, will become useless and so disappear.
Man will once again be free. He’ll be his own master and will be himself because he
will no longer have to sell his labour power to the profit of a ruling class exploiter. The rules
of the conduct in future society will have the same character as those of primitive society; they
will be moral rules, customs, technical precepts and forms of habitual behaviour.
Public services, such as health, education, transportation, communication and
policing will be assured by all citizens in truth.
Society will be one of complete quality and economic and social liberty.
Its members will be equal because they will be provided for, not according to
their capacities, but according to their needs.
They will be free because they will not be subject to any compulsion.
Society will no longer be democratic because it will be subject to the rules of nobody,
not even that of the people as whole with the disappearance of law and the state, democracy
will also vanish ("34 disappear). There will be a reign, but over things, not persons.
In this society, there will be economic as well as social equality.
Nobody will be servant and nobody will be master.
Nobody will be employer and nobody will be employee.

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Q-9 Public Interest Litigation. ( & ' " )

ANS: -
Public Interest Litigation in India has taken deep rots. Some jurists call it “Social
Action Litigation”. The concept of Public Interest Litigation had its origin ( -') in U.S.A.
The concept of “Locus Standi” was liberalized in the interest of justice. It means that
“Cause of action”. Lord Denning is the strong supporter of PIL. Where there is a public
wrong, there should be a public action instead of an action by a private person. It is a
constitutional principle that, if there is good ground that a government department or a public
authority is transgressing ( (& ) the law, the injured person or any one can draw
the attention of the courts. The Supreme Court has said that Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
has said that PIL is a golden master key which can provide speedy justice to the poor and
downtrodden ( *) ).
PIL has made a good progress in India, but it is far behind than that of U.S.A. In U.S.A.
public interest lawyers are very successful in areas such as—
Protection of environment
Consumer interests
Political reforms
Civil rights
Prisoner’s and mental patient’s right etc.
It aims to protect rights of the poor who because of their economic backwardness cannot
approach the court.
In S.P.Gupta V. Union Of India: The Supreme Court Held that the traditional rule of
‘Lucas Standi’ does not hold good. Even a letter addressed by a public-spirited man
can be treated as a writ ( $ " " % %) petition. But before granting
any relief, the court must see that certain conditions are satisfied. First, the petitioner
must be acting bona fide. He must not be acting for personal gain. Second, when legal
injury is caused to a person, such person is by reason of poverty or disability, unable
to approach the court.
In Ratlam Municipality case: The question was whether by affirmative action a court
could compel (to force, ) ) a statutory body to carry out its duties of
sanitation facilities. This question was answered in the positive.
Mr. M.C. Mehta, an advocate, human rights activist and an environmentalist, has filed
nearly 15-20 PILs for the protection of environment and human rights of children.
In M.C. Mehta V. Union Of India: The Supreme Court has ordered a ban upon the
use of 15 years old vehicles in Delhi to prevent air pollution.
In M.C. Mehta V. Union Of India: A PIL was filed to prevent the damage to the
world famous the Taj Mahal from the smokes coming out of certain industries in
which coal was used. The Court ordered such industries to close down.
Zahira v. state of Gujarat: One PIL was filed by citizens for Peace and Justice,
Vadodara’s Fast Track Court Judgment Dt. 26th June, 2003, acquitting all 21 accused
of the Best Bakery carnage (! ! ) on 1st March, 2002 in Vadodara. Certain eye
witnesses were declared hostile and the conduct of the Public Prosecutor was adverse
to the interest of the case. The Supreme Court held that there was no fair trial in the
case ordered the retrial outside Gujarat to Maharashtra.

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Q-10 Fundamental Rights.

ANS: -
The Preamble to the Constitution of India, social Justice is one of the goals. Right to
property was a fundamental right as per Article-19 (1) (g). At the same time it was provided in
Article-31A, that the Government could acquire private property for public purpose.
In Golaknath case, it was held that the Parliament had no authority to restrict the fundamental
right. It was held that this decision would serve as a hindrance to a social change.
But thereafter,
In Keshvanand’s case, it was declared that the Parliament has an authority to restrict the
fundamental right but so as not to disturb the basis structure of the Constitution.
Right to property has been removed from the area of fundamental rights and is now
placed as Article-300A in the Constitution of India.
Article-21 is a fundamental right and it is drafted in a negative language. The right to
life and personal liberty is the most fundamental of all rights. This right includes many other
rights. The scope of Article-21 has been defined in one case by the Supreme Court thus: “it is
the fundamental right of every one in this country to live with human dignity, free from
exploitation…. It must include protection of the health and strength of the workers, men and
women and children against abuse, opportunities and facilities for children to develop in a
healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity, educational facilities, just and
human conditions of work and maternity relief. These are the minimum requirements which
must exist in order to enable a person to live with human dignity and no state….has the right
to take any action which will deprive a person of the enjoyment of these basic essentials.”
(1) The purpose of Fundamental Rights is to free all citizens from unreasonable
restrictions.
(2) The Fundamental Rights are enforceable by the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
(3) The Fundamental Rights constitute essential features of constitution.
(4) The Fundamental Rights are fundamental in the governance in making laws.
(5) In Unni Krishan case: the court has recognized a fundamental right to education under
Article-21. Some rights are involved in this case are below: -
(a) Right to privacy.
(b) Right to human right.
(c) Right to travel abroad.
(d) Right to speedy trial.
(e) Right to free legal aid in Criminal trials.
(f) Right against delayed execution.
(g) Right against custodial execution.
(h) Right to shelter.
(i) Right to health.
(j) Right to pollution free environment.
(k) Right to freedom of Press.
(l) Right of children education.
(6) Right to know is also recognized under Article-21.
(7) Right to claim compensation for violation of Article-21 has been recognized.
Fundamental Rights: -
(1) Right to vote. (Art-326)

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(2) Right to against discrimination in public places (Art-14 and 15)

(3) Right to hold public office and employment. (Art-16)
(4) Right of the freedom. (Art-19)
(5) Right to equal protection before law. (Art-14)
(6) Right to life and personal liberty and right against arbitrary arrest. (Art-21)
(7) Right against exploitation. (Art-23)
(8) Right to freedom of religion. (Art-25)

Q-11 Parliamentary Democracy. " (

ANS: -
‘DEMOCRACY’ is the art of disciplining oneself so that one need not be disciplined
by others.
Abraham Lincoln interprets Democracy as –Government of the people, by the people,
and for the people, but that too can only safely run on the strength of national character of
people. India is the world’s biggest Democracy in terms of population. The Constitution of
India guarantees, Fundamental Rights-particularly, Freedom of Press and Freedom of Speech,
and Freedom of Movement, etc. to every individual irrespective of caste, creed
( ), culture, religion, social or economic status, sex or other such
discrimination ( .+ ).
Democracy in India strictly upholds the will of people, with every citizen fully entitled
to participate at every level in Government or parliament. It is the function of democratic
leadership to associate the large number of people in this process and our leadership has
observed this principle right from the beginning. The concept of democracy is now new to the
Parliamentary section.
We have adopted democratic institution of free election, fundamental rights and
freedom democratic system of U.K. There is a two-party or three-party system in the Western
Countries which is consistent with the size of the country. However, India adopted
parliamentary democracy under conditions of adult suffrage ( ) and mass illiteracy but with
strong faith in it. It is a refined form of democracy but has been working successfully. It
permits dissent (disagreement," ) and opposition and the existence of many parties.
Without freedom of expression parliamentary or any democracy cannot work.
Politicians attract the voters by golden-slogans at the time of election. But they do not
stand jointly against ruling party. Politicians have no social conscience ( .+) and
nationalism. Today, politicians have made the elections a mockery (! $ ! ) ) democracy
and Indian democracy has become of the leaders and for the leaders.

Q-12 Equality Before the law. Or right to Equality under our Constitution.

ANS: -
Article-14 of Indian Constitution provides that the state shall not deny to any person
equality before the law or the equal protection of laws within the territory of India. Article-14
is not limited to citizens only. It applies to any person. Both individuals and juristic persons
are eligible for the benefit of Article-14.

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Article-15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of race, religion, caste, sex, place of

birth.
Article-16 provides equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
Articles-17 abolishes untouchability ("5 64 ).
Article-18 abolishes titles.
Article-7 of Declaration of Human Rights provides that ‘all area equal before the law
and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law’.
‘Equality before the law means that among equals the law should be equal and should be
equally administered (managed). The violation of one leads to the violation of another.

There are certain exceptions to the rule of equality. For example: -

Article-361 provides that no process for the arrest or imprisonment of the President or
the Governor of a state shall be issued by any court during his term of office. In fact,
all persons are not alike or equal in all respects. The Supreme Court has held that ‘the
equal protection of the laws does not mean that all the laws must be general in
character and universal in application and that the state is no longer to have the power
distinguishing and classifying persons or things for the purpose of legislation.
But a classification to be valid must be reasonable. For example: - the Indian
Contract Act has classified two categories one is adult and another is minor. The basis
of classification is the age. It has a relation to the capacity to enter into a contract. This
is a reasonable classification and that’s why it is valid.
Cases:-
In Nargish Mirza case: Deferent conditions of service were prescribed for air-hostesses
and for their male counter-parts ( ) " ). It was argued that there was no violation
(/1 2 ) of equality as the air hostesses were classified on the basis of their gender. The
court struck down some of the service conditions of the air-hostesses on the ground that
they were unreasonable.
In Vishakha’s case: The Supreme Court considered sexual harassment ( as a
violation of the fundamental right to gender equality and the right to life and liberty.
In Indra Sawhney V. Union Of India: The Supreme Court held that reservations under
Article-15 must be reasonable and cannot override (" & national interests.

Articles-14 to 17 of the Constitution, spell out some specific aspects of the rights to
equality.
Articles-15 and 16 have a direct nexus ( ) ) with the customs and traditions and social
norms ( ) prevailing in the country.
Article-17 provides for the abolition of untouchability.

Q-13 Constitutional Review.

ANS: -
Our constitution provides for the establishment of a democratic rule. The constitution is
the fundamental law. The constitution is superior law unchangeable by ordinary means. The
constitution controls every act repugnant (" & .+) to it. If an act of the legislatures
were to be repugnant to the constitution, it would be void. If a law be in opposition to the
constitution, the court must decide the case by seeing only the constitution. As any modern

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constitution speaks, there are 3 branches viz. Executive, Parliament and the Judiciary.
According to Miller and Howell, Court is an active participant in Government functions. There
are the fundamental rights of constitution below: -
(1) Right to equality: -
(a) Equality before law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of
India. (Art-14)
(b) Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of
birth. (Art-15)
(c) Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. (Art-16)
(d) Abolition of untouchability. (Art-17)
(e) Abolition of titles- no citizens of India shall accept any titles from any foreign
state. (Art-18)
(2) Right to freedom: -
(a) Protection of certain rights regarding (Art-19): - freedom of speech and expression,
assemble peaceably and without arms, to form associations or unions, to move freely
throughout the Territory of India, to reside and settle in any part of the Territory of India, and
to practice any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business.
(b) Protection in respect of conviction for offences. (Art-20)
(c) Protection of life and personal liberty. (Art-21)
(d) Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. (Art-22)
(3) Right against Exploitation: -
(a) Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour. (Art-23)
(b) Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. (Art-24)
(4) Right to Freedom or Religion: -
(a) Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.
(Art-25)
(b) Freedom to manage religious affairs. (Art-26)
(c) Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion. (Art-27)
(d) Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain
educational institutions. (Art-28)
(5) Cultural and Educational Rights: -
(a) Protection of interests of minorities. (Art-29)
(b) Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions. (Art-30)
(c) Compulsory acquisition of property. (Art-31)
(14) Woman Empowerment: -
According to Section-10 of the Indian Judicial Act, 1860, a woman means any human
female of any age. Women are having full energy of handling any type of the task but they are
having patience looking into this aspect it is said “women is the Goddess” it means ‘Nari to
Narayani’. In Vedas, women are designated as energy.
Women can take all the responsibility of the house and hence they married women are
called housewives. There are all findings and old sayings. Now the era has changed. You will
find so many women as politician, administrators, manufacturers, professionals, teachers,
principals, and collectors, ministers and even prime ministers and presidents. Also you have
cases where women played roles of scientists, monetarist, and astronauts. Women have ability
to conceive everybody this is nothing but a natural gift of patience and motherly attitude.

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Women play role of a daughter, sister, wife and mother. Each and every stage she kept under
the dependent of man.
1) A daughter is dependent under the control of her father.
2) A sister is dependent under the control of her elder brother.
3) A wife is dependent under the control of her husband.
4) A mother is dependent under the control of her son in old age.
Being kept under the control of man throughout her life, woman is quite cool and cal in. And
hence you will not find any woman with bald. Though they are bald-less they are found bold
in.
Madass Quiry found that radium is most energy producing. Shelliride is the first
American woman astronaut. P.T. Usha became the champion of the athletics. Sharma swaraj,
Mayavati, Rubdi Devi etc., are the state of chief ministers. Bhandir naik hold the responsible
posts of prime Ministers. Even some women took part in armed forces and security services.
So we cannot call them “Abla” (Energyless)
If women are empowered they will also prove is the much more powerful than men e.g.
Mrs. Indira Gandhi. She was the first administer lady introduce emergency in India. Not only
that but she arrested the big-guns of politics such as Miraji desai, Jaypraksh narayan etc. She
took a decision of declaring war against Pakistan.
Women empowerment will necessary become fruitful because woman takes decision calmly
and patiently. Woman can act as Narayani by making the people’s welfare and Ranchandi by
creating the injuries to the opponent country. She is also able to convince and promotes to look
in the welfare of the society. Further, it is said that the problems always come with women. If
the women the be given the responsibility of administration then they will face the situation
and also being conversant for daring with all age types are able to solve the problems. It is said
that if you want to arrest a thief try to empower another thief for arresting him.
Take an example of Phulan Devi. She was a deceit. But she took part in politics and she
entered as an elected member of the parliament. If women the entrusted power, she will
definitely enlighten her image and she will definitely try to prove herself another lady or
another Razia or another Ahalya or another Indira Gandhi.

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SYLLABUS
MEANING, PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF LEGAL
LANGUAGE
UNIT I: VOCABULARY

 Foreign words and phrases

 Set expressions and phrases
 One word substitution
 Words often confused
 Synonyms and Antonyms, especially Legal words

UNIT II: COMPREHENSION SKILLS

 Comprehension of Legal texts

 Common Logical fallacies
 Comprehending legal passages through queries
UNIT III:DRAFTING SKILLS

 Legal Drafting
 Preparing legal briefs
 Precis and summary
UNIT IV:GRAMMER

 Cohesive Devices, Combination of sentences

 Sentence structures, verb patterns
 Modals
 Possessives and ‘Self’ forms

UNIT V: COMPOSITION AND TRANSLATION

 Legal topics for essay writing

 Translation and Transliteration

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Language is the conveyance or medium in which thoughts and ideas are transmitted from one
to another. The term “language” is derived from Latin word “Lingua” meaning a system of
communication between humans through written or vocal symbols.
It is the language that can make man, distinguish right from wrong, just from unjust and good
from evil. As expressed by Aristotle, the wisdom of man and his intellectual vitality is to a
great extent influenced by the help of languages.
The importance of learning legal English arises from the fact that words are an essential tool
of law. In the study of law, language has great importance; cases turn on the meaning that
judges ascribe to the word, and lawyers must use the right words to effectuate the wishes of
their clients.

LEGAL MAXIMS

“Maxims are the condensed Good” -SIR

JAMES MACKINTOSH

In Sanskrit a maxim is called a “sutra”. A sutra is a pithy statement, being unambiguous,

substantial, universally and logically sound. D. M. Walker in his book “Principles of Equity”
has pointed out that maxims are short and pithy formulation of broad and general principles of
common sense and justice.
Maxims represent the nectar of the experience of judicial administration of centuries. They
did not come into existence all of a sudden. As pointed out by SALMOND “Maxims are the
proverbs of the law”

Important Maxims:

1. ACTIO PERSONALIS MORITUR CUM PERSONA

Meaning: A personal right of action dies with the person.
The personal right of action intended by this maxim is that
right of action which a person has for some wrong done to his
The Kings Bench first used
person, or, which one has against another for breach of
the maxim in Cleymond v
contract to do some personal service, that is, service depending
Vincent (1523) but it was
upon personal skill; and, strictly speaking, it is in tort only, and
popularized by Edward
not in contract.
Coke, with cases like
Where, however, the right of action arises out of injury to the
Pinchon’s Case
personal property of the person dying, the maxim does not
(1616) and Bane's Case, and
apply, and his personal representatives may therefore sue in
to some extent with Slades
respect of such right of action; as, for breaches of contracts
Case(1605)
which are an injury to his personal estate; bond and other
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debts, and, indeed, all contracts not coming within the meaning of a personal right of
action arising out of the breach of a personal contract as above defined.

2. ACTUS CURIAE NEMINEM GRAVABIT

Meaning: An act of court shall prejudice no man
A Latin maxim designed to ensure that neither party is prejudiced by some accidental
or unavoidable action or omission of the court such as, but not limited to, an
extraordinary delay in rendering judgment, or the sudden illness, injury or death of a
judge while her or his reasons were still pending.

Landmark Case Laws

• Silver and Cliff Cohen v. IMAX
• Hambly v. Trott
3. ACTUS DEI NEMINI FACIT
INJURIAM
Meaning: Law holds no man responsible for the act of god.
Duties are either imposed by law or undertake by contract. Non- performance of such
duty or non- fulfillment of obligation results in liability.
The above maxim presents excuse from liability in cases where the party is disabled
from performance due to act of god (FORCE MAJEURE) i.e. the act taking place
directly and exclusively due to natural causes without any human intervention like
storm, floods etc.

4. AUDI ALTERAM PARTEM

Meaning: No man shall be condemned unheard.
This rule is a Rule of Law and Principle of Natural Justice where every person gets a
chance of being heard. This ensures a fair hearing and fair justice to both the parties in
any judicial or quasi- judicial proceeding. Under this doctrine, both the parties have
the right to speak. No decision can be declared without hearing both the parties. The
aim of this principle is to give an opportunity to both the parties to defend themselves.
It has long been a received rule that no one is to be condemned, punished or deprived
of property in any judicial proceeding, unless he has had an opportunity of being
heard. – Law Lexicon

Audi alteram partem rule involves right of hearing. It is believed that god threw away
Adam and Eve out of the Paradise only after giving them an opportunity of being
hears. Audi alteram partem is essential even due to reason that truth will not come out

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unless both parties have been given the opportunity of being heard. It is just possible
that a judge may change his mind after hearing the side of the defense.

5. AB INITIO
Meaning: From the beginning
There is also a phrase “in initio” which means in the beginning. Ab initio is used in
legal writing commonly in the phrase void ab initio.
Article 13(2) of the Constitution of India reads: “The state shall not make any law
which takes away or abridges the right conferred by this part and any law made in
contravention of this clause shall, to the extent of the contravention, be void.” The
Supreme Court of India in Deep Chand v. State of U.P., AIR 1959 SC 648 has
interpreted the “void” as void ab initio. Ab initio void law cannot be revived. It is
treated as non est (“does not exist”).
e.g., “A secured from equity court, ab initio, an injunction against B”.

6. ANIMUS
Meaning: Intention

7. MENS REA (A Guilty Mind)

Meaning: The intention or knowledge of wrongdoing that constitutes part of a crime,
as opposed to the action or conduct of the accused.

8. ACTUS REUS
Meaning: Wrongful deed or act.[Latin, Guilty act.]
As an element of criminal responsibility, the wrongful act or omission that comprises
the physical component of a crime. Criminal statutes generally require proof of both
actus reus and mens rea on the part of a defendant in order to establish criminal
liability.

The legal term actus reus, as used in modern times, stems from the 16th century writings of Sir
Edward Coke, in which he stated actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, which means “an act
does not make a person guilty unless [his] mind is also guilty.” This concept is the basis of
today’s legal test of guilt, which requires proof of fault, or culpability, in both thought and deed.

9. ACTUS REUS NON FACIT REUM NISI MENS SIT REA

The maxim is important for the determination of criminality of an act or omission. It
means that act does not make a man guilty unless his intentions are so. Thus, The
intent and act must both concur to constitute the crime.

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Actus Mens
Crime
Reus Rea

CASE LAW-

10. AD INTERIM
Meaning: In the meanwhile

11. AD LITEM
Meaning: For the suit

12. AD VALOREM
Meaning: According to the value
E.g. ad valorem tax. Charge levied as a percentage of value of the item it is imposed
on, and not on the item's quantity, size, weight, or other such factor. Value added tax
(VAT) and, generally, import duties are ad valorem taxes.

13. ALIBI
Meaning: Somewhere else

• An Alibi is an excuse. It is a defense in a criminal prosecution.

• It is a plea that a person charged with a crime was somewhere else when the
crime was committed
• If a person is successful in establishing a plea of alibi, he will be entitled to an
acquittal.
• According to Section 103 of Indian Evidence Act, 1872, the burden of proof
lies on him and not on the prosecution.
• Proof of alibi should be set up at the earliest stage of proceedings. Failure to
do so would made it unconvincing. However, the Court must give the accused
to avail the defense and prove his alibi to its satisfaction.
• An uncorroborated evidence of alibi cannot be given importance/weight.
• Public documents generally come to the help of defense in setting up the alibi

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State v. Parsons, 206 Iowa 390, At time of commission of crime

220 N.W. 328, 330 charged in indictment defendant
was at different place so remote or
distant or under such circumstances
that he could not have committed
offense.
Gregg v. State, 69 Okl.Cr. 103, It is a physical circumstance and
101 P.2d 289, 296. derives its entire potency as a
defense from fact that it involves
the physical impossibility of guilt of
accused.
State v. Hubbard, 351 Mo. 143, Elsewhere; in another place
171 S. W.2d 701, 706
Surinder Grover vs State, 1993 A proof that the accused was in the
CrLJ 2618 outpatient ward of a hospital is not enough
because there must be sufficient
corroborative evidence and documentary
evidence to the satisfaction of the court.
State v. Norman, 103 Ohio St. Strictly it is not a defense though
541, 134 N.E. 474. usually called such in criminal
procedure.

14. AMICUS CURIAE

Meaning: Friend of the Court
A person with strong interest in or views on the subject matter of an action, but is not a
party to the litigation, may petition the court for the permission to file a brief,
ostensibly on behalf of a party but act usually to suggest a rationale consistent with its
own views.
• Such briefs are usually filed in appeals concerning matters of broad public
interest e.g. civil rights case.
• It may be filed by private person or the government.

15. CAVEAT EMPTOR

Meaning: Let the buyer beware; the buyer must look out for himself
Under the contract of sale there is no implied condition or warranty as to quality or
fitness of goods supplied for any particular purpose.
The term is actually part of a longer statement: Caveat emptor, quia ignorare non debuit quod
jus alienum emit ("Let a purchaser beware, for he ought not to be ignorant of the nature of the
property which he is buying from another party.") The assumption is that buyers will inspect
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it often refers) before completing a transaction. This does not, however, give sellers the green
light to actively engage in fraudulent transactions.
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16. CONSENSUS AD IDEM

Meaning: Agreement of minds or meeting of minds

17. DAMNUM SINE INJURIA

Meaning: damage without injury (infringement of legal rights)
In other words, causing of damage,however substantial,to another person is not
actionable in law unless there is also a violation of legal rights.Therefore,there will be
no compensation for the plaintiff,if he has not suffered any legal injury.

: The defendant has setup a rival school for teaching grammar near the plaintiff’s
grammar school due to which the plaintiff suffered the loss as his students started
joining defendant’s school.Due to this competition,plaintiff have to even lower down
the fees of his school. So,Plaintiff sued the defendant to seek compensation,but no
compensation was given as there is no legal injury has happened to plaintiff.

Number of steamship companies combined together and drove the plaintiff company
out of the tea carrying trade by offering reduced freight. The House of Lords held that
the plaintiff had no cause of action as the defendants had by lawful means acted to
protect and extend their trade and increase their profits.

18. INJURIA SINE DAMNUM (INJURY WITHOUT DAMAGE)

Meaning: Violation of legal right without causing any harm, loss or damage to the
plaintiff.
This maxim is reverse of above stated maxim.

The plaintiff was a qualified voter at a parliamentary election, but the defendant, a
returning officer wrongfully refused to take plaintiff’s vote. No loss was suffered by
such refusal because the candidate for whom he wanted to vote won in spite of that.
The defendant was held liable, even though his action did not cause any damage.

Bhim Singh (plaintiff) was detained by the police when he was on his way to attend
assembly section for his work. He was not even presented in front of magistrate within
the requisite time.
Hence, here the legal rights of plaintiff are violated. The defendant was held liable and
plaintiff was compensated for the same.
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19. DE FACTO
Latin for "by fact", “by practice”
The maxim refers to the situation in fact, whether by right or not
E.g. The republic has been de facto divided into two states

Further it can also be used to describe “existing or holding specified position in fact but
not necessarily by legal right”.
E.g. they took de facto control of the land

20. DE JURE
Meaning: In law, as per law, by right
De jure means a state of affairs that is in accordance with law (i.e. that is officially
sanctioned)

21. DE MINIMUS NON CURAT LEX

Meaning: The law does not concern itself with the trivial.
In other words, law does not govern trifles or the law ignores insignificant details.
Incorporated in section 95 of the Indian Penal Code.

It was alleged that the assesse should not be held to have committed any default in the
payment of admitted tax since the shortage was only of 3 paise which was too trivial
to notice. Herein, they applied the maxim de minis non curatlex.

22. DECREE NISI OR RULE NISI

Latin word “Nisi” means “unless”
Meaning: A decree nisi or rule nisi is a court order that does not have any force
unless a particular condition is met.
Once the condition is met, the ruling becomes a decree absolute (rule absolute), and
is binding.

• A decree nisi is issued by the court to tell the parties that they have to wait a certain period of time before making their divorce final
IN

• This is to allow time for anyone who objects to the divorce to tell the court why they object.
DIVORCE

• The decree nisi can often be set aside with mutual consent of the spouses. When the period expires, they can apply for the "decree
CASES absolute", which means the divorce is completed and the partners are no longer married.

23. DELEGATUS NON POTEST DELEGARE

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It is a principle in constitutional and administrative law that means in Latin that

"no delegated powers can be further delegated."
Legal rule that an agent to whom an authority or decision making power has been
delegated by a principal or higher authority may not delegate it to a sub agent unless
the original delegator expressly authorizes it, or there is an implied authority to do so.

24. DOLI IN CAPAX

Meaning: incapable of doing harm

The words “doli in capax” means “incapability of

the child” to distinguish right or wrong.

A child below the age of seven years is called

“doli in capax”.

Hence the law grants absolute immunity to such

an infant from wrongful acts.

Sections 82 and 83 exempt the wrongful act of the child from the criminal liability.

25. DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA

Meaning: a gift of personal property in anticipation of death.
Sec. 191 of the Indian Succession Act, 1925 reads:
“Property transferable by gift made in contemplation of death. —
(1) A man may dispose, by gift made in contemplation of death, of any moveable
property which he could dispose of by will.
(2) A gift is said to be made in contemplation of death where a man, who is ill and
expects to die shortly of his illness, delivers to another the possession of any moveable
property to keep as a gift in case the donor shall die of that illness.
(3) Such a gift may be resumed by the giver; and shall not take effect if he recovers
from the illness during which it was made; nor if he survives the person to whom it
was made.”

26. EJUSDEM GENERIS

Meaning: of the same kind.

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Normally, general words should be given their natural meaning like all other
words unless the context requires otherwise.

But when a general word follows specific words of a distinct category, the
general word may be given a restricted meaning of the same category.

The general expression takes its meaning from the preceding particular
expressions because the legislature by using the particular words of a
distinct genus has shown its intention to that effect.

This principle is limited in its application to general word following less general word
only.

27. EMINENT DOMAIN

A right of a government to take private property for public use by virtue of the
superior dominion of the sovereign power over all lands within its jurisdiction.
The seizing authority must pay fair market value for the property seized.

Examples of eminent domain in a Sentence: The state took the homes by eminent
domain to build the new road.

28. EX OFFICIO
Meaning: by virtue of one's position or status.
Sentence: The United States Vice President is the ex officio President of the Senate.

29. EX PARTE
Meaning: On one side only
In Legal sense it means, an order passes in the absence of the opposite party.
Sentence: Ex parte decree can be set aside on showing sufficient cause.

30. FACTUM VALET

Meaning: A thing which cannot be altered.
In other words, it means a thing which is not recognized by law, gets such recognition
on being performed.
Example: Child Marriage

31. EX POST FACTO

Meaning: with retrospective action or force

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Essentially means "retroactive," or affecting something that's already happened.

What can be said as "Ex Post Facto"?

A law that makes Increases the
Changes the rules of
illegal an act that penalties for an
evidence to make
was legal when infraction after it
conviction easier
committed has been committed

Sentence: The Constitution prohibits the making of ex post facto law.

32. FAIT ACCOMPLI (An accomplished fact, something that has already occurred)
Meaning: A thing that has already happened or been decided before those affected
hear about it, leaving them with no option but to accept it.
Sentence: The results were presented to shareholders as a fait accompli.

33. IN PARI MATERIA

Meaning: Upon the same subject or matter; in a similar case.
Sentence: The two similar statutes were read in pari materia.

34. IGNORANTIA LEGIS NEMINEM EXCUSAT

Meaning: Ignorance of law is no excuse.
A person who is unaware of a law cannot escape liability merely because of the
unawareness of that law.

35. INTEREST REIPUBLICAE UT SIT FINIS LITIUM

Meaning: In the interest of state, litigation must come to an end.

36. INTRA VIRES

Meaning: Within the powers/ within the legal power or authority of a person
Sentence: Intra vires act is not unconstitutional.

37. JUS TERTII

Meaning: Third parties right.
When a tenant or bailee or another in possession of property pleads that the title is in
some person other than that person's landlord or bailor, they are said to set up a jus
tertii.

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38. LIS PENDENS

Meaning: Lis pendens means a pending legal action wherein Lis means the suit
and Pendens means continuing or pending.

39. MESNE PROFITS

Meaning: The profits of an estate received by a tenant in wrongful possession and
recoverable by the landlord.

40. NEMO DAT QUOD NON HABET

Meaning: No man can transfer a better title than he himself has.
This is legal rule also known as ‘nemo dat rule’ and describes that the purchase of
property from a person who has no ownership right also denies the ownership title of
the purchaser. This rule is similar to the rule “Nemo plus iuris ad alium transferre
potest quam ipse habet” which means that “one cannot transfer more rights than he
has”.

41. NEMO DEBET BIS VEXARI PRO UNA ETEADEM CAUSA

Meaning: No-one shall be tried or punished twice in regards to the same event/ No one
shall be vexed twice for the same offence.

The modern rule of Estoppel by Res Judicata is grounded upon two broad
principles of public policy:

The state has an interest that That no individual should be

there should be an end to sued more than once for the
litigation (interest republicae ut same cause (nemo debet bis
sit finis litium) vexari pro una et eadem causa)

42. NEMO IN PROPRIA CAUSA JUDEX

Meaning: No-one should be a judge in his own case.

Firstly, a judge is precluded from presiding over a case in which

she/he directly appears as a party.

Secondly a judge is precluded from deciding a case in which she/he

has an interest.

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43. NOLLE PROSEQUI

Meaning “will no longer prosecute” or to be unwilling to pursue.
A declaration of nolle prosequi by a prosecutor in a criminal case or by a plaintiff in a
civil suit means that case is being dropped.

44. OBITER DICTA

A judge's expression of opinion uttered in court or in a written judgement, but not
essential to the decision and therefore not legally binding as a precedent.
It can also be called “judge’s remark”

45. ONUS PROBANDI

Meaning: the burden of proof; the obligation to prove an assertion or allegation that
one makes.

46. PACTA SUNT SERVANDA

Meaning: Contract must be respected.

The principle is the cornerstone of contract, which

implies that contract freely entered into must be
honored and enforced.

The principle of Pacta Sunt Servanda states that,

contract and clauses are laws with binding force
between parties.

It is thus required that every contracting party

must keep its promise and fulfill his obligation.

It is said to be the oldest principle of international law. Without such a rule, no

international agreement would be binding or enforceable. The maxim says that
international treaties should be upheld by all the signatories.

47. PENDENTE LITE

Meaning "awaiting the litigation" or "pending the litigation”.
Pendente lite is used to describe court orders that are put into effect while litigation is
still pending, in order to facilitate fair administration of justice.

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Pendente lite orders are most commonly issued

in divorce actions. In divorce actions, pendente
MAINTENANCE PENDENTE LITE
lite orders are typically issued to provide
temporary support to the spouse who makes
less money, in order to get him or her by until a
permanent order can be made.

48. PER CAPITA

Meaning: “by heads”
They have the world's largest per capita income.

49. PER INCURIAM

Means "through lack of care"
A court decision made per incuriam is one which ignores a contradictory statute or
binding authority, and is therefore wrongly decided and of no force.

50. PER STRIPES

Meaning "by branch"

An estate of a decedent is distributed per stirpes if each branch of the family is to

receive an equal share of an estate.

51. PLENUM DOMINIUM

Meaning: Full ownership

52. PRO BONO PUBLICO

Meaning: For the public good
It is a Latin phrase for professional work undertaken voluntarily and without
payment.
Statement: A legal firm offers on-site pro bono legal services for noncriminal
matters to our patients.

53. RATIO DECIDENDI

Meaning "the reason" or "the rationale for the decision.
It is the legal principle or rationale on which a judicial decision is based.

54. RES GESTAE

Res gestae includes facts which form part of same transaction.
Statements that constitute part of the res gestae are attributed a certain degree of
reliability because they are contemporaneous, making them admissible by virtue of

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‘the nature and strength’ of their connection with a particular event and their ability to
explain it comprehensively.

55. RES IPSA LOQUITUR

Meaning: the thing speaks for itself
Municipal Corporation of Delhi versus Subhagwanti (1966 AIR 1750)
Suits for damages was filed by the plaintiff as heir of three persons who died as a
result of the collapse of the Clock Tower belonging to the defendant corporation.
The court held that the doctrine of res ipsa loquitur was rightly applied as in the
circumstances of the case.

56. RES JUDICATA

Latin term for "a matter [already] judged"

• 'Res Judicata' means a case or suit involving a particular issue between two or more
parties already decided by a court.

• Thereafter, if either of the parties approaches the same court for the adjudication of
the same issue, the suit will be struck by the law of 'res judicata'.

57. RES NULLIUS

Meaning: A thing which has no owner. A thing which has been abandoned by its
owner is as much res nullius as if it had never belonged to any one.

58. STATUS QUO

Meaning: “the state in which”

• The existing condition

• The current status of affairs, particularly about political or social matters

• The normal condition with regards to social and political situations

THUS, IT MEANS EXITING STATE OF THINGS AT A GIVEN DATE.

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A judge has an authority to issue status quo order to prevent anyone from taking
action until the matter is heard and resolved by the court. When the order is issues,
the situation stays exactly as it was before the proceedings began, until the judge
hands down a permanent judicial decision.

For example: Status quo is family law is often used in relation to child custody cases.
When a couple files for divorce, there is often a conflict in relation to custody of child or with
respect to child visitation rights. In such a case, court issues status quo order until the issue of child
custody or visitation can be resolved. It shall mean that the child continues to live in familiar home,
continues to attend familiar school and continues familiar activities court delivers its final judgment.

59. SUB JUDICE

Concept of Res sub
Sub judice is Latin for “under judgment” judice under Section 10
It means that a particular case or matter is under trial or being of CPC: When 2 or more
considered by a judge or court. cases are filed between
the same parties on the
same subject matter, in
two or more courts, the
Held, when a matter is before a competent Civil Court, the
competent court has the
National Commission will not entertain a petition in respect of power to “stay
identical subject matter under Consumer Protection Act. proceedings” of the
another court.

60. SUI JURIS

Meaning "in one's own right."
It means a person who is able to make contracts and sue others, or be sued himself.
A person sui juris is one who is not bankrupt, mentally incapable or a minor.
To make a valid contract, a person must, in general, be sui juris. Every one of full age
is presumed to be sui juris.

61. SUO MOTO

Meaning "on its own motion,"
Suo – his/her/it’s
Moto- motion

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Explanation: Suo moto means an act done by a person in

authority, with his/her own discretion and volition, without
prompting or direction of another.

The most common

example is when court The police can also take
takes suo moto cognizance suo moto cognizance of
of a matter, calling upon matters which may be
the parties to explain. serious.

62. UBI JUS IBI REMEDIUM

The word ‘Jus’

means the legal
authority to do or
demand
something
Literal meaning
of this maxim is
that whenever
there is a legal
right, there is a
legal remedy.
word ‘remedium’
means the right
of action in a
Court of law

The maxim does not mean, as it is sometimes supposed, that there is a legal remedy
for every moral or political wrong. There are many moral and political wrongs which
are not recognized by law and are therefore not actionable.

63. ULTRA VIRES

If an act requires legal authority and it is done with such authority, it is

characterized in law as intra vires. If it is done without such authority, it is ultra
vires.

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Legally, governments are given powers by a constitution. An action outside those

powers is ultra vires, and may be held to be illegal by a court. In corporate law, may
also mean an action not permitted by the articles of the company.
The object clause of the memorandum of the company contains the object for which
the company is formed. An act of the company must not be beyond the object clause
otherwise it will be ultra vires and therefore, void and cannot be ratified even if all the
member wish to ratify. This is called the doctrine of ultra vires.

64. Volenti Non fit injuria

To a willing
person, injury
is not done.

MEANING

things
an injury suffered
cannot arise voluntarily
out of a are not
voluntary act fit/deemed to
be an injury

Examples:
1. You were walking on the right side of the road and get hit by a motorcycle. Will
your claim against the motorcyclist succeed? No, because you very well know the
risks involved in walking on the right side of the road.
2. You go to a circus show. During the show, due to the imbalance of the sticks, the lion
on top of the sticks falls on you and thereby causes injuries to you.
3. You are working in a factory that makes steel items. There is a lot of electrical work
that is involved in it. While working, few of the sparks enter into your eyes thereby
causing you vision problems. Will your claim succeed against your employer?
No. Because, your acceptance to the job opportunity is an indication of you consenting
to the risks involved in the work.
The defence has exceptions:

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a) Negligence of the other party:

Remember one thing: you consent to the risks of the game but not the negligence of
the other party. To understand this better let us examine the above facts with a
little twist in them:
You go to watch a cricket match and in the middle of the match suddenly a steel plank
from the top of the stadium falls on your head and injuries you.
The injury caused to you was deep and you suffered some medical expenses.
Frustrated you sue the stadium authorities for causing such serious injury to you. Will
your claim against the stadium authorities succeed? Yes, it will.

Understand this: The facts discussed above and here being more or less similar. In the
present case you have consented to the risks of the game such as the ball hitting you
or anything likewise but you have not consented to the negligence of the stadium
authorities. It is the duty of the stadium authorities to maintain the stadium properly.
Therefore in the present case, your claim will stand.

Therefore, if a player punches another in such a manner so as to cause grievous hurt

to him, then the defence of Volenti Non Fit Injuria will not stand.

b) Rescue Cases
To understand this defence let us take the very same case of the cricket stadium. You
go watch a cricket match and you see a steel plank falling from above and you
realize that there is a child standing below it. In order to save the child you go ahead
and try to push the child away from the steel plank. Eventually the steel plank falls
on you and thereby causing injury to you.
The injury caused to you was deep and you suffered some injuries. Frustrated you
sue the stadium authorities for causing such serious injury to you. Will you succeed?
Yes you will. How? A question might arise that here you have consented to the risk
of saving the child and hence the Stadium authorities cannot be held liable.
However what you must appreciate is, under the Law of Torts, a rescuer is not
considered to have voluntarily accepted to the risks. In this case, your actions do
not contain your consent. Therefore, in this case your claim will stand not only
because you wanted to rescue the child but also for the negligence of the stadium
authorities for not maintaining the stadium properly.
However, it is also seen that sometimes it is not necessary for a person to rescue, and
yet the person acts in rescue thereby claiming the defence. Then his claim will not
succeed.
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c) Illegal acts

In order to claim the defence of Volenti non fit injuria, the act committed by the
defendant must not be an illegal or unlawful act.
Ram and Shyam are friends. Ram kills Shyam stating that he has consented to it.
Can Ram be excused under the defence Volenti non fit injuria? No. Why? Because
the mere act of killing a person cannot be justified under law. Consent to illegal acts
are not considered as valid.

65. WRIT
Writ is a formal written order issued by a Court. Any warrant, orders, directions, and
so on, issued by the Supreme Court or the High court directing a person to do
something or to refrain from doing something.

A writ petition can be filed in the High Court (Article 226) or the Supreme Court
(Article 32) of India when any of your fundamental rights are violated. The
jurisdiction with the High Court’s (Article 226) with regards to a writ petition is
wider and extends to constitutional rights too.

66. HABEAS CORPUS

Literally means, “to have the body”.

The court can cause any person who has been detained or imprisoned to be physically
brought before the court. The court then examines the reason of his detention and if
there is no legal justification of his detention, he can be set free. Such a writ can be
issued in following example cases:

When the person is detained and not produced before the magistrate within 24 hours

When the person is arrested without any violation of a law.

When a person is arrested under a law which is unconstitutional

When detention is done to harm the person or is malafide.

Habeas corpus writ is called bulwark of individual liberty against arbitrary

detention.

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A general rule of filing the petition is that a person whose right has been infringed
must file a petition. But Habeas corpus is an exception and anybody on behalf of the
detainee can file a petition. Habeas corpus writ is applicable to preventive detention
also.

This writ can be issued against both public authorities as well as individuals.

67. MALAFIDE

‘Mal’ means ‘bad’ and ‘fide’ means ‘faith’.

Meaning: In bad faith; with intent to deceive.

A mala fide action is one that is performed with dishonest intent; a person purposely
attempts to cheat or deceive you.

The opposite of ‘mala fide’ is ‘bona fide’ meaning ‘in good faith’.

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SET EXPRESSIONS AND PHRASES

1. Expressions Meaning and Usage

2. Abet Encourage, Instigate

He abetted the thief in robbing the bank.

3. Abstain To keep oneself away from; to withhold oneself from

Tom was told to abstain from smoking and drinking.

4. Accomplice A person who helps another commit a crime.

She was her husband's accomplice in murdering a rich old man.

5. Act of God An unforeseen and uncontrollable natural event, such as a hurricane, fire, or flood.

Most airlines will not reimburse passengers if flight delays or cancelations are
caused by an act of God.

6. Actionable Subject to or affording ground for an action or suit at law; furnishing ground for a
lawsuit.

Be careful what you say your remarks may be actionable.

7. Accused One charge with an offence, defendant in a criminal case

A was accused of murder.

8. Adjournment Putting off legal hearing to a later date; to postpone

A seeked adjournment since his lawyer was ill.

9. Adjudication A judicial decision or sentence, the act of process of adjudicating

Dispute between Ram and Shyam was adjudicated.

10. Admission The granting of an argument or position not fully proved; acknowledgement that a
fact or statement is true; act or process of admitting

Admission operates in the domain of both civil law and criminal law.

11. Affidavit A statement by a person made on oath or solemn affirmation before a person having
authority to administer oath

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A filed application supported by an affidavit.

12. Amendment The act of altering a document by addition, deletion, correction, or other changes.

There has been a recent amendment in criminal law.

13. Appeal Right of entering a superior court and invoking its aid and interposition to redress
the error of the lower court.

Ram filed an appeal against judgment of lower court

14. Acquittal A judgment or verdict that a person is not guilty of the crime with which they have
been charged

A was acquitted by court of law.

15. Article A guideline and has a similar context in law to the section mentioned in various acts

Article 21 of constitution of India states that no person shall be deprived of his life
or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

16. Assent Consent, concur, agree

Ram gave his assent to organize the conference on 10th August.

17. Attestation To affirm to be true or genuine, to testify

A got his Id attested by the magistrate

18. Attornment Act of agreeing to become tenant to a new owner or landlord of the same property.

A became tenant of B by attorment.

19. Averment Affirmation or allegation made in pleadings

A gave all his averments in the plaint filed by him.

20. Bail ➢ Temporary release of an arrested accrued person on condition that sum of
money is lodged to guarantee their appearance in court;
➢ Payment made tit h court to release an arrested person.

Magistrate granted bail to Ram in a hit and run case.

21. Bailment Delivery of goods by one person to another for some purpose, upon a contract that
they shall, when the purpose is accomplished, be returned or otherwise disposed of
according to the directions of the person delivering them.

A delivered goods to C under Contract of Bailment.

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22. Citation A reference to a legal precedent or authority such as a case, treatise or a statute.

A cited several U.S case laws in his project assignment.

23. Clause A particular and separate article, stipulation, or proviso in a treaty, bill, or contract.

Articles in Constitution contain clauses and sub clauses.

24. Coercion The action or practice of persuading someone to do something by using force or
threats.

A coerced B to marry him.

25. Code A general collection or compilation of laws by public authority; a system of law; a
systematic and complete body of law on any subject.

Civil Procedure is an exhaustive code.

26. Cognizable Judicially noticeable

Magistrate took suo moto cognizance of the offence.

27. Confession A formal statement admitting that one is guilty of crime

Ram made a confession before the magistrate.

28. Compromise Agreement of dispute that is reached after each side makes concession.

A and C reached a compromise.

29. Consent Permission for something to happen or agreement to do something

Contracts should have an element of free consent.

30. Conspiracy A secret plan by a group to do something illegal

B conspired to commit theft with A.

31. Contempt Disregard for something that should be considered.

He was punished for contempt of court.

32. Contingent Subject to chance

The job offer was contingent on positive interview result.

33. Contraband Imported or exported illegally, either in defiance of a total ban or without payment
of duty

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The trade was contraband, and the opium was bought by the Chinese from depot
ships at the ports.

34. Conviction A formal decision of a judge in a court of law that someone is guilty of a criminal
offence.

In light of the evidence, a conviction seems certain.

35. Convention A way in which something is usually done

He bought some new books at the science fiction convention.

36. Corporate Means a body corporate which has a legal existence

We have to change the corporate structure to survive.

37. Custody Protection, care or guardianship of someone

Ram was taken into custody for causing nuisance in public.

38. Damages Compensation of causing loss or injury through negligence or deliberate act

Ram was ordered to pay damages to Shyam.

39. Decree A formal and authoritative order especially one having force of law

Court passed a decree in A’s favor.

40. Defamation Action of damaging the good reputation of someone

The charges of defamation were levied on A.

41. Defense To protect against harm or attack

He acted in his self-defense.

42. Escheat A situation in which property or money becomes the property of state, if owner dies
without the will

Her property and land should be escheated to the nation.

43. Estoppel Preventing or “estopping” a person from making an assertion or from going back on
his/her words.

An estoppel should be used against Kasab because he time and again changes his
statements.

44. Eviction Act of expelling someone from the property.

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His landlord has threatened to evict him if he doesn't pay the rent soon.

45. Executive A person or group of person having administrative or supervisory authority.

The head of the executive branch is the President of India, who is also the head of
state.

46. Ex parte With respect to or in the interest of one side only

Court passed ex parte order in defendant’s favor.

47. Finding Act of searching

48. Floating It is security over assets or group of assets that are subject to changes in quantity and
Charges value

49. Forma Latin for “in the form of a pauper”

Pauperism
Pauper means someone who is without the funds to pursue the normal cost of law
suit or criminal defense.

50. Franchise Authorization granted by a government or company to an individual or group

enabling them to carry out specified commercial activity.

51. Fraud A person or thing intended to deceive others.

52. Frustration The feeling of being upset or annoyed as a result of being unable to change or
achieve something

53. Guardian A person who protects or defends

54. Hearsay Rumor; Information received from other person which cannot be substantiated

55. Homicide Killing of one person by another

56. Hypothecation Security interest created over moveable assets. In hypothecation, the possession and
ownership of property stays with the borrower.

57. Illegal Contrary or forbidden by law

58. Indemnity Security or protection against a loss or other financial burden

59. Inheritance Property that passes on owner’s death to his heir or those entitled to succeed

60. Bench Seat of court

61. Bill of attainder Legislative act finding a person guilty without trial and declaring him to be attained

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62. Bill of Right First 10 amendments of US Constitution make Bill of Right. They were adopted as a
single unit on December 15, 1791.

First Amendment is perhaps the most important part of the Bill of Rights.

63. Blockade A blockade is an effort to cut off supplies, war material or communications from a
particular area by force, either in part or totally.

Blockade in an action in International Law.

64. Bye Law Regulation made by local authority or corporation

Nagar Nigam Adhiniyam is a bye- law

65. Capital Legally authorized killing of someone as punishment of crime.

Punishment
Capital punishment is given only in rare of the rarest case.

66. Chattles A thing that you own other than land or building

Chattle is always moveable.

67. Justiciable Which can be subject to trial in court of law

My right to move freely is justiciable.

68. Legislation Various laws considered collectively

Hindu Law is legislation.

69. Legitimacy Which is allowed by law

A is legitimate child of B.

70. Liability State of being legally responsible for something

I am under the liability to pay you Rs.500.

71. Liberty State of being free; freedom to live life without interference

Constitution grants me right to personal liberty.

72. License Permission to do something

Liquor shops cannot run without license.

73. Lien The right to retain the lawful possession of the property of another until the owner
fulfills a legal duty to the person holding the property, such as the payment of lawful

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charges for work done on the property. A mortgage is a common lien.

Bank exercised lien over A’s motor cycle.

74. Liquidation To cause a business to close, so that its assets can be sold to pay its debts

The company has gone into liquidation.

75. Maintenance The process of preserving a condition or situation or the state of being preserved.

Wife can demand maintenance from her husband.

76. Malfeasance The performance by a public official of an act that is legally unjustified, harmful, or
contrary to law.

Herein, person intentionally harms other with an illegal act.

The investigation has uncovered evidence of corporate malfeasance.

77. Minor Person of age below legal age.

Minor’s contract is void ab initio.

78. Misfeasance The fact of someone in authority performing a legal act in an illegal way, often
without intending to.

79. Mortgage Creation of security interest wherein immoveable property, like land, a house, or a
building is used as a guarantee for a loan.

80. Murder The unlawful premeditated killing of one human being by another.

81. Negligence Breach of duty of care which results in loss or injury to the person or entity the duty
is owed.

82. Negotiable Able to be discussed or changed in order to reach an agreement.

83. Instrument Formally executed written document by which a claim or right or interest or
property is transferred from one person to another.

84. Neutrality The state of a nation that takes no part in a war between two or more other powers

85. Nonfeasance The failure or omission to do something that should be done or especially something
that one is under a duty or obligation to do

86. Notification the act of telling someone officially about something

87. Novation Substitution of an original party to a contract with a new party, or substitution of an
original contract with a new contract.

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88. Nuisance a person or thing causing inconvenience or annoyance

89. Oath A solemn promise, often invoking a divine witness, regarding one's future action or
behavior.

90. Obscene Offensive or disgusting by accepted standards of morality and decency.

91. Offender a person who commits a wrong/ illegal act

92. Order An authoritative command or instruction

93. Ordinance Ordinances are laws that are promulgated by the President/ Governor of India on the
recommendation of the Union Cabinet/ State Cabinet. They can only be issued
when Parliament/ State Legislature is not in session. They enable the Indian
government to take immediate legislative action. Ordinances cease to operate either
if Parliament/ State Legislature does not approve of them within 6 weeks of
reassembly, or if disapproving resolutions are passed by both Houses.

94. Over- Rule Reject or disallow by exercising one's superior authority

95. De facto In fact, whether by right or not;

In practice, in effect, in fact, in reality, really, actually, in actuality

A was appointed as de facto guardian of B.

96. De Jure According to rightful entitlement or claim; by right

Something that exists legally.

He had been de jure king since his father's death.

King is de jure leader of men.

97. Deposit Place (something) somewhere for safekeeping.

X deposited the money in his account.

98. Detention Process whereby a state or private citizen lawfully holds a person by removing his
or her freedom or liberty at that time.

The student was detained in school for misbehaving in class.

99. Discretion On one's own authority and judgment.

Court passed discretionary relief.

100. Distress Extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain

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A did not intend to distress his mother.

101. Earnest Money A deposit made to demonstrate commitment and to bind a contract, with the
remainder money due at a particular time.

A paid earnest money to B.

102. Enact Make (a bill or other proposal) law.

Parliament enacted the law.

103. Enforceable Compel observance of or obedience to

Court’s order was enforceable.

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Foreign Words and Phrases

The following Latin words and phrases are often used in English:
ab ante before; in advance
ab initio from the beginning
ab intestate in the Civil Law
act in pais a judicial or other act performed out of Court and not a matter of
record
actum a deed; something done
actus reus wrongful act
ad alium diem at another day
ad audiendum to hear
ad hoc arranged for the purpose or object ad infinitum
ad idem tallying in the essential point
ad infinitum without limit; to infinity
ad interim in the meanwhile; temporarily
adjourn sine die adjournment to unfixed future date
ad nauseam disgusting extent
ad sectam at the suit
ad valorem according to the valuation
aequus equal
aequitas equally
a fortiori all the more; with strong reason
agio related to money-changing
alias otherwise called
alibi elsewhere
aliter otherwise or in other words
aliunde from another source
alleviare in old records
alma mater school attended
alter ego the other self
a mensa et thoro from table and bed; now means judicial separation
amicus curiae a friend of the Court; an impartial adviser
animus an intention; hostility
animus deserendi intention to desert
animus domini the intention of possession and ownership by entry or user
animus manendi the intention of remaining
animus possidendi intention of possess and exclude
animus revertendi the intention of returning
anno Christi (A.C.) in the year of Christ
anno Domini (A.D.) in the year of our Lord
ante meridiem (a.m.) before noon
a posteriori an argument based on observation or experiment
a priori an argument based on analogy or abstract consideration; from
the cause to the effect
argumentum ad hominem argument of personal attack, not of reason
argumentum ad baculum a term of logic meaning argument of the stick i.e. of force, not of
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reason
assensio mentium mutual consent
au revoir till we meet again; bye-bye
auter droit the right of another
autre fois acquit when a person is acquitted, he cannot be afterwards indicted for
the same offence
autrefois convict when already convicted of the same crime, entitling the party
proving it to a discharge
bona fides genuine; in good faith
bona fide good faith
bona vacantia ownerless property; goods without an apparent owner in which
no one claims a property
breve a writ
breve de necto a writ of right of estate
carte Blanche complete freedom to do something
casus belli act justifying war
causa a cause
causa causans the immediate cause
causa omissus a point unprovided for by a statute
cause celebre a legal case that excites widespread interest
causa mortis in respect of death
causa proxima the immediate cause
caveat a warning enjoining from certain acts or practices
caveat emptor let the person beware a prerogative writ of superior Court to call
certiorari for the records of an inferior Court
certiorarified mandamus a merger of the two writs viz. certiorari and mandamus
cesus belli an occurrence giving rise to war
cestui que trust the person who possess the equitable right to property and
receives the rents thereof; the legal estate of which vested in a
trustee
cestui que vie the person for whose life the land is held
charge-d' affaires a person who represents
compos mentis sound in mind
commercium commerce
contra against; on the other hand
coram non judice before one who is not the judge
corpus delicti the body of facts which constitute an offence
culpa lata gross negligence
culpa levis slight negligence
cypres near to it
damage-feaisant doing damage
damnosa haereditas an unprofitable inheritance
damn um sine (abseque) injuria damage without injury i.e. damage caused without legal
wrong
data what is given
decree nisi a decree to be made final unless a contingency happens
de die in diem from day to day continuously
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de facto in actual fact

de hors outside of; unconnected with
de jure in law; by legal right
de luxe of high quality
de novo anew; starting again
dictum a statement of law made by a judge in the course of the
decision
of a case, but not necessary to the decision itself, and therefore,
not of binding effect
divide et impera divide and rule
dolt in capax incapable of malice (children under seven years of age)
donatio mortis causa a gift made in contemplation of death
ejusdem generis of the same kind of nature
en masse all together
en route on the way to
en ventre sa mere in its mother's womb
error errata (pl. erratum)
et cetera things of the same class as those which are contained in the list;
and the rest
ex abundanti cautela from abundant or excessive caution
ex cathedra with official authority (from the chair)
ex contractu actions arising out of breaches of contract
ex debito justitiae as a matter of right
ex delicto from the crime
exempli gratia (e.g.) for example
ex facto jus oritur the law arises out of the fact
ex gratia as a matter of favour or grace
exit way out
ex mero motu of his own accord
ex officio by virtue of an office
ex parte one side only
ex post facto made after the occurrence
extempore spoken without preparation
ex turi causa from a base cause
ex vi termini from the force or meaning of the expression
factotom a man of all work
facsimile make it like; an extra copy a perfect copy
facta probantia facts tending to prove or disprove
factum, probandum the fact to be proved; the fact in issue
fait accompli not reversible
fait enrolle a deed enrolled
felo de se a suicide
feme covert a married woman
feme sole an unmarried woman
fiat a decree
filius nullius the son of no one (an illegitimate son)
filius populi the son of the people (an illegitimate son)
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filium aquae parting properties (the thread of middle of a stream)

flagrante delicto in the very act of committing the crime
forum a Court
functus officio a person who has performed his duty
guardian ad litem an infant defends proceedings by a guardian ad litem
habeas corpus writ of the Court requiring arrested person to be bodily brought
before it to investigate the legality of his detention
haereditas Jacens an inheritance not taken up
haeres factus heir appointed by will
hic jacet here lies, (used of a dead person)
ibid; ibidem; id in the same place, volume or case
idem ad of the same mind; agreed
idem per idem proof; illustration
id est (i.e.) that is (to say)
idiot a feeble minded person
impasse dead lock
impedimenta baggage
imprimatur a licence to print or publish
in alio loco in another place
in arbitrio judicis at the discretion of the judge
in articulo mortis a dying declaration
in camera a judge's private chamber; not in public
in curia in Court
in esse actually existing
in extenso at full length
in extremis at the last gasp
in flagrante delicto caught in the act of adultery or crime
in forma pauperis as a poor person
in futuro in the future
in invitum against a person's will
injuria sine damno injury without damage
in limine at the outset
in loco parentis in place of parent
in memoriam in memory of
in pais done without legal formalities
in pari delicto when both parties are equally in fault
in pari materia (in pari causa) in an analogous cause, case or position
in personam in against a person
in presenti at the present time; at once; immediately
in re in the matter of the expression
in rem against the world : judgments which are conclusive not only
against the parties thereto but also against the whole world
in situ in its own place
in situ pupillari under guardianship
in status quo in the 'former position
inter alia among other things
inter se among themselves
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inter vivos between living persons

in toto totally; completely; entirely; wholly
in transitu in course of transit
intra vices within the power of
in ventre sa mere in the mother's womb
ipse dixit domatic statement resting on bare authority ipso facto by the
very nature of the case; by the very fact
jus law or right
jus ad rem an inchoate and imperfect right
jus tertii the right of third party
lex domicilii the law of the place of a person's domicile
lex fori the law of the place where an action is instituted
lex loci contractus the law of the place where the contract was made
lex loci delicti the law of the country where a tort has been committed
lex loci rei sitae the law of the place where the thing is situate
lex mer catoria the law of merchant
lex non scripta the unwritten law
lex scripta the statute law; the written law
lex talionis the law of retaliation
lis pendens during the pendency in any Court
loco citato (loc. cit.) in that part of the work which has just been referred to
loco price ex-warehouse price of good
locus in quo the place where it is alleged a thing has been done or happened
locus regit actum the place governs the act
locus standi right to speak or intervene in a matter; recognised status;
literally a place of stand on
locus tenens one who lawfully executes the office of another
magnum opus literally great composition; used for an artist's chief work
mala fide in bad faith
mala in se acts wrong in themselves
mala prohibita acts prohibited by human laws
malitia prae cogita malice after thought
mandamus literally means a command; an order of a most remedial nature;
an order issued from the High Court directed to any person or
corporation
mens rea criminal intention or guilty mind
mesne profits intermediate profits
meum et teum mine and thine
misfeasance an act of wrong doing
modus operandi mode or method of working
modus vivendi a way of life; the manner of living
with necessary changes. This
mutatis mutandis phrase is often used in legislation in applying or extending
legislative provisions to same or similar circumstances or to same
or similar subjects
nemo no one; nobody
ne plus ultra the highest point of perfection
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nexus bond; link or connection

nisi unless
nisi prius a trial before a judge with a jury
non compos mentis not of sound mind
non est factum it is not his deed
non obstante clause notwithstanding clause
non-sequitur does not follow
nota bene (N.B.) note well; take notice
nudum pactum a bare promise
null and void of no legal effect
nun cupative will an oral testament; any declaration
obiter dictum incidental opinion, passing remark or remarks
onus probandi burden of proof
ore tenus by word of mouth
overt open
par avion by air
par excellence without comparison
pari passu along with; proportionately
participient criminus sharer of crime
passim passages; statements; opinions etc.
pater familias head of the family
peraente lite during litigation
prima facie at first sight; based on first impression
per anum in the year
per capita counting by heads
per curiam the decisions arrived at by the Court consisting of two or more
judges
diem jure by the day
per jure to cause to tell lie in a Court after saying that he will tell truth
per mensem by the month
per pro by procuration
per se by itself, taken alone
persona designata person pointed out as an individual
persona grata an acceptable person
persona non grata an unacceptable person
pon consideration; price; premium
post mortem after death
pro and con reason for and against
pro have vice for this occasion
proprio vigore by its own force
pro rata in proportion
pro tanto for so much; to that extent
pro tempore for the time being
proviso a clause in a deed or section of a statute which limits or
qualifies
the principal clause
public juris of public right
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puisne subordinate, inferior in rank

qua in the character of
quantum meruit as much as he had earned
quantum valebat as much as they are worth
quod erat demostrandum which was the thing to be demonstrated
quid pro quo something in return, consideration
quoad hoc as to that
quondom that which no longer has its former character
quorum specified number of members forming a board competent to
transact business
quo warranto a prerogative writ which can be granted by the Supreme Court
and High Courts to inquire from the other party by what authority
he claimed or usurped the office, franchise or liberty in order to
determine the right
raison d' etre reason or justification for existence
ratio decidendi reasons underlying a decision
referendum a vote of electors on a particular matter or measure
res a thing
res derelicta an abandoned thing
res Integra a matter not yet decided
res gestae the fact involved in the determination of an issue
res judicator a decision once rendered by a competent court on a matter in
issue between the parties after a full enquiry should not be
permitted to be agitated over again; a case or suit already decided
res nullius a thing which has no owner
resume summary
rule nisi a rule or order upon condition that is to become absolute when
cause is shown to the contrary
sans recourse without recourse
savoir faire the ability to do the right thing in any social situation
scienter knowingly
secus otherwise; to the contrary effect
seisin the possession of land or chattels by one having title thereto
simpliciter absolutely without qualification
sino anno without date
sine die to a date not at the moment fixed
sine qua non an indispensable condition
solatium a sum paid to an injured party over and above actual damage
spes successionis the right of a person to succeed as heir on the death of another
person

stare decisis a judge seeking guidance from past decisions, but is not bound to
follow them
status quo the former state or decision
subjudice under judicial consideration
subpoena a writ ordering a person to appear in the Court of law under
penalty
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subrosa secretly, literally under rose

suggestio falsi misrepresentation
sui generis of its own kind, unique
sui juris of his own right
summum banum the highest good
Suo motu by itself
supressio veri wilful concealment of truth
sus per coll let him be hanged by the neck
terminus a quo the starting point
terminus ad quem the terminal point
terra firma dry land; firm ground
testatum a clause in a deed which witnesses the operative act to be
effectuated by the deed
testimonium a concluding part of a deed which generally begins with the
words, 'in witness'.
tete-a-tete an informal private conversation between two people
toties quoties as often an occasion arises
tour de force remarkable deed
transfer inter vivos transfer between living persons
trespasser ab initio trespasser from the beginning
uberrimae fidei of the utmost good faith
ubi supra in the place above (mentioned)
ullage the quantity required to fill partly filled vessel
ultra vires illegal; beyond one's power
vade mecum a constant companion
vadium mortuum a deep pledge; a mortgage
verbatim et literatim word for word and letter for letter
verrus (v) against
via media a middle course
vicarious liability liability of the master for the acts of the servant or agent done in
the course of his employment
vice in place of
vice versa the order being reversed
vida see; refer to
videlicet (viz.) namely (that is to say)
vie by way of; through
vinculum juris legal bond
vires authority or power
visa an endorsement made on passport by the proper authority
denoting that the bearer may proceed
vis-a-vis the relationship of one or two persons or things to the other,
when facing or situated opposite to each other
vis major irresistible violence
viva voce oral examination
volte face a sudden change to an opposing set of plan of action
vox populi the voice of the people
vox Dei the voice of the God
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WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED

AMIABLE (lovable) AMICABLE (FRIENDLY)
ARTIST(related to fine art) ARTISAN( related to practice of
mechanical art)
AFFECT(to make difference on something) EFFECT(result)
ANCIENT(very old) AGED(old in age, numerically
demonstrated)
ANSWER(is to a question) REPLY(is to a charge or objection)
ASSENT (to agree) ASCENT( to move upwards)
ACCIDENT (a mishap) INCIDENT (an event)
APPOSITE (suitable) OPPOSITE ( in front of)
BENEFICENT (kind) BENEFITIAL (useful)
BATTLE (A single engagement ) WAR (a series of engagement)
CEILING (the ROOF (covering of a SEALING (act of sealing with a
inner roof) building) wax etc.)
CHILDLIKE (innocent) CHILDISH (foolish)
CLEAR (transparent, usually used in relation to CLEAN (free from dirt)
a liquid)
CONSCIOUS (aware) CONSCIENTIOUS (hard working)
CORPORAL (related to human body) CORPOREAL (one who has a
physical existence in form of a
body)
Eg: God does not have a corporeal
existence.
COUNCIL (assembly of people) COUNSEL (to advice) derived
from Counselling

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CRIME (Against law) VICE (against society) SIN (against faith)

CANON (rule)
DENY (to declare untrue)
DROWN (is used for living beings)
EMINENT (famous)
ELIGIBLE (suitable for something, someone IILEGIBLE (something
who qualifies the eligibility)
FAMOUS (used in good sense)
GODLY (pious)
I live a godly life.
GRACIOUS (kind, merciful)
HORSE (is an animal)
HEAR (to perceive sound)
HONORARY (work or job done for which you HONOURABLE (worthy of honor)
do not get payment)
HUMAN (relating to man)
IDLE (who has no work to do)
INDUSTRIAL (pertaining to industries)
LOVELY (exciting love)
LAWYER (one who has studied law)
OFFICIAL (pertaining to any office)
PERSECUTE (to harass)
POPULAR (loved by people, who is famous)
CANNON (a big gun)
REFUSE (not to do)
SINK (used for objects)
IMMINENT (which is soon to
happen)
which
cannot be read)
NOTORIOUS (used in negative
sense)
GODLIKE (someone who is treated
like god)
Sai baba is a godlike figure.
GRACEFUL (comely)
HOARSE (harsh voice)
LISTEN (implies attention)
HUMANE (sympathetic)
LAZY (who has work to do, but
he/she is unwilling to do it)
INDUSTRIOUS (hardworking)
LOVABLE (worthy of love)
LIER (one who does not speak
truth)
OFFICIOUS (meddlesome)
PROSECUTE ( to bring action in
court of law)
POPULOUS (place which is thickly

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PRESIDENT (first citizen of any nation) PRECEDENT (previous example)
PRINCIPAL (chief or head of any organization) PRINCIPLE (a rule)
RESPECTABLE (who deserves respect) REPECTFUL RESPECTIVE
(one who gives (each’s one)
respect) Eg: Students
were supposed
to sit in their
respective
classes.
SELECT (to choose using your own discretion) ELECT (getting chosen after
elections)
SENSITIVE (quick to impressions) SENSIBLE (possessing senses)
SIGHT (power of CITE (to quote) SITE (a place)
seeing)
STATIONARY (anything that is not moving) STATIONERY (writing material)
STATUTE (written law) STATUE (an image)
UNITY (feeling of oneness) UNION (group of people who come
together to achieve a particular
objective)
VACANT (empty, usually used in relation to EMPTY (usually used in relation to
space) a vessel or a container, means
empty)

1. Abate (v)—become less, makes less.

We should try to abate the noise in the cities.
Abet (v)—encourage a crime, etc.
She abetted her husband in illegal activities.
2. Abject (adj.)—miserable, hopeless, wretched
He lives in abject poverty. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
Object (n)—purpose
My object was to change his opinion.
3. Abjure (v)—abandon, promise to give up
He abjured his religion.
adjure (v)—beg, ask somebody earnestly

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4. Accede (v)—agree, assent, accept
I cannot accede to your request.
Exceed (v)—go beyond
The cost exceeded the estimate.
5. Accept (v)—to receive with favour, to agree to take
He accepted my invitation.
Except (v)—to omit or exclude
If you will except the last term, I shall accept the contract.
(n) : (leaving out) All attended the party except Ram.
6. Access (n)—approach or admission
A poor man has no access to the King.
Excess (n)—more than enough
Excess of tea affects digestion.
7. Accessary (n)—helper in crime
He was an accessary to the murder of his wife committed by his mother.
Accessory (n)—extra useful things
Lamp and pump are the accessories of a bicycle.
8. Accident (n)—that happens by chance, an unexpected happening
He was killed in an accident.
Incident (n)—happening
He narrated an interesting incident of her life.
9. Ace (n)—the one on dice, on cards
I have the ace of spades in a set of cards.
Ache (n)—continuous pain
I am suffering from head-ache.

10. Acetic (adj.)—one kind of acid https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs

Acetic acid is the acid contained in vinegar.
Ascetic (adj.)—morally strict
As per his religious belief he leads an ascetic life.
Aesthetic (adj.)—lover of beauty
He has aesthetic taste of art.
11. Act (n)—thing done, deed
It is an act of kindness to help a blind man across the road.
Action (n)—process of doing something, activity
The time has come for action.
12. Adapt (v)—adjust
We should adapt ourselves to our surroundings.
Adept (adj.) (n)—expert
I am not an adept photographer.
Adopt (v)—take somebody into one's family as a relation especially as a son or a daughter
As they had no children of their own, they adopted an orphan.
13. Addition (n)—putting more, process of adding
They have just had an addition to their family, another child.
Edition (n)—number or form of a publication
The first edition of the book was sold in no time.
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14. Adverse (adj.)—contrary
Despite adverse conditions, I implemented my plan.
Averse (adj.) —unwilling
I am averse to attending the meeting.
15. Advice (n)—opinion given
He paid no heed to my advice.
Advise (v)—give opinion
Please advise me what to do.
16. Admission (n)—being admitted
His admission to the college was cancelled.
Admittance (n)—letting in
He was allowed admittance to the private museum with great difficulty.
17. Adulteration (n)—making something impure by adding other material
He was arrested for the adulteration of food material.
Adultery (n)—sexual relation between a married person and some other than their spouse
He was arrested in a case of adultery.
18. Affect (v)—act, influence
The fever has affected her health.
Effect (v)—accomplish, change
(n)—result
We effected our plans. (v)
The effect of this medicine is good. (n)
19. Affection (n)—love
Every mother has affection for her children.
Affectation (n)—behaviour that is not natural or genuine
Her little affectations annoyed me.
20. Aggregate (n)—total
The aggregate of my marks is 400.
Aggravate (v)—to worsen https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
Rise in population aggravates poverty.
21. Ago (adv.)—to indicate time measured back to a point in the past
It was seven years ago that my brother died.
The train left a few minutes ago.
ego (n)—individual's perception or opinion of himself
His ego often lands him in trouble.
22. Aid (n)—help
I finished it with the aid of a friend.
(v)—(to help)—I shall aid you with hundred rupees.
Aide (n)—assistant
He is one of the aides to the President.
23. Ail (v)—trouble
I don't know what ails him.
Ale (n)—a kind of strong beer
He took a pint of ale.
24. Air (n)—the mixture of gasses we breath
Fresh air is good for health.
Ere (conj.)—before
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Heir (n)—one who inherits
I am the only heir to my aunt.
25. Allay (v)—make something less, relieve
My efforts to allay his fears met with success.
Alleys (n) — narrow passage between or behind houses
There is a blind alley between our two houses.
26. Allowed (v)—permitted
Smoking is not allowed here.
Aloud (adv.)—loudly
Please read the story aloud.
27. All ready (adj.)—quite prepared
They are all ready to attend the party.
Already (adv.)—by this or that time
He has already completed the work.
28. Allude (v)—make indirect reference
He alluded to corruption in government offices.
Elude (v)—evade, escape
A murderer cannot elude punishment.
Illude (n)—deceive
Many a time and oft he has tried to illude me.
29. Allusion (n)—reference
He did not make a single allusion to the examination results in his speech.
elusion (n)—escape
Can you say how he has effected his elusion from the jail?
Illusion (n)—false notion
It is an illusion to think that the sun moves across the sky.
30. Allure (v)—tempt; attract
Coloured posters allure people into the cinemas.
Lure (v)—attract, tempt
He was lured on to destruction.
31. Alter (v)—to change https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
You must alter the order of the words.
Altar (n)—place of worship
The pious old man bowed before the altar.
32. Alteration (n)—change
An alteration has been made in the Degree syllabus.
Altercation (n)—quarrel
I had an altercation with my neighbour.
33. Alternate (v)—one of every two, perform by turns
English lectures are on alternate days.
Alternative (n.)—that may be used instead of another
There is no alternative to character.
34. All together—all in company
Let's play this game all together.
(adv.)—entirely, wholly
I don't altogether agree with him.
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35. Amend (v)—become or make better

Parliament amended the Civil Procedure Code recently.
Emend (v)—to make corrections, remove errors from the text of a book etc.
The Proof-reader emended the manuscript wherever needed.
36. Amiable (adj.)—lovable
He is an amiable person liked by all.
Amicable (adj.)—friendly
We had an amicable settlement.
37. Anger (n) – extreme displeasure
He was filled with anger at what he saw.
Auger (n)—carpenter's tool for boring large holes in wood
The carpenter made a big hole in the door with an auger.
38. Antique (n)—old-fashioned
We laughed at her antique dress.
Antic (n)—odd
We laughed at her antic gestures.
39. Anxious (adj.)—worried, uneasy
I am very anxious about your health.
Eager (adj.)—full of interest or desire, keen
I am eager to please him at any cost.
40. Apology (n)—statement of regret for doing wrong
He accepted my apology for my being impolite to him.
Pardon (n)—forgiveness
I sought his pardon for my rudeness.
41. Apposite (adj.)—proper
He made an apposite remark.
Opposite (adj.)—contrary
He belongs to the opposte party..
42. Apt (adj.)—appropriate, suitable
He did everything in an apt way.
Aft (adj.)—near or towards the tail of a shop; or the stern of a ship
The security guard at the airport asked us not to go aft.
43. Apathy (n)—indifference
The rich have apathy towards the poor.
Antipathy (n)—hostility, indifference
His antipathy towards his wife affects the children.
44. Appraise (v)—estimate the value or quality of
The goldsmith appraised the ornaments.
Apprise (v)—inform
The Attorney-General apprised the government of his opinion.
45. Apprehend (v)—arrest; fear
The police apprehended the criminal with some difficulty.
Comprehend (v)—understand
It is very difficult to comprehend that poetry.
46. Ardent (adj.)—fiery; enthusiastic
He is an ardent champion of socialism.
Arduous (adj.)—difficult
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47. Ark (n)—a boat
Ark is an old word for boat in which Noah escaped the flood with family and animals.
Arc (n)—a part of circle
Divide the circle into three arcs.
Arch (n)—a curved structure supporting weight above
We passed under the arch of the bridge.
48. Artistic (adj.)—have aesthetic qualities
He has an artistic taste.
Artful—cunning
He is an artful rogue of Delhi.
Artificial (adj.)—opposed to natural or genuine
People keep artificial plastic flowers in drawing rooms.
49. Artist (n)—who practises fine arts
Mukesh is a great cine artist.
Artiste (n)—a performer in singing/dancing
The opera had twenty artistes.
Artisan (n)—a craftsman
Village artisans have lost their work due to big mills.
50. Ascendant (adj.)—rising
He stars are in ascendant in politics.
Ascendancy (n)—dominant power on control
The opposition leader gained ascendancy over the government.
51. Aspire (v)—desire eagerly
Everyone aspires after wealth.
Expire (v)—come to an end; die
When does your driving licence expire? or
My grand-father expired last Sunday. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
52. Assay (n)—test finess/purity
He assayed the gold ornaments.
Essay (n)—a piece of composition
You have written a fine essay on Nehru.
53. Assent (v)—concurrent, express agreement
The President gave his assent to the Bill.
Ascent (n)—climbing up
The ascent to Himalayas is difficult.
54. Auger (n)—tool for boring a hole in wood
The carpenter used a simple auger to bore a hole to fix a nail.
Augur (v)—predict
Does this news augur war?
55. Aught (n)—anything
For aught we know he may be innocent.
Ought (v)—should
We ought to help the poor.
56. Aural (adj.)—connected with the sense of hearing
Dictation tests our aural ability.
Oral (adj.) —spoken (not written)
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Debating competitions will improve the oral skills of students.

57. Authenticate (v)—prove that something is true or real
He authenticated his authorship.
Authorise (v) give official or legal permission for something
I have authorised him to act for me while I am abroad.
58. Avocation (n)—occupation that is not a person's ordinary business
Publication of books is my avocation.
Vocation (n)—employment, trade, profession, occupation
Photography is my vocation.
Vacation (n)—long holidays
I shall go to Kashmir during the next vacation.
59. Avoid (v)—keep away from
Avoid walking in the middle of the road.
Ovoid (adj.)—egg-shaped
There is an ovoid table in our office.
60. Evade (v)—find a way of not doing something
He evades paying his debts.
61. Award (v)—giving a prize; judicial decision, confer
He has been awarded the Padma Sri.
Reward (n)—a return for service or merit
He received a reward for saving may lives.
62. Awhile (adv.)—for a short time.
Let us wait awhile, the bus will arrive.
A while (n)—for some time
She narrated the incidence with facts after a while.
Let's rest a while she said.
63. Babble (v)—talk fast; chatter in a confused way
Tell him not to babble.
Babel (n)—scene of noisy talking and confusion
There is a babel of voices in the busy market.
64. Baby (n)—very young child or animal
The baby wants to be with the mother always.
Bevy (n)—large group
A bevy of beautiful girls can be seen in parks or beaches now-a days.
65. Bail (n)—security
The accused was released on bail.
Bale (n)—bundle
He bought four bales of cloth.
66. Banish (v)—send somebody away
Karl Marx was banished from his country for life.
Vanish (v)—disappear completely and suddenly.
The thief vanished into the crowd.
67. Bare (adj.) (adv.)—open, uncovered
I went to the temple bare footed.
Bear (n)—a kind of beast
Russia is famous for bears.
Bear (v)—tolerate
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She bears all difficulties with a smile.

Beer (n)—a malted non-alcoholic or a fermented slightly alcoholic beverage
Many people prefer beer during summer.
68. Barb (n)—hurtful remark
Your barbs of ridicule have hurt him.
Verb (n)—word indicating an action
Sentences have no meaning without verbs.
69. Bard (n)—poet
Bharati was a national bard.
Bird (n)—feathered creature with two legs and two wings, usually able to fly
Peacock is our national bird.
70. Barge (v)—rush or lump heavily and clumsily
He barged past me in the crowd.
Verge (n)—be very close to; edge or border
Poor are on the verge of starvation.
71. Bark (v)—make sharp, loud sound
Dogs bark at strangers.
Burke (v)—avoid
I always burke publicity.
72. Base (n)—cowardly, menial
Some plays have different base characters.
Bass (n)—instrument pitched to lowest voice
In some operas the bass singer is a very effective performer.
73. Bastard (n)—illegitimate child
Is Karna of Mahabharat a bastard
Bustard (n)—large land bird that can run very fast
I have seen many a bustard in the zoo.
74. Bath (n)—washing of the whole body
Last year, I took a holy bath in Ganga river.
Bathe (v)—apply water to something
He bathes his eyes twice a day.
75. Beach (n)—sea-shore
In Madras, I used to walk along the beach every morning.
Beech (n)—a kind of tree
The bark of beech trees was used for writing in ancient India.
Bitch (n)—female dog
The bitch has produced five pups.
76. Beam (n)—long thick bar of metal, wood etc.
He bought five beams for the building.
Vim (n)—energy or vigour.
He is full of vim.
77. Beat (v)—hit repeatedly
He was beating a drum.
Beet (n)—sort of plant with sweet root.
Eating beet-root is good for health.
Bit (n)—a small piece
He ate every bit of his dinner.
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78. Behave (v)—do things in a particular way
He behaved shamefully towards his wife.
Behave (v)—do something because it is necessary
You ought to behave like that.
79. Beneficial (adj.)—useful
Exercise is beneficial to health.
Beneficient (adj.)—kind and good
Ashok was a beneficent king.
80. Berry (n)—small sweet salty fruit
I like berry fruits very much.
Bury (v)—place a dead body in the ground
He's dead and buried.
81. Berth (n)—a sleeping seat in train
He got reservation for a berth.
Birth (n)—coming to life
His date of birth is 20th August, 2004.
82. Beside (prep.)—by the side of
He stood beside the door.
Besides (prep.)—in addition to, over and above
Besides this, I have another wrist-watch.
83. Biannual (adj.)—twice in a year
Luckly, he got biannual holidays last year.
biennial (adj.)—for every two years T
his Association general body meets biennial.
84. Bland (adj.)—gentle or casual in manner
Do you like his bland nature?
Blend (v)—mix together
Oil and water do not blend. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
85. Block (v)—obstruct, impede
All roads were blocked by the heavy snowfall.
Bloc (n)—combination of parties, groups, states etc. with a special interest
We are not committed to any power bloc.
86. Blunder (n)—stupid or careless mistake
I made a terrible blunder in supporting that party.
Error (n)—thing done wrongly
There are many spelling errors in your essay.
Mistake (n)—wrong idea or opinion, misconception
It was a mistake to go there on holiday.
Your article is full of mistakes.
87. Boar (n)—a wild pig
We find boars in the forests.
Bore (v)—suffered; endured
I bore the ill-treatment of my boss for a long time.
88. Boast (v)—talk about one's abilities highly
He is always boasting about his capabilities.
Boost (v)—help or encourage
The unexpected win boosted the team's morale.
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89. Bonny (adj.)—attractive or beautiful
She has given birth to a bonny baby.
Bony (adj.)—full of bones
The fish is bony.
90. Boon (n)—advantage; benefit
Parks are a great boon to people in cities.
Bone (n)—hard part of skeleton
He has broken a bone in his arm.
91. Born (v.)—take birth
He was born in Bombay.
(adj.) —He was a born leader of men.
Borne (v)—past perfect of bear; carried
She has borne many difficulties.
92. Borrow (v)—take loan
Do not borrow money from money lenders.
Burrow (n)—hole in earth
Serpents live in burrows.
93. Bough (n)—branch of tree
Birds perch on boughs.
Bow (v)—bend in respect
Let us bow to the great saints.
94. Boy (n)—male child upto the age of 17 or 18
He has two boys and one girl.
Buoy (n)—floating object
He jumped into water with the floating buoy.
95. Brake (n)—lever to stop wheel
The brakes of my bicycle are good. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
Break (v)—make apart
Do not break the glass.
96. Breath (n)—air drawn into or expelled from lungs
In yoga, you hold your breath for sometime.
Breathe (v)—take air into the lungs and sent it out again.
We should breathe pure air.
97. Bridal (adj.)—pertaining to the bride
She looked lovely in her bridal dress.
Bridle (n)—control
You must learn to bridle your tongue.
98. Bring (v)—to carry, convey, accompany
He brings his son to the school every day.
Please bring me a cup of coffee.
Fetch (v)—go for and bring something or somebody
Please fetch me a pot of water from the river.
99. Broach (v)—open a subject for discussion
Don't broach that subject for the time being.
Brooch (n)—pin with clasp
She lost her brooch yesterday.
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100. Buy (v)—obtain for money

Buy that book by paying its price.
By (prep.)—near, besides
Please sit by me.
Bye (n)—in cricket, run scored from a ball without being hit
He scored a run through leg-bye.
101. Cache (n)—hidden store of weapons, drugs, treasure etc.
The police arrested four dacoits with an arms cache.
Catch (v)—an amount of something caught
Catch the fish in the morning.
102. Cadge (v)—get or try to get something from somebody by asking
He is always cadging meals from his friends.
Cage (n)—structure where birds or animals are kept
There are four parrots in that cage.
103. Cullendor or Colander (n)—metal or plastic bowl many small holes to drain water
I shall buy a colander.
Calendar (n)—chart of days and months in a year
The calendar shows that 21st is a Saturday.
Calender (v)—giving finish to cloth
After manufacture, cloth is sent for calendering.
104. Calf (n)—young of cow
I bought a cow along with a calf.
Cough (n)—Sound of coughing
He gave me a warning cough.
Cuff (n)—end of a shirt sleeve at the wrist
I wore a shirt having cuffs.
105. Call (v)—say loudly to attract somebody's attention
He called his father for help.
Cull (v) /kAli—select or obtain something from various sources
This information has been culled from various reference books.
106. Callus (n)—area of hard thick skin or tissue
Is that a wart on your finger or just a callus?
Callous (adj.)—unfeeling, insensitive
She replied callously to her husband.
107. Cannon (n)—big gun
Many cannons were fired to greet the royal guest.
Canon (n)—a rule or principle
We must not violate the canons of health.
108. Canvas (n)—coarse cloth
This tent is made of canvas.
Canvass (v)—to request votes
All the candidates have vigorously canvassed.
109. Capital (n)—seat of administration
Delhi is the capital of India.
Capitol (n)—building of the U.S.A. Parliament
The Congress meets in the Capitol.
110. Capture (v)—arrest, conquer
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The dacoits were captured.

Captivate (v)—attract
Her charms captivated his heart.
111. Career (n)—profession
He chose an academic career.
Carrier (n)—one who carries
He was the carrier of that good news.
112. Cart (n)—vehicle with two or four wheels
He has a cart which is pulled by a bull.
Curt (adj.)—abrupt, rudely brief
She gave a curt answer to his question.
113. Carton (n)—light cardboard box for holding goods
Give me carton of cream.
Cartoon (n)—amusing drawing in newspaper or magazine
He can draw very informative and attractive cartoons.
114. Cast (v)—throw
The hunter cast a net for birds.
Caste (n)—an exclusive class in India
He is proud of his caste.
115. Casual (adj.)—occasional; irregular
Casual reading is better than no reading.
Causal (adj.)—relating to cause and effect
There is causal connection between food and health.
Cause (n)—that which produces an effect
Smoking is one of the causes of heart diseases.
116. Cease (v)—discontinue
He has ceased to be Managing Director.
Seize (v)—catch
Seize the opportunity when it comes.
Siege (n)—being surrounded by armed force
The town was under siege for seven days.
117.Cereal (n)—any kind of grain used for food
The child likes cereal mixed with fruit.
Serial (adj.)—a work appearing in parts at intervals
An exciting new serial story will begin in our next week's issue.
118. Check (v)—examine to know whether it is correct
The accounts in the government departments are regularly checked-
Cheque (n)—writing order to a bank to pay money
I have lost my cheque book while returning from bank.
119. Childish (adj.)—immature, silly
Don't make childish remarks.
Child like (adj.)—like a child, innocent
She has quite childlike simplicity about her.
120. Ceiling (n)—inside overhead lining of a room
The ceiling of the room is quite nice.
Sealing (v)—fasting with seals
I booked the parcel after sealing it .
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121. Cemetery (n)—area of land where the dead are buried

There is a cemetery near our field.
Symmetry (n)—beauty resulting from right relations of parts
The bump on the left side of her forehead spoilt the symmetry of her face.
122. Cell (n)—underground room
He kept secret documents in a cell.
Sell (v)—give for a price
We sell only good books.
123. Censor (n)—to subject to an official examiner
This news is censored.
Censure (v)—to criticize adversely
They censured her conduct bitterly.
Censer (n)—a pot to burn incense
Fragrance came out of the censer before the idol.
124. Ceremonial (adj.)—connected with a ceremony
He wore ceremonial dress on his birth day.
Ceremonious (adj.)—paying great attention to formal behaviour
It is a ceremonious function.
125. Cession (n)—the transfer of territory by one country to another
Nothing short of the cession of Danzing would satisfy Hitler.
Session (n)—a term or period of meeting
The winter session of the Lok Sabha is over.
Cessation (n)—ceasing, stop
Cessation of supplies made the people suffer.
126. Cite (v)—to quote
He cited verses from the Bible.
Site (n)—a place chosen for some special purpose
The site for the school building was selected by the Committee.
Sight (n)—view
A horrible sight met our gaze.
127. Click (v)—(make a) short, short sound
The door clicked shut.
Clique (n)—group of persons united by common interest
They formed a clique to save themselves.
128. Cloth (n)—woven material
Give me three yards of that cloth.
Clothes (n)—stitched dress
My grand-son dressed in long clothes.
Clothe (v)—provide with clothes
They are warmly clothed in wool.
129. Cod (n)—large sea fish
Cod-liver oil is used as medicine.
Code (n)—collection of laws arranged in a system
You have to follow the code of conduct.
130. Coarse (adj.)—rough
Coarse cloth is cheaper than fine cloth.
Course (n)—fixation of duration
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The course of treatment lasted for two weeks.

Coerce (v)—use force to make obedient; compel
He coerced him to do that act against his will.
131. Collar (n)—part of a garment that fits round the neck
The wind was so cold that he turned his coat collar up.
Choler (n)—anger
He has choler in his temperament.
132. College (n)—school for higher education
He has good college education.
Collage (n)—work of art
That necklace is a collage with diamonds.
133. Collision (n)—violent contact
Yesterday there was a collision between a bus and lorry.
Collusion (n)—secret, fraudulent agreement
It is alleged that the police are in collusion with the dacoits.
134. Comma (n)—punctuation mark
A comma is used to separate parts of a sentence.
Coma (n)—state of unconsciousness
After the snake bit him, he fell into coma.
135. Committee (n)—body of persons
He is not a member of the working Committee.
Comity (n)—friendly recognition of laws of other nations
India has a say in the comity of nations.
136. Complacent (adj.)—self-satisfied
He always appears with a complacent smile.
Complaisance (n)—politeness/willingness
He always helps out of complaisance.
Complaisant (adj.)—agreeable
He has a complaisant wife.
137. Complaint (n)—statement of dissatisfaction
You have no cause of complaint against him.
Compliant (adj.)—ready to comply
A compliant man always acts according to the wishes of others.
138. Compliment (n)—expression of admiration
Give my compliments to your father.
Complement (n)—that which completes
Love is the complement of justice.
139. Comprehensible (adj.)—understandable
His speech is not comprehensible.
Comprehensive (adj.)—including much
The Chief Minister made a comprehensive statement.
140. Condemn (v)—blamed
He is condemned by his relatives for his haughtiness.
Contemn. (n)—despise
Who does not contemn a liar?
141. Confident (adj.)—fully assured, sure
He is confident of his success.
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Confidant (n)—one entrusted with secrets

My steno is my confidant.
Confidential (adj.)—secret
Confidential files are kept by the officers.
142. Confirm (v)—ratify, make permanent
He was confirmed in his job after two years.
Conform (v)—comply with
The goods do not conform to the samples shown.
143. Congenial (adj.)—agreeable
One feels at home in congenial surroundings.
Congenital (adj.)—from or before birth
His blindness is congenital.
144. Conscious (adj.)—aware, awake
He is conscious of his shortcomings.
Conscience (n)—one's sense of right and wrong
My conscience condemns me, if I do anything bad.
Conscientious (adj.)—honest, careful to do what is right
He is a conscientious teacher.
145. Contagious (adj.)—spreading by touch
Scarlet fever is contagious.
Contiguous (adj.)—neighbouring; near (to)
India and Pakistan are contiguous countries.
146. Considerable (adj.)—much, sufficient
We have spent a considerable amount on this project.
Considerate (adj.)—having regard for others
He is considerate in helping his friends.
147. Contemptible (adj.)—deserving contempt
He is a contemptible rascal.
Contemptuous (adj.)—showing contempt
A dictator is contemptuous of public opinion.
148. Continual(adj.)—frequent
There were continual interruptions in the Assembly to the Governor's speech.
Continuous (adj.)—unceasing
There was continuous rain for two days.
149. Context (n)—what comes before and after
Can't you guess the meaning of the word from the context?
Contest (v)—try to win
He contested a seat in Parliament.
150. Convenience (n)—comfortably
You may do it at your convenience.
Conveyance (n)—means of travelling
He had to go by bus as he had no conveyance of his own.
151. Cord (n)—rope
He cut the cord with a knife.
Chord (n)—straight line joining the two ends of an arc
Draw a chord in the circle.
Card (n)—playing card/postal cards
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He earned in playing cards.

152. Corporal (adj.)—physical, body
Corporal punishment is banned in schools.
Corporeal (adj.)—of body
Food and drinks are our corporeal needs.
Corporate (adj.)—shared by members of a group of persons
Corporate colleges are dominating the education field.
153. Core (n)—innermost part
She loves the child from the core of her heart.
Corps (n)—division of army
He is a member of the National Cadet Corps.
154. Corpse (n)—dead body
A corpse was found on the road.
Hindus burn corpses.
Crops (n)—agricultural plants in the fields
The land is under crops.
155. Credible (adj.)—which can be believed
That people can burn men alive is not a credible story.
Creditable (adj.)—praiseworthy
Dr. Khurana's achievement in genetic science is creditable.
Credulous (adj.)—believe as real
Indians are credulous people believing in the promises of politicians.
156. Critique (n)—critical analysis
The book presents a critique of the government policies.
Critic (n)—person who evaluates
He is an excellent literary critic.
157. Crud (n)—unpleasant person
They say you are a crud.
Crude (adj.)—rough
Don't make crude jokes in the presence of girls.
158. Council (n)—an assembly for conference or deliberation
He is a member of the Social Welfare Council.
Counsel (v)—to advise and instruct
Fathers usually counsel their children.
159. Custom (n)—established social practice
Dowry custom is in prevalence at present.
Costume (n)—clothing
She looks splendid in her swimming—costume.
160. Cut (n)—wound made with a knife, etc.
There are cuts on his face.
Cute (adj.)—clever, sharp-witted
I have had enough of your cute remarks.
161. Crevasse (n)—deep open crack especially in glacier
On mountain paths there are crevasses.
Crevice (n)—narrow opening especially in walls, rock etc.
The mason covered the crevice of a wall.
162. Curb (v)—control, keep; check, restraint
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River banks curb the floods.

Kerb (n)—the edge of a pavement
Kerb protects the pavement.
163. Current (n)—a flow of water
A current is a moving stream of water in the sea.
Currant (n)—small seedless dried grape or raisin
A currant is a piece of dried fruit.
164. Daft (adj.)—foolish, silly
Don't be so daft.
Deft (adj.)—skillful and quick
He is deft at dealing with his clients.
165. Daily (adj.) /—happening of everyday
What is your daily routine?
dally (v)—waste time
Tell your children not to dally.
166. Dairy (n)—place from where milk is supplied
He buys milk from a dairy.
Diary (n)—a personal record of daily events etc.
To keep a diary is a good habit.
167. Dam (n)—barrier for water
Nagarjuna dam was built on Krishna river for irrigation.
Damn (v)—criticise severally, condemn
The play was damned by the reviewers.
168. Dance (v)—moving rhythmically in a series of steps
They danced to the disco music.
Dunce (n)—person who is stupid or slow in learning
He was a dunce during his school days.
169. Dart (v)—throw suddenly and quickly
He darted an angry look at me.
Dirt (n)—filth, obscene talk
His clothes are covered with dirt.
I don't want to hear your dirt.
170. Decease (n)—death
They prayed for the soul of the deceased.
Disease (n)—illness
Tuberculosis is a curable disease.
171.Decent (adj.)—fine, respectable
She is a decent girl.
She leads a decent life.
Descent (n)—climbing down
They say that a descent from a hill is comparatively easy.
Dissent (v)—disagreement
I strongly dissent from what he has said.
172. Deface (v)—destroy the surface
A naughty boy has defaced the picture by writing across it.
Efface (v)—cause to forget, rub or wipe out
Time will not efface the memory of Gandhiji.
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173. Defer (v)—postpone; put off

Don't defer payment of my bills to next month.
Differ (v)—disagree
I differ with you in this matter.
174. Deference (n)—respect
You should not hesitate to pay deference to a sage.
Difference (n)—dissimilarity
There is a great difference of opinion between husband and wife.
175. Declaim (v)—speak with strong feeling
He declaimed against smoking.
Disclaim (v)—not to make any claim upon
He disclaimed the right of his share in family property.
176. Deceitful (adj.)—dishonest
Be cautious of deceitful persons.
Deceptive (adj.)—misleading
Appearances are often deceptive.
177. Decided (v)—settled
He decided to continue the same work.
Decisive (adj.)—deciding the result
It was a decisive battle.
178. Deduce (v)—infer, conclude
Different people deduce different conclusions from his utterances
Deduct (v)—take away amount
Rs. 30,000 have been deducted from my salary for P.F. account.
179. Deify (v)—worship
Vedic people deified the forces of nature.
Defy (v)—challenge
He defied all authority.
180. Deny (v)—say that is not true
The accused denied the charge.
Refuse (v)—say 'no' to a request
They refused me permission.
181. Decry (v)—cry down
His decision to divorce his wife was decried by all.
Descry (v)—see dimly
We could descry a bird in the sky.
182. Deem (v)—consider; regard
I deem it a great honour to be invited to address you.
Dim (adj.)—not bright.
Don't read by dim candle-light.
183. Deaf (adj.)—unable to hear at all
He is deaf in one ear.
Deep (adj.)—extending a long way from top to bottom
It is a deep well.
Dip (v)—put something into liquid
Dip your pen into the ink.
184. Defuse (v)—reduce tension etc. in (a crisis)
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His arrival defused the fear of collapse.

Diffuse (adj.)—spread out
Diffused lighting is the latest trend in interiors.
185. Dependant (n)—one who depends on others
He has four dependants to support.
Dependent (n)—relying on
A sincere man is dependent on none.
186. Depositary (n)—a trustee
I left all my money and ornaments with my depositary.
Depository (n)—a store house
He brought ten thousand gold coins from the depository.
187. Deposition (n)—dethronement
The people were in favour of deposition of the King.
Disposition (n)—temper
The amiable disposition of the boy pleased everyone.
188. Deprecate (v)—condemn
Every person deprecates war.
Depreciate (v)—underestimate
It is not good to depreciate the good qualities of others.
189. Depart (v)—leave; go away
They departed for Delhi at 10-30 a.m. by train.
Deport (v)—legally force to leave a country
A person having expired passport was deported.
190. Department (n)—division of a government
He is the Chief-Secretary of defence department.
Deportment (n)—behaviour
I dislike your deportment.
191. Desert (v)—leave, abandon
Do not desert your wife.
Dessert (n)—sweet dish at the end of a meal
He served sumptuous dessert at the dinner party.
Deserts (n)—what is deserved
He was rewarded according to his deserts.
192. Desirable (adj.)—worth wishing
It is a desirable trait that the students should obey their teachers.
Desirous (adj.)—wishful
I am desirous of prosecuting my studies further.
193. Desist (v)—cease
I wish you would desist from gossiping.
Resist (v)—try not to yield to
She can't resist chocolates.
194. Desperate (adj.)—filled with despair
The prisoners became desperate in their attempts to escape.
Disparate (adj.)—that cannot be compared in quality
Gold is disparate from copper.
195. Destination (n)—goal, reaching point
They will reach their destination tomorrow.
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Destiny (n)—fate
I believe in destiny.
196. Devise (v)—plan
He devised a clever plan to win the elections.
Device (n)—contrivance
He has invented a device for catching birds.
197. Dew (n) --drop of moisture in the morning
The petals were covered with dew drops.
Due (adj.)—what one deserves
Due regard should be paid to eleders.
198. Differ (v)—disagree
I differ with you in this matter.
Defer (v)—postpone
Do not defer payment of my bills.
199. Dinghy (n)—one type of small boat
Have you seen a dinghy?
Dingy (adj.)—dirty-looking
He stays in a dingy room in a cheap hotel.
200. Disassemble (v)—disperse; separate the party
A mechanic disassembled my computer.
Dissemble (v)—speaking by hiding facts
The witness dissembled in giving evidence.
201. Disinterested (adj.)—objective, unselfish
He rendered disinterested service to the nation.
Uninterested (adj.)—the state of not being interested
I am an uninterested pqrty in politics.
202. Distinct (adj.)—separate (from)
These two words are quite distinct though they sound alike.
Distinctive (adj.)—distinguishing
Scouts wear a distinctive uniform.
203. Disposal (n)—sale
His property is for disposal.
Disposition (n)—arrangement
The disposition of furniture in his room is beautiful.
204. Discrete (adj.)—separate, distinct
His discrete nature, sets him apart from all other family members.
Discreet (adj.)—judicious, careful, tactful
They maintained a discreet silence.
205. Divers (adj.)—several; various
He adopted divers tricks to defeat you.
Diverse (adj.)—of different kinds
His interests are very diverse.
206. Dollar (n)—unit of money in U.S.A. and few other countries
Oil from these fields is priced in dollars.
Dolour (in American English 'dolor')—grief or sorrow
Can I do anything to lessen your dolour?
207. Door (n)—that which closes the entrance to room etc.
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Our doors are always open to him.

Dour (adj.)—severe; stern
He has a dour expression that discourages closeness.
208. Dot (n)—small round mark
Let him join the dots to complete the drawing.
Dote (v)—show too much fondness for
He dotes on his grand son.
209. Dose (n)—quantity taken at a time
The doctor gave me four doses of the medicine.
Doze (v)—sleep lightly
The teacher sent a student out as he was dozing in the class.
210. Draft (n)—drawing of money by written order
He made a draft on the Reserve Bank of India.
Draught (n)—flow of air
He let in a draught and caught cold.
Drought (n)—long period of dry weather, want of rain
There was a drought and the crops failed.
211. Dual (adj.)—double
He has dual role as producer and director.
Duel (n)—contest or struggle between the persons, groups, etc.
They were engaged in a duel of words.
Dwell (v)—live as an inhabitant of
I don't know where she dwells.
212. Dud (n)—the person or thing that fails to work properly
Two of the fireworks in the box were duds.
Dude (n)—guy, man
Who is that dude over there?
213. Duo (n)—pair of performers
The duo fairly danced to tune.
Do (v)—perform
Do your homework.
Doe (n)—female deer
He saw a doe in a forest.

214. dye (v)—to colour

I got my sari dyed in red.
Die (v)—expire
He died of high blood pressure.
215. Dying (pres. part)—at the point of death
Police recorded the statement of the dying man.
Dyeing (v)—the act of colouring
He is an expert in dyeing saries.
216. Duplicity (n)—double-dealing, deceit
In self-defence he followed duplicity.
Duplicate (n)—double copy
The clerk was ordered to make a duplicate of the letter.
217. Earn (v)—get money by working
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He earns ten thousand rupees a month.

Yarn (n)—story, traveller's tale
He narrated a humorous yarn.
Yearn (v)—desire strongly
He yearned for his children.
218. Economic (adj.)—of economics
The Government's economic policy is progressive.
Economical (adj.)—careful in the spending of money
He is very economical in shopping.
Economics (n)—science of the production and distribution of goods
Economics is a science which studies human behaviour in every life.
Economy (n)—system of political economy
He wrote a book on Indian economy.
219. Eerie (adj.)—causing a feeling of fear and mystery
There was an eerie silence in the deserted village.
Eyrie (n)—eagle's nest
Eagles lay eggs in an eyrie.
220. Effective (adj.)—able to bring about the result intended
The Government must adopt some effective measures to cure unemployment.
Effectual (adj.)—bringing about the result required
This is an effectual remedy.
221. Efficacious (adj.)—sure to have desired effect
The methods adopted to check population are not efficacious.
Efficient (adj.)—capable of producing the desired effect
He is an efficient doctor.
222. Effluent (n)—liquid waste such as chemicals or sewage tank
Industrial effluent has been let into nearby rivers.
affluent (n)—having plenty of money
Industrialists are affluent.
223. Egoist (n)—one who believe in systematic selfishness
An egoist won't help others unless he benefits.
Egotist (n)—one who talks too much about oneself
Politicians and bureaucrats are great egotists.
224. Elemental (adj.)—of the natural elements
The elemental fury of the storm was devastating.
Elementary (adj.)—of or in the beginning stage
She is a teacher in an elementary school.
225. Elicit (v)—draw out
I could not elicit any truth from him.
Illicit (adj.)—unlawful
Those who carry on illicit trade in opium are criminals.
226. Eligible (adj.)—fit to be chosen
She is eligible for this post.
Illegible (adj.)—indistinct
Your handwriting is illegible.
Legible (adj.)—cable of being read
To be legible, write in capital letters.
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227. Elder (adj.)—senior

My elder brother is in the U.K.
Older (adj.)—of age
He is older than me.
228. Emerge (v)—to come out
The swimmer emerged from the water.
Immerge (v)—to plunge into
The chemist immerged the metal in acid.
229. Emigrant (n)—a person who leaves one country to take residence in another
The Irish emigrants settled in Canada.
Immigrant (n)—one who comes to one country from another to live there permanently
Most of the Americans are European immigrants.
230. Emigrate (v)—leaving one's country to settle in a foreign country
Many Muslims emigrated to Pakistan.
Immigrate (v)—to come into a country to settle there
Many Hindus of Pakistan immigrated to India.
231. Eminent (adj.)—distinguished, prominent
He is an eminent historian.
Imminent (adj.)—impending
There is no danger of imminent war between India and Pakistan.
232. Elusive (adj.)—difficult to understand
You gave an elusive reply.
Illusive (adj.) —deceptive
Happiness is illusive.
233. Endemic (adj.)—found regularly in particular place
Miners suffer with endemic diseases such as T.B.
Epidemic (adj.)—a large number of cases of an infectious disease at a time
Influenza is an epidemic disease.
Pandemic (adj.)—a disease that affects the population of a large area
Malaria is a pandemic disease.
234. Enquiry (v)—asking question
He enquired about my stay.
Inquiry (n)—investigation
Police have conducted an inquiry.
235. Ensure (v)—make sure or certain
I cannot ensure his being there in time.
Insure (v)—make a contract that promises to pay
He insured his house against fire.
236. Envelop (v)—surround
The mist enveloped us.
Envelope (n)—cover of a letter
Put this letter in the envelope and post it.
237. Enviable (adj.)—arousing envy
Your success is really enviable.
Envious (adj.)—feeling envy
He is envious of your brilliant achievement.
238. Errand (n)—task, message, some light duty
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My subordinates run errands for me.

Errant (adj.)—erring, wandering
Eskimos are an errant tribe.
Arrant (adj.)—notorious downright
He is an arrant liar.
Erratic (adj.)—irregular; not predictable
Her erratic nature created problems in her family.
Erroneous (adj.)—mistaken, incorrect
We have an erroneous impression about the culture of the west.
239. Eruption (n)—a violent bursting out
Many villages were destroyed by an eruption of the volcano.
Irruption (n)—a sudden invasion
The Chinese irruption into India was unexpected.
240. Especial (adj.)—pre-eminent, exceptional
It was an especial case that a student rose to be a Chief-Minister.
Special (adj.)—peculiar, of a particular kind
Special favour was shown to the influential.
241. Euphemism (n)—use of a pleasant word for something unpleasant
`Queer' is a modern euphemism for 'homosexual'.
Euphism (n)—high flow style of writing
His novels are attractive being full of euphism.
242. Estimate (n)—calculation, approximate valuation
An estimate was submitted by the engineer about the cost of construction.
Estimation (n)—opinion
I have a low estimation of him.
Esteem (n)/—have a high opinion of
I have great esteem for you.
243. Exalt (v)—raise up; praise highly
He is exalted by his colleagues.
Exult (v)—rejoice
I exult to find that you have achieved success in life.
244. Except (conj.)—exclude from
Except Ram, all the students in the class have done the homework.
Excepting (n)—not set apart (used only after, 'not, without and always')
The whole staff not excepting the heads of departments attended the meeting.
245. Exceptional (adj.)—unusual, rare
Bhagat Singh had exceptional courage in him.
Exceptionable (adj.)—unusual; objectionable
There is no exceptionable quote in this drama.
246. Excite (v)—cause strong feelings urge or persuade to do something
His speech excited the audience.
Incite (v)—rouse, stir up
Insults incite resentment.
247. Exhausting (n)—tiring
Teaching is an exhausting job.
Exhaustive (adj.)—thorough, complete
An exhaustive inquiry into the incident has been ordered.
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248. Expanse (n)—wide and open area

Look at the expanse of the courtyard.
Expense (n)—cost, spending of money
He is constructing a building at a great expense.
249. Expedient (adj.)—advantageous
Do what you think expedient.
Expeditious (adj.)—acting promptly
The Government must be expeditious in solving the problems of the people.
250. Expand (v)—spread out, make big in size
I shall expand my story into a novel.
Expend (v)—spend money
He expended a lot of money on books.
251. Exposure (n)—being left out in the cold air
Exposure to cold made me ill.
Exposition (n)—explanation
The book gives a good exposition of the grammar principles.
252. Extent (n)—length, area, range, degree
I was amazed at the extent of his knowledge.
Extant (adj.)—present; still existing
The relics of the Moghal rule are extant here and there.
253. Facility (n)—comfort, ease
This house has all the facilities.
Felicity (n)—happiness
His felicity knows no bounds.
254. Factitious (adj.)—unnatural
Do not show factitious behaviour to any one.
Factious (adj.)—unscrupulous
There are some factious parties in every democracy.
Facetious (adj.)—amusing; humorous
He was loved for his facetious sayings.
Fictitious (adj.)—imaginary, not real
He made a name by writing a fictitious story.
255. Fad (n)—fashion, interest, preference
He is full of fads and fancies.
Fade (v)—lose colour, freshness or vigour
Flowers soon fade away when cut.
256. Fain (adv.)—gladly; willingly
I would fain have stayed at home.
Feign (v)—pretend
He feigned illness in order to avoid work.
Fane (n)—temple
She entered a fane to pray.
257. Faint (v)—swoon
As soon as he heard the news of his wife's death he fainted.
Feint (n)—pretence
His feint of madness was successful.
258. Fair (adj.)—beautiful, right, pleasant, quite good
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The weather is fair.

Fare (n)—money paid for a journey
What is the railway fare from Hyderabad to Delhi?
259. Falsehood (n)—untrue
Falsehood is sure to be detected in the long run.
Falseness (n)—treachery
The falseness of the man led him to trouble.
Falsity (n)—the state of being false
The pleader at once pointed out the falsity of the charge.
260. Familiar (adj.)—having a good knowledge of
I am not very familiar with botanical names.
Familial (adj.)—of a family or its members
I know their familial relationship.
261. Famous (adj.)—having fame
Gandhiji is famous for his non-violence struggle.
Notorious (adj.)—infamous
Godse is a notorious fellow.
262. Fantasy (n)—fancy
In his fantasy the man sees ghosts around him.
Phantasy (n)—ideal
He is seized with a phantasy.
263. Farm (n)—a piece of land used for growing crops
He is working on the farm.
Firm (adj.)—strong, solid, hard
He could remain firm in the midst of dangers.
264. Farmer (n)—peasant
He is a sugarcane growing farmer.
Former (adj.)—the first of the two persons or thing
Rama and Rana are brothers; the former is very intelligent.
265. Farther (adv.)—at a greater distance
I cannot go any farther without a rest.
Further (adv.)—additional
I have nothing further to say about him.
266. Fastidious (adj.)—not easily pleased
He is fastidious about his food and clothes.
Fictitious (adj.)—not real
The fictitious characters of novels attract many people to read.
267. Fatal (adj.)—causing death
He met with a fatal accident.
Fatalist (n)—one who believes in fate
Many fatalists starve as they don't work.
Fateful (adj.)—important and decisive
The 15th August is a fateful day in the history of India.
268. Faze (v)—fluster somebody, disconcert
He is so calm, nothing can faze him easily.
Phase (n)—stage in a process or change
This is the most exciting phase of his career.
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269. Fit (v)—proper

The theory fits the facts of the case.
Feat (n)—deed of skill
The magician showed many feats.
Feet (n)—lowest part of leg, below the ankle
His feet were bleeding.
270. Fate (n)—what is destined to happen
He abandoned his son to his fate.
Final (adj.)—conclusive, decisive
The judge's ruling is final.
Finale (n)—last part of a drama or music
Everyone enjoyed the grand finale of the pantomine.
271. Finish (v)—complete
I finished the reading of that book.
Finish (n)—the end
I read that book from the beginning to finish.
272. Flair (n)—ability, talent
He has a flair for choosing the right word to express himself.
Flare (v)—blaze up
The fire suddenly flared up and spread to other buildings also.
273. Flak (n)—severe criticism, abuse
New taxes have come in for a lot of flak.
Flake (n)—small loose bit
There are flakes of burnt paper.
Fleck (n)—very small spot of a colour
There are grey flecks in his eyes.
274. Flagrant (adj.)—glaring, scandalous
His appointment is in flagrant violation of the rules.
Fragrant (adj.)—sweet smelling
Rose is fragrant.
275. Flaunt (v)—display proudly, show off, parade
The streaker flaunted his body in front of the test match crowd.
Flout (v)—to disobey contemptuously
The streaker flouted all the conventions of cricketing society.
276. Floor (n)—lower surface of a room
We sat on the floor.
Flour (n) /—ground grain
The price of a wheat flour has come down.
Flower (n)—that part of a plant that produces seeds
Rose is a beautiful flower.
277. Foreword (n)—introductory remarks
A good book needs no foreword.
Forward (adv.)—directed towards the front
The soldiers marched forward.
278. Forgo (v)—go or do without, omit to take
I shall forgo the pleasure of that trip.
Forego (v)—go before
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He will follow if you forego.

279. Formally (adv.)—in accordance with rules
The U.S.A. ambassador called on the President of India formally.
Formerly (adj.)—previously
Formerly I worked as a lecturer in Economics.
280. Fort (n)—fortified place, stronghold
Where is the Red Fort?
Forte (n)—one's strong point
Cooking is her forte.
281. Fright (n)—great and sudden fear
He was filled with fright on seeing a snake.
Freight (n)—money charged for journey
Railways charge freight from passengers.
282. Funeral (n)—burial of a dead person with the usual religious ceremonies
His funeral was attended by innumerable admirers.
Funereal (adj.)—gloomy, dismal
I don't like the funereal expression in your face.
283. Future (n)—coming after the present
The future is always uncertain.
Feature (n)—one of the named parts of the face
Her eyes are her best feature.
284. Gabble (v)—talk quickly and indistinctly
Take out time, and don't gabble.
Gable (n)—triangular upper part of wall at end of ridged roof
Have a look at the gable of the buildings.
285. Gaff (n)—stick with an iron hook for landing fish
The fisherman has a gaff.
Gaffe (n)—social blunder, indiscreet remark
He did not realise what a gaffe he had made by speaking like that.
286. Gage (n)—security or guarantee
He offered a gold bangle as gage for the money borrowed.
Gag (n)—something put in a person's mouth to keep it open
The dentist put a gag to clean his teeth.
Gauge (n)—a standard measure
The distance between the rails of metre gauge trains is one metre.
Gaze (n)—look fixedly
His gaze disconcerted her..
287. Gaggle (n)—flock (of geese)
I saw a gaggle of geese in a tank.
Giggle (v)—laugh in a silly way
He giggled at her.
288. Gamble (v)—game of chance
Many people gamble on the eve of Dushehara festival.
Gambol (v)—frisk about
The children are gamboling in the park.
289. Gap (n)—break, interval
The sheep got out of the field through a gap in the hedge.
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Gape (v)—stare open mouthed and in surprise at

Country visitors gaped at the neon lights.
290. Gate (n)—entrance
He opened the garden gate and entered into it.
Gait (n)—manner of walking
You can easily recognise her from her gait.
291. Gentle (adj.)—polite, mild, soft and soothing
He is gentle by nature.
Genteel (adj.)—refined, fashionable
He comes from a genteel family.
292. German (adj.)—person belonging to Germany; language spoken in Germany
He is a German. He is fluent in German.
Germane (adj.)—relevant
His remarks are germane to the discussion.
293. Ghastly (adj.)—terrible
Many international agreements were ghastly failures.
Ghostly (adj.)—pertaining to appartitions
Macbeth took a lot of interest in the ghostly creatures.
294. Guild (n)—society of artisans
Artisans organised themselves in guilds in the past.
Gild (v)—apply thin cover of gold
Gild the silver ornaments.
Gilt (adj.)—thinly covered with gold
They were gilt ornaments.
295. Gluten (n)—elastic protein substance to give cohesiveness
Gluten was added to the dough.
Glutton (n)—person who eats too much
Bhima of Mahabharatha was a glutton.
296. Gaol (n) (Jail in U.S.A.) (n)—jail
The dacoit was convicted and sent to the gaol.
Goal (n)—aim
Let me know the goal of your life.
297. Graceful (adj.)—pleasing
She has a graceful personality.
Gracious (adj.)—kind
God is gracious to all.
298. Green (adj.)—of colour between blue and yellow
The green dress suited her.
Grin (v)—smile broadly so as to show the teeth (expressing amusement)
Don't grin at her.
299. Greet (v)—give a conventional sign of welcome
He greeted me with a friendly wave of the hand.
Grit (n)—quality of courage and endurance
He has enough grit to face the crowd.
300. Grid (n)—system of overhead cables carried on pylons
That electric grid works day and night.
Greed (n)—strong desire for more (food, wealth etc)
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His greed led to his collapse.

301. Grill (n)—something you cook on
He cooked his meal on the electric grill.
Grille (n)—barred opening in a wall or door
He looked through the grille without opening the door.
302. Hail (n)—frozen raindrops
Kashmir is the land of hail and snow.
Hale (adj.)—healthy, vigorous
I am hale and hearty even at the age of seventy.
303. Hair (n)—fine thread like strauds that grow on head and skin
He had his hair cut.
Hare (n)—fast running field animal
A hare runs very fast.
Heir (n)—person entitled to property as legal successor
The eldest son was usually the heir in olden days.
He is heir to a large fortune.
304. Hanger (n)—device on which dresses are hung
My dresses are on hangers.
Hangar (n)—building in which aircraft are housed
A damaged aircraft is there in hangar.
305. Hapless (adj.)—unlucky, unfortunate
He is hapless but not hopeless.
Hopeless (adj.)—giving no cause for hope
His position is hopeless.
306. Harry (v)—harass, annoying somebody
Tell him not to harry me.
Hurry (v)—rush, move quickly
They hurried him into the hospital.
307. Hart (n)—adult male of deer
Hart is a male deer known as stag too.
Heart (n)—blood distributing organ
He died of heart failure.
Hurt (v)—cause bodily injury
He hurt his back when he fell.
308. Haven (n)—port, harbour
The ship came to the haven in time.
Heaven (n)—god's abode
God will help you from heaven above.
309. Heal (v)—cure
This medicine will heal our wounds.
Heel (n)—back part of the human foot
His heel is wounded.
310. Healthy (adj.)—having good health
He looks very healthy.
Healthful (adj.)—conducive to health
Exercises are healthful.
311. Herd (n)—block of cattle etc.
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The shepherd boy led a herd of cows to the fields to graze.

Heard (v)—perceive sound with the ears
He heard our discussions.
Hard (adj.)—difficult
He exchanged hard words with me.
312. Heroin (n)—narcotic drug
He is addicted to heroin.
Heroine (n)—female hero
Nargis was a very famous heroine.
313. Hew (v)—cut
He was hewing down a tree by the side of a river.
Hue (n)—colours
He put on clothes of different hues.

314. Historic (adj.)—associated with past times, famous in history

He gave a historic speech in that meeting.
Historical (adj.)—belonging to history
I have penned many a historical novel. It is a historical fact.
315. Hoard (n)—store
His hoard of grains came in handy.
Horde (n)—a wandering tribe
Wandering hordes attacked villagers' huts.
316. Hobby (n)—favourite activity done for pleasure
What is your hobby?
Hubby (n)—husband
She is lucky to have such a nice hubby.
317. Hole (n)—hollow place in a solid body
There is a hole in one of my teeth.
Whole (adj.)—entire
I waited for her a whole day.
318. Holly (n)—evergreen shrub
There is a holly among the plants in our garden.
Holy (adj.)—of God
I read the holy Bible.
319. Honorary (adj.)—holding office without receiving any salary
He was an honorary Magistrate.
Honourable (adj.)—worthy of honour
Any social worker is an honourable man.
320. Hop (v)—jump on one feet
Sparrows were hopping about on the lawns.
Hope (v) desire and expectation for something to happen
I hope you have not hurt yourself.
321. Human (adj.)—of man or mankind
You know nothing about human nature.
Humane (adj.)—kind-hearted, tender
He is a man of humane character.
322. Humiliation (n)—mortification
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He suffered a great humiliation.

Humility (n)—modesty
He is known for his humility.
323. Idle (adj.)—doing no work; not employed
When men cannot find employment, they are idle.
Idol (n)—image
Hindus worship the idols.
Ideal (adj.)—perfect
He is an ideal teacher.
324. Imaginary (adj.)—unreal
Ghosts and spirits are imaginary.
Imaginative (adj.)—full of imagination
He is an imaginative writer.
325. Impassive (adj.)—without expression on the face
He maintained an impassive manner even when he was sentenced to death.
Impulsive (adj.)—acting on impulse
Rash people have to pay for their impulsive nature.
326. Imperial (adj.)—of an empire or its ruler
We must obey imperial orders.
Imperious (adj.)—commanding
He makes imperious gestures.
327. Impostor (n)—cheat
The impostor has been rightly punished.
Imposture (n)—fraud
His imposture was soon known to all.
328. Impractical (adj.)—ideas which cannot be implemented.
An impractical person does not have much ideas of how things should be done.
Impracticable (adj.)—unworkable
He suggested impracticable solutions to the problem.
329. incite (v)—aroused feelings
They incited a riot in the town.
Insight (n)—deep understanding
He is a person of great insight.
330. Imprudent (adj.)—not wise
It is a imprudent decision to resign from your present job.
Impudent (adj.)—very rude and disrespectful
He is an impudent boy.
331. Inapt (adj.)—not relevant, appropriate or useful
He did not like your inapt remarks.
Inept (adj.)—completely unskillful at something
His inept handling of a minor problem turned into a major crisis.
332. Index (v)—statistical measurement
The book is not well indexed.
Indexes (n)—statistical indicators
There are a number of indexes in standard of living.
Indices (n)—something that points to (in science)
Indices show how prices are moving.
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333. Inconstant (adj.)—changeable

He is a man of inconstant intentions.
Inconsistent (adj.)—contradictory
His account of what happened was inconsistent.
334. Indite (v)—compose a poem/speech
He indited a poem full of emotions.
Indict (v)—to accuse
He was indicted on a charge of connections with criminals.
Indirect (adj.)—not straight or direct
He always gives indirect replies to question.
335. Ingenious (adj.)—clever
He adopted an ingenious method to overcome his financial difficulty.
Ingenuous (adj.)—frank, innocent, open
Her ingenuous smile pleased me beyond expression in language.
336. Industrial (adj.)—relating to industry
There are many industrial towns and cities in India.
Industrious (adj.)—hard-working, diligent
She is an industrious student.
337. Impassable (adj.)—impossible to travel on
Rural areas have impassable roads.
Impossible (adj.)—not possible
It is an impossible situation.
338. Innocent (adj.)—simple, knows less, free from moral wrong
The boy is innocent.
Innocuous (adj.)—harmless
The frog is an innocuous creature.
339. Ingress (n)—going in, entrance
It is a means of ingress.
Egress (n)—to go'out, exit
Where is the egress?
340. Injection (n)—an instrument to send medichte into body
Saline injections in time can save a patient.
Injunction (n)—order
It is the injunction of the District Magistrate.
341. Irrelevant (adj.)—not connected with the subject under consideration
Your arguments are quite irrelevant.
Irreverent (adj.)—disrespectful
Students nowadays are irreverent to their teacher.
342. Insidious (adj.)—sly
An insidious friend is more dangerous than an open foe.
Invidious (adj.)—hateful
True friendship is rare in this invidious world.
343. Interment (n)—burial
His son visited his interment place.
Internment (n)—imprisonment
He came out of internment after two years.
344. Intelligent (adj.)—wise
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He is so intelligent that he topped in the examination.

Intelligible (adj.)—which can be easily followed
His lecture is not intelligible to the weak students.
345. Intensive (adj.)—deep
Intensive study is required to go to depth of a matter.
Extensive (adj.)—wide
Extensive study of general books sometimes does not help in examination.
346. Intercede (v)—plead
He interceded with the father for the daughter.
Interfere (v)—meddle
Please don't interfere in my business.
Intervene (v)—come between in time
I shall leave on Sunday if nothing intervenes.
347. Intimacy (n)—close friendship or relationship
Extra intimacy with a stranger can cause problems.
Intimation (n)—notification, suggestion
He has not yet sent any intimation regarding his arrival here.
348. Jealous (adj.)—envious
He is jealous of your success.
Zealous (adj.) —ardent, earnest, enthusiastic
He is zealous to please his employer.
349. Judicial (adj.)—legal
He is a man with a judicial mind.
Judicious (adj.)—wise
You should make judicious use of the money you earn.
350. Junction (n)—meeting-place
We met at the junction.
Juncture (n)—grave situsation
At this juncture I can't help you.
351. Just (adv.)—exactly
It is just two o'clock.
Jest (n)—joke; thing done or said to cause amusement
The sentence was spoken in jest.
Zest (n)—excitement, great enjoyment
He entered into my plans with immense zest.
352. Keen (adj.)—sharp
He killed with a knife with a keen edge.
Ken (n) range of knowledge
It had happened beyond my ken.
353. Knave (n)—dishonest man or boy
He lived like a knave.
Nave (n)—the long central part of a Church
People sat in nave and prayed to God.
Naive (adj.)—without experience of social rules
He passed naive remarks.
354. Knotty (adj.)—full of complications, difficult to solve
It is a knotty problem.
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Naughty (adj.)—mischievous
She is a naughty girl.
355. Lag (v)—fail to keep pace with others, go too slow
As he became tired, he lagged behind the rest of the walkers.
Leg (n)—the lower limbs of an animal or a person
He has long legs.
356. Later (adj.)—afterwards in time
This is a later edition of the novel.
Latter (adj.)—the second one
Sita and Latha came to my house, but the latter gave me a present.
357. Lay (v)—put on a surface, produce
He laid his hand on my shoulder.
Hens lay eggs.
Lie (n)—statement that one knows to be untrue
He told a lie to his mother.
358. Laudable (adj.)—worthy of praise
The attempt of the boy to save her was laudable.
Laudatory (adj.)—containing or expressing praise
A laudatory remark should be genuine.
359. Leak (n)—hole, crack etc.
There is a leak in the roof.
Lick (v)—pass the tongue over
The cat was licking its paws.
360. Lean (adj.)—thin
He is a lean man.
Lien (n)—right on property or job
A shipping company has a lien upon cargo until the freight is paid.
361. Leap (v) —jump
Look before you leap.
Leaf (n)—one of the usually green and flat parts that grow from the side of a stem of a
tree
The trees sprout new leaves in spring.
Lip (n)—one of the edges of the opening of the mouth
She refused to open her lips.
362. Lessen (v.)—reduce
Lessen your worries so that you may live long.
Lesson (n)—moral
This story teaches a good lesson.
363. Lightening (v)—making lighter, decreasing
Students demand the lightening of the syllabus.
Lightning (n)—flash in the cloud
Four people were killed by the lightning during rains.
364. Lexicography (n)—the writing and making dictionaries
That linguistic is capable of lexicography.
Lexicology (n)—the study of the meaning and uses of words
He is an expert in lexicology.
365. Liqueur (n)—flavoured alcoholic beverage
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He takes a peg of liqueur after a meal everyday.

Liquor (n) - alcoholic drink
Under the influence of liquor he uttered nonsense.
366. Literal (adj.)—meaning of words, phrases etc.
What is the literal meaning of the sentence?
Littoral (n)—along the coast
The littoral was littered with dead fish.
Literate (adj.)—able to read and write
He was not a literate man; hence he cannot sign.
367. Loathe (v)—hate intensely
She loathes travelling by air.
Loath (adj.)—unwilling
I am loath to visit him.
368. Loan (n)—anything lent
I took a loan of Rupees one lakh from the bank.
Lone (adj.)—solitary
She is the lone girl student in our class.
369. Local (adj.)—belonging to a particular place
He is a local boy.
Locale (n)—scene of events, operations etc.
The film director is looking for a suitable locale for his new film.
370. Lose (v)—fail to retain or use, let slip
He has lost his job.
Loose (adj.)
She wears loose clothes.
371. Lop (v)—cut
He lopped a tree for firewood.
Lope (v)—move along with long steps
The hare loped and reached the goal.

372. Luminary (n)—natural light-giving body

The sun, the moon and the stars are all luminaries.
Luminous (adj.)—bright
The sun is very luminous.
373. Lust (n)—violent desire to possess something
He has lust for gold.
Last (adj.)—that which is at the end
He had spent his last shilling.
Lost—loosing
Ramu lost his pen yesterday.
374. Luxurious (adj.)—very comfortable
He leads a luxurious life.
Luxuriant (adj.)—abundant; strong in growth
She has luxuriant hair.
375. Lovable (adj.)—worthy of love
He is a lovable child.
Lovely (adj.)—beautiful, attractive
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She is a lovely girls.

376. Loudly (adv.)—not in soft manner
Someone knocked loudly at the door.
Aloud (adv.)—in a voice loud enough to be heard
Please read the story aloud.
377. Magnate (n)—wealthy leading man of business
Harichandra Prasad is a business magnate in A.P.
Magnet (n)—piece of iron able to attract iron
Magnet attracts iron pieces towards it.
378. Main (adj.)—chief
What is the main aim of your life?
Mane (n)—long hair on the neck of an animal
The mane of the horse is a beautiful thing to look at.
379. Maize (n)—Indian corn
Maize is the main crop in many dry areas in India.
Maze (n)—state of confusion
The poor man's case is in a maze due to red tapism.
380. Mare (n)—female horse
A boy rides on a mare.
Mere (n)—pond; not more than
He is swimming in a mere.
She's a mere child.
381. Marry (v)—wed
I wanted to marry her.
Merry (adj.)—happy
I had a merry laugh.
Wish you merry Christmas.
382. Marshal (n)—officer of the highest rank in army
My uncle had been promoted to the rank of Field-Marshal.
Martial (adj.)—of war; brave
I like martial music. He showed a martial spirit.
Marital (adj.)—of marriage, of a husband
He does not have marital happiness.
383. Masterful (adj.)—dominating
He speaks in a masterful manner.
Masterly (adj.)—very skillful
He drew a picture with a few masterly strokes of the brush.
384. Medal (n)—metal disc
She won a gold medal in Olympics.
Meddle (v)—interfere
Do not meddle in the affairs of other people.
Middle (n)—position which is at an equal distance from two or more points
They sat in the middle of the room.
They are standing in the middle of the street.
385. Memorable (adj.)—worth remembering
His speech in Parliament is memorable.
Memorial (n)—monument
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No memorial was put up in honour of his service to the nation.

386. Mantel (n)—shelf over a fire place
He placed a portrait of Vivekanand on the mantel place.
Mantle (n)—a cloak
Burqa worn by Muslim ladies is like a mantle.
Mental (adj.)—of mind He does too much of mental work.
387. Metal (n)—hard substance such as iron etc.
Iron is a very useful metal.
Mettle (n)—courage, endurance
This task will test your mettle.
388. Mete (v)—portion, allot, measure
He deserved the punishment meted out to him.
Meet (v)—come in contact
Meet me at the railway station.
Meat (n)—flesh
He abstains from meat and drink.
389. Meter (n)—a measuring apparatus
Electric meter records the consumption of electricity.
Metre (n)—unit of length
This cloth is five metre in length.
390. Miner (n)—one who works in a mine
The life of coal miners is miserable.
Minor (adj.)—below the age of 18
A guardian has been appointed for him as he is a minor.
391. Militate (v)—have force, operate
Several factors combined to militate against the success of overplan.
Mitigate (v)—make less painful or violent
Mitigate his punishment.
392. Moat (n)—a ditch surrounding a fort
There is a moat round the Red Fort of Delhi.
Mote (n)—a particle of dust
Sometimes even a mote makes us blind.
393. Mob (n)—large disorderly crowd
The police faced a mob throwing bricks and petrol bombs.
Crowd (n)—large number of people gathered together in the open
My speech attracted a large crowd.
394. Mod (adj.)—modern; young person wearing neat and fashionable clothes
His son is mod.
Mode (n)—way/manner in which something is done
What is the mode of transport to get there?
395. Momentary (adj.)—lasting for short period
Do not run after momentary pleasures.
Momentous (adj.)—important
He took a momentous decision.
396. Monetary (adj.)—relating to money
I have no monetary motives in helping you.
Monitory (adj.)—giving warning
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He paid no heed to the monitory advice of his father.

397. Moral (adj.)—concerning principles of right and wrong
Moral standards are falling day by day.
Morale (n)—state of discipline and spirit
The army recovered its morale and fighting power.
398. Morning (n)—early part of the day between dawn and noon
He goes to school in the morning.
Mourning (n)—grief
That widow was in deep mourning.
399. Mutual (adj.)—held in common with others
He is our mutual friend.
Common (adj.)—belonging to all
They all have Hindi as a common language.
400. Naff (adj.)—lacking taste/style; worthless
Your suit is pretty naff.
Nap (n)—short sleep
He takes a quick nap after lunch.
Nape (n)—back part of the neck
He kissed the baby on the nape of his neck.
401. Naval (adj.)—of navy; of warships
Ramesh is a naval officer.
Navel (n)—small depression in the centre of the belly marking the site of attachment of
the umbilical cord
Her sari was tied below the navel.
402. Navvy (n)—unskilled workman employed in making road etc. where digging is
necessary.
A group of navvy is digging a canal.
Navy (n)—a country's warships
Students prefer to join navy.
403. Naught (n)—nothing
He knows naught about polo.
Nought (n)—zero
Write three naught at the end of the figure.
404. Not (adv.) used to make a finite verb negative
You were wrong in not making a protest.
Knot (n)—fastening twist of two pieces of string, rope etc.
Tie a knot in a rope.
405. Necessaries (n)—things needed to lead life
Food, cloth and residence are the necessaries of life.
Necessities (n)—urgent need
A car is a necessity for a good physician.
406. Negligent (adj.)—careless
He was negligent of his duties.
Negligible (adj.)—of little or no importance
The financial loss he suffered was negligible.
Neglectful (adj.)—not attentive
He was neglectful of his appearance.
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407. Neither (adj.)—none
Neither plan will serve my purpose. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
Nether (adj.)—lower
Sinners are taken to the nether world by Yama.
408. Nod (v)—move the head in agreement
She nodded in agreement.
Node (n)—knob on a branch or roof
There are several nodes on that branch of the tree.
409. Need (n)—requirement
You have a great need for this book.
Knead (v)—make flour and water into a firm dough by hands
Knead the dough to make bread.
410. Noddle (n)—head
His eldest son has a big noddle.
Noodle (n)—foolish person
Are you a noodle?
411. Noisy (adj.)—full of noise
I cannot work in this noisy place.
Nosey (adj.)—rudely inquisitive, over-curious
I have always found his nosey nature unbearable.
412. Nohow (adv.)—in no way, not at all
He could not fix it nohow.
Know-how (n)—practical knowledge, technology
We have the know-how to produce rockets.
413. Nutritious (adj.)—valuable to the body as food
She prepared nutritious food for dinner.
Nutritive (adj.)—of nutrition (the process of giving or getting food)
They served nutritive salads for the party.
414. Oar (n)—a rod for rowing
The boat sank as the oar slipped from the hands of the boatman.
Ore (n)—mineral
Copper is extracted from the ore.
415. Observance—observing of a law
Strict observance of the rules of the club is the duty of every club member.
Observation (n)—observing or being observed
The doctor is keeping him under observation.
416. Obsequies (n)—funeral ceremonies
He performed obsequies of his father.
Obsequious (adj.)—too eager to obey or serve
He is an obsequious man.
417. Official (adj.)—pertaining to an office
The minister paid an official visit to Delhi to participate in a conference.
Officious (adj.)—offering service that is not wanted
I am irritated by officious servants.
418. Offset (v)—balance, compensate for
He has to offset his small salary by living economically.
Upset (v)—overturn
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419. Opportunity (n)—favourable time or chance
I have no opportunity for hearing good music.
Opportunism (n)—being guided by what seems possible, or by circumstances in
determining policy
It is not opportunism if you join your enemy's enemy.
420. Order (n)—command
An order must be obeyed.
Ardour (n)—zeal, fervour, warm emotion
He is full of youthful ardour.
421. Ordinance (n)—order given by an authority
The Governor issued an ordinance.
Ordnance (n)—artillery; munitions
He is a clerk in the ordnance department.
422. Owe (v) – be in debt to; be in debt to somebody
She owes me thousand rupees.
Woe (n) – Bitter grief
That book is related to a tale of woe
423. Obedience (n) – Submission to control
Obedience to school rules is essential for the maintenance of discipline.
Obeisance (n) – Salutation
You should make obeisance to the national flag after hoisting it.
424. Overt (Adj.) – done or shown openly, publicity
He showed overt hostility.
Covert (Adj) – disguised, half hidden
He is known for covert acts.
425. Of (prep.)—indicating separation in space or time
This village is five miles south of the town.
Off (prep.)—at or to a distance, away
The town is five miles off shore.
426. Pail (n)—a vessel for carrying liquid
The servant brought a pail of milk.
Pale (n)—having little colour; bloodless https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
He turned pale at the news.
427. Pair (n)—set of two
Buy a new pair of shoes.
Pare (v)—cut away outer part, edge, skin etc.
Pare the skin of the apple.
Pear (n)—sweet, juicy fruit
Last year we had a good crop of pears.
428. Palate (n)—a part of the mouth, roof of the mouth
Some sounds are produced by touching the tongue with the soft and hard palate.
Palette (n)—a range of colours used by an artist or the small tray they are placed on
A painter mixes his colours on a palette.
Pallet (n)—a wooden platform on which goods are stacked for storage or carriage
Food-grain bags are piled on open pallet for transportation.

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429. Pander (v)—try to satisfy somebody
Newspapers are pandering to the public love of scandal.
Ponder (v)—consider
I pondered over the incident.
430. Paper (n)—writing material made of pulp
There is scarcity of paper now-a-days.
Pepper (n)—a hot-tasting spice
These men are fond of pepper.
Pauper (n)—a person without means of livelihood
The rich man helped a pauper.
431. Partial (adj.)—forming only a part, not completely
I have seen a partial eclipse of the sun.
Partisan (n)—person showing strong support of a particular party or group
He joined partisan troops to liberate his country.
432. Pap (n)—soft food suitable for babies; worthless reading material
Tell the maid to make pap for the baby.
I don't read such pap.
Pep (n)—vigour, feeling of liveliness
He is full of pep.
433. Park (n)—public garden, keeping place of vehicle
The children are playing in the park.
Where can I park the car?
Perk (n)—perquisite, additional income
His perks include a car provided by the firm.
434. Parry (v)—avoid having to answer something
I parried the awkward question.
Perry (n)—drink made from fermented juice of pears
Give me a glass of perry.
435. Passed (v)—move, proceed
He passed in front of me.
Post (n)—carrying organisation of letters etc.
I will send you the book by post.
436. Pat (adv.)—at the right moment
The answer came pat.
Pate (n)—head https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
He had a bald pate.
437. Patrol (v)—to go round to keep a watch
The police has been patrolling the riot torn area.
Petrol (n)—liquid used to move automobiles
There is no petrol in my car.
438. Peace (n)—quietness of mind
He has no peace of mind.
Piece (n)—bit, fragment
Give me a piece of paper.
439. Part (n)—some but not all of
The early part of my life was spent in a village.
Pert (adj.)—cheeky, saucy, not showing proper respect
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She is a pert young woman.

440. Peal (n)—loud sound or continuous sound
He burst into a peal of laughter.
Peel (v)—to remove skin
She peeled the oranges.
441. Peckish (adj.)—slightly hungry
He is eating more as he is peckish.
Puckish (adj.)—mischievous
He has a puckish smile.
442. Peaceable (adj.)—not quarrelsome
They are peaceable people.
Peaceful (adj.)—quiet and calm
There the life is peaceful.
443. Person (n)—man, woman or child
He is a young person.
Parson (n)—parish priest, any clergyman
He is preaching like a parson.
444. Personal (adj.)—private
I have a personal matter to discuss with you.
Personnel (n)—staff
There were four military personnel on the plane that crashed yesterday.
445. Peep (n)—look quickly at something
A peep into the room convinced me it was empty.
Pip (n)—bleep, high-pitched signal sounds in radio etc.
At the second pip, the time will be 8.45 p.m. exactly.
446. Personality (n)—distinctive personal character
The teacher has a great personality.
Personalty (n)—personal estate
He has lost all his personalty in a suit.
447. Persecute (v)—to oppress or punish unjustly
Many people have been persecuted for their religious belief.
Prosecute (v)—to institute legal proceedings against a person
Trespassers will be prosecuted.
448. Pendant (n)—ornament which hangs down from necklet, bracelet etc.
The pendant of that necklet is very attractive.
Pendent (adj.)—hanging
He climbed up with the help of the pendent rope.
449. Persuade (v)—get a person to do as one wishes
He persuaded me to wait for a few hours more.
Pursued (v)—chased
The thief was pursued by the constable.
450. Peninsula (n)—area of land almost surrounded by water
Italy is a peninsula.
Peninsular (adj.)—of peninsula
Africa is a peninsular continent.
451. Physic (n)—medicine
Quinine is a good physic for malaria fever.
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Physique (n)—structure and development t of the body

He is a man of strong physique.
Physics (n)—a branch of science dealing with matter
Physics is taught by Prof. Rangarajan.
452. Physicist (n)—a student of physics
Leela is an eminent physicist.
Physician (n)—a medical practitioner
Dr. Ravi is an eminent Physician.
453. Perspicacious (adj.)—having very clear judgment and understanding
Portia is a perspicacious lady.
Perspicuous—expressed clearly
His expression is perspicuous.
454. Pick (v) - take up
He picked the fruit from the bush.
Pique (v) - to excite by provocation, challenge, or rebuff
Don't pique him by your baseless allegations.
Peek (v)—peep
He peeked into her room.
Peak (n) highest point of a mountain
He reached the Everest peak.
455. Piety (n)—quality of being pious
He was noted for piety.
Pity (n)—comparison
He was moved to pity to see the distressed people.
456. Piteous (adj.)—arousing pity
The condition of the poor is piteous.
Pitiable (adj.)—deserving pity
The condition of the patient was very pitiable.
Pitiful (adj.)—feeling pity, compassionate
My neighbour is pitiful towards our poor condition.
457. Plain (adj.)—clear, simple
It is now quite plain that she has deceived us.
Plane (n)—leveler
He smothered the wood with his plane.
Plan (n) —outlines or arrangement for doing something
Everything went according to plan.
458. Plaintiff (n)—complainant
The plaintiff lost the case.
Plaintive (adj.)—sad
The youth spoke in a plaintive voice.
459. Plausible (adj.)—arguments seeming to be right or reasonable
His excuses are plausible.
Possible (adj.)—that can be done or happen
It is a possible solution.
Probable (adj.)—likely to happen
It seems a probable event in view of the situation.
460. Pole (n)—rod
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He jumped ten feet with the help of a pole.

Poll (v)—vote at an election
He polled over one lakh votes.
461. Politic (adj.)—wise, prudent
It was not at all a politic decision to punish the innocent.
Politics (n)—the science of polity
School-students should have nothing to do with politics.
462. Policy (n)—course of action
It is a wise policy to save some money for the future.
Polity (n)—political organised unit
Ashoka's polity made him great.
463. Pore (n)—small hole
Sweat comes out of pores.
Pour (v)—cause to flow
Please pour a cup of tea for me too.
He poured the coffee out of the saucepan into the jug.
464. Populace (n)—the common people
The populace were against the change.
Population (n)—the people in a country
The population explosion is dangerous.
Popular (adj.)—well-known
He is a popular figure in the city.
Populist (n)—politician claiming to represent the ordinary people
He poses that he is a populist.
Populous (adj.)—thickly populated
Kolkata is the most populous city in India.
465. Potent (adj.)—powerful
Nehru was a potent leader.
Potential (adj.)—latent
Dangers unfold the potential energy of a man.
466. Practical (adj.)—concerned with practice
Let me know the practical difficulties of your scheme.
Practicable (adj.)—that which can be done
These methods are not practicable.
467. Practice (n)—custom, exercise
Practice makes a man perfect.
Practise (v)—exercise, follow
You should practise what you preach.
468. Pray (v)—offer prayer
I pray to God for your long life.
Prey (n)—victim
She fell a prey to cancer.
469. Precedent (n)—previous case taken as an example
The learned counsel quoted some precedents in law.
President (n)—head of the meeting or state
Mr. Hague was the president of the meeting.
470. Precipitate (v)—hurried
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The army's action precipitated the war.

Precipitous (adj.)—steep
It was difficult climbing the precipitous rock.
471. Prescribe (v)—advise or order the use of
This book is prescribed as a textbook.
Proscribe (v)—denounce as dangerous, outlaw
The Government of Iran has proscribed the book 'Satan Verses'.
472. Prefer (v)—choose rather
I would prefer coffee to tea.
Proffer (v)—offer of intangible things
He proffered me his friendship.
473. Presumptive (adj.)—based on a reasonable belief
He presented presumptive evidence in Court.
Presumptuous (adj.)—having a very high opinion of oneself
He is presumptuous about himself.
474. Pretence (n)—make-believe
It is all pretence.
Pretension (n)—claim
He makes no pretensions to expert knowledge of the subject.
475. Primary (adj.)—basic, of the beginning, chief
The child was admitted to the primary school.
Primitive (adj.)—of the earliest times
The primitive man lived in the caves and jungles.
476. Principle (n)—basic truth, moral rule
He is a man of strict principles.
Principal (adj.)—cief, capital sum of money
These are the principal language of India.
You must return the principal with interest. (n)
477. Private (adj.)—of individual and not people in general
He resigned his post for private reasons.
Privet (n)—evergreen flower shrub
There is privet on all sides of our garden hedges.
478. Prize (n)—something to be awarded to one who succeeds in a competition, lottery etc.
He was awarded a prize for good conduct.
Price (n)—sum of money for which something is sold
I won't buy it at that price.
Praise (v)—speak admiringly
Praise the child for his performance.
479. Proceed (v) /—continue, go forward
He proceeded with the project.
Precede (v)—come or go before
One precedes two, three follows it.
Procedure (n)—steps followed in regular order
This is the usual procedure of our work.
Proceeding (n)—happenings
The Secretary recorded the proceedings of the debate.
480. Probe (n)—thorough and careful investigation
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There was a probe into the misuse of public funds.

Prove (v)—show that something is true
Prove that he is guilty.
481. Profit (n)—gain
I make good profit from my business.
Prophet (n)—person who teaches religion by receiving them directly from God
Mohammed is the prophet of Islam.
482. Prophecy—prediction
My astrologer's prophecy relating to my marriage has come true.
Prophesy (v)—predict
He prophesied my success in the election.
483. Proportional (adj.)—determined by proportion
Some communities want proportional representation in Government jobs.
Proportionate (adj.)—corresponding in degree and amount
The salary was not proportionate to the labour he did.
484. Property (n)—estate
He has inherited a vast landed property.
Propriety (n)—rightness
I doubt the propriety of the terms.
485. Propose (v)—offer or put forward for discussion
The motion was proposed by the President and seconded by the Secretary.
Purpose (n)—plan, intention
For what purpose do you want to go to Delhi?
486. Provident (adj.)—providing for future needs especially in old age
Our firm has a provident fund for the staff.
Providential (adj.)—his providence, of
God It is really providential escape.
487. Prudent (adj.)—careful
He is a prudent house keeper.
Prudential (adj.)—related to prudence
All this happened by the prudential motives.
488. Purpose (n)—object
He did this with a definite purpose.
Purport (n)—substance
I was asked to write down the purport of the passage.
489. Quiet (adj.)—calm
The sea is quiet.
Quite (adv.)—completely
He has quite recovered.
490. Quire (n) -24 sheets
I purchased one quire of paper.
Queer (adj.)—strange
His queer dress provoked laughter.
491. Race (n)—contest
He is in the race for Prime Minister.
Raise (v)—lift up
She raised the child from the ground.
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Raze, rase (v) - to destroy totally

The building was razed to the ground by bulldozers.
Rage (n)—anger
He cried out in rage.
Rise (v)—appear above the horizon
The sun rises in the East.
Arise (v)—come into existence
A new difficulty has arisen.
492. Raft (n)—flat floating structure used to cross river, canal etc.
We used a raft to cross the river.
Rapt (adj.)—spell bound, intent
I listened to her with rapt attention.
493. Rain (n)—moisture falling in drops from clouds
Don't go out in the rain.
Rein (n)—strap attached to guide a horse
He pulled at the reins to control the horse.
Reign (n)—period of a sovereign rule
Briefly describe the reign of Ashoka, the great.
494. Ramble (v)—walk for pleasure with no specific direction
He rambled in the park with his friends.
Rumble (v)—make a heavy, continuous sound
Thunder rumbled in the distance.
495. Rap (n)—sound made on the door by a knocker
She rapped the door loudly to awaken the people.
Wrap (v)—to enclose
The corpse was wrapped in a piece of cloth.
496. Rational (adj.)—able to reason
Man is a rational being.
Rationale (n)—logical basis of something
What is the rationale behind your decision?
497. Refuge (n)—shelter or protection from trouble
He gave refuge to the homeless.
Refuse (v)—say 'no' to, show unwillingness to accept
He refused my offer.
Refugee (n)—person who has been forced to flee from danger
There are many Bangladesh refugees in India.
498. Regretful (adj.)—full of regret
He was regretful of his wrong actions.
Regrettable (adj.)—some action/thing causing regret
It is a regrettable experience that you have undergone.
499. Registerl'(v)—make a written record of in a list
A foreigner must register himself with the police in some countries.
Registrar (n)—person whose duty is to keep records and register
The registrar allotted the registration number of my car.
500. Revel (v)—make merry
They revelled in their success.
Ravel (v)—separate into threads
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Ravel the woven edges of the rug.

Rebel (v)—show resistance, protest strongly
The prisoners rebelled against the authority.
Rabble (n)—disorderly crowd
The rabble attacked the ministry.
Reveal (v)—disclose, display
He revealed your secrets to me.
501. Remand (v)—send back to custody to obtain evidence
The accused was remanded for a week.
Remind (v)—cause to remember
Please remind me to answer that letter.
Reminder (n)—to make someone recall something
He hasn't paid me that money, hence I must send him a reminder.
502. Rent (n)—regular payment for the use of land
Tenants pay high rent for farming land.
Rant (v)—use extravagant, boasting language
Don't rant and rave over minor issues.
503. Resister (n)—person who opposes
He is a passive resister.
Resistor (n)—device having resistance to the passage of an electric current
He fixed a resistor to this electric connection.
504. Respectable (adj.)—deserving respect
They belong to the respectable middle classes.
Respectful (adj.)—showing respect
They stood at a respectful distance from the President.
Respective (adj.)—belong to each of those in question
The party ended and we all went off to our respective rooms.
505. Respectably (adv.)—in a respectable way
He discharged his duties respectably.
Respectively (adv.)—in the given order
Genius and right will triumph over brute force and might respectively.
506. Rest (n)—peace, comfort
As he was tired, he took rest for an hour.
Wrest (v)—snatch away
He wrested her necklace and ran away.
507. Reverend (adj.)—worthy of great respect
The reverend priest prayed for the sinner.
Reverent (adj.)—showing great respect
The reverent students stood up for the teachers.
508. Ripe (adj.) - ready to be gathered and used
These cherries are not ripe enough to eat.
Rife (adj.)—widespread, common
The country was rife with rumours of war.
509. Rite (n)—formal religious custom
The funeral rites of his brother were performed yesterday.
Riot (n)—disorder
How did the riot originate?
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510. Right (adj.)—true, just

Never hesitate to fight for the right cause.
Wright (n)—maker, workman
He is a play wright.
Write (v)—compose
Please write a letter to my mother.
511. Rightful (adj.)—according to law and justice
He is the rightful owner of the land.
Righteous (adj.)—doing what is morally right
He is a righteous man.
Riotous (adj.)—unruly, disorderly
Parliament members are charged with riotous behaviour.
512. Risk (n)—possibility of meeting danger
There is no risk of his failing.
Risque (adj.)—slightly indecent
She took offence at your risque remarks.
513. Roll (v)—form in cylindrical shape
She rolled the paper.
Role (n) - part
She played an important role in the drama.
514. Route (n) - way
He flew from India to New York via the London route.
Rout (v)—flight
We routed out the enemies.
Root (n)—origin; that part of plant or tree which is wholly in the soil
Pull up that plant by the roots.
Love of money is the root of all evil.
515. Sale (n)—act of selling
The sale of his old home made him sad.
Sail (n)—sheet of canvas on a boat or ship to catch the wind
He hoisted the sails for speedy journey.
516. Sally (n) – act of selling
The laughter with which his sallies were greeted exited him.
Sully (v)—make something dirty, disrespect
I shall never sully my hands by accepting a bribe.
517. Sanguine (adj.)—hopeful, cheerful
His sanguine nature has made him popular among his friends.
Sanguinary (adj.)—eager for bloodshed
The terrorists have a sanguinary nature.
518. Scar (n)—mark remaining on the surface of skin
There is a long scar across his cheek.
Scare (v) /—frighten
He was scared by the thunder.
519. Sculptor (n)—one who cuts and carves figures of art
Jakana was the best sculptor.
Sculpture (n)—figure cut in stone, wood etc.
It is a work of sculpture.
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520. Sceptic (n)—person who doubts the truth of a particular claim, theory etc.
He is a sceptic of Christianity.
Septic (adj.)—caused by infection
A septic wound is usually effected by bacteria.
521. Seam (n)—wrinkle
There is a mark like a seam on his face.
Seem (v)—give the impression of
It seems that no one knew what had happened.
522. Seep (v)—flow slowly and in small quantity
Water was seeping through the roof of the house.
Sip (v)—drink something in small quantities
Please sip your coffee.
523. Serge (n) /—a worsted cloth
He has a beautiful suit of serge.
Surge (v)—swelling motion of water
The waves surged up and tilted the boat.
524. Sensible (adj.)—possessing sense, intelligent
He is a sensible man.
Sensitive (adj.)—easily affected
Don't tease her because she is very sensitive.
525. Sensuous (adj.)—effecting the senses
He has got a sensuous temperament.
Sensual (adj.)—having weakness for sex and food
He always indulges in sensual enjoyment.
Sentient (adj.)—sensitive to feeling
He is a sentient person.
526. Seller (n)—one who sells
He is a tobacco-seller.
Cellar (n)—a room below the ground in a house
Did you ever go to the cellar built by him?
527. Service (n)—benefit, use
He rendered valuable service to his country.
Servility (n)—too much submitting behaviour
Many bureaucrats lead a life of servility under politicians.
Servitude (n)—almost slavish life
The life of bonded labourers is nothing less than servitude.
528. Seize (v)—take possession of by law
I seized his property for payment of his debt.
Cease (v)—come to an end
Roman empire ceased to exist.
529. Specially (adv.)—particularly
I came here specially to see you.
Especially (adv.) to an exceptional degree; in particular
She likes the country, especially in spring.
530. Sequel (n)—that which follows or arises out of
Famine has often been the sequel of war.
Sequence (n)—following on, succession.
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You study the situation in historical sequence.

531. Sever (v)—divide by cutting
Sever the rope, if you cannot untie the knot.
Severe (adj.)—strict, harsh
The dacoit was awarded severe punishment by the magistrate.
532. Sham (n)—person who pretends to be what he is not
He claims to know all about computers but really he is a sham.
Shame (n)—painful feeling caused by wrong behaviour
He felt shame at having told a lie.
533. Shear (v)—clip the wool of sheep
He is not a barber but shears sheep.
Sheer (adj.)—utter absolute
The working of nationalised banks is an example of sheer incompetence.
534. Sick (n)—ill people
There is provision for giving free medicine and food to the sick.
Sickly (adj.)—apt to be sick
One sickly sheep infects the whole flock.
535. Significance (n)—import
I am not able to understand the significance of the words uttered by him.
Signification (n)—real meaning
What is the signification of this phrase?
536. Slight (adj.)—unimportant
A slight change has come upon him.
Sleight (n)—dexterity
Magic tricks are nothing but a mere sleight of hand.
537. Slander (n)—false statement intended to damage
I shall sue her for slander.
Slender (adj.)—slim
She is a slender, graceful ballet-dancer.
538. Sole (adj.)—only
He is the sole proprietor of the firm.
Soul (n)—spirit
We believe in the immortality of the soul.
539. Soar (v) /—rise high
Prices of essential commodities are soaring day by day.
Sore (adj.)—tender and painful
He has a sore throat.
Sour (adj.)—acid; rancid, having a sharp taste
The grapes are sour.
540. Social (adj.)—relating to society
Man is a social animal.
Sociable (adj.)—willing to mix with society
He is sociable.
541. Solitude (n)—loneliness
He was kept in jail in solitude.
Solicitude (n)—anxiety
A mother's solicitude for her child's welfare is genuine.
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542. Soon (adv.)—within short time

He will be here very soon.
Swoon (v)—faint, lose consciousness
She swooned into his arms for joy.
543. Soot (n)—black powder in smoke
Sweep the soot out of the chimney.
Suit (n)—an action in a law court
He has filed a suit against his landlord.
Suite (n)—a set of rooms
He stayed in a two roomed suite in the hotel.
544. Sweet (adj.)—tasting like sugar
Do you like your tea sweet
Sweat (n)—moisture that is given off by the body through the skin
They say that good sweat will cure a cold.
545. Sooth (n)—truth
Sooth sayers predict many things correctly.
Soothe (v)—to calm, assuage
Religious songs soothe disturbed minds.
546. Sop (n)—piece of bread etc. soaked in milk, soup etc.
He offered me sop in breakfast.
Soap (n)—substance made of fat and used for washing and cleaning
I purchased a bar of soap to wash our clothes.
Soup (n) - liquid food by vegetables, meat etc. in water.
He likes chicken soup.
547. Spacious (adj.)—having much space
It is a spacious hall.
Specious (adj.)—seeing right or true but not really so
He advanced specious arguments.
548. Spit (v)—send saliva from the mouth
She spat on his face.
Don't spit in public.
Spite (n)—ill will
He has spite against me.
549. Spiritual (adj.)—connected with soul
We must try to have not only material but spiritual progress too.
Spirituous (adj.)—having distilled alcohol
Most of the alcoholic drinks are spirituous liquors.
550. Stair (n)—step
He fell from the stairs.
Stare (v)—gaze, look fixedly
She was staring into the distance.
551. Stack (v)—make things into a neat pile
The books have been stacked on racks.
Stock (n)—store of goods available for sale
There is abundant stock of sugar to use.
Stoke (v)—attend to furnace, fill fire with coal etc.
She stokes up the furnace twice a day.
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552. Staff (n)—assistants in an institution

The staff and the students were present on the occasion.
Stuff (n)—substance
There is much food stuff to eat.
553. Steal (v)—take secretly without right
It is wrong to steal.
Steel (n)—hard alloy of iron
He used heavy steel in the construction of that bridge.
554. Stiff (adj.)—not easily bent or changed in shape
He has a stiff neck.
Steep (n)—rising slope
The building has steep steps to climb up.
555. Statue (n)—an image in stone etc.
There is the statue of Mahatma Gandhi near India Gate in Delhi.
Statute (n)—written law passed by law making body
A statute should be passed prohibiting begging.
556. Straight (adv.)—directly
I went straight to her.
Strait (adj.)—narrow
Strait is the gate of Heaven.
557. Stationary (adj.)—not moving
He is stationary.
Stationery (n)—writing materials
He deals with stationery.
558. Stimulant (n)—something that stimulates
Coffee is a common stimulant taken in the South.
Stimulus (n)—that rouses to action
A man requires stimulus to do something important.
559. Stoop (v)—bend the body or head forwards or downwards
He stoops low to show his respect.
Stop (n)—halting or being stopped
The train came to a sudden stop.
560. Story (n)—a tale
My grandma told me the story of "Sleeping Beauty".
Storey (n)—floor of a building
He lives on the third storey.
561. Superfluous (adj.)—more than is needed or wanted
Don't make superfluous remarks.
Superficial (adj.).—of or on the surface only
It is a superficial wound.
562. Superstitious (adj.)—believing in magic, witch-craft etc.
A superstitious person won't go out if a cat has crossed the way.
Supercilious (adj.)—arrogant, haughty
He has no friends due to his supercilious nature.
563. Surely (adv.)—certainly
He will surely fail.
Surly (adj.)—bad-tempered and unfriendly
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Don't look so surly.

564. Tail (n)—movable part at the end of the body of an animal etc.
Don't twist the tail of the cow.
Tale (n)—story
Tell me a tale of adventure.
565. Taste (n)—sensation caused in the tongue
Sugar has a sweet taste.
Test (v)—examination
He was tested to know his abilities.
566. Tasty (adj.)—having a pleasant flavour
His food preparations are tasty.
Testy (adj.)—impatient
He is a testy young man.
567. Taught (v)—gave instructions; gave lessons
He taught me mathematics.
Taut (adj.)—tightly stretched
The taut rope broke.
568. Team (n)—set of persons working together
Our cricket team won the match.
Teem (v)—full of, be present in large number
Every leaf teems with life.
569. Temple (n)—building used for the worship of a God
They constructed a temple for Krishna Bhagavan.
Temper (n)—state of the mind
He is in a good temper.
Tamper (v)—meddle or interfere with
Someone has been tampering with the lock.
570. Temporal (adj.)—of this life and not spiritual secular
I am interested in temporal gains.
Temporary (adj.)—short lived
He has secured a temporary job.
571. Temperament (n)—mental disposition
He has an even temperament.
Temperance (n)—moderation, sobriety
Temperance is necessary to maintain good health and sweet relations.
572. Tenor (n)—general course or tendeincy
His tenor of life was peaceful.
Tenure (n)—period of holding
During his tenure of office many strange things happened.
573. Terrible (adj.)—causing great fear or horror
He died in terrible agony.
Terrific (adj.)—causing fear
He drives his car at a terrific pace.
574. Throne (n)—royal authority; seat of a ruler
He started to rule after coming to the throne.
Thrown (Past Participle of Throw)—to go through the air
He has thrown that big stone hundred yards away.
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575. Through (Prep)—from end to end or side to side

The burglar came in through the window.
Thorough (adj.)—complete in every way
He received thorough instructions to complete the work.
Throw (v)—cause to go through the air
Don't throw stones at my dog.
576. Toe (n)—forepart of foot, socks, shoes
He kicked the ball with his toe.
Tow (v)—to pull or drag with a rope
We had to tow the car behind a truck.
577. Tolerant (adj.)— person who tolerates
He has a tolerant nature.
Tolerable (adj.)—a thing that can be tolerated
The food at the railway station was just tolerable.
578. Tot (n)—small child
I have known him since he was a tot.
Tote (v)—carry something
He has been toting this bag round all day.
579. Top (n)—highest part or point
There is a monkey at the top of the tree.
Tope (v)—drink habitually and in excess
He topes liquor everyday.
580. Totalitarian (adj.)—under one party rule
Germany under Hitler was a totalitarian state.
Teetotaller (n)—person who does not drink alcohol
Teetotallers abstain completely from alcoholic liquor.
581. Transient (adj.)—which lasts for short time
It is a transient sorrow. He will be normal soon.
Transitory (adj.)—which by nature passes sooner or later
Life is transitory.
582. Troop (n)—company of persons or animals
A troop of children are going to the Convent School.
Troupe (n)—company of actors or members of circus
He is a member of a theatrical troupe.
583. Unity (n)—oneness
Work for national unity.
Union (n)—being united
Union is strength.
Unison (n)—harmony
Her voice was in perfect unison with the tune of the piano.
584. Umpire (n)—a referee
The cricket team made a complaint about the umpire.
Empire (n)—dominion; group of countries under one ruler
British empire was the biggest one before IInd World War.
585. Unwanted (adj.)—not wanted
The unwanted child was miserable.
Unwonted (adj.)—not usual or customary
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Your unwonted intrusion annoyed her.

586. Urban (adj.)—pertaining to towns and cities
He was elected from the urban constituency of Hyderabad.
Urbane (adj.)—polite, polished in manners
He is urbane and affable.
587. Vain (adj.)—useless
It is a vain protest.
Vane (n)—weathercock
The vane pointed to the north.
Vein (n)— manner
She said this in a humorous vein.
588. Van (n)—a closed truck or wagon
The household things were carried in a van on his transfer.
Wane (v)—to decrease after reaching the peak
His fame has been waning rapidly.
589. Vacuity (n)—absence of thought or intelligence
Her remarks showed vacuity.
Vacuum (n)—space completely empty or substance or air
Flask has vacuum between its two calls.
590. Variance (n)—disagreement
The words of the cheat are at variance with his deeds.
Variation (n)—change
A variation in his life made him a great man.
591. Veil (n)—curtain
She dropped her veil.
Vale (n)—valley
The vale and the fields are green.
Wail (v)—to express grief by loud cries
A group of relatives wailed at the house of the deceased.
592. Venal (adj.)—characterised by corruption and bribery
It is common to see venal bureaucrats making venal bargains.
Venial (adj.)—pardonable, not serious
The venial slips of youth are excusable.
593. Veracity (n.)—truthfulness
I doubt the veracity of your statement.
Voracity (n)—greed
He ate his food with voracity.
594. Verbal (adj.)—by means of words
The writer drew a verbal image.
Verbose (adj.)—using more words than needed
He writes in a verbose style.
595. Virtual (adj.)—in effect
Women are the virtual heads of many families.
Virtuous (adj.)—having virtue
She is virtuous.
596. Waggle (v)—move from side to side or up and down
The dog waggled its tail.
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 Wangle (v)—get something by influence or plausible persuation
He wangled an extra week's holiday.
597. Wad (n)—quantity of bank-notes held together
He pulled a wad of Rs. 100 notes out of his pocket.
Wade (v)—walk with an effort
I cannot wade in these boots.
598. Waste (adj.)—make no use of, waiting without fruit
It is waste of time to wait any longer.
Waist (n)—part of the body between ribs and the hips
The workmen were stripped to the waist.
599. Wait (v)—stay where one is
Please wait a minute.
Await (v)—wait for, be in store for
We await your instructions. Death awaits all men.
600. Wallop (n)—heavy blow
Down he went with a wallop.
Wallow (v)—roll about (in mud, dirty water etc.)
Pigs wallow in the mire.
601. Waive (v)—give up, not insist upon
He waived his claim to this property
Wave (n)—movement sweeping large numbers in a common direction
The wave of buying estate continued.
602. Waiver (n)—written statement which does not insist on
He signed a waiver of claims against him.
Waver (v) /'—move uncertainly or unsteadily
He wavered in his resolution.
603. Wary (adj.)—cautious
You keep a wary eye on him.
Vary (v)—different
They vary in weight from 3 lb. to 5 lb.
604. Wander (v)—roam, ramble https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
Don't wander about in the streets.
Wonder (n)—marvel, miracle
He was filled with wander.
605. Week (n)—period of seven days
There are seven days in a week.
Weak (adj.)—feeble
She is too weak to walk.
Wick (n)—thread through a candle etc.
This stove has ten wicks.
606. Wheat (n)—grain
There is a field of wheat near the college.
Whet (v)—sharpen
This book will certainly whet your appetite for improving your vocabulary.
Wet (adj.)—soaked with water
He got wet in the rain.
607. Whit (n)—the small amount not at all
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Wit (n)—ability to combine words so as to produce humour
He has a ready wit.
608. Whether (conj.)—if
I asked him whether he had paid the fee.
Weather (n)—condition of temperature, wind rain etc.
He stayed indoors in wet weather.
Climate (n)—Permanent atmospheric conditions; prevailing conditions
Tropical climate would suit him.
The political climate of the country is not satisfactory.
609. Wife (n)—married woman
She was a good wife and mother.
Wipe (v) --clean
Tell the maid to wipe the dishes.
610. Willing (v)—ready to do
He is willing to serve you.
Wilful (adj.)—deliberate
Wilful negligence is not pardonable.
611.Wither (v)—fade away
The flower has withered.
Whither—old word for 'where'
Whither go the old morals and virtues.
612. Woe (n)—sorrow, grief
The cause for his woe is his poverty.
Woo (v)—try to win a woman's hand in marriage
He wooed that fair lady.
613. Womanly (adj.)—like a woman
She is held in high esteem for her womanly virtues.
Womanish (adj.)—feminine, unmanly
He is hated for his womanish ways.
614. Wreck (v)—to inflict
Terrorists have wreaked vengeance upon the Sinhalese army.
Wreck (v)—destruction
The ship was wrecked to pieces during the storm.
615. Wreath (n)—garland
The chief guest was offered wreaths of flowers.
Wreathe (v)—cover, encircle
Her face was wreathed in smiles. https://t.me/LawCollegeNotes_Stuffs
616. Yarn (n)—any fibre spun for cloth
Nylon yarn is mixed with cotton yarn for gay colours.
Yearn (v)—to be filled with longing or desire
She yearns to see her son married before she dies.
617. Yoke (n)—mark of bondage; wooden piece to pull a plough carter
The oxen were put to the yoke.
We are no more under the yoke of slavery.
Yolk (n)—the yellow part of an egg
Yolk is tasty and the most nourishing part of an egg.
618. Zip (n)—emerges, vigour
He is full of zip.
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Jeep (n)—small four-wheeler with cloth over-head

He bought a jeep last month.

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ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

To give up throne or an office of position—abdicate

Original inhabitant of a place—aborigines
To increase the speed or progress of—accelerate
Means of approach—access
A partner, helper, companion in a crime—accomplice
The state between boyhood and youth—adolescence
A written statement given on oath—affidavit
List of matters of business to be discussed in a meeting etc.—agenda
A person who believes that nothing can be known about God or anything except material
things—agnostic
To make worse—aggravate
A person who is not a naturalised citizen of the country in which he living—alien
To turn someone into an enemy—alienate
Allowance ordered by Court to a divorced woman—alimony
Description of a subject with symbolical representation to ano allegory
Formal statement or evidence that a person was in another pl the time of crime—alibi
One who has love and regard for others—altruist
One who participates in games, sports, art not for money—amateur
Which can be interpreted in two ways—ambiguous
Capable of using both the hands equally well—ambidextrous
General pardon of the offences against Government—amnesty
A test to know the sex of the foetus—amniocentesis
Living on land as well as in water—amphibious

One who provokes disorder in a State or one who does not believe in government—anarchist
Absence of Government—anarchy
Study of the science relating to the body structure of human beings, animals and plants by way
of dissection—anatomy
Not in harmony with the time—anachronism
One who administers anesthesia to a patient—anesthetist
Yearly recurrence of a particular occasion—anniversary
Of unknown name or authorship—anonymous
Third from last (last but two)—antepenultimate
One who studies history relating to the development of man from primitive ages—
anthropologist
Fixed sum of money paid to somebody yearly as income during his life time—annuity
A thing capable of destroying bacteria—antibiotic
A thing given to counteract the bad effect of any medicine, poison etc.—antidote
One who collects or studies old relics of art—antiquary
A substance that checks rotting or infection—antiseptic
Loss of the wish to eat—anorexia
A thing which is not in a proper order—anachronistic
A word made by rearranging the letters of another word—anagram
A person who loves England or English things—anglophile
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A person who hates England or English things—anglophobe

Partial or total loss of ability to speak or understand spoken language, caused by damage to the
brain—aphasia
A garment worn over the front part of the body to keep the bearer's clothes clean, while
working—apron
Artificial tank or glassed box where live fish are kept—aquarium
Creatures living in water—aquatic
One appointed to settle dispute between two parties—arbitrator
Study of life and culture of ancient people—archaeology
That which is not in current use—archaic
Old expressions no more in use—archaism
A person who prepares plans for buildings—architect
Government by the nobility—aristocracy
A person who practises any of the fine arts, especially painting—artist
A professional singer, dancer etc.—artist
Collection of historical documents or records of a government, tows etc.—archives
To pronounce clearly—articulate
One who studies human antiques—archaeologist
A place where weapons are manufactured and stored—arsenal
One who practises physical hardships for spiritual gains; or a pe who renounces the world and
practises self-discipline in order to att salvation—ascetic
One who goes in a space vehicle—astronaut /
Not believing in the existence of God—atheism
Disbeliever in God or one who has no belief in God—atheist
An assembly of listeners—audience
That which can be heard—audible
A government by one man—autocracy
Life story of a person written by himself—autobiography
A large cage or building for keeping birds—aviary
Art or science of flying aeroplanes—aviation
Person unable to pay his debts—bankrupt
An unmarried man—bachelor
Accumulation of work or business not yet attended to—backlog
Slander the reputation of somebody who is not present—backbite
Produce an unexpected and unwanted result, especially for the responsible—backfire
Extreme and usually violent reaction to some event—backflash
A list of books with details of authorship, editions, subject etc. - bibliography
A person who loves or collects books—bibliophile
Hastily erected barrier across a road or lane—barricade
One who is inclined to fight—bellicose
What happens after every two years—biennial
Speaking or using two languages—bilingual
Custom of having two husbands/wives—bigamy
One having narrow prejudiced religious views—bigot
Aircraft with two pairs of wings, one above the other—biplane
An animal who walks on two feet (man)—biped
The life-history of a person written by some body—biography
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Contemptuous speech or writing about God or divinity—blas

Shutting up of a place/city by enemy troops—blockade
A woman with brown hair and fair complexion—blonde
A woman having or pretending to have literary tastes and learning bluestocking
A person who is very fond of reading books—bookworm
A member of the middle (upper) class—bourgeois
One who studies the science of animals and plants—biologist
To shut out from social, economic or political relation—boycott
One who, studies the science of plants—botanist
A person's original plan, invention or idea—brain-child
Loss of a country when skilled and clever people emigrate from it to other countries—brain-
drain
A difficult problem—brain-teaser
Sudden, violent mental disturbance or moment of confusion or forgetfulness—brainstorm
Force somebody to reject old beliefs or ideas and to accept new ones by the use of extreme
mental pressure—brainwash
Sudden clever idea—brainwave
Hard but easily broken—brittle
A booklet or pamphlet containing information about something or advertising something—
brochure
A thing that is feared or disliked or causes annoyance—bugbear
A short official statement of news or printed newsletter produced by an association, a group or a
society—bulletin
A person who uses his strength or power to frighten or hurt weaker people—bully
A government in which the whole power is vested in the officials—bureaucracy
An official working in a government strictly—bureaucrat
A woman with dark brown hair, dark eyes, black complexion—brunette
A person who interferes in other people's affairs—busybody
A person or thing which is considered to be a notable or typical example of a quality—byword
A place for hiding food, treasure or weapons—cache
A man who behaves dishonourably—cad
A person having no sense of sympathy—callous
A false statement about somebody, made to damage his character—calumny
Grounds of a school, or university, where the main buildings are—campus
A way of hiding or disguising soldiers, military equipment etc.—camouflage
One who eats human flesh; an animal that eats its own kind—cannibal
Insincere talk, especially about religion or morality—cant
Animals feeding on flesh—carnivorous
A picture, description or imitation of somebody or something that exaggerates certain
characteristics in order to amuse or ridicule—caricature
An amusing drawing in a newspaper or magazine, especially one that comments satirically on
current events—cartoon
One who treats heart diseases—cardiologist
Broad, tolerant, unprejudiced outlook—catholicity
One who resolved not to marry—celibate
The state of being unmarried/total sexual abstinence—celibacy
A hundred years—century
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Arrangement of events according to dates or times of occurrence—chronology

A round about way of speaking or use of many words to say something instead of in few words—
circumlocution
That which is acclaimed as an excellent work—classic
A book or booklet containing a complete list of items, usually in a special order and with a
description of each—catalogue
A person who falsely claims to have special knowledge or skill especially in medicine –
charlatan
A person who talks too much—chatterbox
Power to inspire devotion and enthusiasm—charisma
A record of historical events in the order in which they happened—chronicle
Idea, sentiments or remarks which are intended merely to attract attention or to win applause—
claptrap
A number of persons who are hired to applaud at a theatre, concert, etc.—claque
A phrase or idea which is used so often that it has become stale or meaningless—cliche
A group of persons united by common interests, members of which support each other and shut
out others from their company—clique
Living together, especially of nations with different social systems—coexistence
An associate in the same enterprise, office, profession—colleague
A secret agreement for fraudulent purpose—collusion
Money given for requisitioned property—compensation
State of deep unconsciousness, usually lasting a long time and ca by severe injury or illness—
coma
A person belonging to one's own country—compatriot
Satisfied with one's owl"' achievement—complacent
A settlement of disputes by both parties—compromise
Electronic calculating and memorising machine—computer
A woman who lives with a man without being married to him—concubine
One well versed in an art, so its judge and critic—connoisseur
A disease which spreads by contact—contagious
The gradual recovery from illness—convalescence
To meet in a paint (rays & lines)—converge
Agreement of opinion among different groups—consensus
Living in the same period—contemporary
Exclusive right to publish a book—copyright
Universal in outlook or one who is free from national limitations—cosmopolitan
A small group of people with shared interests, activities, tastes etc. especially one that tends to
be exclusive—coterie
One who readily believes in others—credulous
Turning point of danger or disease—crisis
A person who forms and gives judgments about literature, art, music, and so on—critic
Critical analysis through an essay or review—critique
One to whom a debt is owing—creditor
Chinawares used for tea, food etc. (cups, pots, plates) crockery
Appliances used in kitchen-forks, knives etc.—cutlery
One who considers human nature as evil—cynic

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Somebody or something that attracts everybody's attention or admiration or centre of

attraction—cynosure
A man who cares too much about the smartness of his clothes and his appearance—dandy
A situation bringing progress/talks to standstill—deadlock
Period of ten years—decade
One who owes money to another—debtor
Refuse to accept—decline
One who is sued by the plaintiff—defendant
One who believes in the existence of God, but without acceptance of revelation or religious
dogma—deist
A person or thing which is used to tempt somebody into a position of danger—decoy
One who treats skin diseases—dermatologist Id3Imatnlad3ist/ Removing one from the throne—
dethrone
A Government formed by the people—democracy
Feeble and childish state due to old age dotage
A person with weakness of mind caused by old age dotard
A place where one lives permanently—domicile
Act of leaving a party to join another—defection
To wander away from the main point—digress
Moving away from the main point—digression
One left without food, clothes and necessaries—destitute
One who is detained in custody—detainee
Place to which one is going—destination
An admirer of fine arts, one who studies the arts, but not seriously and not with real
understanding—dilettante
A state of a person, who is asked to choose one of the two unfavourable things—dilemma
Make or become smaller or less—diminish
Art of conducting negotiations between nations—diplomacy
Sum payable as profit to an individual by a joint stock company—dividend
A match/contest in which neither party wins—drawn
Dry weather with no rainfall—drought
Statement or speech not likely to be true—dubious
One having unusual habits—eccentric
Fit to be eaten as food—edible
One who possess the qualities of women—effeminate
One who is able to perform duties well—efficient
One who is self-centred—egoist
One who is able to bring about the result intended—effective
One which resumes its normal shape and size after the stress is released— elastic
Qualified to be selected for a job or office—eligible
One who leaves a country to live in another—emigrant /
Divert money fraudulently to one's own use—embezzle
A book giving information on all branches of knowledge—encyclopaedia
Study a science of insects—entomology
One who studies about insects—entomologist
One fond of good food, drinks and sensuous pleasure—epicure
Living or lasting for a very short time—ephemeral
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Disease widespread at a time—epidemic

Make inroads on other's property—encroach
Concluding part of a literary work—epilogue
Description of one event in a chain of events—episode
Inscription on a tomb about the person burried—epitaph
Evenness of mind or temper—equanimity
One who rides a horse—equestrian
A condition of perfect balance—equilibrium
To root out (evil, diseases etc. )—eradicate
Likely to be understood by only those with a special knowledge or interest—esoteric
A study of comparative cultures of the people of different races—ethnology
Science dealing with the root of words or with the formation and development of words—
etymology
Fit to be imitated—exemplary
Describe a thing beyond limits of truth—exaggerate
That which is done or spoken without any previous preparation or thought—extempore
To make extinct—extinguish
A servant who does all kinds of work—factotum
One who possesses excessive interest in religion—fanatic
One very refined and not easily pleased—fastidious
Causing or ending in death or disaster—fatal
A person who firmly believes that fate controls man—fatalist
Unfair favouring of one person or group at the expense of another—favouritism
One who champions the cause of women—feminist
The animals of a particular region—fauna
That which is productive—fertile
Skill in dealing with people or situations cleverly or tactfully—finesse
A person who easily becomes angry or quarrelsome—fire-eater
A person who causes social or political trouble—firebrand
Splitting of the nucleus of atom—fission
Plants that grow in a particular region—flora
Moving to and fro irregularly—fluctuating
Killing the child (foetus) in the womb—foeticide
One who belongs to another country—foreigner
That which is hard to be resisted—formidable
A person's strong point or special talent—forte
A short introduction to a book, printed at the beginning, and usually penned by a person other
than the author—foreword
Easily injured, broken or destroyed—fragile
Men who are joined together by common interests—fraternity
Crime of killing one's brother or sister—fratricide
Calm courage or self-control in the face of danger, difficulty, poverty etc.—fortitude
A quaintly fussy and old-fashioned person—fuddy-duddy
Careful about how one spends his money—frugal
To go from place to place usually in search of excitement or pleasure—gad
Large groups of stars in the sky—galaxy
A group of persons going about or working together, especially for criminal purposes—gang
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Science of human descent or person's pedigree—genealogy

International destruction of racial group—genocide
Science of the earth's crust, the interior and strata—geology
One who studies the internal structure of earth (crust)—geologist
That which kills germs—germicide
A trick, device, etc. adopted for the purpose of attracting attention or publicity—gimmick
Openness to discuss any issue—glasnost
One who eats too much—glutton
To eat something fast, noisily and greedily, leaving nothing behind—gobble
Unexpected piece of good luck—godsend
Animals that live in blocks/groups—gregarious
Force which pulls things towards earth's centre—gravitation
Room with appliances for physical exercises—gymnasium
A person who enjoys and is an expert in the choice of delicate food, etc.— gourmet
Full of, and using, pompous words—grandiloquent
Lover of food—gourmand
Planned on a large scale—grandiose
An inexperienced and easily deceived person—greenhorn
Quality of courage and endurance—grit
Ugly twisted expression on the face expressing pain, annoyance, etc. intended to cause
laughter—grimace
Complain or protest in a bad tempered way—grumble
Willing to believe anything or anyone—gullible
Sudden violent rush of wind—gust
Eat or drink something greedily—guzzle
Seeing things not actually present—hallucination
A long and loud, and often, scolding talk or speech—harangue
Somebody or something that foretells the coming of somebody or something—harbinger
Made tough by bitter experience—hard-bitten
Obstinately determined to do things in one's own way without listening to others—headstrong
Progress, especially in difficult circumstances—headway
Person with the legal right to receive property, etc. when the owner dies— heir
Having or needing very great strength—herculean
A number of animals, especially cattle, feeding or staying together—herd
Animal that feeds on plants—herbivore
Feeding on plants—herbivorous
Passes on from parent to child or from one generation to following generations—hereditary
Made up of different kinds—heterogeneous
Time of greatest success, prosperity power, etc.—heyday
System with grades of authority or status from the lowest to the highest—hierarchy
One who believes in the philosophy of life for pleasure—hedonist
Opinions opposed to established doctrines—heresy
A document that is handwritten by the author—holograph
Things said or done to show great respect—homage
Formed of parts that are all of the same type—homogeneous
Killing of one person by another or a person who kills another—homicide
Central point of activity or importance—hub
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Work for which no payment is taken—honorary

Person given to another as pledge—hostage
Holiday taken by a newly married couple—honeymoon
Science of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers in orchards-gardens—horticulture
Vehicle that rides on a cushion of air both on land and water— hovercraft
One who sympathises with and serves the people—humanitarian
Continuous loud noise, especially of people shouting hallo, hullo, etc.—hullabaloo
Noisy and energetic activity, especially of many people together—hurly-burly
Money paid to prevent something scandalous from becoming known publicly—hush-money
Bold cheeky girl or sexually immoral woman—hussy
Exaggerated statement that is made for special effect and is not intended to be taken literally—
hyperbole
Abnormal and unnecessary anxiety about one's health—hypochondria
Idea or suggestion that is based on known facts and is used as a basis for reasoning or further
investigation—hypothesis
Wild uncontrollable emotion or excitement or disturbance of the nervous system, with
emotional outbursts—hysteria
One who breaks the established traditions and images—iconoclast
Practice of forming and following ideals—idealism
Manner of thinking, ideas, characteristic of a person, group, etc. forming the basis of an
economic or political theory or system—ideology
A peculiarity of temperament—idiosyncrasy
Worship of idols and images—idolatry
An ignorant and stupid person—ignoramus
Something against law—illegal
Difficult or impossible to read—illegible
Not allowed by law—illicit
Not able to read or write—illiterate
Without reason or logic—illogical
To decorate with lights—illuminate
That can be imagined—imaginable
Existing only in the mind of imagination—imaginary
Ability to form mental images or pictures—imagination
Person with abnormally low intelligence or stupid or silly person—imbecile
To go at this very moment—immediately
Not sensible in behaviour or in controlling one's feeling— immeasurable
Likely to happen very soon—imminent
Too old to be remembered—immemorial
A foreigner who comes to stay in a country—immigrant
Not sensible in behaviour or in controlling one's feelings—immat
Unable to move or be moved—immobile
Not following accepted standards of morality—immoral
Living for ever—immortal
That cannot be moved—immovable
Power to resist infection—immunity
That cannot be changed—immutable

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That cannot be touched or felt physically or not easily understood grasped by the mind—
impalpable
Not favouring one person or thing more than another—impartial

Impossible to travel on or over—impassable

Difficult position or situation from which there is no way out—impasse
Showing no sign of feeling—impassive
Unable to deal calmly with somebody or easily irritated by somebody—impatient
Free from mistakes—impeccable
Person or thing that hinders or obstructs the progress or movement of something—
impediment
About to happen—impending
That cannot entered, passed through, etc. or impossible to understand or solve—impenetrable
That cannot be noticed or felt because it is so small, slight or gradual—imperceptible
That will not decay or that will never disappear—imperishable
Not allowed or permitted—impermissible
Not influenced by personal feeling—impersonal
Not easily troubled or worried—imperturbable
Not affected or influenced by something—impervious
Acting or done quickly and with little thought or care—impetuous
Thing that encourages a process to develop more quickly or force with which something moves—
impetus
That cannot be changed or satisfied—implacable
Unlikely to be true—implausible
Implied, but not expressed directly—implicit
Suggest something indirectly rather than state it directly—imply
Of which the effect or importance cannot be measured or estimated—imponderable
Persistent in making requests or demands—importunate
Action of deliberately deceiving by pretending to be somebody else—imposture
Impossible to put into practice—impracticable
Not correctly or clearly stated—imprecise
So strong and well-constructed that it cannot be entered or captured—impregnable
Have a favourable effect on somebody—impress
Easily influenced or affected—impressionable
Not likely to be true or to happen—improbable
Without preparation, rehearsal or thought in advance—impromptu
Indecent or unsuitable behaviour—impropriety
Not preparing for future needs—improvident
Not wise or discreet—imprudent
Very rude and disrespectful—impudent
Marked by sudden action that is undertaken without careful thought—impulsive
Exemption from punishment—impunity
Not sufficient or enough—inadequate
That cannot be allowed or admitted especially in a court of law—inadmissible
Done without thinking or not deliberately—inadvertent
That cannot be taken away or transferred to another—inalienable
That is not relevant, or cannot be applied—inapplicable
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Unable to express one's words, ideas or feelings clearly—inarticulate

Not loud enough to be heard—inaudible
Connected with opening ceremony—inaugural
Having signs which show that future success is unlikely or not of good omen—inauspicious
Existing in a person or animal from birth—inborn
Too large or great to be calculated—incalculable
Not able to do something—incapable
Make something unable to do something, incapacitate
Lack of ability and necessary strength to do something—incapacity
Not having or showing the necessary skills to do something successfully—incompetent
That cannot be understood—incomprehensible
Very difficult to believe—inconceivable
Strange because not in harmony with the surrounding features—incongruous
Not caring about the feelings of other people—inconsiderate
Not in harmony with something—inconsistent
That cannot be disputed or disagreed with—incontestable
So obvious and certain that it cannot be disputed or denied—incontrovertible
That cannot be corrected or improved—incorrigible
Impossible or difficult to believe—incredible
Not willing or able to believe—incredulous
Make somebody appear to be guilty of wrongdoing—incriminate
Not in accordance with dignity, good manners or good taste— indecorous
Improper or undignified behaviour—indecorum
Never giving up or stopping in spite of tiredness or difficulty—indefatigable
That cannot be defended, justified or excused—indefensible
That cannot be defined—indefinable
Not clearly defined or stated—indefinite
That cannot be rubbed out or removed—indelible
That cannot be avoided—inevitable
That cannot be destroyed—indestructible
That cannot be decided or settled—indeterminable
Having no interest in something or somebody—indifferent
Belonging naturally to a place—indigenous
Acting without careful judgment—indiscriminate
That cannot be disputed or denied—indisputable
That cannot be subdued or defeated—indomitable
Too great to be described in words—ineffable
That cannot be escaped from—ineluctable
That cannot be got rid of—ineradicable
That cannot be avoided—inescapable
That cannot be used up—inexhaustible
Continuing unstopably—inexorable
That cannot be escaped from or that cannot be separated—inextricable
That cannot be explained—inexplicable
Incapable of doing wrong—infallible
Crime of killing an infant or baby—infanticide
Disease liable to be transmitted by air/water—infectious
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Low or lower in rank, social position, importance, quality etc.— inferior

Person with no belief in religion—infidel
Without limits—infinite
That can be set on fire or easily excited or aroused—inflammable
That cannot be bent or turned or that cannot be changed, influenced etc.—inflexible
Person who gives information—informant
Person who informs, especially against a criminal or fugitive— informer
Not attempting to deceive or conceal—ingenuous
Existing as a natural or permanent feature or quality of somebody/ something—inherent/
Not giving a friendly or polite welcome to guests—inhospitable
Which cannot be copied or imitated—inimitable
Not appropriate or tactful—injudicious
Possessed from birth—innate
Too many to be counted—innumerable
That is harmless (person, plant, animal)—innocuous
Not working or taking effect—inoperative
Which is out of place or ill timed—inopportune
Beyond proper or natural limits—inordinate
Fond of inquiring into other people's affairs—inquisitive
Which cannot be satisfied—insatiable
Having little or no value, use, meaning or importance— insignificants
To suggest something unpleasantly and indirectly—insinuate/
Having almost no taste or flavour—insipid
That cannot be dissolved—insoluble
unable to pay debts—insolvent
inability to sleep—insomnia
State of being unconcerned in a light-hearted way—insouciance
Giving much useful information—instructive
Too extreme to be tolerated—insufferable
That cannot be overcome or won over—insuperable
That cannot be overcome—insurmountable
That cannot be clearly or definitely understood or grasped—intangible
Quality of being honest and morally upright—integrity
Power of the mind to reason and acquire knowledge—intellect
Power of learning, understanding and reasoning—intelligence
Class of people who can think independently—intelligentsia
That can be easily understood—intelligible
Showing lack of self control—intemperate
Concentrating all one's efforts on a specific area—intensive
Of or covering more than one area of study—interdisciplinary
Person taking part in a conversation or discussion—interlocutor
Person who is present in a place where he does not belong, interference in something which is
not his affair, etc.—interloper
Person who acts as a means of communication between two or more others intermediary
Going on too long, and usually, therefore, annoying or boring—interminable
Continually stopping and then starting again—intermittent
Of carried on by, or existing between two or more nations— international
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Belief in the need for friendly cooperation between nations—internationalism

Causing destruction to both sides—internecine
Not having made a will before death occurs—intestate
Too hard to be endured or borne—intolerable
Not easily controlled or dealt with—intractable
Unwilling to change one's views or to be cooperative—intransigent
Making of secret plans to do something bad—intrigue
Examine or be concerned with one's own thoughts, feelings and motives-- introspect
Person who is more interested in his own thoughts and feelings than in things outside himself—
introvert
Immediate apprehension by mind without reasoning—intuition
March forcibly into other country—invade
A person disabled by illness or declared null and void—invalid
An extremely abusive expression or speech—invective
Likely to cause resentment or unpopularity—invidious /
That cannot be conquered—invincible
Make somebody feel more lively and healthy—invigorate
That must not be violated or dishonoured—inviolable
That has not been or cannot be violated or harmed—inviolate
That cannot be seen—invisible
That cannot be wounded or injured—invulnerable
Which has no bearing upon the (discussion, subject)—irrelevant
That cannot be restored, reclaimed or saved—irredeemable
That cannot be terminated by repayment—irredeemable
That cannot be proved false—irrefutable
That cannot be corrected—irremediable
That cannot be altered or withdrawn—irrevocable
Travelling from place to place—itinerant
Plan for, or record of a journey—itinerary
Narrow stretch of land joining two bigger land regions—isthmus
Talk rapidly in what seems to be a confused manner—jabber
State of mind in which one is jealous, spiteful or suspicious jaundice
Long, sad and complaining story of troubles, misfortunes, etc.—jeremiad
Art of writing for newspapers and magazines—journalism /
Secret and mischievous or dishonest behaviour—juggery-pockery
Sound in judgment—judicious
Extent of the authority of someone—jurisdiction
Young person who is not yet adult—juvenile
Place (people or things) side by side or very close together to show contrast—juxtapose
Place where dogs are kept—kennel
Person who spoil the enjoyment of others especially in a party—killjoy
Be submissive, humble or respectful—knowtow
Honour and glory—kudos
Lacking vigour and determination—lackadaisical
Using few words—laconic
Piece of writing that attacks and ridicules a person, a book, etc.—lampoon
Non-interference by government in trade etc.—laissez-faire
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Person who has studied law—lawyer

Generous giving of money or gifts, especially to somebody of lower or status—largesse
Person or thing that is ridiculed—laughing-stock
Legal property left by the predecessor—legacy
That can be read easily—legible
Designed to cause death—lethal
Lack of proper seriousness or respect—levity
One who studies the science of languages—linguist
Quick and graceful in movement—lissom
Party to a law suit—litigant
Scene of events, operations, etc.—locale
Style of speech—locution
Very fond of talking—loquacious
Connected with the moon—lunar
Healthy, vigorous and full of vitality—lusty
Rich and sweet in taste or smell—luscious
To make anything appear larger—magnify
Using pompous or high-sounding words—magniloquent
Desire to harm others—malice
First or earliest (speech, voyage etc.)—maiden
Animals that suckle their young ones—mammals
Say unpleasant or untrue things above somebody—malign
A paper written by hand—manuscript
A public declaration of policy, principles, purposes, etc., by a political party, etc.—manifesto
Female head of a family or tribe—matriarch
Act of killing one's own mother—matricide
The state of being married—matrimony
Many and various—manifold
Negotiate between two to settle differences—mediate
A person who looks at the dark side of everything—melancholy
Something kept in memory of a person or event—memento
Tendency to tell lies, be deceptive and false—mendacity
List of dishes served in a restaurant—menu
One who can do anything for money—mercenary?
Coming and going with the seasons—migratory
One who hates mankind—misanthrope or misanthropist
A person who does not believe in the institution of marriage—misogynist
A person who hates women—misogynist
A hater of learning and knowledge—misologist
One who hoards money and lives miserably—miser
One who works with a spirit of service—missionary
Government by a king—monarchy
Practice of being married to one only—monogamy
A person who marries only one person—monogamist
Exclusive possession of trade in something—monopoly
Doctrine that there is only one God—monotheism
At the point of death—moribund
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Building where dead bodies are kept for sometime—mortuary

A person who tries to cheat people by clever talk—mountebank
Building where antiquities etc. are exhibited—museum
A drug that relieves pain and induces sleep—narcotic
Just punishment or retribution—nemesis
Coining a new word or a new interpretation—neologism
Undue favour shown to one's relative—nepotism
Taking neither side in a dispute but remaining impartial—neutral
One who suffers from nervous disorder—neurotic
A tribe of people wandering from place to place—nomads
A new entrant in a job or profession—novice
Central portion of an atom or anything—nucleus
Excessive and uncontrollable sexual desire in women—nymphomania
Notice of one's death—generally in newspaper—obituary
Building with apparatus to watch stars/planets—observatory
Outdated, or no longer in use or fashion—obsolete
That which is clear to eye or mind—obvious
A government or management by a few—oligarchy
Having boundless power—omnipotent
Having endless knowledge—omniscient
Present everywhere—omnipresent
One who eats everything—omnivorous
That which cannot be seen through—opaque
One who treats eye diseases—opthamolgist
One who looks at the bright side of things—optimist
Having or showing signs of great wealth—opulent
Curved path of a planet, satellite etc.—orbit
The branch of sociology dealing with birds—ornithology
To move like pendulum (to and fro)—oscillating
A holiday away rom home—outing
Looking or sounding odd, strange—outlandish
Win, or defeat somebody by being clever or more cunning than outwit
One who opposes use of force, war etc.—pacifist
One who treats children's diseases—paediatrician
A medicine supposed to cure all diseases—panacea
Person who is not a believer in any of the world's chief religio pagan
Continuous view of a landscape or events—panorama
A simple story designed to teach a moral lesson—parable
A person who is a perfect example of a quality—paragon
A statement that seems contradictory but is true—paradox
A person who has suddenly reached higher social or economic from a low status—parvenu
A person or plant who lives at the expense of others—parasite
A social outcast—pariah
Tendency to favour or have prejudice against someone—partiality
A document allowing a person to travel abroad—passport
Sole right to produce and market some invention—patent
Study of diseases—pathology
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A person who loves his country's freedom—patriot

Murder or murderer of father—patricide
A person who has no means of livelihood—pauper
One who shows off book-learning—pedant
One who makes journey on foot—pedestrian
Last but one—penultimate
Feeling of liveliness—pep
Gains, facilities over and above one's salary—perquisite
One who looks at the dark side of things—pessimist
A person who helps others through charitable work or donations or money or one who loves
mankind—philanthropist
A person indifferent to aesthetic values—philistine
The crime of literary theft—plagiarism
A writer who steals from the writings of another—plagiarist
Rule of the wealthy persons—plutocracy
A man who amuses himself in love making—philanderer
Study of facets and skulls—phrenology
Custom of having several husbands—polyandry
Custom of having several wives—polygamy
One who speaks/writes many languages—polyglot
To think intensely—ponder
Liked by the people—popular
That can be easily carried about—portable
Happening after one's death (child, award)—posthumous
Medical examination of a human body after death—post-mortem
That which is prematurely developed—precocious
Restructuring the old set up of society i.e., reform of the economic and political system—
perestroika
A person of extreme or exaggerated propriety in behaviour or speech—prude
A person whose welfare and career are looked after by an influential person over a long period—
protege
Arrives exactly at the time appointed—punctually
A fictitious name used by a writer or poet—pseudonym
One who treats the diseases of mind—psychiatrist
A device to detect direction/range etc. of aeroplanes, ships etc. throughradio-waves—radar
Amount to be paid for the release of a prisoner—ransom
Bringing back to one's mind the issue—recall
A short time ago—recently
Given and received in return—reciprocal
One who takes shelter from danger—refugee
A place where people often meet—rendezvous
To approve one's action after it is done—ratify
To restore lost job or privileges—reinstate
Strengthen by additional men or material—reinforce
Murder or murderer of a King—regicide
Excessive use of official procedure causing delay—redtapism
A witty and clever retort—repartee
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In the habit of saying little—reticent

Band of persons in attendance on somebody—retinue
To answer back quickly, wittily or angrily to a challenge or accusation—retort
Something at a great distance in time and place—remote
Using indecent or irreverent language or humour—ribald
III-behaved people of the lowest class—riff-
A long, wandering story or statement that does not mean much—rigmarole
Slightly indecent likely to offend against propriety—risque
Wanton destruction of machinery etc. by workers—sabotage
Violation of what is considered sacred or the act of violating the sanctity of church—sacrilege
A long description of an eventful experience—saga
One who takes pleasure in the cruel treatment of one's spouse—sadist
One who comes to the aid of others—samaritan
Pretending to be holy and pious—sanctimonious
Bitter ironically worked remark—sarcasm
A person who is made to bear the blame of others—scapegoat
Form of writing holding up a person or society to ridicule or showing the foolishness or
wickedness of an idea, customs, etc.—satire
Expressing scorn in a grimly humorous way—sardonic
A person who doubts the truth of religious beliefs or a person w habitually doubts all that is
generally accepted—sceptic
Careful to do nothing morally wrong—scrupulous
Using or fond of, abusive language—scurrilous
Young members of noble family—scion Psalm/ Carving figures in marble, stone, wood etc.—
sculpture
Having little depth—shallow
A large number of fish swimming together—shoal
III-tempered woman—shrew
A black shadow like picture on white background—silhouette
Things happening at the same time—simultaneous
An office with profit but no work/responsibility—sinecure
False report maliciously uttered to person's injury—slander
Trying to win favour by flattery, etc.—smarmy
Bits of information, news, etc.—snippets
A person who pays too much respect to social position or wealth—snob
A stay for a short time at a place—sojourn
Speaking aloud one's thoughts to oneself—soliloquy
A piece of music played or sung by one person—solo
Words to abuse others (or) Words, phrases etc. commonly used in talk but not suitable for good
writing—slang
Man who practises magic with the help of evil spirits—sorcerer
The act/habit of walking in sleep—somnambulism
A habitual drunkard—sot
Seeing right or true, but not really so—specious
Persons witnessing a thing (in opera)—spectators
One who spends extravagantly—spendthrift
An unmarried woman (generally old/matured)—spinster
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One who speaks for others (a party/industry etc.)—spokesman

Doing with voluntary impulse—spontaneous
Neat and smart in dress and appearance—spruce
A sagacious, far-sighted, selfless political leader skilled in the management of state affairs—
statesman
A party for men only or all male celebration held especially for a male about to marry—stag-
party
A party or social gathering for women only—hen-party
A place where horses are kept—stable
A sudden rush of frightened people/animal—stampede
To make incapable of reproducing by making organs ineffective or to make safe from germs by
boiling etc.—sterilize
One who is indifferent to pleasure and pain—stoic
The way in which an army is led to war by its general—strategy
Murder of oneself—suicide
Looking expensive and splendid—sumptuous
More than what is necessary—superfluous
Various small items not separately named—sundries
Not easy to detect or describe or organised in a clever and complex way—subtle
Greater speed than that of sound—supersonic
Something done merely to attract attention—stunt
Easily influenced by feelings—susceptible
A person who is very fond of luxury and comfort—sybarite
A person who tries to win favour by flattering the rich, or the powerful people—sycophant
Form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two statements—syllogism
A word with the same meaning as another in the same language—synonym
Rules for the arrangement of words into phrases and phrases into sentences—syntax
Dramatic situation suddenly brought about or silent and motionless group of persons arranged
to represent—tableau
That can be perceived by touch—tangible
Chatter or gossip idly—tattle
One who never takes strong drinks—teetotaler
A person who reports another's secrets, misdeeds, etc.—tell-tale
State of the mind as regards anger or calmness—temper
Made or done as a trial to see the effect—tentative
A private conversation between two persons—tete-a-tete
Saying the same thing more than once in different ways without making one's meaning clearer
or more forceful—tautology
One who believes in the existence of God—theist
A long angry speech or criticism or accusation—tirade
Small but interesting piece of news, gossip, etc.—titbit
Make oneself smart or attractive—titivate
Give a short nervous laugh—titter
Silly or trivial talk—tittle-tattle
State of nervous excitement or confusion—tizzy
To flatter in the hope of gain or advantage—toady
Easily controlled or guided—tractable
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That- lasts for a short time—transitory

Belief that soul passes from one body to the other after death—, transmigration
That through which one can see—transparent
Action, statement or gift that is meant to show one's respect or admiration—tribute
What happens after every three years—trie nnial
A child who runs away from school—truant
One who changes his party—turn-coat
Wealthy and powerful business-man or industrialist—tycoon
Present everywhere or in several places at the same time—ubiquitous
Beyond what is obvious or admitted—ulterior
Final warning given by a party or government to another—ultimatum
Absolutely clear (statement)—unambiguous
All being of one opinion—unanimous
Being the only one of its type—unique
Belonging to, affecting or done by, all people or things in the world, or in a particular group—
universal
That which did not happen before—unprecedented
Not easy to control or discipline—unruly
Giving freely and generously—unstinting
That cannot be defended—untenable
Keeping something in good condition and repair—upkeep
Person who has suddenly risen to wealth or high position—upstart
Excessively fond of one's wife—uxorious
A perfect ideal not possible to practise—utopia
To waver in decision or opinion etc.—vacillate
One who always feels himself ill—valetudinarian
Malicious destruction of beautiful artistic property—vandalism
A fault that may be forgiven—venial
One who abstains from meat—vegetarian
Reproducing or memorizing word for word—verbatim
Using or containing more words than are needed—verbose
Turning easily or readily from one subject, skill or occupation to another or one possessing several
talents—versatile
One having long experience in military, fight for freedom—veteran
One having great skill in art, especially in music—virtuoso
Changing quickly or easily from one mood or interest to another—volatile
Able to talk very quickly and easily—voluble
Very greedy in eating—voracious
Action of one's own free will—voluntary
Talk or write at great length, without saying anything important or sensible—waffle
Person who is fond of making jokes—wag
One who stands as a legal guardian to a minor—ward
Place where clothes are stored—wardrobe
Not easily controlled or guided—wayward
An unexpected piece of good fortune—windfall
A clever and amusing statement/speech—witticism
A simple-minded person from the rural area—yokel
A loud wailing cry of a cat or dog in distress—yowl
An eccentric person—zany
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Person who is extremely enthusiastic about something—zealot

Highest point (of power, prosperity, etc.)—zenith
Great enjoyment or excitement—zest
A line or path which turns right and left alternatively at sharp angles—zigzag
A dull lifeless person who seems to act without thinking, or not to be aware of what is happening
around him—zombie
Place where rare animals are kept for exhibition, study and breeding—zoo
Science of studying the structure, form and distribution of animals—zoology

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Comprehension Skills

Improving Comprehension

Develop
a broad
backgro
und
Know
the
Vocalize structur Identify
Monitor words e of the type
effective paragra of
ness phs reasonin
g
Use a
systemat Improvi Anticipa
ic ng
reading te and
Compre predict
techniqu hension
e
Look for
Building Highligh the
a good Create method
t, motivati
vocabula summar of
ry on and organiza
ise and interest
review tion
Pay
attentio
n to
supporti
ng cues

1. Develop a broad background – Broaden your background knowledge by reading

interesting events or topics.
2. Know the structure of paragraphs – Good writers construct paragraphs that have a
beginning, Middle and end. Often, the first sentence will give an overview that helps
provide a framework for adding details. Also, look for transitional words, phrases or
paragraphs that change the topic.
3. Identify the type of reasoning – Does the author use cause and effect reasoning,
hypothesis, model building, induction or deduction. system thinking?
4. Anticipate and predict—Really smart readers try to anticipate the author and predict
future ideas and questions. If you're right this reinforces your understanding. If you're
wrong, you make adjustments quicker.
5. Look for the method of organization—Is the material organized chronologically,
serially, logically, functionally, spatially or hierarchical?
6. Create motivation and interest—Preview material, ask questions, discuss ideas with
classmates. The stronger your interest the greater your comprehension.

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7. Pay attention to supporting cues—Study pictures, graphs and headings. Read the
first and last paragraphs in a chapter, or the first sentence in each section.
8. Highlight, summarise and review—Just reading a book or passage once is not
enough. To develop a deeper understanding you have to highlight, summarise and
review important ideas.
9. Building a good vocabulary—For most educated people, this is a lifetime project. The
best way to improve your vocabulary is to use a dictionary regularly. Concentrate on
roots, prefixes and endings.
10. Use a systematic reading technique—Develop a systematic reading style like the
SQR3 method and make adjustments to it, depending on priorities and purpose.
11. Monitor effectiveness—Good readers monitor their attention, concentration and
effectiveness. They quickly recognize if they've missed an idea and back up to re-read it.
12. Vocalize words—You vocalise the reading words although it is faster to form words in
your mind (through silent reading) than on your lips or throat (through loud reading).
Eye motion is also important. Frequent backtracking slows you down considerably.

Reading Comprehension strategies

The following strategies support reading comprehension:

Reading Comprehension strategies

Comprehension monitoring and

summarization
Graphic and semantic organizers

Question answering

Question generation

Cooperative learning

Instructional procedures

1. Comprehension monitoring and summarization.—In this strategy, learners are

taught to:
a. stop at regular intervals while reading a text;
b. determine whether or not they understand the text;
c. Summaries the main idea of each part of the text for example, answering
questions.
2. Graphic and semantic organizers.—In this strategy, learners are taught to :
a. read the text;
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b. use organizational aids to map out the content of the text;

c. Illustrate visually the structure of the text's meaning in a story map.
3. Question answering.—In this strategy, learners are taught to :
a. read the text;
b. answer questions about the text, posed by the teacher;
c. Receive immediate feedback on their answer for example, multiple choice
questions.
4. Question generation.—In this strategy, learners are taught to :
a. Think about the topic of the text;
b. activate the prior knowledge;
c. generate questions themselves prior to reading or while reading;
d. respond to the questions as they read.
5. Cooperative learning.—In this strategy, learners are taught to :
a. interact with the peers about written texts;
b. implement the other comprehension strategies with a peer or group of peers;
c. discuss the text.
6. Instructional procedures.—The following procedures should be used by the
instructor teaching reading comprehension strategies:
a. The learner and the instructor make a commitment to instruction.
b. The instructor describes the reading comprehension strategy and discusses its
benefits.
c. The instructor models or demonstrates the strategy.
d. The instructor provides scaffolding support or prompting to help the learner
implement the strategy successfully.
e. The instructor gradually fades this support as the learner develops competence.
f. The learner has repeated opportunities for independent practice using the
strategy.
g. The instructor monitors the learner's performance and provides appropriate
feedback.
h. The instructor and learner make a plan to ensure generalization and continued
use of the strategy.

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COMMON LOGICAL FALLACIES

Common Logical fallacies

Fallacies are statements that might sound reasonable or sufficiently true but are actually
flawed or dishonest. They are arguments which provide poor reasoning in support of its
conclusion. They are kinds of errors in reasoning. Fallacies differ from other bad
arguments; that many people find them psychologically persuasive. That is, people will
mistakenly take a fallacious argument to provide good reasons to believe its conclusion.
Fallacies are most common when people get overly emotional about an issue. The thing
about fallacies is that in the heat of the moment they can seem persuasive, but they are
errors in reasoning and they do not reliably lead to the truth. Fallacies are often concerned
with causality, which is not strictly addressed by logic. They may also involve implicit (or
unstated) assumptions.

Fallacies often exploit emotional triggers in the listener or interlocutor. For example, an
argument may appeal to patriotism or family or may exploit an intellectual weakness of the
listener. Fallacious arguments may also take advantage of social relationships between
people. However, fallacies can often seem obviously bad.

Fallacious can be categorized in a number of ways. For example formal fallacies rely on an
incorrect logical step, informal fallacies do not rely on incorrect logical deduction. Fallacies
may be categorised as fallacies of relevance, component fallacies, fallacies of ambiguity and
fallacies of omission. Fallacies of relevance appeal to evidence or examples that are not
relevant to the argument at hand. Component fallacies are errors in inductive and
deductive reasoning or in syllogistic terms that fail to overlap. Fallacies of ambiguity occur
with ambiguous words or phrases, the meanings of which shift and change in the course of
discussion. Such more or less subtle changes can render arguments fallacious. Fallacies of
omission occur because the logician leaves out necessary material in an argument or
misdirects others from missing information.

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Logical fallacies can also be categorized as given below:

Logical fallacies can also be categorized as given below

Ad hominem fallacy

Fallacy of false cause

Straw man fallacy

Fallacy of appeal to ignorance

Fallacy of appeal to emotion

Fallacy of slippery slope

Fallacy of equivocation

Fallacy of appeal to popularity

Fallacy of appeal to tradition

1. Ad hominem fallacy.—Ad hominem fallacy is an argument that is directed at the

person defending the argument rather than the argument itself and thus fails to address
what is at issue.
2. Fallacy of false cause.—False cause fallacy arises due to confusion of correlation with
its cause. Two events are correlated if whenever one occurs the other occurs. The two
events are correlated, but not causally related.
3. Straw man fallacy.—A straw man fallacy occurs when : (1) the argument
misrepresents their opponents view; (2) shows that the misrepresentation is mistaken;
and then (3) concludes that their opponent's view is mistaken.
4. Fallacy of appeal to ignorance.—The fallacy of appeal to ignorance occurs when
someone uses an opponent's inability to disprove a claim as evidence of that claims being
true or false (or, acceptable or unacceptable).
5. Fallacy of appeal to emotion.—Fallacy of appeal to emotion occurs when someone
tries to manipulate another person's emotions (e.g., sympathy, pity, anger, fear etc.) in
order to get them to accept or reject an argument or view.
6. Fallacy of slippery slope.—The slippery slope fallacy occurs when someone claims
that an apparently harmless action is likely to result in a chain reaction of events (the

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'slippery slope') leading up to a harmful consequence, when, in fact, the chain reaction of
events is very unlikely to occur.
7. Fallacy of equivocation.—A fallacy of equivocation occurs when the persuasive force
of an argument depends on the shifting meaning of an ambiguous opression. (An
ambiguous expression is a word or phrase that has more than one distinct meaning in
the context in which it is used).
8. Fallacy of appeal to popularity.—The fallacy of appeal to popularity occurs when
people infer that something is good or true because it is popular.
9. Fallacy of appeal to tradition.—The fallacy of appeal to tradition occurs when
someone argues that something is good or correct because it is traditional though it is
not good or right as per the existing conditions.

Common Logical Fallacies can broadly be classified as : (i) material fallacies; and (ii) verbal
fallacies

Material Fallacies
Based on arguments of Aristotle, Organon (Sophistici elenchi), modern logicians classify the
material fallacies as given below:

Material Fallacies

Fallacy of accident: a generalization that disregards

exceptions
Converse fallacy of accident (fallacy of reverse accident)

Fallacy irrelevant conclusion (fallacy of ignorance)

Fallacy of affirming the consequence

Fallacy of denying the antecedent

Fallacy of begging the question (fallacy of circulus)

Fallacy of false cause or non-sequitur

Fallacy of many questions

Fallacy of straw man

1. Fallacy of accident: a generalization that disregards exceptions:

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Example: Cutting people is a crime.

Surgeons cut people.
Therefore, surgeons are criminals.
Problem: Cutting people is only sometimes a crime.
2. Converse fallacy of accident (fallacy of reverse accident): argues from a special
case to a general rule :
Example: Every swan I have seen is white.
So, all swans are white.
Problem: What one has been is a subset of the entire set. One cannot have seen all swans.
3. Fallacy irrelevant conclusion (fallacy of ignorance): diverts attention away from
a fact in dispute rather than address it directly.
Example: Kim Jong II believes that war is justifiable.
Therefore, war is justifiable.
Problem: Kim Jong II can be wrong (may be due to his feeling or ignorance).
4. Fallacy of affirming the consequence: draws a conclusion from premises that do
not support that conclusions by assuming A implies B on the basis that B implies A.
Example: If a person runs barefoot, then his feet hurt
Socrates' feet hurt.
Therefore, Socrates ran barefoot.
Problem: Other things, such as tight sandals, can result in sore feet.
5. Fallacy of denying the antecedent: draws a conclusion from premises that do not
support that conclusion by assuming 'Not A' implies 'Not B' on the basis that 'A' implies
13'.
Example: If it is raining out, it must be cloudy.
It is not raining out.
Therefore, it is not cloudy.
Problem: There does not have to be rain to have clouds.
6. Fallacy of begging the question (fallacy of circulus): demonstrates a conclusion
by means of premises that assume that conclusion.
Example: Ram must be telling the truth, because I have heard him saying the same
thing many times before.
Problem: Ram may be consistent in what he says, but he may have been lying the whole
time.
7. Fallacy of false cause or non-sequitur: incorrectly assumes one thing is the cause
of another.
Example: Our nation will prevail because God is great.
Problem: There is no necessary cause and effect between God's greatness and a nation
prevailing. Simply because God can be considered great does not mean a nation will
prevail.
8. Fallacy of many questions: groups more than one question in the form of a single
question.
Example: Is it true that you no longer beat your wife?
Problem: A yes or no answer will still be an admission of guilt to beating your wife at
some point of time.
9. Fallacy of straw man: A straw man argument is an informal fallacy based on
misrepresentation of an opponent's position.
Example: A: We should have universal health-care.
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B: No, because only communists believe in universal health care and communist
countries are typically poor, which we don't want to become.
Problem: B has falsely identified A as a communist and then refuted communism.
Consider the following example also. Consider the following claim by Rush Limbaugh:

"I'm a very controversial figure to the animal rights movement. They no doubt view me with
some measure of hostility because I am constantly challenging their fundamental premise that
animals are superior to human beings."

If this is followed with the argument that animals are not superior to human beings, and thus
the animal rights movement is misguided, then we have an example of a straw man fallacy. The
straw man is the misrepresentation of animal rights activists as holding the view that animals
are superior to human being: virtually no animal rights activists hold this view.

VERBAL FALLACIES
Verbal fallacies use some property of language to mislead, for
example, ambiguity or verbosity of words. They are generally
classified as follows:

1. Fallacy of equivocation.—A fallacy of equivocation occurs when the persuasive

force of an argument depends on the shifting meaning of an ambiguous
expression. It equates two incompatible terms or claims. Equivocation consists in
employing the same word in two or more senses e.g., in a syllogism, the middle
term being used in one sense in the major and another in the minor premise, so
that in fact there are four not three terms.
Example 1: Tom argues:
Joe is a good tennis player.
Therefore, Joe is 'good' (i.e., a 'morally' good person).
Problem: The word 'good' has different meanings, which is to say that it is an
ambiguous word. In the premise, Tom says that Joe is good at some particular
activity, in this case tennis. In the conclusion, Tom states that Joe is a morally
good person. These are clearly two different senses of the word 'good'. The premise
might be true but the conclusion can still be false. Joe might be the best tennis
player in the world but a rotten person morally. However, nothing can be inferred
from the premise. Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy
is called the fallacy of equivocation.
Example 2: There are laws of nature:
Laws must be made by a lawgiver
Therefore, a cosmic lawgiver (God) exists.
Here, the ambiguous expression is 'laws'. On the one hand, there are laws which
form part of a legal system, and these laws require a lawgiver (a person or group of
persons with the authority to create and establish government laws). On the other
hand, we have what we call laws of nature, which are simply observed regularities
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2. Connotation fallacy.—Connotation fallacies occur when a, dysphemistic word is

substituted for the speaker's actual quote and used to discredit the argument. It is a
form of attribution fallacy.

3. Fallacy of amphibology.—The fallacy of amphibology results from the ambiguity of

grammatical structure. Example: The position of the adverb, 'only' in the sentence
starting with "He only said that" results in a sentence in which it is uncertain as to
which of the other three words the speaker is intending to modify with the adverb.

4. Fallacy of composition "From Each to All".—Arguing from some property of

constituent parts, to the conclusion that the composition item has that property. This
can be acceptable (i.e., not a fallacy) with certain arguments such as spatial
arguments (e.g., "all the parts of the car are in the garage, therefore the car is in the
garage").
Example: All the band members (constituent parts) are highly skilled. Therefore, the
band (composite item) is highly skilled.
Problem: The band members may be skilled musicians, but not in the same styles of
music.

5. Fallacy of division.—The fallacy of division is the converse of `fallacy of

composition' and argues from a property of the whole to each constituent part.
Example: The University (the whole) is 200 years old. Therefore, all the staff (each
part) are 200 years old.
Problem: Each and every person currently on staff is younger than 200 years. The
university continues to exist even when, one by one, each and every person on the
original staff leaves and is replaced by a younger person.

6. Fallacy of proof by verbosity (argumentum verbosium).—Proof of verbosity

is a rhetorical technique that tries to persuade by overwhelming those considering an
argument with such a volume of material that the argument sounds plausible,
superficially appears to be well researched, and it is so laborious to untangle and
check supporting facts that the argument might be allowed to slide by unchallenged.

7. Fallacy of accent.—Accent occurs in speaking and consists of emphasizing the

wrong word in a sentence.
Example: He is a fairly good pianist.
According to the emphasis on the words, it may imply praise of a beginner's progress,
or an expert's deprecation of a popular hero, or it may imply that the person in
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8. Fallacy of figure of speech.—The confusion between the metaphorical and

ordinary uses of a word or phrase.
Example: The sailor was at home on the sea.
Problem: The expression 'to be at home' does not literally mean that one's domicile
is in that location.

9. Fallacy of misplaced concretion.—Fallacy of misplaced concretion is identified

by White head in his discussion of metaphysics. It refers to the ratification of concepts
which exist in discourse.

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LEGAL DRAFTING

Drafting may be defined as the synthesis of law and fact in a language form [Stanley
Robinson: Drafting Its Application to Conveyancing and Commercial Documents
(1980); (Butterworths); Chapter 1, p.3].
This is the essence of the process of drafting. All three characteristics rank equally in
importance. In other words, legal drafting is the crystallization and expression in
definitive form of a legal right, privilege, function, duty, or status. It is the
development and preparation of legal instruments such as constitutions, statutes,
regulations, ordinances, contracts, wills, conveyances, indentures, trusts and leases,
etc. The process of drafting operates in two planes: the conceptual and the verbal.
Besides seeking the right words, the draftsman seeks the right concepts. Drafting,
therefore, is first thinking and second composing. Drafting, in legal sense, means an
act of preparing the legal documents like agreements, contracts, deeds etc.
A proper understanding of drafting cannot be realised unless the nexus between the
law, the facts, and the language is fully understood and accepted. Drafting of legal
documents requires, as a pre-requisite, the skills of a draftsman, the knowledge of
facts and law so as to put facts in a systematised sequence to give a correct
presentation of legal status, privileges, rights and duties of the parties, and obligations
arising out of mutual understanding or prevalent customs or usages or social norms or
business conventions, as the case may be, terms and conditions, breaches and remedies
etc. in a self-contained and self-explanatory form without any patent or latent
ambiguity or doubtful connotation. To collect, consolidate and co-ordinate the above
facts in the form of a document, it requires serious thinking followed by prompt action
to reduce the available information into writing with a legal meaning, open for judicial
interpretation to derive the same sense and intentions of the parties with which and for
which it has been prepared, adopted and signed.

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Pleadings include plaints and written statements.

Plaint – Plaint is a statement is claim in which the plaintiff sets out his cause a action with
all necessary particulars. It should contain the following particulars.
1. The name of the Court in which the suit is brought;
2. The name, description and place or residence of the plaintiff;
3. The name, description and place or residence of the defendant, so far as they can be
ascertained;
4. Where the plaintiff or the defendant is a minor or a person of unsound mind, a
statement to that effect;
5. The facts constituting the cause of action and when it arose
6. The facts showing that the Court has jurisdiction;
7. The relief which the plaintiff claims
8. Where the plaintiff has allowed a set-off or relinquished a portion of his claim, the
amount allowed or relinquished;
9. A statement of the value of the subject-matter of the suit for the purposes of
jurisdiction and of court-fee so far as the case admits;
10. The plaint shall show that the defendant is or claims to be interested in the subject
matter and that he is liable to be called upon to answer the plaintiff’s demand;
11. Where the suit is instituted after expiration of the period prescribed by the law of
limitation, the plaint shall show the ground upon which exemption from such law is
claimed.
12. Every plaint shall state specifically the relief which the plaintiff claims either simply
or in the alternative; and it shall not be necessary to ask for general or other relief
which may always be given as the court may think just to the same extent as if it had
been asked for;
13. Where the plaintiff seeks relief in respect of several distinct claims or cause of action
founded upon separate and distinct grounds, they shall be stated, as far as may be,
separately and distinctly.

Framing of Suit
Suit is a case in a law-court and a prosecution of a claim. The following principles should be
followed in framing a suit.
1. Every suit shall be framed as to afford ground for final decision upon the subject in dispute
and to prevent further litigation concerning them.
2. Every suit shall include the whole of the claim which the plaintiff is entitled to make in
respect of the cause of action.
3. A plaintiff may unite in the same suit several causes of action against the same defendant
or the same defendants jointly.
4. No cause of action shall, unless with the leave of the court, be joined with a suit for the
recovery of immovable property except –
a. Claims for mesne profits, or arrears of rent in respect of the property claimed or any
part thereof.
b. Claims for damages for breach of any contract under which the property or any part
thereof is held; and
c. Claims in which the relief sought is based on the same cause of action.
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P a g eby or against an executor, administrator or heir, as such shall be joined with claims by or
against him personally.
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Grammar

Cohesive Devices, Combination of sentences

Thus, pleadings are statements in writing drawn up and field by each party to a case, stating what
his contentions will be at the trial and giving all such details as his opponent needs to know in
order to prepare his case in answer.

The whole object of pleadings is to ascertain with precision the points on which the parties agree
and those on which they differ and this they bring the parties to a definite issue, so that the parties
may be saved from the expense and trouble of calling evidence which may prove unnecessary, and
further that neither party may be taken by surprise.

The following are the requisites if a planning:

1. Every pleading must state facts and not law.
2. It must state all the material facts and material facts only.
3. It must state only the facts on which the party pleading relies, and not het evidence
by which they are to be proved.
4. It must state such facts concisely, but with precision and certainty.

While drafting the pleading, it is good to remember the following points:

1. Avoid unnecessary facts
2. Avoid pronouns unless the antecedent be very close.
3. Refer to the plaintiff or the defendant throughout the pleading in the same way.
4. Avoid ‘ifs’ and ‘buts’.
5. Avoid passive voice. AS far as possible use sentence in active voice.
6. Avoid complex sentences – use short and simple sentences.
7. Avoid repetition
8. All unnecessary adverbs and adjectives and argumentative pleas must be
avoided.
9. The legal effect of a document can be stated shortly without repeating its words.

The language used in the pleadings should be simple but without giving rise to emotion
132 or
| Psentiment.
age The facts asserted must be definitely stated.
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SENTENCES STRUCTURES AND VERB PATTERNS

Sentence Structures
A group of words, which makes complete, is called a sentence.

A Sentences consists of two sections

(i) Subject (ii) Predicate

The Subject of a sentence may have

two parts:

The subject; and The extension of the subject

The part which names by person or thing we are speaking about is called the subject of the sentence.

The predicate is the part which tells something about the subject. The predicate
section of the sentence may have five parts:

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Verb

adverbial Complement
subordination

Predicate

Extension to
Object
the object

The sentence structure consists of these seven parts at a maximum. It is not compulsory for a
sentence to possess all these seven parts. The subject and the predicate are important.

Sentences may be

Statements or declarative or assertive (affirmative or negative)

Interrogative (questions)

Imperative (Commands)

Exclamatory (Expressing surprise, pain etc.)

Optative (desires or wishes or greetings)

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Verb Patterns
The verb patterns supply information concerning syntax. They enable the learner to use verbs in the
ways that are in accordance with correct usage. If the learner spends a few hours studying these verb
patterns, he will be able to avoid numerous errors. The verb patterns may be of transitive and
intransitive patterns. The following are some verb patterns of different sentence structures along
with some subject patterns.

Subject Patterns
SP 1. Subject (Noun/Pronoun) + Predicate
1. Birds fly.
A peacock dances.
It dances.
It can run.
He sings a song.
We live in a village.

SP 2. Subject Predicate
Determiner + Adjective + Noun
1. The tall man is the leader.
2. Some mischievous boys raised slogans.
3. The new books have been displayed.
4. The little courtesies cost nothing.

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SP 3. Subject Predicate
Determiner + Adjective + Noun + Adjectival Phrase + Adjective Clause
1. The new chair of ebonywood which I has been
purchased at stolen.
an auction
2. The little man at the gate which is at the is an
honest
back of the building watchman
3. Those tall boys in blue shirts who were fined have impro-
last week ved a lot.
4. These old womenwith grey hair who were once look very
very beautiful sad
5. The green house opposite the which is near is theirs
milk booth to our house

SP 4. Subject (gerund) Predicate is a pleasure.

1. Driving is a pleasure
2. Writing letters is her hobby
3. Swimming is a good exercise
4. Smoking is injurious to health
5. Reading makes a man wise

SP 5. Subject (infinitive) Predicate

1. To drive fast is dangerous
2. To swim in a pool is a hobby of youngsters
3. To shoot birds is a forbidden in this area
4. To pluck flowers is not a good habit
5. To err is human

Sp 6. Subject (Clause) Predicate

1. What he says
2. Where the police have take him
3. That we should go to the
World Book Fair
4. How she solved all the problem
5. Why he quarrels
cannot be true.
is not known.
was proposed by our Principal.
is still a mystery to us.
is not known to anyone.

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SP 7. There + Verb Subject (phrase)

1. There is a pot of tea on the table.
2. There is a girl on the stage.
3. There were many people at the party.
4. There have been many such cases.
5. There are a number of old books on my table.

SP 8. It + Verb Subject (clause)

1. It doesn't matter if you don't get tickets for this show.
2. It seems (that) she is not well.
3. Does it matter what she says about us?
4. It would seem (that) your mother cannot afford to buy it.
5. It can hold over three hundred passengers.

Verb Patterns
The following are the main Verb Patterns given by A.S. Hornby
VP 1. Subject + Verb + Direct Object
He kicks the ball.
They looted the bank.
I have bought a car.
We must wash ourselves.
You should help the poor.

VP2 Subject + Verb + to (not) to + Infinitive etc.

He tried to escape.
They feared to speak in public.
I want to see him.
We appeal to save him.
We decided not to go there.
You have forgotten to write.

VP 3 Subject + Verb + Direct Object + (Noun/Pronoun) + to/not to + infinitive

He likes his wife to dress well.
They want me to be early.
I asked him not to go.
We want you to stand at once.
Who
137 | P a g e taught you to swim?
You helped me to carry the box.
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VP 4. Subject + Verb + Direct Object (Noun/Pronoun) + (to he) + Complement

He called her a fool.
They chose Ram (to be) Secretary.
I believe him (to be) honest.
We consider the plan (to be) unwise.
You supposed him (to be) patriot.

VP 5. Subject + Verb + Direct Object (Noun/Pronoun) + Infinitive etc.

He made Sits behave well.
They heard her sing.
I saw him go out.
We felt the house shake.
You watch them do it.

VP 6. Subject + Verb + Noun/Pronoun Present Participle

He smelt something burning.
They found the boy walking down the street.
I heard him giving orders.
We caught her opening your letter.
You kept the fire burning.

VP 7. Subject + Verb + Direct Object (Noun/Pronoun) + Complement (Adjective)

He pushed the door open.
They set the prisoners free.
I found the box empty.
We painted the door green.
You made him famous.

VP 8. Subject + Verb + Object + Noun

He called them cowards.
They made him king.
I named their son Rahul.
We elected him President.
You told her stories.

VP 9. Subject + Verb + Object (Noun/Pronoun) + Past participle

He found the house deserted.
They wanted this letter typed.
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I had my suit cleaned.
We felt ourselves lifted up.
You should get the tooth pulled out.
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VP 10. Subject + Verb + Object (Noun/Pronoun) + Adverb, Verb Phrase etc.

He employed her as a cook.
They treat their sister as if she were only a servant.
I took my hat off.
We elected him as our secretary
You take the medicine in order to get well

VP 11. Subject + Verb + (that) -clause (Object of the Verb)

He explained (that) nothing could be done.
They suggested (that) we should go to the port
I expect (that) it will rain.
We hoped (that) you would succeed.
You admitted (that) you had written the letter.

VP 12. Subject + Verb + Noun/Pronoun (that) clause

He told me (that) he was coming on Sunday.
They assured me (that) they are ready to help.
I told him (that) he was mistaken.
We satisfied ourselves (that) the plan would work.
You promised us (that) he would be here at five.

VP 13. Subject + Verb + Conjunctive (interrogative) + to + Infinitive

He knows what to do
They know how to escape
I don't know how to do it
We decided where to go
You remember how to solve it?

VP 14. Subject + Verb + Direct Object (Noun/Pronoun) + Conjunction

(interrogative) + to—infinitive
He has taught me how to play chess.
They told him when to start.
I shall show you how to open it
We asked him where to get tickets.
You informed us what to do.

VP 15. Subject + Verb + Conjunction (interrogative) + Clause

He showed how annoyed he was.
They
139 | P a g e know whose it is.
I can't imagine why he has behaved like that.
We wonder whether he will come.
You find out when the train is due.
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VP 16 Subject + Verb + Noun/Pronoun Conjunctive (Interrogative) clause

He asked me when you had gone
They told me what I should do.
I showed them how they should do it.
We asked him where he put it.
You informed us when the train leaves.

VP 17. Subject .+ Verb + Gerund, etc.

He began singing.
They went on talking.
I hate borrowing money.
We enjoy playing cricket.
You must n't miss seeing him.

VP 18. Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Preposition + Prepositional Object

He sent circulars to all officers.
They told the news to everybody they met.
I don't lend my book to anybody.
We showed the pictures to our teachers.
You owe ten rupees to my tailor.
The birds collect food for their young one.

VP 19. Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object

He gave us a pen.
They taught him a lesson.
I told him stories.
We lend them our car.
You forgive us our mistakes.

VP 20. Subject + Verb + Subject Complement

He walked (for) five miles.
They look sad.
I kept quiet.
We waited (for) two hours.
You stay (for) this night.

VP 21. Subject + Verb

He was singing.
They are dancing.
I 140 | P a g e have studied.
We dressed.
You may go.
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VP 22. Subject + Verb + Predicate (Adjective/Adjective Phrase/Noun/ Pronoun)

He is a man.
They are boys.
I became lazy.
We are students.
You are a player.

VP 23. Subject Verb + Adverbial Adjunct

He will come as soon as he is ready.
They must turn back.
I ran fast.
We did not go anywhere.
You stand up.

VP 24. Subject + Verb Preposition + Prepositional. Object

He agreed to our proposal.
They called on me.
I rely on your discretion.
We will arrange for transport.
You must go to the doctor.

VP 25. Subject + Verb + to infinitive, etc.

He lived to be ninety.
They stopped to have a rest.
I came to buy a book.
We are waiting to hear your opinion.
You have to stand her for a long time.

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MODALS

Models function like auxiliary verbs and they add meaning to the main verb. We use the
modal verbs can and could in many different ways. In speech, for the negative, we generally
use the contracted form (can’t couldn’t) but, if we are stressing the negativity, we separate
the words and say cannot or could not.
I could not believe how rude she was!
The children cannot help making a lot of mess.

A. Expressing skill and ability

We use can or can’t to say if someone is able to do something or not in the
present, on the basis of physical or mental ability, or skill or training.
I can’t reach the top shelf of the book case.
Can you read the small print on that notice over there?
Komal can play the piano pretty well.
Tom can never remember my phone number!

We use could or couldn’t to talk about skill or ability in the past.

When Renu was six she could already dance quite well.
My aunt Parveen couldn’t speak English when she first arrived in
Liverpool.
Could you always whistle or is it something you learned as an adult?

B. Expressing Possibility
We use can and can’t to talk about something which is or is not possible for
practical reason. We often use you with can or can’t to talk about something
which is possible for everyone.
High heels can seriously damage your feet.
You can buy venetian glass in the gift department.
You can’t get any phone signal in the Metro.
We use could and couldn’t for possibility in the past
The Wall was so high the dog couldn’t jump over.
In the 1950’s you could take the bus from Jodhpur to Ajmer for Rs. 10
We also use could have + past participle to talk about something that might
have happened in the past but didn’t for some reason.
The bay mare could have won the last race.
Neha could have become a teacher, but she preferred working in the shop.
We also use may and might for possibility, though this does not necessarily
depend on any practical reason.
You might win the lottery!
We may go to Europe next summer.
The negative is used in the same way, indicating a lack of knowledge of the
truth.
She might not have won the trophy, I don’t know
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We may not be able to afford to buy that new villa.
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C. Showing deduction and speculation

When we want to show that something is speculation or deduction on the
basis of information, but is not certain, we use could or couldn’t. We also use
might and may in this way.
The letter I sent could arrive tomorrow morning.
= it may arrive...
He could be Farukh's brother. They look quite similar. = he might be
Farukh's brother….
The man you spoke to on the phone could have been Mr Atwal.

D. For Permission
We use can to talk about having or giving permission, or being permitted to do
somet present or generally.
You can park behind the tea shop but you can't park in the driveway.
We use could and may when we want to ask permission to do something, in a
polite way.
Could I possibly borrow your pencil for a moment?
Could we leave a bit earlier today?
We also use may in this way, but this is still more formal and becoming less
common in normal conversation. We only use may in modern conversation with
the first person singular, I. It is used to ask for permission to do or have
something.
May I speak to you for a moment?
May I help myself to some more salad?
We can use could to talk about permission in the past, but we often use a phrase
such as wasn't allowed to, or weren't permitted to to make it clear we are not
talking about ability or possibility. We do not use mayor might in the past for
permission.
We weren't allowed to take the dog into the cafe. = We couldn't take the dog
in.
To talk about the future, we use will/won't be allowed to or be permitted to.
I am afraid you won't be permitted to take your drinks into the auditorium,
but you will be allowed to drink them in the lobby.
E. For offering and requesting
We use both can and could to offer something to someone. Could is more formal.
Can I assist you with your bags, madam?
Can I buy you an ice cream?
Could I offer you a drink?
Could we do something to help?
To ask for something, we use can and could in a similar way.
Can I have some more milk, please? Can you pass me the sugar too?
Could I trouble you for some more tea? Could someone bring it to my room?
Could you call me a taxi?
We use couldn't to offer or request in a cautious or polite way, with the tag
question,
143 | P a g ecould I, could you, etc.
My daughter couldn't share your programme, could she?
I couldn't have another slice of melon, could I?
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F. Expressing uncertainty
We use may, might, can and could in conditional sentences. We use can in the
consequence clause of the particular (first) conditional to mean will be able to.
If the traffic isn't too bad, we can be there in half an hour.
Could in the consequence clause of the imaginary (second) conditional means
would be able to.
If you left your bicycle here, you could pick it up after the lecture.
In the condition clause of the imaginary conditional, it means was/were able to.
If I could swim better, I would enjoy sailing more.
We use may and might in the consequence clause to mean it is possible, but not
certain.
Manisha may pass her Geography exam, if she revises the night before.
If you help me I might be able to finish in time.
We also use could Ile might or may to say that something is possible so, or
possibly will be so.
This could be the best restaurant in Germany.
This car could last you a lifetime.

G. Expressing surprise
If we want to express strong surprise or disbelief, we use can't to talk about the
present.
But Wahab is not interested—you can't possibly wait for him?
If we want to express surprise that something happened, we use can't have.
You can't have lost the front door key again!
The goat can't actually have eaten all the roses!
To say that we can hardly believe someone or something was capable of
something that hap in the past, we use couldn't have.
She couldn't have said that to him, surely!
Satish couldn't possibly have got eighty-five percent in the final exam!

H. For general truths

When we want to say that something is often the case, we use can + infinitive.
Teachers can be really strict sometimes. = They sometimes are very strict.
The journey can take up to half an hour during the rush hour.
When we are talking about the past, we use could.
The winters in that house over the hill could be very cold indeed. = they
sometimes were

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MORE MODALS
Modal verbs are those which add a focus to the main verb. They are invariable—they only have
one dorm. They are used for expressing the following functions.

A. Expressing necessity
When we talk about something which is necessary, we can use must, have to, have got to
or need to, depending on the context. They are often interchangeable in the positive form,
but sometimes one is preferable to another. There are much more substantial differences
in the use of the negative forms of these verbs.
They must reach the airport by five in the morning.
We need to get the car repaired before the trip.
I have to go the dentist this weekend.

C. For Obligation
If we are talking about being obliged to do something by an external power, such as the
law or a set of rules in an organisation, then we usually use must or have to/have got to.
Must is a little more formal, and have got to is the most informal.
Visitors must sign in at the front desk when they arrive.
You always have to turn off your computer before you leave.
I have got to buy Shilpa a birthday card on the way home.
If we want to talk about something being necessary for a particular purpose, we usually
use need to.
If you want to use the car park you need to get a permit from reception.
I really need to get some new shoes. These ones have holes in the sole.
We can also use be obliged to, but it is not often used except in extremely formal
situations.
I'm afraid I will be obliged to arrest you if you continue to behave in that way.
The committee was obliged to cancel Mr Lachman's membership.

B. For Prohibition
We use mustn't or can't when we want to say that something is not permitted.
Drivers mustn't use their mobiles while driving.
Sorry, but you can't park there!
In modern colloquial speech, we often use don't for prohibition, when we are talking
about that are not socially acceptable.
You just don't wear brown shoes with a black suit!
You don't use the fish knife to cut your meat.
When we talk about something that it is essential that we do not do, or does not happen,
vie must not/mustn't. This can only be used for the present and future.
Whatever you do, you mustn't laugh when he comes in!
The two elements must not come into contact or they will explode.
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D. For deduction
We use must when we want to express an assumption we are making, based on logical
deduction from relevant data.
It must be lovely in Darjeeling at this time of the year.
She must have spent a lot of money on that coat.
If we are making a negative assumption, for example that something is probably not the
case, we don't use must, we use can't for the present or won't for the future.
It can't be time to go already!
Kalash won't be ready in time!

E. For Lack of obligation or necessity

If we want to talk about something that is not necessary or not compulsory, we use
don't have to, haven't got to, need not/needn't or don't need to for the present.
We needn't book tickets in advance as there will be plenty of seats.
You don't have to attach the handle before you screw it in.
You haven't got to put sugar in if you don't want to.
To talk about necessity in the future, we use will or won't have to.
We will have to prepare another room for Dhara if she is coming to stay.
I hope she won't have to stay for very long.
If we want to say that something which happened in the past was not necessary, we use
needn't have.
Hari needn't have bought so much paint for that tiny room.
If we want to talk about something which didn't happen and was not necessary, we use
didn't need to.
You didn't need to add any salt, as the soup is really tasty as it is.
We also use the phrase There's no need to... when it is not necessary to do something.
There's no need to write a letter. You can apply online.

F. For questions
We don't usually use ought to in the interrogative. We usually use have to, should or
must.
Have to is not a true modal and cannot be used without an auxiliary do/did.
Do you have to play your music that loud?
Should we book tickets, do you think?
Must your sister hang her wet towel over the door?
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G. For giving advice, warning or criticism

When we want to recommend something, we usually use should or ought to.
You should go to the new ten-screen cinema. It is so comfortable.
Sonali said we ought to buy our fruit from the market.
If we want to recommend something strongly, we use must, often with really.
You really must try the mango ice cream. It's delicious!
Tim must stop quarrelling with Sejal.
When we want to warn someone not to do something, we can use shouldn't or mustn't.
You shouldn't swim out to the island as the currents are dangerous.
Tell Hamid he mustn't leave his jacket there or it will get stolen.
When we want to talk about an action we disapprove of (often for moral reasons), we
use shouldn't or ought not to.
Sadaf shouldn't have lied to the principal!
You ought not to tell tales behind people's backs.

H. For orders
We use be to to talk about something which is ordered by a person or body in authority.
The letter says I am to go to the office on the first floor and wait there.
The commander says we are to prepare for the attack.

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PAST MODALS
Past modals are formed by a modal verb + have + past participle. The form is invariable.

A. Expressing past possibility

We use past forms of the following modal verbs to talk about past possibility.
• could have
The team could have played better.
• might have
I Don’t know – She might have forgotten about the match.

B. To judge someone’s behavior

We use these modal verbs to judge someone's behavior.
• should
You should have brought some warmer clothes.
• ought to have
We ought not t4 have left the window open.

C. For expectation, supposition or probability

For expectation, supposition or probability, we use the following modals.
• should have
They should have been here by now!
• can't have (expressing amazement, dismay or disbelief)
Uncle Frank can't have left the keys inside the house!
• can't have (expressing impossibility)
They can't have come in last night as the door is bolted on the inside.
• will have
By the end of the month I will have earned enough for my holiday.
• must have
Abani must have been a beautiful bride!

D. For the third conditional

For the third (imagined) conditional, we use these modal verbs.
• would have
148 | P a g e I would have called you if I had known you were ill.
• could have
Priya could have won if she hadn't fallen over.
• might have
If it hadn't been so cloudy, we might have been able to see the coast from
up there.
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POSSESSIVES AND ‘SELF’ FORMS

A. The Genitive marker
The genitive or possessive marker (‘s) is most commonly used with people, organizations
and animals or pets that are considered ‘part of the family’.
Anjali’s new neighbor comes from Goa.
Your cat’s fur is very soft.
We also use’s with organizations or companies.
Barclay’s head office has been evacuated!
The Council’s new leader is a woman.

➢ Plural nouns with ‘s

If the noun is plural, we often put the ‘after the s.
The two girl’s clothes were identical.
The boys’ changing room is being redecorated at the moment.
If the name ends in an s, we usually add ‘s in written English, but we sometimes
leave out the ‘s after the apostrophe.
I saw Devdas’ bicycle outside Lalit’s house.

➢ Of with ‘s
We do not usually use‘s with inanimate objects. Instead, we use an of phrase or two
nouns.
The centre of the town is very congested in summer. = The town centre is very
congested in summer.

➢ Two nouns without ‘s

We generally use two nouns together (without ‘s) if we are talking about a
component part of something, or what something is generally used for.
I need some new dinner plates.
The window frames were painted white

➢ Double genitive (of + …’s)

We often use an of phrase with an ‘s specially if we use the indefinite article or a
demonstrative.
That was a friend of Hassan’s
I found those books of your uncle’s on the shelf.

➢ Measures
We often use the ‘s when we are talking about duration, or value or distance in terms of
time.
149 | P a g e I would really like a week’s holiday.
Leave now, without a moment’s delay!
Last year’s salary was less than the year before.
The school is about ten minute’s drive from here.
We also use ‘s worth to say how much we pay for something.
The stall-holder sold us ten rupees’ worth of sweets.
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➢ Multi-word nouns with ‘s

We often use ‘s after a noun phrase describing a person or people with the ‘s on the
last word.
The man in the street’s opinion is always interesting.

➢ Long noun phrase with ‘s

If the noun phrase with a possessive is more than two words, we often use a
different construction instead of the ‘s.
The red bag belongs to the boy sitting in the corner. (✓)
The red bag is the boy sitting in the corner’s. (x)

➢ Independent noun with ‘s

If we use a name with an ‘s, it usually refers to someone’s house of place of
business.
Let’s go round to Malik’s.
If there are more than one owners of something, we usually add the ‘s to the
second name.
Paul and Jenny’s children are away at boarding school.

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Unit – V
Composition and
Translation

Legal topics for essay writing

An essay is a piece of writing, usually, short and in prose, on any one subject. It is an original
piece of writing in which we express own views on a particular topic. Literally, essay means "an
attempt°. It is a work of art and like any other piece of art it is the result of the earnest effort of
the writer to make it as attractive as possible. Its beauty depends upon the essayist in executing
the essay.

Qualities or Characteristics of Essays

Unity

Emphas Coheren
is ce

Qualities
The or
persona Characte Balance
l touch ristics of
Essays

Clearnes
Brevity s

Style

Every good essay has certain chief qualities:

1. Unity.—An essay should deal with one subject only and relevant and irrelevant matter
should not be mixed up.
2. Coherence.—The essay should follow a clear order and move steadily towards a goal. Ideas
are arranged in a definite pattern so that the important ones stand out prominently, and the
rotation between ideas is clearly seen.
3. Balance.—The various ideas should receive proper emphasis. Every idea should be
explained definitely enough without at the same time, any exaggeration or overstatement.
4. Clearness.—The ideas in an essay should be clear both in expression and language. Ideas
should not be confused or mixed up. The language used should be simple and precise.

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5. Style.—The style of an essay must be dignified and literary. Slang, colloquial terms and free
and easy constructions are not proper in an essay.
6. Brevity.—The length of the essay depends on the writer's purpose in writing. If it is
intended fora particular set of readers, its length will be influenced by the readers'
background and needs. But in any case the essay should not be very long or loose or
rambling. The limit, should, generally, be about three hundred words. It should be a brief
exercise, concisely, expressed.
7. The personal touch.—An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the
writer on a particular topic.
8. Emphasis.—Emphasis can be given to a point by giving it a position in which it will stand
out. Emphasis can be given to an idea by devoting more space to it. So, the main points need
to be focussed on.

Types or kinds of Essay

Reflective

Argumentative Biographical

Descriptive Expository

Types or
Narrative kinds of Imaginative
Essay

The essays may be classified as:

1. Narrative.—A narrative essay consists mainly in the narration of some events or series
of events. The arrangement is by the order in which the events occurred. It consists of (i)
Introduction—importance of event; (ii) the time and place of the event described; (iii)
the scenes of the event; (iv) the chief results; and (v)conclusion.
2. Descriptive.—A descriptive essay consists of a description of some place or thing or
object. Such essay consists of: (i) Introduction—short history, (ii) shape and main parts;
(iii) method of working; (iv) uses; and (v) conclusion.

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3. Argumentative.—An argumentative essay is to convince the readers about the position

you have taken on a subject.
4. Reflective.—A reflective essay consists of reflection or thoughts on some topic, which is
generally of an abstract nature. It contains: (i) Introduction; (ii) explanation of the
statement; (iii) examples in support of the statement; (iv) usefulness in life; and (v)
conclusion.
5. Biographical—A biographical essay is about an important personality who has
achieved success in a particular field of science, art, culture etc. It contains (i)
Introduction—place in National History; (ii) birth and parentage; (iii) education; (iv)
achievements; and (v) conclusion.
6. Expository.—An expository or explanatory essay consists of an exposition or
explanation of some subject such as industries, occupation, scientific ones.
7. Imaginative.—An imaginative essay is related to the feelings and experiences of an
individual in imagination but not taken place in real world such as "If I were the Prime
Minister".

Hints on Essay Writing

1. General preparation (Brainstorming).—Don't start writing at once. Think out
carefully for ten minutes or so what you are going to write. Set down the various ideas
that come to you. Select your ideas carefully. Stick to those points and arrange your
thoughts.
Read relevant subject from available books. Note down the important points which are
useful for your topic. If need arises, consult experts on that particular field.
Conversation with such people helps you to know more about your topic. Sometimes
observation will be useful for the essay you attempt.
Collect the subject material from all available sources. Arrange your thoughts. You
cannot write a good essay without a plan. So you must make a plan and arrange your
ideas in such a way that they follow one another naturally.
Bearing the subject definitely in your mind and with your purpose clearly before you,
sketch out a bare outline of the main headings of the essay.

Writing an Essay
a. Paragraphs.—Divide your essay into paragraphs. Write a fresh paragraph on each
point in the plan.
b. Structure.—Divide the essay into three parts—the introduction, the body and the
conclusion.
1. Presentation.—The essay should be clear as well as brief. Let it be interesting as well as
to the point. It should be natural and the style should not be the imitation of any author’s
style. Say what you want to say as tersely as is consistent with making your meaning
clear. It should be simple and direct. Use simple words and short sentences. It should be
an educative one.
2. Check List. – After writing an essay, check with the following check lists.
Content
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1. Are all the ideas relevant?

2. Should I remove any of them?
3. Is the order of the ideas correct?
4. Do I need to change the place of any ideas?
5. Have I adequately developed the ideas?
6. Have I ended the argument logically?

Structure
1. Is the paragraph division appropriate?
2. Does it correspond to the development of the thought?
3. Have I connected the paragraph well?
4. Are the sentences in each paragraph connected well?
5. If there any need to rearrange any sentence?

Purpose
1. Is the purpose clear?
2. Does my point of view emerge clearly?
3. Do my ideas support the purpose?
Language
1. Have I joined sentences grammatically?
2. Are my tenses right?
3. Have I used linked connectors to make my writing cohesive?
4. Have I used appropriate words to convey my thoughts?

Rewriting. – After correcting the draft essay, prepare a fair copy if your essay.
1. Don’ts in Essay Writing
a. Do not begin with sentences whose meaning is vague. Remember – one good way of
beginning an essay is with a definition. A definition should always be as short as
possible.
b. Do not make a generalization without example.
c. Avoid examples which do not typically represent the features marked in the
generalization.
d. Avoid paragraphs of the same type.
e. Minimize subjectivism (the use of ‘I’ as subject). Except in narrating the personal
experience it is better to view the topic objectively.
f. Do not make your paragraphs stand in isolation. The idea in one paragraph should be
related to the idea in the next one. The connection should be made clear either in the
opening sentences of a paragraph or through a transitional paragraph.
g. Do not write on anything which you do not know fairly well.
h. Avoid dragging controversial issues especially from politics and religion.
i. You should not make any defamatory reference to any individual.

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